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 TREATISE 
 
 ENGLISH PUNCTUATION; 
 
 DESIGNED FOB 
 
 LETTER-WRITERS, AUTHOBS, PRINTERS, AND 
 CORRECTORS OF THE PRESS; 
 
 THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 
 
 ESEttfj an 
 
 CONTAINIXa RULES ON THE USE OF CAPITALS, A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS) 
 
 HINTS ON THE PREPARATION OF COPT AND ON PROOF-READINQ, 
 
 SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET, ETC. 
 
 BY JOHN WIIIJBNUBRAR1 
 
 OF 
 ANGELES 
 
 TWENTY-FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 POTTER, AINSWORTH, & COMPANY, 
 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year J871, by 
 
 JOHN WILSON, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at "Washington. 
 
 University Press : John Wilson & Son, Cambridge.
 
 PREFACE TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION. 
 
 Is 1826, an edition of this work, designed solely for printers, 
 was first published. In 1850, the second edition appeared, 
 greatly enlarged, and designed for letter-writers, authors, 
 printers, and correctors of the press. 
 
 In 1855, the author, in his Preface to the third edition, 
 says : " In presenting anew the following treatise, the author 
 would say, that, agreeably to the admission contained in the 
 closing paragraph of the Preface to the second edition, he 
 has embraced the opportunity of making what is conceived 
 to be further improvements, by changing occasionally the 
 modes of expression, enlarging the remarks and exercises, 
 rewriting and extending the section on compound and de- 
 rivative words, drawing up a more copious list of abbrevia- 
 tions, offering to young authors some considerations on the 
 preparation of ' copy,' and appending a full and minute 
 Index. He feels justified in affirming, that not only in its 
 present form, but in its past, this book is the most complete 
 of any on the subject that he has seen." 
 
 And now, three years after the author's death, this edi- 
 tion the twentieth is offered to the public, in the hope 
 that it may still continue to merit the approval awarded to 
 former editions. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Mass. 
 1871.
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 THB work that follows Is a new edition of one published by the 
 writer in England, abont six years ago, under the title of " A Trea- 
 tise on Grammatical Punctuation ; " the difference consisting, not in 
 their fundamental principles, but in the mode in which these are 
 stated, in the divisions of the subjects treated of, in the augmentation 
 of the exercises, and in the insertion of matter which is entirely 
 new. 
 
 The proper manner of using the book will depend altogether on 
 the capabilities of the learner. If unversed in Punctuation, or but 
 slightly acquainted with the art, it is recommended, that, after a 
 careful study of Sect. II. of the " Introduction," he confine his 
 attention to the leading principles laid down in the definitions and 
 rules, all of which are printed in a larger character, and may be 
 readily seen ; and also to their illustrations, which are given under 
 the head of " Examples " and of " Oral Exercises," in that por- 
 tion which applies merely to the rules. When he has gone through 
 this course, he will have been furnished with as much information 
 as will enable him to comprehend the exceptions or the additional 
 principles contained in the " Remarks," and to explain or write and 
 punctuate the remaining or second series of exercises in accordance 
 both with the rules and the remarks. 
 
 These modes of studying the book, it is conceived, may be 
 advantageously adopted hi schools, with more or less variation, to 
 suit the capacity of each individual in a class. The Italic lines, 
 under the heads termed " Exercises," are mere general directions, 
 which the teacher may modify according to his own taste and judg- 
 ment But, beyond these brief hints, the writer has not prescribed 
 a*
 
 VI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 any questions for examination, because he thinks that such a pro- 
 cedure, common as it is in elementary books, either offers a premium 
 to sloth and ignorance on the part of an instructor, or implies an 
 insult to his understanding and his talents, as if he were less capable 
 than an author of knowing what to ask of those under his charge. 
 
 Though written in a manner which specially adapts it to instruc- 
 tion in schools, the work is also designed for printers and private 
 students, all of whom must have some previous acquaintance with 
 English literature ; and also for young authors, who can have little 
 difficulty in mastering an art so intimately connected with their 
 tastes or profession. For this class of students, the exercises termed 
 "Oral" will be found peculiarly serviceable; tending, as they do 
 by a variety of examples, to impress on the mind the practical 
 applications of the rales and remarks to which they refer. 
 
 At the request of friends, the writer has introduced into the 
 Appendix a short article on Proof-reading, the insertion of which 
 will, he trusts, be found of some use to authors and printers, if not 
 to general readers. 
 
 With respect to the mode in which the work has been executed, 
 its author asks no indulgence but that of candor and good feeling. 
 He has ventured, as in the former edition, to call the book a " Trea- 
 tise," because he professes to have gone somewhat thoroughly into 
 the subject with which it deals ; but he does not flatter himself, that 
 he has cleared away every obstacle which has beset one small but 
 requisite pathway to literary excellence. On the contrary, he feels 
 that in a production of this nature, which requires so- much expe- 
 rience and accuracy, and for the preparation of which so little aid, 
 comparatively speakuig, can be derived from other writers, all is not 
 yet effected that can be done to simplify, and to put on a firm basis, 
 that despised but useful art, the art of Punctuation. 
 
 BOSTON, May, 1850.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Paga 
 
 SECT. I. THE IMPORTANCE AND USES OF CORKECT PUNC- 
 TUATION 1 
 
 SHOT. II. PLAN OF THE WORK, AND DEFINITIONS OF THB 
 
 TERMS USED 19 
 
 CHAP. H. - THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS. 
 
 Introductory Observations 26 
 
 SECT. I. THE COMMA. 
 
 Remarks on the Use of the Comma 27 
 
 Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, connected by the 
 
 Conjunctions and, or, nor 28 
 
 Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, not connected by a 
 
 Conjunction 83 
 
 Series of Words of the same Part of Speech 37 
 
 Words or Phrases in Apposition 41 
 
 Words or Phrases in Contrast 45 
 
 The Subject and the Predicate 60 
 
 Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses 57 
 
 Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses 64
 
 Vlil CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Vocative Words, Phrases, and Clauses 68 
 
 Adjectival, Participial, and Absolute Phrases 69 
 
 Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases 72 
 
 Phrases at the End of Sentences or Clauses 78 
 
 Inverted or Transposed Expressions 83 
 
 One Clause depending on Another 89 
 
 Correlative Words, Phrases, and Clauses 93 
 
 Phrases and Clauses in the same Construction 98 
 
 Clauses having a Verb understood 104 
 
 Clauses consisting of Short Quotations or Remarks .... 108 
 
 Numeral Figures and Worda 112 
 
 SECT. II. THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 A Sentence consisting of Two Conjoined Clauses 118 
 
 Expressions divided into Simpler Parts 116 
 
 A Series of Expressions having a Common Dependence . . . 120 
 
 Short Sentences slightly Connected 125 
 
 Lists of Words, Phrases, and Numbers . 128 
 
 SECT. III. THE COLON. 
 
 Remarks on the Use and Abuse of the Colon 129 
 
 Two Clauses not joined by a Conjunction 180 
 
 Conjoined Members of Sentences 134 
 
 Quotations, Remarks, &c., formally Introduced ...... 138 
 
 The Chanting Service in the Liturgy . 141 
 
 Terms in the Rule of Three 141 
 
 Concluding Remarks 141 
 
 SECT. IV. THE PERIOD. 
 
 Complete and Independent Sentences 142 
 
 s, Subheads, Phrases in Titlepages, &c 147
 
 CONTENTS. IX 
 
 rage. 
 
 Names, Titles, and other Words, abbreviated 148 
 
 Marks or Figures used instead of Words 160 
 
 Letters used for Figures or Words 160 
 
 CHAP. HI. THE GRAMMATICAL AND 
 RHETORICAL POINTS. 
 
 Introductory Observations 168 
 
 SECT. I. NOTES OF INTERROGATION AND 
 
 EXCLAMATION. 
 
 Remarks on the Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation . . 164 
 
 Expressions in the Form of Questions 166 
 
 Expressions indicating Passion or Emotion 169 
 
 SECT. II. MARKS OP PARENTHESIS. 
 
 Observations on Parentheses, and Marks of Parenthesis . . . 167 
 
 Words thrown obliquely into the Body, of a Sentence .... 168 
 
 SECT. III. THE DASH. 
 
 Remarks on the Use and Abuse of the Dash 174 
 
 Broken and Epigrammatic Sentences 176 
 
 A Concluding Clause on which other Expressions depend . . 178 
 
 The Echo, or Words repeated Rhetorically 182 
 
 A Parenthesis coalescing with the Main Passage 186 
 
 Ellipsis of the Adverb " Namely," &c. 181 
 
 Subheads, &c., to Paragraphs 194 
 
 Omission of Letters, Figures, or Words 186
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. IV. LETTER, SYLLABIC, AND 
 
 QUOTATION POINTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introductory Observations ; 197 
 
 SECT. I. THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Elision of Letters, or Shortening of Words 198 
 
 The Genitive or Possessive Case 204 
 
 SECT. II. THE HYPHEN. 
 
 Remarks on the Uses of the Hyphen 208 
 
 Componnd Words 209 
 
 Prefixes in Derivative Words 219 
 
 The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Pro- 
 nunciation 224 
 
 The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Form, 
 
 Derivation, or Meaning 225 
 
 SECT. III. MARKS OF QUOTATION. 
 
 Words borrowed from a Speaker or an Author 228 
 
 One Quotation within Another 230 
 
 Extracts composed of Successive Paragraphs 232 
 
 CHAP. V. - MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 
 
 Brackets, or Crotchets 235 
 
 A Comma Inverted; Two Commas 236 
 
 The Index, or Hand; Three Stars; the Caret; the Brace . . 237 
 
 Marks of Ellipsis ; Leaders 238 
 
 Accents; Marks of Quantity; the Cedilla; the Tilde . ... 239 
 
 Marks of Reference 240
 
 CONTENTS. D 
 CHAP. VI. GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introductory Observations 241 
 
 Pride and Humility, by Thomas Brown 242 
 
 Abon Ben Adhem, by Leigh Hunt 244 
 
 Panegyric on England, by Edward Everett 245 
 
 The Pen and the Press, by John Critchley Prince 247 
 
 A Taste for Reading, by George S. Hillard 248 
 
 Relative Perfection, by John James Taylor >. 250 
 
 Labor not Lost, by R. C. Trench 251 
 
 Ancient and Modern Writers, by Charles Sumner 252 
 
 The True Source of Reform, by E. H. Chapin 258 
 
 Great Men generally Good, by John Logan 254 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 CTsKS OF CAPITAL LETTERS 257 
 
 The First Word of a Book, Tract, &c 268 
 
 The First Word after a Full Point 268 
 
 Appellations of God and Christ 259 
 
 Titles of Honor and Respect 261 
 
 Names of Persons, Places, &c 262 
 
 Nouns and Adjectives derived from Proper Names .... 268 
 
 Words of Primary Importance 264 
 
 The Pronoun 7, and the Interjection 265 
 
 Commencement of Lines in Verse 266 
 
 Prosopopoeia, or Personification 266 
 
 Quotations, Examples, &c 267 
 
 Capitals used instead of Figures 268 
 
 Titlepages, Inscriptions, &c < 268
 
 XU CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 ITALIC CHARACTERS 269 
 
 TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS 270 
 
 Captions, Subheads, Sideheads, and Running Titles ... 270 
 
 Signatures 271 
 
 Names of Various Sizes of Books 271 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS AND REPRESENTATIVE LETTERS .... 272 
 
 Various Modes of Forming Abbreviations . 272 
 
 Table of Abbreviations 277 
 
 MEDICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SIGNS 801 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL CHARACTERS 302 
 
 The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac 802 
 
 The Planetary Signs 802 
 
 The Lunar Signs 802 
 
 Aspects of the Planets 802 
 
 HINTS ON PREPARING COPT, AND ON BEADING PROOFS . . 808 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS 816 
 
 SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET 820 
 
 INDEX ... 323
 
 ENGLISH PUNCTUATION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SECT. L THE IMPORTANCE AND USES OP CORRECT 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 No one will hesitate to admit, that next in value to the 
 capacity of discerning or discovering truth, and of feel- 
 ing the blessed relations which we sustain to the Being 
 who made us, and to our fellow-creatures, particularly 
 those with whom we are more immediately connected, 
 is the power, by which intelligence and emotion are 
 communicated from one mind to another. By it the 
 great and the gifted of past times have bequeathed to us 
 many a rich legacy of thought and deed ; and by it 
 those of the present either re-create the old materials, 
 or fashion new ones, for the delight and improvement 
 of their own generation ; and transmit to the future 
 to beings yet unborn their treasures of wisdom, of 
 genius, and of love. This power, it is needless to say, 
 is language, oral and written, especially the latter. 
 
 But as oral speech has its tones and inflections, its 
 pauses and its emphases, and other variations of voice, 
 1
 
 2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to give greater expression to the thoughts which spoken 
 words represent, and to produce on the mind of the 
 hearer a more rapid and intense impression than lifeless 
 enunciation could effect ; so written or printed language 
 is usually accompanied by marks or points, to enable the 
 reader to comprehend at a glance the precise and deter- 
 minate sense of the author, a sense which, without 
 these marks, would in many instances be gathered only 
 by an elaborate and painful process, and very often be 
 misunderstood. It therefore obviously follows, that the 
 art which serves to elucidate the meaning of a writer, 
 to bring out his ideas with more facility, and to render 
 his expressions a genuine transcript of the feelings 
 and sentiments which he would convey to the hearts 
 and the minds of others, is entitled to no small degree 
 of attention. 
 
 Now, it is indisputable that Punctuation does conduce 
 to make written language more effective, by exhibiting 
 with greater precision and definiteness the ideas, feel- 
 ings, and emotions of an author, than could be accom- 
 plished by a mass of words, however well chosen, if 
 brought together without those peculiar marks which 
 show the multifarious varieties of union or of separa- 
 tion existing in thought and expression. For what is 
 Punctuation, and what its ami? It is the art of 
 dividing a literary composition into sentences, and parts 
 of sentences, by means of points, for the purpose of 
 exhibiting the various combinations, connections, and 
 dependencies of words. And what is this process but 
 a means of facilitating that analysis and combination 
 which must be made, consciously or unconsciously, 
 before we can penetrate to the very core of an author's
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 3 
 
 thoughts, and appropriate them as food for the life and 
 growth of our own minds ? 
 
 We would not overrate the importance of Punctua- 
 tion, or deny that many subjects are worthy of a higher 
 regard, and have a more immediate and vital influence 
 on the well-being of society. But we would emphati- 
 cally say, that this subject ought to be understood by 
 all who are led, by the bent of their tastes, the force of 
 their genius, or their condition in life, to enter upon any 
 of the walks of literature, whether they would tread an 
 humble and a beaten track, or wander into paths adorned 
 by flowers and fruit. It is related to philology and 
 metaphysics, and indeed, more or less, to every science 
 or art communicated by the instrumentality of written 
 language. It is intimately connected with the principles 
 of grammar ; subservient to the purposes of syntax ; 
 essential to the clearing-up of ambiguities, which so 
 often obscure composition ; and useful to the more 
 ready understanding even of those sentences whose 
 construction is not liable to the charge of obscurity. By 
 the omission or the improper insertion of points, not only 
 would the beauties and elegances of literature, but even 
 its advantages, be faintly discerned and enjoyed, except 
 by the most attentive readers, or by men of superior 
 taste and information : the sense of even the more simple 
 and familiar class of productions such as the narra- 
 tive, the essay, or the epistle would be liable to be 
 misapprehended, or, at least, to be imperfectly under- 
 stood. Indeed, the perusal of a single page of any 
 work will bear testimony to the comparative value of a 
 just punctuation. Nay, scarcely can a sentence be 
 perused with satisfaction or interest, unless pointed with
 
 4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 some degree of accuracy. The well-known speech of 
 Norval, for instance, in the tragedy of " Douglas," may, 
 by an erroneous use of the pauses, be delivered in such 
 a manner as to pervert or destroy the meaning ; as, - - 
 
 " My name is Norval on the Grampian hills. 
 My father feeds his flock a frugal swain ; 
 Whose constant cares were to increase his store. 
 
 We fought and conquered ere a sword was drawn. 
 An arrow from my bow, had pierced their chief 
 Who wore that day the arms which now I wear." 
 
 But the insertion of the right stops will restore the sense 
 of these passages, and render them conformable to the 
 conceptions of the dramatist : 
 
 " My name is Norval. On the Grampian hills 
 My father feeds his flock ; a frugal swain, 
 Whose constant cares were to increase his store. 
 
 We fought and conquered. Ere a sword was drawn, 
 An arrow from my bow had pierced their chief, 
 Who wore, that day, the arms which now I wear." 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, its utility, Punctuation 
 has not received that attention which its importance 
 demands. Considered merely as the plaything of the 
 pedant, or as the peculiar function of the printer, it is 
 often neglected or perverted by those who have occasion 
 to present to the eye either their own thoughts or the 
 thoughts of others. The man of science, the mental 
 philosopher, and the philologist seem to regard it as too 
 
 In the note at the end of this section, page 18, will be found a few other 
 instances of erroneous pointing, which, though in their nature sufficiently 
 ludicrous, show in a forcible manner the necessity of paying a due regard to 
 punctuation. Many happy illustrations of the importance of correct marks 
 may also be seen in Day's valuable little work, entitled " Punctuation reduced 
 to a System," pp. 3345.
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 trifling, amid their grander researches into the laws of 
 the universe, the internal operations of the human mind, 
 and its external workings by means of language. The 
 grammarian passes it by altogether unheeded, or lays 
 down u few general and abstract principles ; leaving the 
 pupil to surmount the difficulties of the art as well as 
 he may. The lawyer engrosses in a character which 
 is perfectly legible ; but, by its deficiency in sentential 
 marks, it often proves, like the laws of which he is the 
 expounder, " gloriously uncertain " as to the meaning 
 intended to be expressed. The painter, the engraver, 
 and the lithographer appear to set all rules at defiance, 
 by either omitting the points or misplacing them, when 
 required in certain departments of their work. The let- 
 ter-writer, with his incessant and indiscriminate dashes, 
 puts his friend, his beloved one, his agent, or his em- 
 ployer, to a little more trouble, in conning over his 
 epistle, than is absolutely necessary. Even the author 
 who, of all writers, ought to be the most accurate 
 not unfrequently puts his manuscript into the printer's 
 hands, either destitute of grammatical points, or so 
 badly punctuated as to create a needless loss of time to 
 the compositor. 
 
 But though an acquaintance with the principles of the 
 art in question has been deemed the peculiar province 
 of the printer, who might therefore be expected to have 
 the requisite qualifications for the performance of his 
 task ; yet it must be admitted, that from the press are 
 issued many books, grossly erroneous in sentential 
 marks ; and perhaps not a few, which, though distin- 
 guished for elegance of style, accuracy of orthography, 
 or beauty of printing, are unworthy of being held up
 
 D INTRODUCTION. 
 
 as models of good taste and judgment in the use of 
 points. It is a fact well known to those connected with 
 the press, that compositors in general have a very 
 deficient knowledge of Punctuation, considered as a 
 branch of science ; and that they acquire what they do 
 know of it as an art, chiefly by mechanical habit, or by 
 the correction of innumerable blunders, marked on the 
 proof-sheets. 
 
 To make these observations, however, without grant- 
 ing many exceptions, would savor more of the petulance 
 of presumption than of the candor of true criticism. 
 There are numerous masterpieces of composition, in 
 which the writer, the compositor, and the corrector of 
 the press, have, either separately or together, inserted 
 points with taste and propriety. 
 
 But enough has been said to demonstrate the necessity 
 for an increased attention to the subject, and to prove a 
 very obvious, though not an acknowledged, truth, that 
 the principles of Punctuation must be duly learned, 
 before they can be understood, or brought into system- 
 atic and perfect use. The question, then, will naturally 
 arise, How is the desired improvement to be effected ? 
 how are the theory and practice of the art to be attained ? 
 We answer, By the most simple means ; by the very 
 means which are so well adapted to other subjects of 
 learning. Let Punctuation form a branch of academi- 
 cal instruction ; let it be studied, after a competent 
 knowledge of English etymology and syntax has been 
 acquired ; let the rules be thoroughly comprehended by 
 the pupil, be explained to him, if necessary, in the 
 teacher's language, and re-explained by himself in his 
 owa words. Let him also write copious exercises, in
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 7 
 
 order to bring into further play his judgment and taste ; 
 and let him present to his teacher these trials of his 
 skill, to be examined and approved or corrected. By 
 this means will he soon be capable of so punctuating 
 his own compositions as to be read by others with ease, 
 pleasure, and advantage. 
 
 This is an age of authors, as well as of readers. 
 Young aspirants after fame, some of them of considera- 
 ble merit, meet us at every step, and in every department 
 of literature. But surely, if they are capable of enlight- 
 ening the world by their wisdom, or dazzling it by their 
 genius, they can have no difficulty in writing so as to be 
 understood. If they have thoughts worthy of being 
 communicated through the agency of the pen and the 
 press, they surely cannot with justice regard it as any 
 degradation of their powers to submit to the task of 
 indicating, as accurately as possible, what they do really 
 intend to say. If there is beauty in their style ; if there 
 is pathos in their sentiments ; if there is moral and intel- 
 lectual vigor in the thoughts that burn for utterance ; if 
 their discourse is calculated to i*fine the taste, to improve 
 the heart, and ennoble the mind, f the reader, surely 
 they should be careful that that beauty be not marred, 
 that that pathos be not unfelt, that that vigor be not 
 weakened, that that discourse be not shorn of half its 
 power over the character and happiness of others, from 
 the petty motive of saving themselves the trouble of 
 learning what, of all men, from the very nature of their 
 pursuits, they are the best able and most bound to learn. 
 Besides, it is worthy of remark, that, by habituating 
 themselves to the practice of pointing, their attention 
 will naturally be directed to clearness of thought, and
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 accuracy of expression. They will be more apt to 
 regard words as but of little value, except as repre- 
 sentatives of ideas, and as an instrument by which these 
 may gain access to the human soul. If involved in the 
 difficulty of punctuating a badly formed sentence, such 
 as the following, " God heapeth favors on his servants 
 ever liberal and faithful," supposing this to imply that 
 the Divine Being is ever liberal and faithful, they 
 will almost necessarily be led to reconstruct it, that 
 they may rid themselves of their perplexity, and leave 
 no doubt as to the sense meant to be conveyed ; for, 
 beyond all question, facility in punctuation is generally 
 in proportion to the perspicuity and the good arrange- 
 ment of words. Let authors, therefore, turn a little of 
 their attention to the elements of this art, trifling and 
 undignified as it may seem to be. Let them not trans- 
 fer to their printer that department of duty which as 
 authors it is their own province to fill. With some few 
 boasted exceptions, no doubt much overrated, neither 
 compositors nor correctors of the press are immaculate ; 
 for they do not understand all the subjects treated of in 
 books, and cannot with accuracy punctuate what they 
 do not comprehend. 
 
 It was in bygone times a preliminary requisite, that 
 printers should be acquainted with what are termed the 
 learned languages. But though, in this age of a more 
 general and superficial literature, a profound knowledge 
 of Hebrew points, Greek accents, and Latin quantities, 
 is no longer required, it is necessary that compositors 
 be acquainted with the principles of their native tongue, 
 and with the functions of the peculiar marks used for 
 setting off sentences, clauses, and phrases. Were every
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. U 
 
 author to write his work in a fair, legible character, 
 and so punctuate his language as to convey the sense 
 clearly and correctly, then might compositors act as 
 mere machines, and " follow " their " copy." But, until 
 writers for the press condescend to use the stops system- 
 atically and accurately, the humble workmen who put 
 together the world-enlightening types must be more than 
 unconscious machines : they must, to some degree, enter 
 into the conceptions of those on whose works they are 
 employed, and develop the sense of their manuscripts, 
 with the greatest possible discrimination, by the help 
 and service of the poor, despised, but useful handmaids, 
 the commas, the semicolons, and other little points. 
 We know well the feeling which very naturally and pro- 
 perly exists in the minds of compositors, that the " copy " 
 put into their hands should be prepared with an accuracy 
 which would preclude the necessity, on their part, of 
 losing time by pondering over the manuscript in order 
 to render it intelligible to the reading public. But this 
 we know also, that, in the actual state of things, the time 
 thus apparently lost is, when employed aright, a com- 
 parative gain, by reason of the far greater consumption 
 of unprofitable labor in the insertion and extraction of 
 points, after the proof-sheet has been returned by the 
 corrector of the press. If the manuscript be defective 
 or erroneous in its sentential marks, the compositor must 
 either take a little trouble in pointing it himself, or have 
 it done for him afterwards by the proof-reader, to the 
 serious diminution of his professional character, his good 
 temper, and his weekly wages. But, further, we would 
 ask, Is not the operative who comprehends the principles 
 of his calling, who really knows what he is about,
 
 10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a happier and a nobler being than he who works at mere 
 random, and stumbles at every petty obstruction in his 
 way ? Does not his daily toil become a pleasure, when 
 it brings into play the exercise of a fine taste and a 
 cultivated understanding? Do not his very difficulties 
 become a source of satisfaction, when he himself can 
 solve them, without being forced for ever to ask the aid 
 of his fellow-workmen, or to submit to the painful pro- 
 cess of undoing what he has already done, of altering 
 and improving what he has ignorantly and blunderingly 
 executed? Do not, indeed, these difficulties become 
 less and less, the more frequently he is successful in 
 removing them? Does he not, by his endeavors to 
 perform his work in a skilful manner, acquire habits of 
 discrimination, that will enable him, in cases at which 
 others would fret and foam or idly stand, to see, as it 
 were intuitively, the very thing required, and the mode 
 in which it should be done ? These questions may be 
 asked in relation to manual labor of any kind. They 
 may be asked, too, in respect to ail the branches of 
 work in which a compositor may be engaged. But 
 they are put here chiefly in reference to his knowledge 
 and appliance of the art of Punctuation ; and we feel 
 assured, that, if desirous of being able to insert points 
 with skill and propriety, he will also aim to perform 
 well all the duties pertaining to his sphere of toil. If, 
 therefore, the compositor would lose as little as possible 
 of that time which is so valuable to him ; if he would 
 have at his command greater pecuniary resources than 
 he can have by ignorance of his art, or by habits of 
 carelessness ; if, by the exercise of his intellectual 
 powers, he would deprive physical toil of no small share
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 11 
 
 of its pain or lassitude, let him, if now ignorant of 
 the subject, never rest contented till he is able both to 
 understand the principles on which Punctuation is based, 
 and to bring them into full practice. 
 
 The remarks just made have the strongest claim on 
 the attention of youths learning the art of type-setting ; 
 many of whom, stimulated by a love of change or by 
 false views of independence, soon break loose from 
 those steady and regular habits which are necessary 
 for mastering the difficulties of any occupation ; moving 
 about from one employer to another, without having a 
 disposition or sufficient time to attain a knowledge even 
 of the first principles of the craft by which they are to 
 earn a living. But if desirous of perfecting themselves 
 in the various branches of typography, one of which we 
 have shown to be the art of Punctuation, it is of the 
 greatest moment that they resolve to remain with a 
 person whom they can regard as a friend as well as 
 an employer ; and receive from him, or at their leisure 
 hours from the study of books designed for the purpose, 
 such instruction as will conduce to their improvement, 
 and render them, when of age, competent to discharge, 
 with honor to themselves and with satisfaction to others, 
 the duties pertaining to their profession. 
 
 If a knowledge of Punctuation is admitted to be 
 requisite to the setter of types, there will be the utmost 
 reason for regarding it as indispensable to a reader of 
 proof-sheets. Besides the multiform duties devolving 
 on or expected from him, of correcting and improving 
 the work of compositors, which is seldom, if ever, a 
 faithful representation of the " copy ; " of rectifying the 
 orthography of inexperienced writers, and drawing
 
 12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the attention of others to errors in grammar and con- 
 struction, into which the most accurate will sometimes 
 fall, the professional corrector is generally required, 
 in the existing state of authorship, to devote a great 
 part of his attention to the proper insertion of points, 
 and thus to present to the public eye in a readable con- 
 dition what would otherwise be an ill-digested mass of 
 letters and words. When it is considered that he has 
 not unfrequently to perform this task amid doubts and 
 difficulties arising from manuscript almost illegible, it 
 will be seen how necessary it is for correctors of the 
 press to possess that kind of knowledge which is so 
 easily within their reach, and which at present forms an 
 essential and a peculiar feature of their calling, an 
 accurate knowledge of the theory and practice of Punc- 
 tuation. It would not be right to expect from them, 
 even if they were better remunerated, perfect accuracy 
 in their work ; but, so long as they hold so responsible 
 a situation, their ignorance of this branch of their pro- 
 fession should be regarded as inexcusable. 
 
 It may be, and has been, objected to the study of this 
 art, that it is not subject to any fixed or determinate 
 principles ; that scarcely two writers follow the same 
 mode of punctuating sentences. Where one author or 
 printer uses a comma, another would insert a semi- 
 colon ; and, where one thinks a semicolon ought to be 
 employed, another prefers a colon, if not a comma. One 
 teacher embarrasses the learner with an additional pause 
 (the semicomma), by giving it " a local habitation and a 
 name ; " while a different one discards the colon alto- 
 gether as a useless point Some grammarians would
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 13 
 
 unfeelingly lop off the dash, as an excrescence on a 
 printed leaf; but others, again, are so partial to its 
 form and use as to call in its aid on every possible 
 occasion. 
 
 The objection has, on purpose, been strongly stated. 
 But might not similar objections be adduced against the 
 orthography, the etymology, and the syntax of the Eng- 
 lish language; against, indeed, the general principles 
 of English Grammar ? Might it not be demonstrated, 
 that grammarians and lexicographers differ in spelling, 
 in pronunciation, in the classification of the parts of 
 speech, in modes of derivation and of construction, and 
 in the position of relatives and adverbs ? Might not a 
 plausible treatise be written against grammatical prin- 
 ciples, as plausible, but just as illogical and uncon- 
 vincing, as are the common and startling objections 
 against a system of Punctuation? Might it not be 
 shown, that Johnson and Lowth, Blair, Murray, and 
 Crombie, have attacked the dicta of others, and have 
 had their own attacked in turn ? Might it not be proved, 
 that kings and queens, statesmen and historians, poets 
 and essayists, nay, even professed grammarians, have 
 written false English, and violated the most generally 
 acknowledged canons of syntax ? But surely it would 
 not be a fair conclusion to draw, from this diversity of 
 opinion and from the employment of inelegant or incon- 
 gruous English, that there are no determinate principles 
 in the language ; that there is no authority to which an 
 appeal can be made ; that authors may send forth their 
 compositions into the world, without any regard what- 
 ever to law or usage. Neither is it. we contend, a 
 legitimate conclusion, that, because some writers dis-
 
 14 iiSTUODUCTlON. 
 
 agree in their system of pauses, and others point their 
 works at random, therefore Punctuation is too trifling to 
 demand serious attention, too unsettled to be treated 
 as a branch of science, or practised with any degree of 
 uniformity as an art. 
 
 The writer, then, of the present work can have no 
 hesitation in asserting, that the art of Punctuation is not 
 more varied or changeable in its character than that of 
 composition ; and that its essential principles are as fixed 
 and determinate as those canons in sy r ntax, which, though 
 sometimes violated by our best authors, are universally 
 acknowledged to be indisputable. Diversities in the 
 application of these principles will no more prove that 
 modes of punctuating sentences are altogether arbitrary, 
 than diversities in styles of composition will demonstrate 
 that the labors of grammarians to ascertain the laws of 
 language must go for nought, and that every writer 
 may take whatever liberties he chooses, in opposition to 
 reputable usage. As various modes of expressing a 
 thought may be justifiably used, when they do not affect 
 the principles of grammar ; though, as respects beauty, 
 elegance, or force, one mode may be preferable to 
 another: so also different methods of pointing a sen- 
 tence may be allowable, when they do not violate the 
 fundamental laws of Punctuation ; though they may be 
 objectionable or otherwise, just as they are less or more 
 calculated to please the eye, and bring out the sense of 
 the passage. 
 
 Perhaps one reason why Punctuation has been gene- 
 rally undervalued or neglected is, that grammarians have 
 devoted so little of their attention to the subject. The 
 books, too, professedly written to elucidate its principles.
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 15 
 
 are, so far as have beeu observed by the writer of the 
 present work, deficient either in an explanation of 
 exceptions and difficulties ; in examples and exercises ; 
 or in rules and remarks, illustrative of the diversified 
 functions of the notes of interrogation and exclamation, 
 the marks of parenthesis, the dash, the apostrophe, the 
 hyphen, and the quotation-marks. For though these 
 may be regarded as minor points, when compared to 
 others of a more grammatical nature, yet they occur so 
 frequently that no work on Punctuation which passes 
 them over with only a few brief and hasty remarks can 
 be considered practically and generally useful. 
 
 Another cause of the neglect and misapprehension to 
 which correct Punctuation is subject, arises probably 
 from the false light in which it is regarded. Many per- 
 sons seem to consider points as being the representatives 
 only of rhetorical pauses ; as showing merely those 
 places, in the utterance of a composition, at which time 
 for breathing is required ; as indicating the definite pro- 
 portions of the stops made in reading aloud. Hence not 
 a few writers and authors point their manuscript exactly 
 as they would recite it, in accordance with their power 
 of enunciation, with the quickness or slowness of their 
 perceptions, or with their particular views as to the 
 influence of pauses on the minds of their hearers. Elo- 
 cutionists themselves disagree in respect to the precise 
 cessations of the voice which should be made in delivery. 
 Granting, however, that there were no differences of 
 opinion on this subject, and that all good speakers would 
 make the same pauses in the reading of any given dis- 
 course, it might even then be easily shown, that the points 
 in common use would not be sufficient for rhetorical
 
 16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 purposes ; and that, if thus employed, they would tend, 
 by the necessity of perpetually repeating them, and the 
 consequent minute separations of words and phrases, 
 rather to perplex the judgment of the reader, than to 
 facilitate his comprehension of the writer's meaning. 
 Let us suppose, for instance, that the following passage 
 were so punctuated as to correspond in some measure 
 with the peculiar notation adopted by Mr. Vandenhotf, 
 in his excellent work on the " Art of Elocution," pp. 73, 
 74, and with the real pauses demanded by an accurate 
 and effective delivery, it would stand thus : 
 
 " Men of superior genius ; while they see the rest of mankind, painfully 
 struggling, to comprehend obvious truths; glance, themselves, through the 
 most remote consequences; like lightning, through a path, that cannot be 
 traced; they see the beauties of nature, with light and warmth, and paint 
 them forcibly, without effort; as the morning sun, does the scenes he rises 
 upon ; and, in several instances, communicate to objects, a morning fresh- 
 ness, and unaccountable lustre, that is not seen in the creations of nature. 
 The poet, the statuary, the painter, have produced images, that left nature far 
 behind." 
 
 But let the same sentence be punctuated by the rules 
 of grammar, and not by those of rhetoric, and with the 
 sole view of indicating the sense of the passage, it would 
 appear as follows : 
 
 '' Men of superior geniui, while they see the rest of mankind painfully 
 struggling to comprehend obvious truths, glance themselves through the most 
 remote consequences, like lightning through a path that cannot be traced. 
 They see the beauties of nature with light and warmth, and paint them for- 
 cibly without effort, as the morning sun does the scenes he rises upon ; and. 
 In several instances, communicate to objects a morning freshness and unac- 
 countable lustre that is not seen in the creations of nature. The poet, the 
 statuary, the painter, have produced Ullages that left nature far behind." 
 
 By comparing the two mod'is of punctuation adopted in 
 the passage under notice, namely, the rhetorical or
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 17 
 
 close, and the grammatical or free, it will be obvious, 
 that, wliile the latter tends to elucidate the aim of the 
 writer, and to some extent assist the delivery, the for- 
 mer throws nothing but obscurity on his meaning ; and, 
 though showing the various pauses of the voice with 
 greater accuracy, imparts no information whatever on 
 matters which in delivery are as important, the inflec- 
 tions, the intonations, the emphases, the calm, equable 
 flow, or the wild torrent, of a good reader or an eloquent 
 speaker. 
 
 That grammatical and rhetorical punctuation are not 
 one and the same, is acknowledged by the best elocu- 
 tionists. Thus the writer just quoted says,* that " the 
 grammatical pauses, which are addressed to the eye of 
 the reader, are insufficient for the speaker, who addresses 
 himself to the understanding ' through the porches of the 
 ear.' . . . We have, therefore, rhetorical pauses, which are 
 independent of, though consistent with and assistant to, 
 the grammatical pauses." 
 
 It must, however, be admitted that some of the 
 points namely, the mark of admiration and of excla- 
 mation, the parenthesis, and the dash partake more 
 of a rhetorical character than the common and principal 
 points ; and in this light we will consider them in the 
 following pages. But, on the whole, it will be found 
 that the art of Punctuation is founded rather on gram- 
 mar than on rhetoric ; that its chief aim is to unfold 
 the meaning of sentences, with the least trouble to the 
 reader; and that it aids the delivery, only in so far as 
 it tends to bring out the sense of the writer to the best 
 advantage. 
 
 " Art of Elocution," p 68. 
 2
 
 18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 NOTES 
 
 ILLUSTRATING THE VALUE OF CORRECT PUNCTUATION. 
 
 1. The following request is said to have been made at church: " A 
 sailor going to sea, his wife desires the prayers of the congregation 
 for his safety." But, by an unhappy transposition of the comma, 
 the note was thus read: "A sailor, going to see his wife, desires the 
 prayers of the congregation for his safety." 
 
 2. A blacksmith, passing by a hair-dresser's shop, observed in the 
 window an unpointed placard, which he read as follows : 
 
 " What do you think? 
 I'll shave you for nothing, 
 And give you some drink." 
 
 The son of Vulcan, with a huge black beard on his chin and a little 
 spark in his throat, considered the opportunity too good to be lost. 
 He accordingly entered; and, after the operation had been duly per- 
 formed, asked, with the utmost sang froid, for the liquor. But the 
 shaver of beards demanded payment; when the smith, in a stentorian 
 voice, referred him to his own placard, which the barber very good- 
 humoredly produced, and read thus : 
 
 " What ! do you think 
 I'll shave you for nothing, 
 And give you some drink? " 
 
 3. Another example of the ludicrous will tend still better to show 
 the value of just punctuation : 
 
 " Every lady in this land 
 Hath twenty nails upon each hand ; 
 Five and twenty on hands and feet. 
 And this is true, without deceit." 
 
 If the present points be removed, and others inserted as follow the 
 trne meaning of the passage will at once appear: 
 
 " Every lady in this land 
 Hath twenty nails : upon each hand 
 Five; and twenty on hands and feet. 
 And this is true, without deceit."
 
 PLAN OF THE WORK. 19 
 
 SRCT. IT. PLAN OF THE WORK, AND DEFINITIONS 
 OF THE TERMS USED. 
 
 In the preceding section, Punctuation was defined to 
 be the art of dividing a written or printed discourse 
 into sentences, and parts of sentences, by means of 
 certain marks called points, for the purpose of exhibiting 
 the various combinations, connections, and dependencies 
 of words. Its uses also were found to consist primarily 
 in developing, with as much clearness as possible, the 
 sense and the grammatical constructions of a composi- 
 tion ; and secondarily in showing, to some extent, the 
 various pauses which are requisite for an accurate 
 reading or delivery. 
 
 We now proceed to enter on the practical mode of 
 attaining the information required ; and, for the sake 
 of order and of clearness of conception, it is proposed 
 to regard the subject as separable into branches. We 
 will treat, in the first place, of the marks pertaining to 
 SENTENCES, which may be divided into two kinds, 
 the common or principal points, which are chiefly of a 
 grammatical nature ; and the less common but equally 
 necessary points, which, occurring as they often do in 
 animated composition, and being used for the twofold 
 purpose of bringing out the sense and aiding the deli- 
 very, are entitled to be spoken of as both grammatical 
 and rhetorical. We will, lastly, speak of other marks, 
 which either bear a more intimate relation to LETTERS 
 and SYLLABLES than to words and sentences, or are of 
 a varied and mixed character ; and hence these may
 
 20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 be termed letter, syllabic, quotation, and miscellaneous 
 points. 
 
 Before, however, commencing the study of the laws 
 which regulate the use of these marks, the learner 
 should know at least as much of grammar as will enable 
 him to distinguish, with tolerable accuracy, the different 
 parts of speech into which language is resolvable. Be- 
 sides this, it is essential that he be in some measure 
 acquainted with the various kinds of sentences, their 
 usual constructions, and the mode in which they may be 
 analyzed into their component parts. Taking, there- 
 fore, for granted that he is not entirely ignorant of the 
 principles of the English language, we will intrude into 
 the province of the grammarian, only so far as may be 
 necessary for the student to form correct notions of the 
 meaning of a few terms, relating to sentences, which 
 will frequently occur in the rules and remarks, and 
 without a due knowledge of which he would be unable 
 fully to comprehend the laws of Punctuation. The 
 terms alluded to, then, are denned and illustrated as 
 follow : 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 I. A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words, so arranged as to form 
 a proposition, or two or more related propositions; making, directly 
 or indirectly, complete sense. 
 
 II. A SIMPLE SENTENCE expresses only a simple proposition. It 
 consists of one nominative, subject, or thing spoken of, and of a sin- 
 gle predicate, or affirmation concerning the subject; as, 
 
 1. Calumny | destroys reputation. 2. The Creator | is good. 
 3. Kings | reign. 
 
 [n these propositions, the words that precede the perpendicular 
 lines are the subjects or nominatives, and those that follow are the 
 predicates.
 
 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 21 
 
 A logician would define a proposition by stating it to be a sentence 
 consisting of a subject; of the copula, or sign of predication; and 
 of the predicate. But the explanation given will be found sufficiently 
 correct for grammatical purposes. 
 
 III. A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more simple 
 sentences in combination, and therefore contains more than one nomi- 
 native and finite verb, either expressed or understood ; as, 
 
 1. Virtue refines the affections; but vice debases them. 
 
 2. To err is human; to forgive, divine. 
 
 3. Age, though it lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our desire 
 
 of living. 
 
 That these sentences are compound will be seen at once by resolving 
 each into two simple sentences: " Virtue refines the affections. Vice, 
 on the other hand, debases the affections." " To err is human. To 
 forgive is divine." "Age lessens the enjoyment of life. It, how- 
 ever, increases our desire of living." 
 
 IV. MEMBERS. When a sentence consists of several clauses, 
 admitting of a union of some and a separation of others, those which 
 are combined may together be called members ; as, 
 
 The ox knoweth his owner, | and the ass his 'master's crib: || but Israel 
 doth not know ; | my people do not consider. 
 
 In this example there are four clauses: the first two forming one 
 member; the latter two, another member. 
 
 In many books, however, the word member is used in its primary 
 and more extensive sense, as denoting any portion of a sentence, 
 whether a single clause, a phrase, or a word. 
 
 V. A CUAUSE is a simple sentence, or part of a sentence, united 
 to another, and contains a nominative and a finite verb, either ex- 
 pressed or understood ; as, 
 
 1. That high moral excellence is true greatness | cannot be denied. 
 
 2. Candor is a quality | which all admire. 
 
 8. Though he slay me, | yet will I trust in him. 
 
 4. The smile of gayety may be assumed, | while the heart aches within. 
 
 5. Gentleness often disarms the fierce, | and melts the stubborn. 
 
 When the subject of a proposition is itself a sentence, or contains a 
 finite verb, as in No. 1, above, it is called a nominative clause; when 
 a clause begins with a relative pronoun, as the last in No. 2, it is 
 termed a relative clause ; when clauses are introduced by correspond-
 
 22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ing words, as " though " and " yet " in No. 3, they are named correla- 
 tive ; when one clause is subject to another for completeness of sense, 
 as those in No. 4, they are called dependent ; and when one is simply 
 added to another, co-ordinate or consecutive clauses, as exemplified in 
 No. 5. 
 
 VI. A PHRASE consists of at least two words, being a form of 
 expression, or part of a sentence, which has no finite verb, expressed 
 or understood ; and which therefore does not of itself make any asser- 
 tion, or form complete sense ; as, 
 
 1. In haste. 
 
 2. Of all our senses. 
 
 3. By infinite wisdom. 
 
 4. Awkward in person. 
 6. Studious of praise. 
 6 Useful to artiitts. 
 
 7. To confess the trutd. 
 
 8. Law and order. 
 
 9. A man of wisdom. 
 
 In works on grammar, these and similar expressions are usually calle<l 
 imperfect phrases; but the definition just given will preclude the 
 necessity of using the epithet. An article or any unemphatic word 
 and a noun, or the simple infinitive, as, a book, tJie man, to looe, 
 will, to avoid circumlocution, be treated in the following pages, not 
 as a phrase, but as a word. 
 
 A nominative phrase consists of several words, standing as the 
 subject of a proposition. An adjectival, a participial, a prepositional 
 phrase, are phrases severally beginning with an adjective, a parti 
 ciple, or a preposition. Those phrases, however, which, though 
 commencing with a preposition, are used instead of single adverbs, 
 are commonly spoken of as adverbial phrases, as, " In haste," for 
 hastily. 
 
 VII. TERMS and EXPRESSIONS. To avoid repetition, a word or 
 a phrase is sometimes called a term ; and a phrase or a clause, an 
 expression. 
 
 VIII. PARENTHETICAL WORDS or EXPRESSIONS are intermediate 
 words, phrases, or clauses, which, though required by the sense of the 
 passage in which they occur, are not essential to the construction. Of 
 these a fuller description, with illustrations, will be given under the 
 rule which treats of the mode of punctuating them. 
 
 IX. CORRELATIVES. When two words express reciprocal rela- 
 tions, or correspond one to another, they are termed correlative words ; 
 as, " Pompey was not so brave a general as Caesar." " Though the 
 man was intellectually rich, yet he was morally poor."
 
 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 23 
 
 Correlatives maybe nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; but those to 
 which reference will be made in this work are chiefly of a conjunc- 
 tive nature, denoting relations of various kinds, sometimes that of 
 connection, dependence, or consequence ; and sometimes of compa- 
 rison, similitude, or equality. 
 
 X. APPOSITION. Nouns, pronouns, or phrases, or a noun or pro- 
 noun and a phrase, are said to be in apposition, when put in the same 
 case, and signifying the same thing, or when one is used as explana- 
 tory of the other ; as, " The river Thames." 
 
 XI. A SERIES denotes a succession of three or more words, 
 phrases, or clauses, joined in construction ; as, 
 
 1. The hermit's life is private, calm, devotional, and contemplative. 
 
 2. Fire of imagination, strength of mind, and firmness of soul, are rare gifts. 
 
 3. God's love watcheth over all, provideth for all, maketh wise adaptations 
 
 for all. 
 
 The first example exhibits a series of words; the second, of phrases; 
 the third, of clauses. What are termed by elocutionists the members 
 of a series will in this work be called particulars. 
 
 XII. A COMPOUND WORD consists of two or more simple or pri- 
 mitive words ; as, 
 
 1. Fireside. I 3. Self-conceit. 
 
 2. Nevertheless. | 4. Fellow-workman. 
 
 The simple words in compounds may, in general, be known from 
 their being separately current in the language. For the sake of 
 brevity, they are sometimes called simples or primitives. 
 
 The term DERIVATIVE is restricted to a compound word, the por- 
 tions of which are not each separately used in English ; as, manly, 
 excitement, consciousness, generalization; prospectus, circumstance, phi- 
 losopher, theology. 
 
 XTTI. The CONSTRUCTION of a sentence is the mode in which its 
 materials its words, phrases, and clauses are combined and ar- 
 ranged. When two or more phrases or expressions qualify others, 
 or are qualified by them ; when they act as nominatives to the same 
 verb ; when they govern the same words or phrases, or are governed 
 by the same verbs, participles, or prepositions, they are said to be 
 in the same construction
 
 24 ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 After the pupil has acquired a knowledge of the 
 meaning of the terms just explained, or revived the im- 
 pressions which he had previously received from his 
 study of syntactical principles, he should state, in his 
 own words, the nature and object of Punctuation, and 
 then analyze the following extracts, or any other 
 piece of composition, into sentences, and their various 
 parts : 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 ATHENS. If we consider merely the subtlety of disquisition, the 
 force of imagination, the perfect energy and elegance of expression, 
 which characterize the great works of Athenian genius, we must 
 pronounce them intrinsically most valuable. But what shall we say 
 when we reflect that from hence have sprung, directly or indirectly, 
 all the noblest creations of the human intellect ; that from hence were 
 the vast accomplishments and the brilliant fancy of Cicero, the with- 
 ering fire of Juvenal, the plastic imagination of Dante, the humor 
 of Cervantes, the comprehension of Bacon, the wit of Butler, the 
 supreme and universal excellence of Shakspeare ? All the triumphs 
 of truth and genius over prejudice and power, in every country and 
 in every age, have been the triumphs of Athens. Wherever a few 
 great minds have made a stand against violence and fraud, in the 
 cause of liberty and reason, there has been her spirit in the midst 
 of them, inspiring, encouraging, consoling, by the lonely lamp of 
 Erasmus, by the restless bed of Pascal, in the tribune of Mirabeau, 
 in the cell of Galileo, on the scaifold of Sidney. Biit who shall esti- 
 mate her influence on private happiness? Who shall say how many 
 thousands have been made wiser, happier, and better by those pur- 
 suits in which she has taught mankind to engage ; to how many the 
 studies which took their rise from her have been wealth in poverty, 
 liberty in bondage, health in sickness, society in solitude? Her 
 power is, indeed, manifested at the bar, in the senate, in the field of 
 battle, in the schools of philosophy. But these are not her glory. 
 Wherever literature consoles sorrow, or assuages pain ; wherever it 
 brings gladness to eyes which fail with wakefulness and tears, and 
 ache for the dark house and the long sleep, there is exhibited, in 
 ite uoblest form, the immortal influence of Athens.
 
 ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION. 25 
 
 The dervise, in the Arabian tale, did not hesitate to abandon to 
 his comrade the camels with their load of jewels and gold, while he 
 retained the casket of that mysterious juice which enabled him to 
 behold at one glance all the hidden riches of the universe. Surely 
 it is no exaggeration to say, that no external advantage is to be com- 
 pared with that purification of the intellectual eye which gives us 
 to contemplate the infinite wealth of the mental world; all the 
 hoarded treasures of its primeval dynasties, all the shapeless ore of 
 its yet unexplored mines. This is the gift of Athens to man. Her 
 freedom and her power have, for more than twenty centuries, been 
 annihilated; her people have degenerated into timid slaves; her lan- 
 guage, into a barbarous jargon ; her temples have been given up to 
 the successive depredations of Romans, Turks, and Scotchmen: but 
 her intellectual empire is imperishable. And when those who have 
 rivalled her greatness shall have shared her fate; when civilization 
 and knowledge shall have fixed their abode in distant continents ; 
 when the sceptre shall have passed away from England ; when, per- 
 haps, travellers from distant regions shall in vain labor to decipher 
 on some mouldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief, 
 shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the 
 ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single naked 
 fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts, 
 her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth, 
 exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual 
 principle from which they derived their origin, and over which they 
 exercise their control. T. B. MACAULAY : Critical and Miscellaneous 
 Essays, vol. iii. pp. 402, 403. 
 
 THE VOCATION OF POETRY. It is the high and glorious vocation 
 of Poesy as well to make our own daily life and toil more beautiful and 
 holy to us by the divine ministerings of love, as to render us swift 
 to convey the same blessing to our brother. Poesy is love's chosen 
 apostle, and the very almoner of God. She is the home of the out- 
 cast, and the wealth of the needy. For her the hut becomes a palace, 
 whose halls are guarded by the gods of Phidias, and kept peaceful 
 by the maid-mothers of Raphael. She loves better the poor wanderer 
 whose bare feet know by heart the freezing stones of the pavement, 
 than the delicate maiden for whose dainty soles Brussels and Turkey 
 have been overcareful ; and I doubt not but some remembered scrap 
 of childish song hath often been a truer alms than all the benevolent 
 societies could give. J. R. LOVVELI,: Conversations, <fc., p. 133.
 
 26 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS. 
 
 IN accordance with the plan proposed in the last section, 
 this chapter will be devoted to the consideration of the 
 principal sentential marks, namely, 
 
 1. The COMMA [ , ] 
 
 2. The SEMICOLON [ ; J 
 
 3. The COLON [ : ] 
 
 4. The PERIOD [ . ] 
 
 The Comma marks the smallest grammatical division 
 of a sentence, and usually represents the shortest pause ; 
 the Semicolon and the Colon separate those portions 
 which are less connected than those divided by commas, 
 and admit each of a greater pause ; and the Period is, 
 what its name denotes, a full stop, which commonly ter- 
 minates a sentence. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 The names of the points have been borrowed by grammarians 
 from the terms which rhetoricians employed to indicate the various 
 kinds of sentences, and the parts of which they consist. Thus the 
 Period signified a complete circuit of words ; a sentence, making, 
 from its commencement to its close, full and perfect sense. The 
 Colon was the greatest member or division of a period or sentence ; 
 and the Semicolon, the greatest division of a colon ; while the Comma 
 indicated a smaller segment of the period, the least constructive 
 part of a sentence.
 
 27 
 
 SECT. I. THE COMMA. 
 
 The COMMA [ , ] marks the smallest grammatical 
 division in written or printed language, and commonly 
 represents the shortest pause in reading or delivery. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Agreeably to the principles contended for in the Introductlou, 
 it will be noticed that the comma is here said, not to mark the small- 
 est segment of a composition, but only the least grammatical division ; 
 that is, the least portion into which a sentence can be divided, when 
 regard is had to the sense, and not to the delivery. But many 
 sentences do not at ah 1 admit of being divided grammatically; as, 
 " The great use of books is to rouse us to thought;" though, when 
 considered in a rhetorical or elocutionary light, they should be sepa- 
 rated into parts, or groups of words, as in reading the example just 
 given: " The great use of books | is | to rouse us | to thought." 
 
 b. It is usual for grammarians to say, that the comma represents 
 the shortest pause, and that that pause is equal to the time required 
 for counting one ; but the remark admits of so many exceptions as 
 to be without any practical value. Numerous instances occur in 
 which the comma is so far from indicating the shortest pause, that a 
 cessation of the voice equal to the time of counting one, two, if not 
 Qu-te, is demanded both by the nature of the sentiment and the con- 
 struction of the language; as, for instance, after the words "vice" 
 and "undertake" in the following sentences: "Virtue is always 
 advantageous; vice, never." "Nations, like men, fail in nothing 
 which they boldly undertake, when sustained by virtuous purpose 
 and firm resolution." In other instances, the comma does not exhibit 
 any pause whatever, but merely the grammatical division, as in the 
 expression, " Yes, sir;" where, in common or unemphatic discourse, 
 no pause can be made between the words. 
 
 c. On this subject all elocutionists are agreed. Mr. Maglathlin, in 
 the " National Speaker," p. 30, says that " the comma occurs some- 
 times where there should be no pause in reading or speaking; nor 
 can the length of any required stop be inferred with much certainty 
 from the common stop-mark used." Dr. Maudeville, in his " Ele-
 
 28 THE COMMA. 
 
 merits of Reading and Oratory," p. 32, remarks that " the comma 
 does not necessarily represent a pause; " that " it suspends the voice, 
 in unimpassioned reading or speaking, sufficiently long to draw 
 breath; " but that, " under the influence of emotion, its time is inde- 
 finite." And the celebrated Walker, in " Rhetorical Grammar," p. 36 
 (Boston edition, 1814), when speaking of all the points, admits that 
 " these marks sufficiently answer the purposes of written language, 
 by keeping the members of sentences from running into each other, 
 and producing ambiguity; but, when we regard them as guides to 
 pronunciation, they fail us at almost every step." 
 
 RULE I. 
 Two Words, of tke same Part of Speech, connected by the 
 
 Coiljunctiotis AND, OK, NOR. 
 
 Two words, belonging to the same part of speech, or 
 used as such, when closely connected by one of the con- 
 junctions and, or, nor, are not separated by a comma 
 from each other. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness and truth. 
 
 2. Grand ideas and principles elevate or ennoble the mind. 
 
 3. Benefits should be long and gratefully remembered. 
 
 4. Virtue or vice predominates in every man and woman. 
 
 5. Some monks may be said to be neither of nor in the world. 
 
 6. The necessity and the use of physic have been much exaggerated. 
 
 7. It is natural to compassionate those who are suffering and alone. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. In these examples, it will be seen that the comma is regarded 
 as inadmissible, not only between two words united by a conjunction, 
 but also after them. Here no point should be used, except when 
 they come at the end of a clause or sentence, or form such phrases 
 as, from their construction with others, require to be punctuated ; as, 
 " To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a scene of tranquil 
 enjoyments."
 
 TWO CONJOINED WORDS. 29 
 
 6. Some writers distinguish two connected prepositions by the 
 insertion of commas, and would point the fifth example thus : " Some 
 monks may be said to be neither of, nor in, the world." But there 
 seems to be no valid reason for deviating from the rule; though, 
 when prepositions are removed from, and at the same time connected 
 with, each other, and are dependent on one and the same term (as in 
 the sentence we are just writing, and as in the eighth example under 
 Rule V.), a comma is required after each to bring out the sense. 
 
 c. By referring to p. 22, Definition VI., it will be found that the 
 insertion of an article between connected words, as in the sixth 
 example, does not at all aflfect the validity of the rule. In the 
 seventh example, the words united by the conjunction are not of the 
 same part of speech, unless the phrase be treated elliptically, so as to 
 mean " suffering and being alone ; " but instances of this or a similar 
 kind are obviously subject to the same principle as words of one sort. 
 
 d. When the first of two connected words is qualified by a pre- 
 ceding adjective or adverb which is inapplicable to the second, or 
 when the latter is followed by a term not belonging to the former, a 
 comma is usually required befoie the conjunction; as, " Donations 
 will be thankfully received, and applied to tha benefit of the suffering 
 poor." " 'Twas certain he could write, and cipher too." 
 
 e. The comma, however, is not inserted between the conjoined 
 words, when the latter is immediately preceded by a qualifying or 
 governing word, and both refer to one and the same tenn ; as, " The 
 world has confidence in the judgment and urise conduct of a truly 
 honest man." 
 
 f. When two phrases, the former ending and the other beginning 
 with a noun, are joined by the conjunction and, or, or nor, they may 
 be separated by a comma; as, " Integrity of understanding, and nicety 
 of discernment, were not allotted in a less proportion to Dryden than 
 to Pope." "So shall sweet thovyhts, and thoughts sublime, my 
 constant inspiration be." The comma is also placed after the last 
 phrase, when, as in these examples, it relates, equally with the first, 
 to the remainder of the sentence. 
 
 g. If, however, the first phrase is preceded by one of the correla- 
 tives both, either, neither, or the second by an article, or when the 
 phrases are introduced into the body of a sentence necessarily requir- 
 ing the insertion of commas, they should be left unpointed ; us, "Both 
 integrity of understanding and nicety of discernment were allotted in 
 a no less proportion," &c. " Man is the child of God and the heir 
 of immortality." "As we do, and we must a.i Protestants, consider
 
 80 THE COMMA. 
 
 Romanism a false and vicious system of religion or form of Chris- 
 tianity, whatever we can lawfully and morally do to stay its progress, 
 we not only have a right, but it is our duty, to do." In the last 
 example, the two Italicized phrases are not separated by a comma, 
 because the advantage of this mode of pointing in a more simply 
 constructed sentence would be counterbalanced here by the dis- 
 advantages resulting from all the phrases being set off alike. 
 
 h. When the second of two words, united by the conjunction and 
 or or, is elliptical, or is inserted as an after-thought or for the sake 
 of emphasis, it may b.- pointed off by commas; as, "A sense of 
 personal propriety would often interrupt, and exclude, an imputa- 
 tion of unworthy motives to those who hold opinions opposite to our 
 own: " the sense being, " would interrupt, if it would not exclude, an 
 imputation," &c. ; or "would interrupt, and indeed exclude." The 
 awkwardness of the punctuation, which forms an exception to the 
 rule, might usually be avoided by a happier construction of such 
 sentences. 
 
 . When the conjunction or stands between two nouns, or be- 
 tween a noun and a phrase, which are synonymous, or of which the 
 latter is explanatory of the former, they may be separated by a 
 comma from each other; as, " The dwelling of Nornia was not 
 unaptly compared to the eyry of the ospray, or sea-eayle." If the 
 explanatory term is intermediate or parenthetical, a comma should 
 be placed after each of the terms; as, " Sin, or moral evil, should 
 excite the greatest abhorrence." See Rule VIII. 
 
 j. Some punctuators would apply the preceding remark as a rule 
 to all instances in whicli one of two words, coupled by the conjunc- 
 tion or, is explanatory of the other. In nouns, we think, the comma 
 is usually required, to show that the terms, which might otherwise 
 be regarded as significant of two ideas or things, are designed to 
 represent only one and the same; but the pointing of adjectives and 
 adverbs similarly situated would, in many cases, tend, by the break- 
 ing-up of the connection, to confuse, instead of assisting, the reader. 
 Besides, it should be remembered that qualifying wortls are seldom, 
 if ever, perfectly synonymous; and that, even if they were exactly 
 of the same signification, the omission of the commas could scarcely 
 affect the sense. For instance, this sentence, " He who is devoutly 
 or piously disposed to God is also benignant or kind to men," is as 
 easily understood as if it were punctuated, " He who is devoutly, 
 or piously, disposed to God is also benignant, or kind, to men; '" and. 
 in the unpointed form, is more agreeable to the eye.
 
 TWO CONJOINED WORDS. 31 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 After describing the nature and uses of the comma, as mentioned in page 27, state 
 the first Rule, and assig-n the reason why tile connected words in the follow- 
 ing sentences are unpointed i 
 
 Liberty and eloquence have been united in all ages. 
 
 Some children learn early to sing and to dance. 
 
 We often see rank or riches preferred to merit or talent. 
 
 Let us cherish an earnest and a reverential love of truth. 
 
 The liberal arts soften and harmonize the temper. 
 
 An unjust merchant is neither loved nor respected. 
 
 Be vitally and practically interested hi the well-being of all. 
 
 Let nothing be done insincerely or hypocritically. 
 
 Let neither indolence nor vice canker the promise of the heart 
 
 Within and without us are many foes to rectitude. 
 
 According to Remarks in pages 2830, state the reasons for the omission or the 
 insertion of commas between conjoined words in the following sentences : 
 
 The youth wrote letters both to and concerning the lady. 
 
 Socrates was a virtuous and a wise man. 
 
 A convenient spot, and surprise, efl'ected his purpose. 
 
 The prophet went, and addressed the people. 
 
 He, and he only, is worthy of our supreme affections. 
 
 Piety and unsullied virtue are venerated even by the wicked. 
 
 Money is the bane of bliss, and source of woe. 
 
 Have both soundness of faith and activity of benevolence. 
 
 Neither purity of aim nor goodness of deed was attributed to him. 
 
 Regard the rights of persons and the rights of property. 
 
 It may, and must, exist under the circumstances of the case. 
 
 Would you escape, and live; remain, or die? Speak, or perish- 
 
 The laverock, or lark, is distinguished for its singing. 
 
 Parenthetical or intermediate words are often used. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Write the following sentences, and punctuate those only which, agreeably to the 
 
 Remarks, should have commas t 
 
 An ellipsis or omission of words is found in ah 1 kinds of composi- 
 tion. (Remarks d and t.) 
 
 How many a knot of mystery and misunderstanding would be 
 untied by one word spoken in simple and confiding truth of heart !
 
 82 THE COMMA. 
 
 A distinction ought to be made between fame and trite honor 
 (Remark e.) 
 
 The balmy influences of neither sea nor sky could revive or 
 restore him. 
 
 Refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from 
 grammatical studies. (Remark/.) 
 
 The greatest genius is never so great as when it is chastised and 
 subdued by the highest reason. 
 
 In composition there is a transposed or inverted order of words, 
 as well as a conventional or common arrangement. (Remark j.) 
 
 The first end to which all wisdom or knowledge ought to be em- 
 ployed is to illustrate the wisdom and goodness of God. 
 
 Morality and religion itself is degraded by the use of unmeaning 
 terms. (Remark d.) 
 
 . Is it sickness or selfishness that spreads most misery through our 
 homes? 
 
 A quickness of observation and an ingenuousness of character are 
 often found in very young children. (Rule, and Remarks c, g.) 
 
 The Greek and Roman writers were once understood and relished 
 in a remarkable degree. 
 
 Some have neither the resolution nor the power of carrying their 
 projects to a completion. \Rule, and Remarks c, g.) 
 
 Pope examined lines and words with minute and punctilious 
 observation. 
 
 The nineteenth century has been and is a tune of extraordinary 
 mental activity. ( Remark h. ) 
 
 I would calmly and humbly submit myself to the good and blessed 
 will of God. 
 
 Let us greet and take by the hand those who were our youthful 
 companions. (Remark d.) 
 
 The human heart beats quick at the sight or hearing of courageous 
 and disinterested deeds. 
 
 The senses or sensibility of one body may be radically more acute 
 than those of another. (Remark t.) 
 
 The most ferocious conflicts have been brightened by examples of 
 magnanimous and patriotic virtue. 
 
 It was the greatest act ever done either by or for human beings. 
 (Rule, and Remark 6.) 
 
 Whenever, therefore, we divide Christianity into doctrines of faith 
 and doctrines of practice, we must remember that the division is oue 
 of our own fabrication. (Rule, and last portion of Remark y.)
 
 TWO WORDS NOT CONJOINED. 83 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, not connected by a 
 Conjunction. 
 
 Two words, of the same part of speech and in the 
 same construction, if used without a conjunction between 
 them, are separated from each other by a comma. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Lend, lend your wings. 
 
 2. The dignity of a man consists in thought, intelligence 
 8. Can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 
 
 4. The discipline of suffering nourishes, invigorates virtue. 
 
 6. We are fearfully, wonderfully made. 
 
 6. Their search extends along, around the path. 
 
 7 Never was beheld a child fairer, more beautiful. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The adverbs more and most, the former of -which occurs in the 
 seventh example, are considered here as united with the adjectives 
 or the adverbs which they qualify. Thus, " more beautiful " is 
 equivalent to the single but antiquated word beautifuUer. 
 
 b. Besides the comma inserted between two nouns, or between 
 two words equivalent to nouns, the same point is put after the last, 
 when it does not end a sentence or a clause ; as, " Thought, thought, 
 is the fundamental distinction of mind." " Reason, virtue, answer 
 one great aim." " The earth is filled with the labors, the works, of 
 the dead." In these and similar instances, the comma is required to 
 show that both nouns are equally related to what follows. 
 
 c. But the comma should be omitted after the second of the 
 nouns, if it alone is connected in sense with the last portion of the 
 clause; as, "The miseries of war bear the impress of cruelty, of 
 hardness of heart." 
 
 d. Strict accuracy seems to require the insertion of a comma after 
 the last of the governing and qualifying words in the examples under 
 the rule; namely, after "lend," "cold," "invigorates," "wonder- 
 fully," " around." But this mode of punctuating is opposed to the 
 most reputable usage, and is seldom needed to bring out the sense ; 
 not to mention the uncouth appearance which modifying or governing 
 words have when standing alone, or in disruption from the context; 
 
 8
 
 34 THE COMMA. 
 
 as, "All great works of genius come from deep, lonely, thought/' 
 Contrast the sentence, thus pointed, with " All great works of genius 
 come from deep, lonely thought," and the superiority of the latter 
 form -will be obvious. 
 
 e. When, however, the adjectives or adverbs are used to qualify 
 a word that precedes them, a comma should be placed after the 
 second, if the clause is unfinished; as, " The world that is outward, 
 material, is the shadow of that which is spiritual." A comma should 
 also be placed after the second of two governing words, when they 
 precede, not a single word, but a phrase or clause; as, " To deny 
 ourselves is to deny, to renounce, whatever interferes with our con- 
 victions of right." 
 
 /. The comma should be omitted between two adjectives, when 
 the first qualifies the second adjective and a noun; as, " The emperor 
 possessed a beautiful white horse ; " that is, the emperor had a white 
 horse that was beautiful. Were a comma placed between the adjec- 
 tives, the sense would be that he possessed a horse that was beautiful 
 and white. 
 
 g. When two adjectives that are not synonymous precede a noun, 
 and convey only one idea, they are treated as a compound epithet, 
 and united by a hyphen; as, " The maidens danced amid the festal- 
 sounding shades." 
 
 h. If two nouns are used as a compound, whether so written 
 or not, or if the former partakes of the nature of an adjective, they 
 are not separated by a comma; as, " Walter Scott ranks high as a 
 Jtctionwiter." " Ward Room, Franklin Schoolhouse, Washington 
 Street." Words similar to those mentioned in this and the preceding 
 remark will be explained under the " Hyphen." 
 
 i. When a word iterated is the resumption of a sentiment broken 
 off, a dash is used before the repetition, instead of a comma; as, 
 " But I fear I fear Richard hardly thought the terms proposed were 
 worthy of his acceptance." The punctuation of broken sentences 
 will be more fully treated of under the " Dash." 
 
 j. A comma may be put after two adverbs, or after an adverb 
 repeated, as well as between them, when they qualify a clause ; as, 
 " Verily, verily, I say unto you." But when one adverb is followed 
 by another, the former qualifying the latter, no comma is admissi- 
 ble; as, " The part was remarkably weU performed." 
 
 k. The last of two verbs, participles, or prepositions, if used with- 
 out governing the words that follow them, is set off with a comma ; 
 as, " On, on, when honor calls."
 
 TWO WORDS NOT CONJOINED. 3n 
 
 1. It not unfrequently happens, that two prepositions or conjunc- 
 tions come together, without requiring any separation by a marked 
 pause; as, " He walks up tmoards the hill." " The pupil of a docile 
 disposition not only loves, but also venerates, his preceptor." In 
 respect, however, to the former example, it may be observed that 
 the first preposition is not in construction with the second, but forms 
 part of the verb " walk," which is compound, and would in some 
 languages be expressed by a single word; and, as to the latter, that 
 the conjunctions " but " and " also " are so closely connected in sense 
 as to be inseparable in construction. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Explain how Rule II. requires the insertion of commas between words of the 
 same part of speech in the following sentences : 
 
 Nothing is so intelligible as sincere, disinterested love. 
 
 Sound, sound the tambourine! Strike, strike the mandaline! 
 
 Men live abroad in regions which are milder, more temperate. 
 
 Socrates and Plato were philosophers, sages. 
 
 The outward, material world is the shadow of the spiritual. 
 
 Genius is not a quality of idle, lazy men. 
 
 Rash, fruitless war is only splendid murder. 
 
 Fairly, rightly regarded, religion is the great sentiment of life. 
 
 Storms purge the air without, within the breast. 
 
 State how the reasons given in the Remarks for the insertion or the omission of 
 commas (pp. 88, 84) vill apply to the following sentences : 
 
 It is a matter of the finest, the most deliberate calculation. 
 
 The only test of goodness, virtue, is moral strength. 
 
 Virtue, religion, is the one thing needful. 
 
 Woe, woe, to the rider that tramples them down ! 
 
 A steady, durable good cannot be derived from an external cause 
 
 Work that is easy, pleasant, does not make robust minds. 
 
 Remove, expel the blustering, blundering blockhead ! 
 
 The history of the humblest human life is a tale of marvels . 
 
 How delightful to gaze at the dark-blue sky ! 
 
 Behold that crowd of keen, anxious-looking men. 
 
 Some village Hampden here may rest. 
 
 Mirthfully, wildly, the bright waves flash along. 
 
 A benevolent man is very much esteemed, respected. 
 
 Fallen, fallen, is the mighty Babylon!
 
 36 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 In writing the following sentences, punctuate those words only which require 
 commas, in accordance with the second Rule and the Remarks : - 
 
 The young shepherd promised to buy me a pretty brown ribbon. 
 (Remark /.) 
 
 The man of true refinement will not object to enter into the honest 
 heartfelt enjoyments of common life. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 The rosy-crowned Loves, with their many-twinkling feet, frisk 
 with antic Sports and blue-eyed Pleasures. (Remark ff.) 
 
 A good that is steady durable cannot be derived from an external 
 cause. (Rule, and Remark e.) 
 
 The intellect and the conscience are intimately indissolubly bound 
 together. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 Employment activity is one of the fundamental laws of human 
 happiness. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 Not a few of the wisest grandest spirits have toiled at the work 
 bench and the plough. (Rule, and Remarks d, h.) 
 
 A hardy honest peasantry are the glory of an agricultural 
 country. (Rule, and Remark ef.) 
 
 Weeping sighing the mother hid the children hi her gory vest. 
 (Rule, and Remark k.) 
 
 The human mind spreads its thoughts abroad into the immea- 
 surable the infinite. 
 
 Does not every man feel, that nothing nothing could induce him 
 to consent to become a slave V (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 All all conjure us to act wisely faithfully in the relation which we 
 sustain. (Rule, and Remarks b, j.) 
 
 We should have a deeper a more vivid conviction of the importance 
 the sacredness of our work. (Rule, and Remarks a, b. } 
 
 Of intellectual gifts, the rarest the most glorious is great inven- 
 tive genius. (Rule, and Remarks n, , f.) 
 
 \Vho will deny that imagination refines elevates the other mental 
 powers? (Rule, and last sentence in Remark e.j 
 
 The most abandoned men have sometimes professed courage con- 
 tempt of mere bodily suffering. (Rule, and Remarks c, f.) 
 
 A desolate lonely feeling springs up of having exchanged their 
 home for a distant foreign country. (Rule, and Remarks d, I.) 
 
 All things must work together for certain good, so long as we 
 continue in free unconditional self-surrender to the service of God. 
 (Rule, and Remarks d, h.)
 
 SERIES OF WORDS. 37 
 
 RULE III. 
 Series of Words of the same Part of Speech. 
 
 In a series of words, all of the same part of speech, 
 a comma is inserted between each particular. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness. 
 
 2. Alfred the Great was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 
 
 8. Happy is the man who honors, obeys, loves, or serves his Creator. 
 4. The discourse was beautifully, elegantly, forcibly delivered. 
 6. The spirit of the Almighty is within, around, and above us. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Some punctuators omit the comma between the last two par- 
 ticulars, when united by either of the conjunctions and, 01; nor. But 
 the propriety of using the comma will perhaps be obvious to any one 
 who examines the nature of such sentences : for the last two words 
 of a series are not more closely connected in sense and construction 
 with each other than with the preceding words ; as, " Infancy, child 
 hood, youth, manhood, and aye are different stages in human life." 
 
 b. When, however, three words of the same part of speech are 
 in juxtaposition, the last being preceded by and or or, but do not 
 form a series, the comma is omitted before the conjunction ; ass, " By 
 the wise arrangement of nature, infancy and childhood last long." 
 Here the noun " nature" is governed by the preposition "of;" and 
 the two following nouns, " infancy and childhood," are of themselves 
 the compound nominative to the succeeding verb. The punctuation, 
 therefore, differs from that of a sentence in which three words are 
 used in a series, or in the same construction; as, " Childhood, youth, 
 and maturity last longer or shorter in different individuals." 
 
 c. In a series of three nouns preceded by an adjective qualifying 
 only the first, the comma should be omitted before the conjunction; 
 as, " The characteristics of Mr. Mason's mind were real greatness, 
 strength and sagacity." 
 
 d. A comma should be put after the last noun in a series, if it is 
 not joined to the others by a conjunction, and does not end a sentence 
 or clause; as, " Reputation, virtue, happiness, depend greatly on the 
 choice of companions." "The good man is alive to all the sym- 
 pathies, the sanctities, the loves, of social existence." When, how- 
 over, and, or, or nor occurs, the comma is unnecessary after the last
 
 38 TIIE COMMA. 
 
 noun, because the conjunction shows that all the particulars have, 
 either separately or together, a relation to what follows in the 
 sentence; as, "Reputation, virtue, and happiness depend greatly on 
 the choice of companions." "The good man is alive to all the 
 sympathies, the sanctities, and the loves of social existence." 
 
 e. When the last particular is one of several qualifying words, it 
 must not be separated by a point from that portion of the sentence 
 on which it acts; as, "Too much of our love is an instinctive, 
 nngoverned, narrow, selfish feeling." See p. 33, Remark d. 
 
 f. But a comma should be put after the last adjective or adverb, 
 not preceded by a conjunction, when it is separated by the other 
 particulars of the series or by a verb from the word qualified, and 
 does not finish the clause or sentence; as, " There is something 
 real, substantial, immortal, in Christian virtue." " Exalted, tender. 
 beneficent, is the love that woman inspires." 
 
 y. When the last governing word in a series is preceded by a con 
 junction, a comma is unnecessary after it; but, if written without 
 a conjunction, the comma should be inserted ; as, " God's design is 
 to recover, exalt, and Mess the guiltiest of our race." " Endeavor to 
 elevate, refine, purify, the public amusements." When, however, 
 the term governed is only a monosyllabic word, the comma may in 
 such cases be omitted; as, " Teach, urge, threaten, lecture him." 
 
 h. When three or more words of the same part of speech, and in 
 the same construction, are severally connected by means of and, or, 
 or nor, the comma may be omitted after each of the particulars; as, 
 ' Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty and wisdom from 
 all nature and art and history." Some writers separate all such 
 serial words by a comma; but a mode of punctuation so stiff as this 
 seldom aids in developing the sense, and, in sentences requiring other 
 commas, is undoubtedly offensive to the eye, if it docs not obscure 
 the meaning itself. A correct reader will, however, as a matter of 
 course, pause more or less after each particular, in accordance with 
 the nature of the sentiment. 
 
 i. But, when a series of nouns is resolvable into two or more 
 phrases, each having two coupled words, a comma should be used 
 between the phrases ; as, " A Christian spirit may be manifested to 
 Greek or Jew, male or female, friend or foe." 
 
 j. When, in two or more pairs, only the last pair depends on a 
 concluding term, the comma should be omitted after it; as, " The 
 true Christian is a man of principle, of truth and integrity, of kind- 
 ness and modesty, of reverence and devotion to the Supreme Glory."
 
 SERIES OF VTORD9. 39 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 Recite the Rule (p. 37) for the insertion of commas in the following sentences i 
 
 Learn patience, calmness, self-command, disinterestedness, love. 
 The mind is that which knows, feels, and thinks. 
 Honor, affluence, and pleasure seduce the heart. 
 Milton's poetry is always healthful, bright, and vigorous. 
 The child can creep, skip, walk, or run. 
 
 Let great principles be wrought into the mind, the heart, the life. 
 The work was neither dexterously, quickly, nor well done. 
 The love that woman inspires is exalted, tender, and beneficent. 
 
 Agreeably to the Remarks (pp. 37, 38), state the reasons for the insertion or the 
 omission of commas in the following sentences s 
 
 Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian are high authorities in rhetoric. 
 
 The tendency of poetry is to refine, purify, expand, and elevate 
 
 God is the source, object, model, of perfect love. 
 
 The air, the earth, the water, teem with delighted existence 
 
 His reign is that of a great, godlike, disinterested being. 
 
 Wise, eloquent, cautious, intrepid, was Ulysses. 
 
 The arts prolong, comfort, and cheer human life. 
 
 Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things. 
 
 The man professed neither to eat nor drink nor sleep. 
 
 The poor and rich, and weak and strong, have all one Father 
 
 Say why the omission of a comma between the last two conjoined nouns in the 
 following sentences does not accord witJi the Rule, but with Remark b : 
 
 In Paradise, Adam and Eve reigned supreme. There was, in 
 Eve's every gesture, dignity and love. 
 
 According to the Thompsonian philosophy, heat and cold are 
 antagonist identities. 
 
 In two branches of science, chemistry and natural history, medi- 
 cal men have been the most successful laborers. 
 
 It is well calculated to render the timber impenetrable to the 
 agents of decomposition, air and moisture. 
 
 Dr. TwitchelPs wonderful faculty often rendered the unintelligible 
 plain and clear. 
 
 In reference to time, hours and days are of great importance: in 
 respect to eternity, years and ages are nothing.
 
 40 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 In putting commas between or after the serial words in the following sentence*. 
 be guided by the third Rale and the Remarks (pp. 37, 38} : 
 
 Let holiness goodness virtue be to you the pearl of great price. 
 (Rule, and first portion of Remark d.) 
 
 The recovery of our little darling dancing singing Mary is worth 
 all the gold that ever was mined. (Rule, and Remark e.) 
 
 The hardships of a good life prove refine and exalt the human 
 character. (Rule, and first portion of Remark g.) 
 
 No one can find peace hut in the growth of an enlightened firm 
 disinterested holy mind. (Rule, and Remark e.) 
 
 Ease indulgence luxury sloth are the sources of misery ; making a 
 man a poor sordid selfish wretched being. (Rule, and Remarks d, e.} 
 
 A great soul is known by its enlarged strong and tender sympa 
 thies. (Rule, Remark e, and last of d.) 
 
 All that charms the eye or the ear or the imagination or the heart 
 is the gift of God. (Remark h.) 
 
 The Indian nut alone .is clothing, meat and trencher drink and 
 can. (Remark t.) 
 
 All have some conceptions of truth kindness honesty self-denial 
 and disinterestedness. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 In a city there is much to inflame imbitter degrade the minds 
 of the poor. (Rule, and second portion of g.) 
 
 Let us every day become more pure kind gentle patient spiritual 
 and devout. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 Meekly truthfully disinterestedly the dying man had trod the path 
 of life. (Rule, and Remark f.) 
 
 In heaven live the friends benefactors deliverers ornaments of theii 
 race. (Rule, and first of Remark d.) 
 
 True courage is the exercise result and expression of the highest 
 attributes of our nature. (Rule, and last of Remark d.) 
 
 Some have unreasonably denied the strength and fervor and en- 
 duringness of human lave. (Remark h.) 
 
 The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the old 
 Persian the Syriac and the Chaldee. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 You are a parent or a child a brother or a sister a husband or a 
 wife a friend or an associate of some kindred soul. (Remark j.) 
 
 Our present knowledge thoughts feelings characters are the 
 results of former impressions passions and pursuits. (Rule, and 
 Remarks da.)
 
 WORDS IN APPOSITION. 41 
 
 RULE IV. 
 Nouns or Phrases in Apposition, 
 
 I. Two nouns or personal pronouns, or a noun and 
 pronoun, one in apposition with the other, should not 
 be separated by a comma, if they may be regarded as 
 a proper name or as a single phrase. 
 
 II. But a noun or pronoun and a phrase, or two or 
 more phrases, when put in apposition, are separated by 
 a comma from each other, and, if the sentence or clause 
 is unfinished, from what follows. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 |L 
 
 1. The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry. 
 
 2. It is well known that the word " philosopher " signifies lover of wisdom. 
 
 3. He himself was the editor of the work ; but he left it a botch. 
 
 in. 
 
 1. Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind. 
 
 2. We, the people of the United States, are loyers of republicanism. 
 
 3. The twin sisters, Piety and Poetry, are wont to dwell together. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The term noun here is so used as to apply either to a single 
 word of this character, or to an unemphatic word and a noun. Thus, 
 both words, " the poet," in the first example, are, to avoid circum- 
 locution, spoken of as a noun, and not as a phrase. 
 
 b. When two or more words can be treated as one compound 
 name or as a single phrase, they do not admit a comma between 
 them; as, "Alexander of Macedon; Sir William Jones; our Lord 
 Jesus Christ; the Lord God Almighty." But if names, titles, or 
 characteristics are so applied as to vary the thought, or produce 
 a separate impression on the mind, they should be set apart by a 
 comma; as, "Worship thy Creator, God; and obey his Son, the 
 Master, King, and Saviour of men." 
 
 c. The word brothers, when put in apposition with a proper name 
 in a firm, is left unpointed ; as, " Smith Brothers and Co." But 
 when used, either in the singular or plural number, to convey the 
 notion of another person, it is not in apposition, and must therefore 
 be distinguished by the comma ; as, " Smith, Brother, and Co."
 
 4Z THE COMMA. 
 
 d. Proper names, when inverted, are separated by a comma ; as, 
 " James, Thomas ; Williamson, John ; " meaning Thomas James and 
 John Williamson. 
 
 e. After the word price, when immediately preceding the value 
 of any commodity, the comma may be omitted; as, " Price $5," or 
 " Price fifty cents." 
 
 f. A comma is put between two nouns or pronouns if used syno- 
 nymously, or if the latter expresses an illustrative or an additional 
 thought; as, "Force of voice is strength, energy; vivacity is life, 
 animation.'" " A son, John, was born after his father's death." 
 
 g. When a proper name is put after a phrase in apposition, the 
 comma may be omitted; as, " The great orator Cicero was famed for 
 many excellences." Unless where the noun is introduced by way 
 of explanation or parenthesis ; and, in such a case, it is preceded by 
 a comma, and, in an unfinished clause, followed by the same point ; 
 as, " The wisest of the Jewish kings, Solomon, became a fool." 
 
 h. When the first of two nouns of the possessive case has the sign 
 of possession, a comma should intervene between them ; as, " The 
 work will be found at Appleton's, the bookseller." But, if the posses- 
 sive sign is omitted after the first noun, and put after the second, 
 the comma may be dispensed with ; as, " It will be seen at Putnam 
 the publisher's." Should, however, this mode of writing be so con- 
 structed as to have, for the unmarked possessive, several names 
 constituting a firm, a comma should be inserted before the noun 
 ending with the and apostrophe; as, " The young man is a clerk 
 at Little, Brown, and Company, the publishers' ;" the awkwardness of 
 the punctuation here arising from the clumsiness of the expression. 
 
 i. If a term, preceding a noun or a pronoun, is used absolutely, 
 a comma is inserted only between them ; as, " A trifling scholar, 
 he heeds not the lessons of instruction." 
 
 j. When a pronoun of the second person immediately precedes a 
 noun, a relative pronoun, or a word or phrase used for a noun, the 
 comma is unnecessary between them ; as, " Thou river, roll ; ye who 
 are aged, come; all ye high Powers." But if the pronoun, as the 
 nominative to a verb, or as the antecedent of a relative, is separated 
 from them, or if it is put in the objective case, a comma should be 
 put before and after the intervening term ; as, " Thou, Father, markest 
 the tears I shed." " What art thou, execrable shape, that darest 
 advance ? " " On thee, beloved, I wait." 
 
 fc. When the latter of two nouns or phrases is predicated of the 
 former, the comma is not required between them ; as, " Plutarch calls
 
 WORDS IN APPOSITION. 43 
 
 lying the mce of slave*." " The Romans thought Augustus Caesar a 
 god." "1 consider Dr. Johnson as an excellent moralist." So also 
 if the subject spoken of be a pronoun ; as, u The people elected him 
 president of the United States." 
 
 OltAL EXEKCISKS. 
 
 SJiow koto tlit following sentences exemplify the fourth Rule, in respect, to the 
 insertion or omission of commas : 
 
 Friends, the beloved of my bosom, were near. 
 
 Mahomet was a native of Mecca, a city in Arabia. 
 
 The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent work on morals. 
 
 The term " reason " has been variously defined. 
 
 Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, lived in a tub. 
 
 Bowditch the astronomer translated the " Mecanique Celeste." 
 
 Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest. 
 
 The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 
 
 Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune. 
 
 Spenser the poet lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Art thou that traitor angel who first broke peace in heaven ? 
 
 I Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles. 
 
 I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto thee. 
 
 Say lo/ii/, according to the Remarks (pp. 41, 42), common are inserted or omitted 
 in tlie following sentences : 
 
 The emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. 
 
 The frigate "Jamestown " conveyed corn to the suffering Irish. 
 
 God is a Father-God, a God of paternal love. 
 
 To thee we bow, Friend, Father, King of kings ! 
 
 "Adjunct" is derived from culjunctum, addition, something added. 
 
 Ease, rest, owes its deliciousness to toil. 
 
 William was slain; leaving one child, Alice. 
 
 The eloquent preacher Mossillon was a Frenchman. 
 
 The author of " Paradise Lost," Milton, was a noble-minded man 
 
 At Thomson the hatter's store. At Thomson's, the hatter. 
 
 A brave boy, he could not injure others. 
 
 Thou whose love can ne'er forget its offspring, man ! 
 
 Ye powers and spirits of this nethermost abyss. 
 
 Thou, Lord, art the life and light of all this wondrous world. 
 
 All agree in designating Howard a philanthropist.
 
 44 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXEKCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Insert commas where, according to pages 41-43. they are required : 
 
 In Greek, the word " poet " denotes a maker a creator. (Rule, 
 $ I.; and Remarks a, f.) 
 
 The apostle John was peculiarly beloved by his divine Master 
 Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 The capital of Turkey Constantinople is finely situated on the 
 European side of the Bosphorus. (Last of Remark y.) 
 
 General Washington the first president of the United States was a 
 true patriot a genuine lover of his country. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus says, " Often return to your true 
 mother philosophy." ( Remark 6, first portion ; and Remark f.) 
 
 Much stress was laid upon pronunciation delivery by the most 
 eloquent of all orators Demosthenes. (Remark /, and last of g.) 
 
 London the capital of Great Britain contains nearly three millions 
 of inhabitants. (Rule, 11.) 
 
 A great and gloomy man the king sat upon the throne of his 
 ancestors. (Remark i.) 
 
 I recommend the reading of good books as a source of improve- 
 ment and delight ( Remark k.) 
 
 The first expedition of Columbus was fitted out by John of Anjou 
 Duke of Calabria, (Rule, H. ; and Remark b.) 
 
 Thou who hast at thy command the hearts of all men in thy 
 hand ! (First of Remark j.) 
 
 1 Artaxerxes the king decree that whatsoever Ezra the priest the 
 scribe of the law shall require, &c. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 You blocks! yon stones! you worse than senseless things! 
 you hard hearts I you cruel men of Rome! (First of Remark _;'.) 
 
 And, when the angel Death stands by, be thou my God my helper 
 nigh. (Rule, Remark 6, and last of.;.) 
 
 When, as returns this solemn day, man comes to meet his Maker 
 God. (Last of Remark b.) 
 
 The world-famed dramatist Shakspeare lived in the reign of the 
 greatest of English queens Elizabeth. (Remark g.) 
 
 Adonijah the son of Haggith came to Bathsheba the mother of 
 Solomon. (Rule, u.) 
 
 In the firm of Graham Brother and Co. there are three persons in 
 partnership, James Graham, his younger brother, and John Jones; 
 but I do not know how many there are in the firm of Kennedy 
 Brothers, whether there be two or more. (Remark c.)
 
 WORDS OR PHRASES IN CONTRAST. 45 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Words or Phrases in Contrast, 
 
 Words or phrases contrasted with each other, or 
 having a mutual relation to others that follow them, in 
 the same clause, are separated by commas. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. False delicacy is affectation, not politeness. 
 
 2. The author of that work was a distinguished poet, but a bad man. 
 
 3. Many persons gratify their eyes and ears, instead of their understandings 
 
 4. Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles. 
 
 5. Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. 
 
 6. One may utter many pompous, and speak but few intelligible, words 
 
 7. Avoid, or rather prevent the introduction of, so pernicious a fashion. 
 
 8. Good men are not always found in union with, but sometimes in opposition 
 
 to, the views and conduct of one another 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Not a few authors would write the sixth example without a 
 comma after the adjective " intelligible." But though it is well to 
 avoid the use of the point after a qualifying or a governing word when 
 its omission could effect no ambiguity, as in the phrase " deep, lonely 
 thought," and others referred to in p. 33, Remark d; yet where, as 
 in the instance under the present rule, the words or phrases, which 
 have a common bearing on one and the same expression, are apart, 
 and the first is properly set off by a comma, the insertion of a cor- 
 responding comma after the second seems requisite for an easy 
 obtaining of the sense. And this, indeed, is the usage of the best, 
 though perhaps not of the most numerous, punctuators. 
 
 b. The seventh and eighth examples are introduced here, not as 
 models of composition, but to show that the harshness of their con- 
 struction demands a corresponding rigor in the mode of punctuation. 
 This, however, the student may sometimes avoid in his own compo- 
 sition, by giving to his style greater freedom and elegance. For 
 instance, the seventh example might be thus constructed and pointed : 
 " Avoid so pernicious a fashion, or rather prevent its introduction." 
 
 c. When two contrasted or related words, united by either of the 
 conjunctions but, though, ytl, as wett as, qualify a following noun or 
 phrase, or refer to the same preposition, the comma may be omitted: 
 as, " Caesar delivered his orations in elegant but powerful language."
 
 46 THE COMMA. 
 
 "He was a great though an erring man." "Hercules had the 
 strength as well as the courage of the lion." 
 
 d. But if the adverb not, either with or without a conjunction, 
 comes between two such words, a comma should be used after each, 
 in accordance with the Rule, to indicate their common dependence 
 on the last portion of the sentence ; as, " The strong and violent 
 emotions are the natural produce of an early, if not of a sucage, 
 state of society." 
 
 e. If the above-mentioned conjunctions unite not two words, but 
 a word and a phrase, or two phrases, the commas should be inserted ; 
 as, " Intemperance not only wastes the earnings, but the health and 
 minds, of men." 
 
 f. Two words or phrases connected by but or yet, or if either of 
 these conjunctions be understood, are separated by a comma, when 
 the first term is preceded by not or tiiough ; as, " Not beautiful, but 
 graceful." "Though black, yet comely; and though rasli, benign." 
 
 g. Commas should not be used between words contrasted in pairs, 
 and having prepositions or conjunctions between them; as, "Let 
 elevation without turgidness, purity witliout primness, pathos icithout 
 whining, characterize our style." " Nothing is more wise or more 
 admirable in action than to be resolute and yet calm, earnest and yet 
 self-possessed, decided and yet modest." 
 
 h. When a negative word or phrase is put before an affirmative 
 one, and does not commence the sentence, the phrases are separated 
 by a comma, not only from each other, but from that portion of the 
 sentence with which they are connected ; as, " The graatest evils 
 arise to human society, not from wild beasts, but from untamed pas- 
 sions." 
 
 f. If, however, the word expressing negation is not put in imme- 
 diate connection with one of the phrases, but in that portion of the 
 sentence on which they depend; or if a finite verb, active or neuter, 
 immediately precedes the negative, the comma should be omitted 
 before the first phrase; as, " The greatest evils do not arise to human 
 society from wild beasts, but from untamed passions." "The 
 greatest evils to human society arise not from wild beasts, but from 
 untamed passions." " It is not from wild beasts, bnt from untamed 
 passions, that the greatest evils arise to human society." 
 
 j. In some instances, where the insertion of a comma between 
 contrasted phrases, used as a compound intermediate expression, 
 would tend to obscure the connection subsisting between the parts 
 of a sentence, the point between the phrases may be omitted ; as.
 
 WORDS OK PHRASES IN CONTRAST. 47 
 
 " The wise and good of every name are, unth dicernity of yifts but 
 ilie same spirit, striving, each in his own way, to carry society for- 
 ward into a healthier condition than the present." By inserting a 
 comma after " gifts," a mode of pointing which is correct in itself, 
 the relation between the verb " are " and the participle " striving " 
 would be in some me:isure concealed from the eye. 
 
 k. The principle of omission exemplified in the preceding remark 
 may be occasionally applied to sentences of a different construction, 
 where words or expressions, admitting a comma without its being 
 essential to the sense, are united to others from which the commas 
 cannot at all be excluded. If this principle is judiciously applied, 
 the relations and dependencies of the several parts of a sentence will 
 be often exhibited to much advantage. 
 
 ORAL, KXKKCISKS. 
 
 Why, according to the ffth Ride, should certain words and phrases in the fair 
 lowing sentences be set tiff by commas! 
 
 Truth is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain. 
 Measure your life by acts of goodness, not by years. 
 Intrinsic worth, and not riches, ought to procure esteem. 
 Speak for, not against, the principles of love and peace. 
 You were paid to fight against, and not to rail at, Alexander. 
 Washington was the head of the nation, and not of a party. 
 Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. 
 Rhetoric is the science, and oratory the art, of speaking well- 
 There are few voices in the world, but many echoes. 
 
 State the principles, as given in the Remarks, for the omission or the insertion 
 of commas in the folluialnjr sentences i 
 
 Philosophy makes us wiser, Christianity makes us better, men. 
 
 Milton burned with a deep yet calm love of moral grandeur. 
 
 He was not only the teacher but the model of his pupils. 
 
 Socrates was directed by a good, if not a divine, genius. 
 
 Learning is the ally, not the adversary, of genius. 
 
 The man suffered not only in his estate, but in his reputation. 
 
 It is the duty of a child, not to direct, but to obey, his parent*. 
 
 Religion dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart. 
 
 To die for truth is not to die for one's country, but for the world 
 
 We ought not to betray, but to defend, our country.
 
 48 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Punctuate those sentences which require commas, in accordance with the printi- 
 pita laid doien in the preceding Rule and Remark j (pp. 46-47) : 
 
 It is not the business of virtue to extirpate the affections but to 
 regulate them. (Rule, and Remark t.) 
 
 We live in deeds not years ; in thoughts not breaths ; in feelings 
 not in figures on a diaL (Rule.) 
 
 Novel-reading is generally calculated to weaken if not to debase 
 the moral powers. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 Punishments often shock instead of harmonizing with the com- 
 mon feeling and sense of justice. (Rule.) 
 
 Most of Homer's defects may reasonably be imputed not to hia 
 genius but to the manners of the age in which he lived. ( Rem. h. ) 
 
 He who is insensible to praise is either raised far above or sunk 
 much below the ordinary standard of human nature. (Rule.) 
 
 Knowledge is conducive if not essential to all the ends of virtue 
 (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 Zeal without knowledge, prudence without courage, and peace- 
 fulness without principle, are dangerous qualities. (Remark g.) 
 
 Christians have cast away the spirit hi settling the precise dignity 
 of then* Master. ( Rule. ) 
 
 The Pyrrhonists not only doubted of every thing they saw and 
 heard but of their own existence. (Rule, and Remark i.) 
 
 A lofty rectitude marked every small as well as every great 
 action of Washington's life. (Remark c.) 
 
 The treasures of wisdom are not to be seized with a violent hanu 
 but to be earned by persevering labor. (Rule, and Remark t.) 
 
 The literature of a nation is one of its highest and certainly one 
 of its most refined elements of greatness and order. (Rule.) 
 
 Those who flatter the prejudices of others are the enemies not the 
 friends of the improvement and happiness of mankind. (Remark d.) 
 
 God's love to us is not a tecluiical dogma but a living and practi- 
 cal truth. (Rule.) 
 
 Christianity may harmonize with but it needs not the sanction of 
 philosophy. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 A man's self-reproach may be less for what one has than for what 
 he has not done. (Rule.) 
 
 Whenever words are contrasted with contradistinguished from 
 or opposed to other words, they are always emphatical. (Rule, and 
 Remark b. )
 
 WORDS OB PHRASES IN CONTRAST. 49 
 
 Motives of the most sincere though fanciful devotion induced the 
 old man to renew the half-defaced inscriptions on the tombs of his 
 ancestors. (Remark c.) 
 
 Benevolence is not merely a feeling but a principle ; not a dream 
 of rapture for the fancy to indulge it but a business for the hand to 
 execute. (Rule, and Remark f.) 
 
 The missionary went forth, not only with the wisdom of the ser- 
 pent but with the simplicity of the dove, to do battle against every 
 form of error and vice. (Remark j.) 
 
 Society proceeds from barbarity to refinement, from ignorance to 
 knowledge, from wealth to corruption, and from corruption to ruin. 
 (Remark g.) 
 
 Every one can distinguish an angry from a placid a cheerful from 
 a melancholy a thoughtful from a thoughtless and a dull from a pene- 
 trating countenance. (Remarks g, a, and Rule.) 
 
 Though unavoidable calamities make a part yet they make not 
 the chief part of the vexations and sorrows that distress human life. 
 (Rule, and Remark f.) 
 
 The great object of education is not to store the mind with 
 knowledge but to give activity and vigor to its powers. (Remark t, 
 and Rule.) 
 
 We are so made as to be capable not only of perceiving but also 
 of being pleased with or pained by the various objects by which we 
 are surrounded. (Rule, and Remarks fe, b.) 
 
 From the hour at which printing was invented, the brain and not 
 the arm, the thinker and not the soldier, books and not kings, were 
 to rule the world. (Remark #.) 
 
 A rhetorical sometimes a grammatical pause should be used after 
 words in apposition with or in opposition to each other. (Rule, and 
 Remarks a, b.) 
 
 Poetry is a voice that issues from and finds its echoes in the deep 
 popular heart, where lies the source of all faith and of all enthusiasm 
 for good. (Rule, and Remark 6.) 
 
 Contrasted faults through all their manners reign: 
 
 Though poor luxurious ; though submissive vain ; 
 
 Though grave yet trifling; zealous yet untrue; 
 
 And, even in penance, planning sins anew. (Rule, and Remark /.) 
 
 By the side of man should stand woman, not Amazonian but 
 angelic; gentle yet godlike in works of knowledge and duty; meek 
 yet mighty in all the miracles of charity and benevolence. (Rule, 
 and Remark f.) 
 
 4
 
 50 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 The Subject and the Predicate. 
 
 No point, or pause-mark, is admissible between the 
 subject or nominative and the predicate, or after any 
 word that has a direct bearing on an expression which 
 immediately follows. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Poetry has a natural alliance with the best affections of the human heart 
 
 2. A grandee on the exchange may be a pauper in God's universe. 
 
 3. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. 
 
 4. The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. In the above examples, the words " poetry," " grandee," " to 
 be indifferent " (equivalent to the nonn indifference), and "love," 
 are the several nominatives to the verbs " has," " may be," and " is." 
 Such phrases as "a grandee on the exchange," "to be totally indif- 
 ferent to praise or censure," are sometimes called ncnninative phrase*; 
 and such an expression as " the love which survives the tomb," a, 
 nominative clause. (See pp. 21, 22; V., VI.) But, logically speaking, 
 all these are the subjects of what are severally predicated of them. 
 
 b. In these examples, with a partial exception in the first, the 
 nominatives and verbs are accompanied by certain modifying or 
 limiting phrases, so strictly connected in sense with the former as to 
 be grammatically inseparable from them. In other words, each of 
 the sentences expresses an uninterrupted flow of thought, and there- 
 fore allows no marked division. 
 
 c. There is, however, a class of sentences in which the subject or 
 the predicate is accompanied with expressions, qualifying or expla- 
 natory, that are separable from the portions with which they are 
 connected ; as, " The weakest reasoners, especially OH the subject of 
 religion, are, generally speaking, the most positive." " Health, which 
 if God's gift, should be preserved." Expressions of this kind are 
 sometimes termed parenthetical or intermediate, and will be particu- 
 larly considered under Rule VIET. In every such case, tteo commas 
 must be used, as above, to show the relation of the nominative to its 
 verb, and that of the verb to the chief words in the predicate.
 
 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 51 
 
 d. In the rule; it is said that no pause-ra<T?'fc is admissible under 
 certain circumstances, therein specified. This qualification of the 
 principle laid down will be clearly understood, if the learner bear in 
 mind that pauses are of two kinds : first, those which are marked, or 
 represented to the eye, by the common grammatical points, exhibit- 
 ing the constituent parts of sentences; and, second, those which are 
 unmarked, such rhetorical pauses as are omitted in writing and 
 printing, but required in reading aloud. Thus, in the examples under 
 the rule, the sense and the construction alike forbid the comma to 
 interfere in separating tl^e nominative or subject from the verb ; and 
 yet a correct elocution demands between them a slight pause. 
 
 e. From want of attending to the distinction between these two 
 kinds of pauses, some writers would place a comma immediately 
 before the verb, when its subject consists of a number of words, or, 
 as it is commonly expressed, when the nominative is accompanied 
 with an inseparable adjunct; as, " The good taste of the present age, 
 has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language." 
 But unless where, in any given sentence, the length of the subject 
 woiild give rise to ambiguity or to difficulty in reading it, this mode 
 of punctuation seems to be useless. Indeed the reason assigned on 
 its behalf is a sufficient ground for its rejection; namely, that the 
 nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct. For if the 
 adjunct cannot be separated from the nominative, and if the nomi- 
 native is intimately joined in sense with the verb which it governs, 
 surely the relation subsisting between them should not be broken up, 
 except in cases where it is absolutely necessary. That such adjuncts, 
 too, are as intimately and grammatically connected with the verb as 
 they are with the nominative, and that they cannot well stand apart, 
 will be obvious from the example already given, which means that 
 " the good taste of (lie present age has not allowed us " and not 
 that " the good taste has not allowed us " " to neglect the cultiva- 
 tion of the English language." Sentences of this kind are obviously 
 very different from those in which adjuncts, or modifying words, are 
 separable both from the nominative and from the verb, as in the 
 examples cited in Remark c, where a comma, both before and after 
 the intervening phrase, serves to bring together the parts related to 
 each other. The pointing objected to is based on a theory which 
 cannot be reduced to practice, that every expression, separated 
 from another by the smallest cessation of the voice, should be indi- 
 cated by a mark; but we again repeat, that only by the sense and 
 the grammatical form of a passage, and not by the rhetorical mode
 
 52 THE COMMA. 
 
 of its delivery, must the art of punctuation be regulated, at least so 
 far as the common points are concerned. 
 
 f. To the rule here recommended, there are, however, several 
 exceptions, required by the peculiar form in which a proposition is 
 sometimes expressed, and by the fact that the insertion of a comma 
 between the subject and the predicate tends occasionally to a clearer 
 perception of an author's meaning. The exceptions are as follow: 
 
 g 1. When a sentence is so constructed as to leave it uncertain 
 whether a modifying word belongs to the subject or the predicate, 
 as in the passage, " The man of talent merely is strong for enterprise 
 and execution," a comma should be introduced where it will best 
 develop the sense. If the aim of the writer was to speak of a man 
 of mere talent, the comma should be inserted after the adverb 
 " merely;" but, if of a man of talent who is strong only for enter- 
 prise and execution, it should be placed before the adverb. The 
 sentence, indeed, might have been written in accordance with syn- 
 tactic principles, which would have precluded the necessity of 
 transgressing one of the chief laws in punctuation ; but the province 
 of the punctuator is not to change the construction of sentences, but 
 to bring out their meaning in so far as his art will permit him. 
 
 g 2. When the subject consists of two or more nouns not united 
 by a conjunction, a comma is required before the predicate; as, 
 " Immensity, sublimity, are expressed by a prolongation of the voice." 
 " Riches, pleasure, health, become evils to those who do not know 
 how to use them." If, however, the nouns are joined by a conjunc- 
 tion, the comma between the subject and the predicate is omitted: 
 as, " Sculpture, painting, and poetry will always have admirers." 
 See pp. 33, b; 87, d. 
 
 g 3. When the nominative is followed by two or more words 
 which belong to it, and between which a comma must be inserted, a 
 comma is required also before the verb ; as, " A new feeling of what 
 is due to the ignorant, the poor, and the depraved, has sprung up in 
 society." " Worlds above, around, and beneath, arch thee about 
 as a centre." 
 
 g 4. When between the extremities, either of a nominative clause 
 or of its predicate, occurs a word or an expression requiring to be 
 marked off by commas, a comma should also be introduced imme- 
 diately before the predicate; as, " The success with which Rousseau 
 passed, coarse and selfish at he was, for a man of deep and tender 
 feeling, appears to have been the signal for a procession of writers to 
 withdraw the public attention from their own transgressions."
 
 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 53 
 
 " The evil which is intermixed in human society, serves, without ques- 
 tion, to exercise the noblest virtues of the human soul." If, however, 
 the subject is not a clause, but a phrase, it should not bo separated 
 by a comma from the predicate, though the latter contains a word 
 or an expression enclosed by commas; as, "A sincere and houest 
 man may, in truth, do such work as shall make him a benefactor to 
 his neighborhood." 
 
 g 6. When the subject consists of a nominative clause, ending 
 with a noun or pronoun, which is apt to be read so closely with the 
 predicate as to confound the sense, a comma should precede the 
 verb; as, " Who does nothing, knows nothing." "That a peculiar 
 state of the mere particles of the brain should be followed by a change 
 of the state of the sentient mind, is truly wonderful." "He that 
 sees a building as a common spectator, contents himself with speak- 
 ing of it in the most general terms;" a sentence which, if left un- 
 pointed, might, unless more than ordinary attention was given, be 
 blunderingly read, " He that sees a building, as a common spectator 
 contents himself with speaking of it," &c. 
 
 g 6. When a nominative clause contains two verbs, with one of 
 which it ends, a comma is required before the predicate; as, "He 
 that places himself neither higher nor lower than he ought to do, 
 exercises the truest humility." 
 
 g 7. When the subject ends and the predicate begins with the 
 same verb, or with two verbs of a like form, a comma should be 
 placed between them ; as, " Whatever is, is right." " The defendant 
 served, moved to set aside the summons." 
 
 g 8. When a subject is repeated in a different form before its 
 verb, as sometimes ungrammatically occurs, a comma may be used, 
 in solemn or forcible language, between the two forms ; as, " The 
 works that I do in my Father's name, they bear witness of me." 
 But, when these modes of expression are used in familiar kinds of 
 writing, it is better to omit the comma; as, " My flocks they do wan 
 der." In another part of the work, it will be seen that a dash ( ) 
 is employed in sentences of this construction, when they are highly 
 rhetorical. 
 
 h. By a colloquial idiom, the subject is sometimes found both at 
 the beginning and the end of a proposition. In such cases, a comma 
 is inserted before the repeated subject; as, " Be was a distinguished 
 philosopher, Socrates." 
 
 . The above exceptions may appear, from their number, to over- 
 throw the rule; but some of them, it will be seen, are in opposition
 
 54 THE COMMA. 
 
 to it, only because the sentences themselves are contrary to the laws 
 of good or elegant composition. As for the others, it may be re- 
 marked, that, if a competent person take up any well-written essay 
 or discourse in the English language, he will perceive that the prin- 
 ciple contained in the rule is applicable to so overwhelming a number 
 of sentences, as to render the exceptions, were there ten times more 
 than we have pointed out, quite insignificant. 
 
 j. A comma should not be inserted after any of the forms of the 
 verb to be, when used as a copula, or connecting link, between 
 the subject and the predicate ; or before a verb in the infinitive 
 mood, when preceded by another verb; as, " The sole object of im- 
 portance w the moral development of society." " It ill becomes wise 
 and good men to oppose and degrade one another." Some writers 
 would insert a comma; but the punctuating of such sentences as 
 these, where the parts are so closely related, is unnecessarily stiff, 
 though between them a correct delivery requires a pause 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Explain hole it is, that, according- to the sixth Rule (p. 50). commas are unne- 
 cessary in the following propositions : 
 
 Nature has given all men some conceptions of immortality. 
 The region beyond the grave is not a solitary land. 
 Simplicity of life and manners produces tranquillity of mind. 
 The Almighty sustains and conducts the universe 
 Human affairs are in continual motion and fluctuation. 
 To calculate shrewdly is different from meditating wisely. 
 An Epicurean world makes an Epicurean God. 
 The earth-clod of the globe has been divinely breathed upon. 
 Aptitude for business is not power of reason. 
 The best monuments of the virtuous are their actions. 
 Misery is the necessary result of a deviation from rectitude. 
 Sensitiveness to the approbation of virtuous men is laudable. 
 The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. 
 Intemperance is the grossest abuse of the gifts of Providence. 
 A desire of knowledge is natural to the mind of man. 
 " Know thyself" is a useful and comprehensive precept. 
 His being a scholar prevented any gross mistake in his style. 
 To be proud and inaccessible is to be timid and weak. 
 He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy. 
 Our intellectual powers may be indefinitely enlarged.
 
 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. OO 
 
 Mention why, in accordance with the Remarks on pages 50-54, the sentences that 
 follow are pointed or unpointed with commas : 
 
 Light, whether it be material or spiritual, is the best reformer. 
 
 He who teaches, often learns himself. 
 
 Those who were not so, became cringing and hypocritical 
 
 He who made it, now preserves and governs it. 
 
 A youth, a boy, a child, might understand the question. 
 
 Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several of the constellations. 
 
 The idea of what ought to be, rises up from the bosom of what i 
 
 Whoever firmly wills, will be a good man. 
 
 Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 
 
 The careless poet of Avon, was he troubled for his fame? 
 
 And Harry's flesh it fell away. But John he cried in vain. 
 
 He seemed wanting in every good affection, Nero. 
 
 He groweth rich, that fawning and supple parasite. 
 
 It needs a divine man to exhibit any thing divine. 
 
 It is our duty to appropriate our time to valuable purposes. 
 
 EXEKCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Insert commas only where required by the preceding Remarks : 
 
 Reason and true philosophy never attempt, in their conclusions, to 
 separate God from his works. (Rule, and last of Remark .9 4.) 
 
 Times of general calamity and confusion have ever been productive 
 of the greatest minds.* 
 
 It is not in our power to change the established order of things. 
 (Remark _;', and Rule.) 
 
 Patience with the erring and offending is one of the holiest of all 
 forms of character. 
 
 He who being master of the fittest moment to crush his enemy 
 magnanimously neglects it is born to be a conqueror. (Rem. c, g 4. ) 
 
 One of the arts that tend most to the improvement of human 
 intellect is the art of language. 
 
 Philosophy, religion tend to promote just and honorable views of 
 the Creator of the universe. (First of Remark g 2.) 
 
 The most sublime speculation of the contemplative philosopher 
 can scarcely compensate for the neglect of the smallest active duty. 
 
 The highest art of the mind of man is to possess itself with tran- 
 quillity in the hour of danger. (Rule, and Remark j.) 
 
 The sentences, In this exercise, to which no references are attached, may be 
 compared with the Rule and with Remarks ae, pp. 0, 5L
 
 56 THE COMMA. 
 
 To mount deeply for the death of another loosens from myself tho 
 petty desire for life. (Remark g 5.) 
 
 The vigorous character of composition depends on the decision 
 with which the mind grasps a truth. 
 
 That our age holds an amount of refinement and civilization that 
 preceding ages did not have seems evident. (Remark g 6.) 
 
 An excessive or indiscriminate reading of novels and romances is 
 exceedingly injurious to the young. 
 
 To live soberly, righteously, and piously comprehends the whole 
 of our duty. (Remark g 1 or 3.) 
 
 Sincere respect for the men of early times may be joined with a 
 clear perception of their weaknesses and errors. 
 
 He who loves the bristle of bayonets only sees in their glitter what 
 beforehand he felt in his heart. (Remark g I.) 
 
 To walk beneath the porch is still infinitely less than to kneol 
 before the cross. 
 
 The swan whose neck is out of all proportion to his body is the 
 most beautiful of all birds. (Remark c.) 
 
 The great sources of intellectual power and progress to a people 
 are its strong and original thinkers. 
 
 He who troubles himself more than he needs grieves also more 
 than is necessary. (Remark g 6 or 7.) 
 
 The grammatical points are not sufficient to indicate either the 
 number or the duration of the pauses. 
 
 Intelligence, beauty, and modesty are the principal charms of 
 woman. (Remark g 2, last sentence.) 
 
 The impartial distribution of posthumous fame or censure must 
 have some effect on the most callous and unprincipled. 
 
 He that shall endure unto the end the same shall be saved. (First 
 of Remark g 8.) 
 
 He who follows the pleasures of the world is in constant search 
 of care and remorse. 
 
 Joy, grief, love, admiration, devotion are all of them passions 
 which are naturally musical. (Remark g 2, first portion.) 
 
 The highest literature and art of every age embody its highest 
 spiritual ideal of excellence. 
 
 Silent and severe they sit those men of the old fearless time. 
 (Remark k.) 
 
 He who has never studied the consequences of human actions per- 
 ceives, in the great concourse of mankind, only a multitude of beings 
 consulting each his own peculiar interest. (Remark g 4 or 5.)
 
 RELATIVE CLAUSES. 57 
 
 RULE VII. 
 Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses. 
 
 I. A comma is put before a relative clause, when 
 it is explanatory of the antecedent, or presents an 
 additional thought. 
 
 II. But the point is omitted before a relative 
 which restricts the general notion of the antecedent to 
 a particular sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 It 
 
 1. Behold the emblem of thy state in tiowers, which bloom and die. 
 
 2. Study nature, whose laws and phenomena are all deeply interesting. 
 
 3. Channing has set forth great and universal truths, that cannot perish. 
 
 4. These were small states, in which every man felt himself to be important 
 
 5. The father of history was Herodotus, from whom we have an account of 
 
 the Persian war. 
 
 11. 
 
 1. Every teacher must lore a boy who is attentive and docile. 
 
 2. Happy are the people whose history is the most wearisome to read. 
 
 3. Urbanity often lends a grace to actions that are of themselves ungracious. 
 
 4. Some men engage in labors in which they afterwards take no delight. 
 
 5 It is barbarous to injure those from whom we have received a kindness. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. By comparing any of the examples in the first class with its 
 corresponding one or any other in the second, it will at once be 
 seen that they are essentially different as to the senses intended to 
 be conveyed. In the former class, the clause at the beginning of the 
 sentence, which contains the antecedent, is of a general character: 
 that at the end the relative clause presents something addi- 
 tional, or explanatory of what has been said. In the latter class, the 
 antecedent clause lays down a proposition which is restrained or 
 limited in its sense by the relative. 
 
 b. If a relative clause which is explanatory of the antecedent be 
 placed between the extremities of a sentence, a comma is required 
 both after the antecedent word or phrase, and before that verb of 
 which it is the nominative ; as, " Slaves and savagss, who receive no 
 education, are proverbially indolent." See p. 64.
 
 58 THE COMMA. 
 
 c. But, if the nominative is accompanied by a limiting relative 
 clause, or, to speak more accurately, if the subject is composed of 
 an antecedent and a relative clause, both points should be omitted; 
 as, " The man who is faithfully attached to religion may be relied on 
 with confidence." For, were a comma placed after either "man" 
 or " religion," or after words corresponding to these in similar sen- 
 tences, a separation would be made between parts, which, from their 
 restrictive character, are obviously inseparable. See p. 51, d, e. 
 
 d. When, however, the antecedent consists of nouns or phrases 
 between which commas are required, a comma should also be in- 
 serted before the relative clause, though restrictive ; as, " There are 
 many dreams, fictions, or theories, which men substitute for truth." 
 Were the comma after " theories " omitted, the connection between 
 " which " and the preceding noun would seem to be closer than that 
 existing between the relative pronoun and the other particulars, to 
 which it has an equal relation; and sucb an omission would, hi 
 many instances, tend to hinder a perception of the sense. 
 
 e. A comma may also be put before the relative pronoun, eveu 
 when restrictive, if it is immediately followed by a word or an ex- 
 pression enclosed by commas, and especially if the antecedent is 
 qualified by an adjective; as, " It was only a few discerning friends, 
 who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of 
 Robertson's future eminence." The reasons offered for this mode 
 of punctuating are, that the adjective has some effect to loosen the 
 restraining power of the relative over the antecedent; and that 
 the omission of the comma between the two portions of such a 
 sentence between " friends " and " who " in the present exam- 
 ple would draw the pronoun more closely to the clause which 
 precedes it, than to that of which it forms a part. 
 
 f. By some writers and printers, a comma is always pnt before 
 the relative, though used restrictiveiy, if separated by several words 
 from its grammatical antecedent ; as, " It is power of thought and 
 utterance, which immortalizes the products of genius." " He 
 preaches sublimely, who lives a righteous and pious life." But 
 ve have little hesitation in saying, that the punctuation is in both 
 examples erroneous. In the former, the antecedent " power " is 
 accompanied with the inseparable modifying phrase, " of thought 
 and utterance;" the sense being, not that power, but that the power 
 of thought and utterance, immortalizes the products of genius. In 
 the latter example, it will be seen that the proper construction is, 
 " He who lives a righteous and pious life preaches sublimely;" and
 
 KELAT1VE CLAUSES. 5iJ 
 
 that, in this collocation of the words, the comma would be correctly 
 left out between the antecedent and the relative. If, therefore, a 
 separation be made in the construction between words which are 
 closely united in sense, as in the instances given, that separation, 
 instead of being increased by the introduction of a point, should be 
 made as little sis possible by omitting it. 
 
 g. To the preceding remark the only exception is when the 
 relative might improperly be read so as to refer to a proximate 
 term ; as, " Creeds too often carry, in their ruins, the seeds of that 
 faith hi the divine and eternal, without which our nobler nature 
 starves and perishes." 
 
 h. To prevent ambiguity, a comma is sometimes put before the 
 words, of tehiclt, of whom, even when used restrictively, to dis- 
 tinguish the preposition from that which connects two nouns, one 
 of which governs the other; as, " Compassion is an emotion, of 
 which you should never be ashamed." "No thought can be just, 
 of which good sense is not the groundwork." "No thought, of 
 which good sense is not the groundwork, can be just." The insertion 
 of the point will distinguish phrases of this kind from such as occii. 
 id the following sentences: " Compassion is an emotion of yritf for 
 the sufferings of others." " The actions of princes are like those 
 great rivers, the courses of which every one beholds, but who=e 
 springs have been seen by few." It may be remarked too, that, 
 when the relative pronoun does not immediately follow the clause 
 containing the antecedent, the comma omitted before the relative 
 is inserted between the two portions of the sentence, as after the 
 word " rivers " in the last example. 
 
 i. The principles stated in both divisions of the rule are appli- 
 cable to sentences in which an adverb is put for a relative pronoun; 
 as, " The philosophers took refuge in Persia, where [In which 
 country] they soon became dispersed." " Mark the majestic 
 simplicity of those laws whereby [by which] the operations of the 
 universe are conducted." 
 
 j. Sentences in which the relative pronoun may be supplied are 
 subject to the same rules as those in which it is expressed; as, 
 " Genius is not a single faculty of the mind, distinct from all the 
 rest" "Genius is not a faculty of the mind separate from all 
 the rest." In both forms of the example, the relative pronoun 
 with the verb which is is understood after the word "mind;" 
 but in the former the comma is used, because the first clause 
 makes perfect sense of itself, and the secon 1 is explanatory. In
 
 GO THE COMMA. 
 
 the latter form, the comma is omitted, for the reason that both 
 clauses are so blended as to be inseparable in sense ; the first being 
 restrained or limited in its meaning by the second. The following 
 sentence contains past participles, used in both an explanatory and 
 a restrictive sense, and punctuated accordingly : " Poets are by no 
 means wingless angels, fed with ambrosia plucked from Olympus, 
 or manna rained down from heaven." 
 
 k. When a present participle is put instead of a relative and a 
 verb, the insertion or omission of the comma will also depend on 
 the principle just stated ; as, " The path of mere power is that 
 of the cannon-ball, destroying [ which destroys] every thing in its 
 course." "There are moral principles slumbering in the souls of 
 the most depraved." 
 
 I. Sometimes, however, a restrictive clause of the kind mentioned 
 in the two foregoing remarks should be preceded by a comma, when, 
 its antecedent being removed at some distance from the relative pro- 
 noun, the latter is in danger of being connected too closely with a 
 nearer noun ; as, " Commercial nations have an apathy to amuse- 
 ment, distinct from mere gravity of disposition." A comma may also 
 be inserted before and after a clause beginning with an adjective or a 
 past participle, if introduced between the extremities of a sentence, 
 in order to show the alliance of the nominative with its verb, or of 
 one noun with another ; as, " A man, distinguished for his virtues and 
 attainments, is commonly respected." 
 
 m. When the ellipsis may be supplied with the adverb when, 
 involving in its signification a nominative or a relative and a verb, 
 a comma should be inserted before two adjectives or participles, 
 restrictive or unrestrictive, or an adjective or participle with words 
 depending on it ; as, " Man, ignorant and uncivilized, is a ferocious 
 savage." " The death of Socrates, 2>hilosophiziny with his friends, is 
 the most pleasant that could be desired." 
 
 n. When only the relative pronoun is understood, the antecedent 
 should be left unpointed ; as, " The laics we reverence are our brave 
 fathers' legacy; " that is, the laws which we reverence. 
 
 o. Such as, when equivalent to a demonstrative and a relative 
 pronoun, is subject to the second division of the rule; as, "There 
 is no such partition in the spiritual world as you see in the mate- 
 rial ; " that is, there is not that partition ichich you see. 
 
 p. A semicolon is sometimes used before a relative pronoun, 
 particularly when it refers to an antecedent in a remote clause. 
 But this mode of punctuating will be best exhibited hereafter.
 
 RELATIVE CLAUSES. 61 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 State the principles tit the seventh Rule (p. 57), and show how they may be 
 applied to the sentences that follow i 
 
 Avoid rudeness of manners, which must hurt the feelings of others. 
 Every good man must love the country in which he was born. 
 The child was much attached to Jane, who loved him dearly. 
 Those who are wealthy have great influence over others. 
 Virtue is that to which the man himself contributes. 
 What is more wonderful than the human eye, that sees all around V 
 The subject should be held up in every light of which it is capable. 
 Death is the season which brings our affections to the test. 
 Turn not back from the good path on which you have entered. 
 Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. 
 Ambition is the germ from which all growth of nobleness proceeds. 
 Christianity is a religion whose origin is unquestionably divine. 
 He who reads in a proper spirit can scarcely read too much. 
 War is a tremendous evil, to which many have unhappily resorted. 
 
 Mention the reasons, given in the Remarks (pp. 57-60), for inserting or u 
 commas in such sentences as the f allowing i 
 
 Satan, whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellows, spake 
 
 The eye, that sees all things, sees not itself. 
 
 Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days. 
 
 The credulity which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. 
 
 He that is slow to anger is better and nobler than the mighty. 
 
 Where is the philosopher, the man, who would thus live and dieV 
 
 He questioned me of the battles, sieges, fortunes, that I have passed. 
 
 The large book, which I bought years ago, has not yet been read. 
 
 No faculty lives within us which the soul can spare. 
 
 Nothing is m vain that rouses the mind to thought and reflection. 
 
 There is a craving for enjoyment, which cannot be destroyed in man 
 
 William left the city of New York, where he was doing well. 
 
 Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony. 
 
 Adopt a plan of life founded on religion and virtue. 
 
 A great mind gazeth on the sun, glorying in its brightness. 
 
 Genius addresses the consciousness existing in all men. 
 
 Physical science, separate from morals, parts with its chief dignity. 
 
 Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 
 
 Sucii as are careless of themselves are seldom mindful of others.
 
 62 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WKITTES. 
 
 Punctuate, or leave unpointed, the following- sentences, as required by the pre- 
 ceding Rule and Remarks (pp. 57-60) : 
 
 We should trace in all events the wisdom aud benevolence of God 
 from whom desceudeth every good and perfect gift. (Rule, i.) 
 
 We read, with a reverential love, of men devoting themselves to 
 the interests of humanity. (Last of Remark k.) 
 
 The lever which moves the world of mind is emphatically the 
 printing-press. (Rule, u. ; and Remark c.) 
 
 Youth is introductory to manhood to which it is a state of 
 preparation. (Rule, i.) 
 
 To the Father of lights in whom there is no darkness are we in- 
 debted for all the blessings we enjoy. (Rule, i. ; and Rein. 6, n.) 
 
 There was nothing in the mind of Jesus of which you have not 
 the principle and the capacity in yourself. (Remark h.) 
 
 Some countries are infested with bands of robbers who attack 
 travellers in the open day. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Set at nought the grosser pleasures of sense whereof others are 
 slaves. (Remark t, compared with h.) 
 
 There is a philosophic spirit which is far more valuable than any 
 limited acquirements of philosophy. (Rule, n.) 
 
 The entrance on a new course awakens new energies and powers 
 which rapidly unfold into life and vigor. (Rule, I.) 
 
 Science and Poetry alike recognizing the order and the beauty of 
 the universe are alike handmaids of Devotion. (Remark m.) 
 
 The brightest part of thy life is nothing but a flower which 
 withers almost as soon as it has blown. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Columbus was sent to the university of Padua where he acquired 
 such knowledge as was then taught. (Remarks i, o.) 
 
 Does the sentiment of patriotism reign in the common soldier who 
 hires himself to be shot at for a few cents a day? (Rule, i.) 
 
 A government directing itself resolutely and steadily to the gene- 
 ral good becomes a minister of virtue. (Remark m.) 
 
 May we be living flowers in those everlasting gardens of the Lord 
 where angels and seraphs are the guardians ! (Remarks i and g.) 
 
 What are the moral influences of poverty its influences on charac- 
 ter which deserve our chief attention V (Remark d.) 
 
 The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid whose 
 works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathematicians in 
 modern tunes. (Rule, i.)
 
 RELATIVE CLAUSES. 63 
 
 Go not from the world with the joyless consciousness of those to 
 whom the fountains of its purest bliss have been sealed. (Rule, $ n.) 
 
 You may treat life as a problem which has to be wrought out to 
 a successful result. (Rule, i.) 
 
 There is no charm in the female sex which can supply the place 
 of virtue. (Rule, n. ; and Remark/.) 
 
 Aid in reforming those social abuses the existence of which caste 
 such a gloom and blight on the happiness of all. (Last of Rem. A.) 
 
 The benefit arising to us from au enlarged understanding cannot 
 well be overrated. (Last of Remark A.) 
 
 1 he moral character is modified in some degree by the tastes aud 
 habits of feeling imbibed from the situation in which men are 
 placed. (Remark j; and Rule, $ u.) 
 
 A good reader will often pause where no grammarian would insert 
 a point; and, on the other hand, he will sometimes neglect the 
 commas he finds inserted by the writer. (Remarks i and n.) 
 
 The memory of the eyes that hung over a man in infancy and 
 childhood will haunt him through all his al'ter-lile. (Rule, 11. ; and 
 Remark c.) 
 
 Macpherson who has given us some highly original images spoils 
 half his work by forgetting that his bard was a Gaul. (Rule, $ i.; 
 and Remark b.) 
 
 The superior wisdom of the present day consists in the better 
 knowledge derived from experience of the limits of our faculties. 
 (Remark Z, last portion.) 
 
 Antiquity would have raised altars to that vast and mighty genius 
 who, for the advantage of human kind, could tame the rage of thunder 
 and of despotism. ( Remark e.) 
 
 He only is filled with the true spirit of devotion who recognizes, 
 in the outward forms of beauty, the mind of Him who has chosen 
 this mode of intercourse with his trustful and adoring offspring. 
 (Remark/; and Rule, n.) 
 
 A peace worth all the specious goods which this world has at its 
 disposal will ever be found in a simple and contented mind, in an 
 affectionate heart, and in a pure and honorable life. (Last of Re- 
 mark /; and Rule, n.) 
 
 That the memories of those most justly venerable and dear should 
 throng around us with a new vitality, as life's evening draws on, is 
 scarcely reconcilable with the supposition, that the spirit of which 
 such remembrances are the most precious possession is itself on the 
 point of expiring for ever. (Rem.y, lines 8-11 ; and h, first portion.)
 
 64 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE vm. 
 
 Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses. 
 
 Expressions of a parenthetical or intermediate na- 
 ture are separated from the context by commas. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1 . The sun, with all Its attendant planets, is but a very little part of the grand 
 
 machine of the universe. 
 
 2. Books, regarded merely aa a gratification, are worth more than all the 
 
 luxuries on earth. 
 
 3. The man of refinement and sensibility finds himself, as it were, in accord- 
 
 ance with universal nature. 
 
 4. A man of more than ordinary intellectual vigor may, for want of the faculty 
 
 of expression, be a cipher in society. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. In punctuation there is perhaps no rule so well adapted as this 
 for showing the construction and sense of passages, and yet noiie 
 seems to be less understood or observed by writers and printers. 
 To prevent, therefore, any mistake, on the part of the pupil, as to 
 the meaning of a parenthetical phrase or clause, and to enable him 
 to insert the right points by distinguishing it with some degree of 
 accuracy from the parenthesis, from which it derives its name, we 
 may have to anticipate a little what will be laid down and illus- 
 trated in the next chapter. 
 
 b. A parenthesis and a parenthetical expression are alike in this 
 respect, that each is a sentence, or a part of a sentence, enclosed 
 within another. But the difference between these two kinds of inter- 
 mediate sentences or phrases is, that parentheses are so used as to 
 be susceptible of omission, without affecting either the sense or the 
 construction of the main passage; while parenthetical expressions 
 cannot be omitted, without diminishing the force or changing tiie 
 import of that by which they are preceded and followed. The 
 following examples will illustrate the difference spoken of, and at 
 the same time exhibit the proper modes of punctuation : 
 
 1. It is probable that every planet (as the Creator has made nothing In vain) 
 
 is inhabited. 
 3. The benevolent and pious man, even when persecuted, is, on the whole, a 
 
 happy man.
 
 PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. 65 
 
 The first of these sentences exemplifies the parenthesis, with its 
 appiopriate marks; the second, such expressions as are merely 
 parenthetical or intermediate. In the former sentence, the main 
 sentiment would be perfect, both as to its sense and the construction 
 of the language, if the intermediate clause were thrown out from 
 its present place ; in the latter, the omission of the phrases between 
 the commas " even when persecuted," and " on the whole " 
 would sensibly affect the meaning intended to be conveyed. For 
 the sake of distinction and convenience, this easy kind of paren- 
 thesis loses the more generic name, and is commonly termed a 
 parenthetical expression. 
 
 c. Many short expressions which were formerly enclosed within 
 marks of parenthesis, and which, on account of their construction 
 differing from that of the other portions of the sentence, may pro- 
 perly be called parentheses, are now usually pointed off by commas; 
 as, " Study, / beseech you, to store your minds with the exquisite 
 learning of former ages." " ' Thirst for glory,' says a great writer, 
 'is often founded on ambition and vanity.'" As these short ex- 
 pressions interfere but slightly with the unity of thought conveyed 
 in the context, commas are preferable to the parenthetical marks. 
 
 d. Many writers are accustomed to omit the comma, in all cases, 
 after a conjunction ; but it is evident, that, when a word of this or 
 any other part of speech is divided by a phrase or clause from the 
 portion of the sentence to which it belongs, such intervening ex- 
 pression should have a comma before as well as after it, as in the 
 following example : " Agamemnon still lives before us in the ' tale 
 of Troy divine ; ' but, were not his name embalmed in that imperish- 
 able song, there would not now be a wreck of it." 
 
 e. Short phrases of a parenthetical kind, when closely united in 
 sense to the context, and particularly when introduced into what is 
 itself parenthetical, should be left unpointed ; as, " Poesy can portray 
 with much energy the excesses of the passions." This is further 
 exemplified in the intermediate clause of the remark just made, 
 " when closely united in seme to the context;" in which the Itali- 
 cized words partake somewhat of the nature of a parenthetic phrase, 
 but are better read in union with the words that precede and follow 
 them. 
 
 f. Conjunctions, adverbs or adverbial phrases, words or expres 
 sions in a direct address, and absolute or other phrases, are some- 
 times used parenthetically ; but, occurring as they do in a variety of 
 ways, their punctuation will be best explained under different rules.
 
 66 THE COMMA. 
 
 DUAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Assign the reason, as given in the eighth Rule, for the insertion of commas in 
 the following sentences : 
 
 A contract, to be valid, must be for some legal object or purpose. 
 
 Every passion, however base or unworthy, is eloquent. 
 
 Some men are refined, like gold, in the furnace of affliction. 
 
 It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world. 
 
 Nature, through all her works, delights in variety. 
 
 The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 
 
 A spiritual nature, to grow in power, demands spiritual liberty. 
 
 The ocean, in its mighty heavings, makes you serious. 
 
 Dismiss, as soon as may be, all angry and wrathful thoughts. 
 
 But, if education cannot do every thing, it can do much. 
 
 Let us send light and joy, if we can, to every one around us. 
 
 Man, in his highest mood of thought, aspires to God. 
 
 There, where knowledge ceases, faith should strongest prove. 
 
 Take your lot, as it is assigned you, without murmuring or complaint. 
 
 Christianity, la the highest sense, is the religion of sorrow. 
 
 Why, according to the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 64, 65), are the parenthetical 
 expressions in the following sentences pointed or unpointed ? 
 
 Thou knowest, come what may, that the light of truth cannot be 
 put out. 
 
 Of nothing may we be more sure than this, that, if we cannot 
 sanctify our present lot, we could sanctify no other. 
 
 The travellers set out early, and, before the close of the day, 
 arrived at the destined place. 
 
 But, in the formation of character, we know that man is to lay its 
 foundations for himself. 
 
 Yet, after leaving school, Cowper threw away the next twenty or 
 thirty years of his life almost in doing nothing. 
 
 We can sometimes trace extraordinary skill in the liberal arts to 
 the existence of a quarry of fine marble. 
 
 Civilization, which on the whole has never gone backward, is 
 new-shaped and modified by each particular people. 
 
 The greatest of all human benefits, that at least without which no 
 other benefits can be truly enjoyed, is independence. 
 
 Burke and Paine were incarnations of the spirits whose conflict 
 has for ages divided the world.
 
 PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. G7 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Punctuate the parenthetical expressions, except those to which. Remark e, p. 65, 
 will apply : 
 
 A single hour in the day steadily given to the study of an interest- 
 ing subject brings unexpected accumulations of knowledge. (Rule.) 
 
 Benevolence is on whatever side we may contemplate the subject 
 a godlike virtue. (Rule.) 
 
 True it is, that were we cast from birth into solitude we should 
 grow up in brutal ignorance. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 Excellence is in any position almost the infallible result of the 
 determination to excel. (Rule.) 
 
 " The virtuous man " it has been beautifully said " proceeds with- 
 out constraint in the path of his duty." (Remarks c, e.) 
 
 In Dante for the first time in an uninspired bard the dawn of a 
 spiritual day breaks upon us. (Rule.) 
 
 A people should honor and cultivate as unspeakably useful that 
 literature which calls forth the highest faculties. (Rule.) 
 
 Simple truths when simply explained are more easily compre- 
 hended I believe than is commonly supposed. (Rule, arid Remark c.) 
 
 I would stamp God's name and not Satan's upon every innocent 
 pleasure. (Rule.) 
 
 Fanaticism in its ill sense is that which makes a man blind to 
 perceive the falseness of an error. (Rule.) 
 
 Cursed be the verse how well soe'er it flow 
 
 That tends to make one worthy man my foe. (Rale.) 
 
 I maintain, that as knowledge extends the range of all imagery 
 is enlarged ; and what is far more important that the conception 
 kindles by the contemplation of higher objects. (Remarks c, d.) 
 
 The love of the beautiful and true like the dewdrop in the heart of 
 the crystal remains for ever clear and liquid in the inmost shrine 
 of man's being. (Rule, and Remark e.) 
 
 Numerous instances there have been as every reader knows of 
 those who have thrown down every obstacle in the way of their 
 mental elevation. (Remark c.) 
 
 Without fairness of mind which is only another phrase for dis- 
 interested love of truth great native powers of understanding are 
 perverted. (Rule.) 
 
 We cannot see an individual expire though a stranger or an 
 enemy without being prompted by compassion to lend him every 
 assistance in our power. (Rule, and Remark e.)
 
 68 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Vocative Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 
 
 A word or an expression, denoting a person or an 
 object addressed, is separated by a comma from the 
 rest of the sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Antonio, light my lamp within my chamber. 
 
 2. Take these two savages to your care, Charon. 
 
 3. Boast not, my dear friends, of to-morrow. 
 
 K E M A R K 8. 
 
 . When the terms or expressions in a direct address indicate 
 awe, wonder, or any other strong emotion, it is better to use after 
 them the note of exclamation; as, " My sister! my sister! " 
 
 b. For the punctuation of the personal pronoun in a vocative 
 expression, see page 42, Remark j. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Assign the reason for the insertion of commas in the following sentence*: 
 Sir, I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your long-expected letter. 
 I am obliged to you, ladies, for the kindness you have shown. 
 Come hither, Moor. What would you, Desdemona? 
 From childhood, seignior, you have been my protector. 
 Idle time, John, is the most ruinous thing in the world. 
 Come, companion of my toils, let us take fresh courage. 
 All hope abandon, ye who enter here. I am, dear madam, yours. 
 
 EXERCISK TO BE WRITTEX. 
 
 Punctuate these sentences in accordance with tlie abate Rule t 
 Continue my dear James to make virtue your principal study. 
 Acquire my daughters the habit of doing every thing well. 
 Descend from heaven Urania. Yon weep good Ethelbert. 
 Sir the declaration will inspire the people with increased courage. 
 This my lords is a perilous and tremendous moment. 
 Verres what have you to advance against this charge ? 
 Morning is the best tinn to study my beloved children, 
 Thou who despisest the outward forms Jose not the inward spirit
 
 PARTICIPIAL AND ABSOLUTE PHRASES. 69 
 
 RULE X. 
 Adjectival, Participial, and Absolute Phrases. 
 
 Adjectival, participial, and absolute phrases are each 
 separated by a comma from the remainder of the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Awkward in his person, James was ill qualified to command respect. 
 
 2. Cradled in the camp, Napoleon was the darling of his army. 
 
 3. Having approved of the plan, the king put it into execution. 
 
 4. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune 
 6. To speak candidly, I do not understand the subject. 
 
 6. Generally speaking, the conduct of that man is honorable. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The first three examples show the punctuation of adjectival 
 aud participial phrases, each of these being separated by a comma 
 from the clause which follows, and with which it is associated. The 
 next three severally exhibit that of phrases containing the nomina- 
 tive, the infinitive, and the participle absolute; so called because 
 they are grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence in 
 wliich they occur. 
 
 b. The phrase which begins the following sentence may be treated 
 us an example of the imperative absolute, and should therefore be 
 pointed as the other independent phrases: " Take him for all in all, 
 I shall not look upon his like aguin." 
 
 c. The nominative absolute when used pleonastically, or the 
 expression to which it belongs, is also divided by a comma from 
 what follows it; as, " The captain, I hope he will not net thus." 
 " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." 
 
 d. Though followed by a participle, a nominative, if it be the sub- 
 ject -of a verb, is not absolute or independent. In this construction, a 
 comma should be inserted both before and after the participial phrase; 
 as, " He, being dead, yet speaketh." See p. 50, c. 
 
 . All the phrases referred to, when used intermediately or paren- 
 thetically, are enclosed by commas; as, "James, awkward in hit 
 perton, was ill qualified to command respect." See p. 64. 
 
 f. The objective absolute or independent is subject to the same 
 kind of punctuation; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never 
 reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns."
 
 70 THE COMMA. 
 
 g. If placed at the end of the sentence, such phrases should each 
 be preceded bv a comma : as, " His conduct is honorable, generally 
 speaking" But elegance or perspicuity of style will seldom permit 
 this change of position in phrases used independently. 
 
 h. In respect, however, to those adjectival and participial phrases 
 before which a relative pronoun, in its restrictive sense, is under- 
 stood, the comma should be omitted. See p. 59,_/, second example; 
 and p. 60, fc, last example. 
 
 . The absolute phrases, to proceed, to conclude, &c., when placed 
 at the beginning of a paragraph, to the whole of which they refer, 
 are better pointed with a colon. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Recite the tenth Rule, which fuys down tlie principle- for inserting commas in tht 
 following and similar sentences : 
 
 Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. He being dead, -we shall live. 
 
 Speaking in round numbers, he made fifty thousand dollars. 
 
 Crowded in filth, the poor cease to respect one another. 
 
 To confess the truth, I was greatly to blame for my indiscretion. 
 
 We being exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. 
 
 Partial in his affections, he was ill fitted to acquire general love. 
 
 H. Tooke having taken orders, he was refused admission to the bar. 
 
 The sun having risen, we departed on our journey. 
 
 His father being dead, the prince succeeded to the throne. 
 
 Raising his head from the earth, man looks before and after. 
 
 Incensed with indignation, Satan stood nnterrified. 
 
 How do the Remarks apply to the punctuation of the following sentences? 
 Regard him as you may, I think that he is a dangerous man. 
 Timothy Taylor, may he always thus act and speak ! 
 We, being exceedingly tossed, lightened the ship. 
 The prince, his father being dead, succeeded to the throne. 
 This is, to say nothing worse, highly reprehensible. 
 His conduct, generally speaking, is highly honorable. 
 We set out in the journey of life, full of spirit and high in hope. 
 The lady was agreeable, being formed with the qualities that we love. 
 We may smile at misfortune, peace of mind being secured. 
 Then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst 
 I never sought an opportunity of meeting him, to tell you the truth. 
 Let them attend, all they who feel interested in this great subject.
 
 PARTICIPIA-L AND ABSOLUTE PHRASES. 71 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Let the following sentences be pointed according to Rule X. or the Remarks ; 
 
 Full of desire to answer all demands the truly benevolent do not 
 think it troublesome to aid the cause of the wretched. (Rule.) 
 
 There are to confess the truth few who are fully qualified for the 
 high office of governing their fellows, (Remark e.) 
 
 Employed in little things an elevated genius appears like the sun 
 in his evening declination. (Rule.) 
 
 Home Tooke having taken orders was refused admission to the 
 bar. (Remark d.) 
 
 Having the inward life men cannot conceal it; having divine 
 treasures they will not hoard them. (Rule.) 
 
 A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than a state 
 of pleasure. (Remark e.) 
 
 Virtue being abandoned we become terrified with imaginary 
 evils. (Rule.) 
 
 Those who are truly my friends let them come to my assistance. 
 (Remark c.) 
 
 To supply this deficiency the Creator endowed him with nobler 
 qualities of intellect. (Rule.) 
 
 Physicians the disease once discovered think the cure half 
 wrought. (Remark e.) 
 
 Surpassing the boast of the too-confident Roman Napoleon but 
 stamped on the earth, and a creation of enchantment arose. (Rule.) 
 
 This gentleman take him for all in all possessed a greater variety 
 of knowledge than any man I ever knew. (Remarks b, e.) 
 
 Overwhelmed with shame and remorse the soul feels itself shut 
 out from heaven. (Rule.) 
 
 God, from the mount of Sinai, whose grey top 
 Shall tremble he descending will himself 
 Ordain their laws. (Remark e.) 
 
 To take some men at their word you would suppose they believed 
 that only one class in society was entitled to consideration. (Rule.) 
 
 Ores are called native or natural compounds being produced by 
 nature. (Remark g.) 
 
 I being in the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's 
 brother. (Rule.) 
 
 There is no single period of history, which all things being taken 
 into consideration will allow us to be indifferent to the progress of 
 mankind. (Remark e.)
 
 72 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE XL 
 Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases. 
 
 Adverbs or adverbial phrases, when used as con- 
 nectives, or when they modify net single words, but 
 clauses or sentences, are each followed by a comma ; 
 and, if used intermediately, they admit a comma before 
 as well as after them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Why, these arc testimonies of what the unfriended may do. 
 
 2. I proceed, thirdly, to point out the proper state of our temper. 
 
 3. On the other hand, let not the imagination be ungovernable. 
 
 4. Punctuality is, no doubt, a quality of high importance. 
 
 5. The most rigorous thinkers and writers are, in fact, self-taught. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The following words, with others of a similar kind, are pointed 
 in accordance with the rale : Again, further, moreover, once more, 
 as yet, yea, nay, why, well, first, secondly, finally, accordingly, con- 
 sequently, unquestionably, indisputably, namely, at present, in truth, 
 in short, in fine, in general, in particular, in the meantime, in the next 
 place, in all probability, of late, of course, above all, nevertheless, 
 doubtless, without doubt, true (used for indeed), that is (for namely), 
 on the one hand, on the contrary, for the most part, now and then. 
 
 b. When any of the adverbs or adverbial phrases in the preceding 
 list, or others of a like character, are used to qualify single words, 
 the commas should be omitted ; as, " The lecture was again delivered." 
 " Some men are in the highest degree mystical." 
 
 c. Besides the adverbs and adverbial expressions which qualify 
 single words, many of those relating to the whole clause or sentence 
 in which they occur are sometimes written and printed without com- 
 mas ; as, " Perhaps 1 will give it." " He was formerly a wealthy 
 citizen." The omission of the point is recommended wherever the 
 adverb readily coalesces with the context, as it does in the examples 
 just given. 
 
 a. If, however, there is any harshness in the construction or tho 
 collocation, the adverbial word or expression may be set off by 
 commas ; as, " Poverty, pei-haps, has been the most fertile source 
 of literary crimes "
 
 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 73 
 
 e. The insertion or the omission of commas hi respect to such 
 words as hence, also, seems, hi general practice, to be a matter of 
 taste or caprice. But, except when required by peculiar reasons. 
 the points are better omitted; for, hi general, these adverbs unite 
 very readily with the context; as, "Hence have arisen dangerous 
 factions." " The earth is also clothed with verdure." 
 
 f. Here and there, when used antithetically before au adjective 
 or a noun, and placed at the beginning of a clause or sentence, 
 should be each followed by a comma ; as, " Here, every thing is in 
 stir and fluctuation: there, all is serene and orderly." Commonly, 
 however, these words do not require to be punctuated. 
 
 g. When two intermediate adverbs, not qualifying any particular 
 word, come together, that which coalesces least with the other por- 
 tions of the sentence should alone have a comma both before and 
 after it; as, " There were, surely, always pretenders in science." 
 
 h. Many words ranked as adverbs are sometimes employed con- 
 junctively, and require a different treatment hi their punctuation. 
 When used as conjunctions, however, now, then, too, indeed, are divided 
 by commas from the context; but when as adverbs, qualifying the 
 words with which they are associated, the separation should not be 
 made. This distinction will be seen from the following examples : 
 
 1. HOWEVER. We most, however, pay some deference to the opinions of 
 the wise, luiicecer much they are contrary to our own. 
 
 2. Now. I have now shown the consistency of my principles; and, note, 
 what is the fair and obvious conclusion? 
 
 8. THEN. On these facts, then, I then rested my argument, and after- 
 wards made a few general observations on the subject. 
 
 4 Too. I found, too, a theatre at Alexandria, and another at Cairo ; but 
 he who would enjoy the representations must not be too particular. 
 
 6. INDEED. The young man was indeed culpable in that act, though, 
 indeed, he conducted himself very well in other respects. 
 
 When placed at the end of a sentence or a clause, the conjunction 
 tSb must not be separated from the context by a comma; as, "I 
 would that they had changed voices too." 
 
 i. The particle therefore, which is used sometimes as an adverb, 
 and sometimes as a conjunction, may be set off by commas when it 
 is of a parenthetical nature, or obstructs the flow of the composition, 
 and left unpointed when it coalesces easily with the other parts of 
 the sentence ; as, " Music has charms, and therefore ought to be 
 admired: if, therefore, you have an opportunity of learning that 
 delightful art, study it with avidity."
 
 74 THE COMMA. 
 
 j. Besides, when used as> a preposition, should not be punctuated , 
 but, when occurring as an adverb or a conjunction, a comma is 
 required after, and, if occurring intermediately, also one before it ; 
 as, " Besides him, there was another man who acted in the same 
 manner: there Were present, besides, several ladies, who seemed to 
 give their approbation." The same remark is applicable to the word 
 notwithstanding. 
 
 L Though the examples in Remarks A, i, y, are not to be regarded 
 as models of composition, they probably illustrate the use of the 
 comma, by the juxtaposition of the particles, much better than if these 
 were put separately in sentences less liable to critical objection. 
 
 L Used adverbially, yesterday, to-day, la-morrow, &c., are, like the 
 adverbs of tune, now, Uteri (Remark h), not separated by points from 
 the words with which they are connected ; as, " John went yesterday 
 to Cincinnati." 
 
 m. All adverbial words or phrases, if followed by a parenthetical 
 expression, must, according to p. 64, have a comma after them ; but, 
 if finishing a sentence or a clause, they should have that point which 
 is required by then- position. 
 
 n. When an adverbial word or phrase comes between two phrases 
 or clauses, it must be separated by a comma only from that expres- 
 sion which it does not qualify ; as, " He was saved, for a time at least, 
 from a relapse." " Though Nature has given to all her children 
 some conceptions of immortality, still her information is far from 
 proving satisfactory." 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 SAoie haw Vie punctuation in these sentences corresponds to Ride XI. : 
 Lastly, let me repeat what I stated at the beginning of my lecture. 
 Such, undoubtedly, is the characteristic of genuine virtue. 
 On the contrary, I believe that truth is the great inspirer. 
 There is, now and then, a youth of more than youthful powers. 
 He made the most, mentally, of whatever came in his way. 
 Undoubtedly, the statement he has made is not correct. 
 There are many ends, doubtless, for which each thing exists. 
 But, lastly, let us examine the truth of these arguments. 
 In fact, modern civilization is a corrupted Christianity. 
 Such, in general, is the humiliating aspect of the tomb. 
 Accordingly, the chronicles of the middle ages teem with crimes. 
 The national life, in short, is to a certain extent diseased. 
 Well, proceed with the speech which you have so well begun.
 
 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 75 
 
 According to Remarks on pages 72-74, assign reasons for the punctuation uf tilt 
 adverbial or conjunctive words and phrases which occur in the following 
 sentences, or for Ike omission of commas .- 
 
 At present, the individual is often crushed by circumstances. 
 
 True, the rooms of the poor are not lined with works of art. 
 
 Let us further consider the arguments on this subject. 
 
 My high-blown pride at length broke under me. 
 
 How inconceivably thin and tender are the tlireads of a spider I 
 
 Let us, in the first place, observe the inanimate world. 
 
 That is, there is a true way of expressing truth. 
 
 Well, 1 call conversation the sweet interchange of thought. 
 
 I do not well know why I should think of it in any other respect. 
 
 Ay, love the good and the beautiful. Aye love the good, c. 
 
 He first went to New York, and afterwards to Philadelphia. 
 
 Attend, first, to the literal sense; and, secondly, to the metaphorical. 
 
 Probably there are few who ever accomplish as much as they expected. 
 
 Few, probably, ever accomplish as much as they expected. 
 
 Why do you trust your character to be evolved by accident? 
 
 If I cannot perform my promise, why, I will regret having made it. 
 
 Hence all human laws are more or less imperfect. 
 
 Here also is the distinction between faith and mere assent. 
 
 I am inclined, however, to believe this to be a mistaken opinion. 
 
 However great Napoleon was as a general, he was not a good man. 
 
 Now, feudalism is the embodiment of Satanic pride. 
 
 Now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as also 1 am known. 
 
 It is, then, a mark of wisdom to live virtuously and devoutly. 
 
 Have not you, too, gone kbout the earth like au evil genius? 
 
 We look at all things too exclusively from our own point of view. 
 
 If she trust the stars above, they can prove treacherous too. 
 
 True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in mere speech. 
 
 Professors Bentley and Porson were scholars indeed. 
 
 Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good. 
 
 Therefore is our civilization not an unmixed good. 
 
 A certain degree of moral culture, therefore, must be presupposed. 
 
 A certain degree of moral culture must therefore be presupposed. 
 
 Besides this, it may be of the greatest advantage to you in business. 
 
 It may, besides, be of the greatest advantage to you in business. 
 
 They, notwithstanding, had much love to spare. 
 
 A man may be rich, notwithstanding pecuniary losses. 
 
 We shall perhaps leave the city to-morrow morning. 
 
 Yet, fair as thou art, thou shunnest to expose thyself to the public.
 
 76 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Insert commas only where required by Rule XI. and Remarks (pp. 72-74) : 
 
 Hence the organs of sense are probably in a state of the greatest 
 sensibility in an early period of life. (Remarks e, c.) 
 
 Shakspeare was the most brilliant example unquestionably of a 
 triumph over the defects of education. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 The children of our cottagers too appear to derive peculiar plea- 
 sure from the soft breath of spring. (Remark A 4.) 
 
 As yet science has hardly penetrated beneath the suiface of 
 nature. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 Characters endowed with great excellences will unfortunately 
 often stand in need of great allowances. (Remark g.) 
 
 Do we in a word reduce the whole of human duty to a bald and 
 punctilious discharge of worldly business? (liule.) 
 
 However much he was peraecuied, he loved his persecutors not 
 the less. (Remarks b, h 1.) 
 
 The happiness of the dead however is affected by none of these 
 considerations. (Remark hi.) 
 
 First men of uncommon moral endowments may be expected to 
 be men of uncommon intellectual powers. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 If therefore you find that you have a hasty temper, watch it nar- 
 rowly. (Remark t.) 
 
 The Greeks were great reasoners ; and their language accordingly 
 abounds in connectives. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 This was the object to which the meeting first directed its atten- 
 tion. (Remark b.) 
 
 His prudent conduct may heal the difference; nay may prevent 
 any misunderstanding in future. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 Having now removed the objections made to our conduct, I shall 
 take up very little more of your lordships' time. (Remarks 6, h 2.) 
 
 There was great scarcity of corn, and consequently dearth of all 
 other victuals. (Rule, and Remarks a, d.) 
 
 Every thing that grows is a world probably of uncounted myriads 
 of beings. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 Sooner or later insulted virtue avenges itself on states, as well as 
 on private men. (Rule.) 
 
 The author therefore commences his undertaking by an analysis 
 of names. (Remark f.) 
 
 Without being rash on the one hand or fearful on the other we 
 shall fiud all things working together for good. (Remark n.)
 
 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL VilRASliS. 77 
 
 Christ stands immeasurably in advance of the moral attainments 
 of the world. (Remark 6.) 
 
 And hence perhaps it is that Solomon calls the fear of the Lord 
 the beginning of wisdom. (Remark g.) 
 
 The lateral force of human action that is the influence of con- 
 temporaries, is great. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 Meanwhile we do not believe hi any infallible specific, in any 
 sudden and unusual remedy. (Rule.) 
 
 But yesterday the word of Caesar might have stood against the 
 world. (Remark I.) 
 
 Sometimes doubts and apprehensions will naunt the mind hi its 
 searchings for truth. (Rule.) 
 
 But on the other hand do not suppose that poverty is altogether a 
 waste and howling wilderness. (Rule, and Remark c.) 
 
 There is undoubtedly very often more happiness in the hut than 
 in the palace. (Rule, and Remark g.) 
 
 Nature has indeed given us a soil which yields bounteously to the 
 hand of industry. But what are lands, &c. (Remark A 6.) 
 
 Society must of course receive beauty into its character and 
 feeling. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 Let us contemplate then this connection, which binds the pro- 
 sperity of others to our own. (Remark A3.) 
 
 Still A great and fruitful idea dimly pervades the eccentric specu- 
 lations of Fourier. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 We should look on character acquired here as the condition of 
 happiness hereafter. (Remark c, and last of/".) 
 
 At present innumerable prejudices obstruct a complete extrac- 
 tion of the mental and moral wealth latent in society. (Rule, and 
 Remark a.) 
 
 Did I not see other and holier influences than the sword working 
 out the regeneration of our race, I should indeed despair. (Remarks 
 c, A 6.) 
 
 Again perfection requires that each quality should be without 
 debasing alloy. Lastly perfection requires that all the graces be 
 expanded to an unlimited degree. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 De Foe soon however relinquished every thing else for literature 
 and politics; for which indeed his temper and talents adapted him 
 much better than for business. (Remarks A 1, 6.) 
 
 Now how does capital punishment operate? Why it cuts off the 
 offender from all the chance of reformation. (Remarks A 2 and b ; 
 Rule, and Remark a.;
 
 78 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE XII. 
 Phrases at the End of Sentences or Clauses. 
 
 I. When a phrase beginning with a preposition, 
 an adverb, or a conjunction, relates to or modifies a 
 preceding portion of the sentence, a comma is unneces- 
 sary, if the parts are closely connected in sense. 
 
 II. But the point must be inserted when its omis- 
 sion would occasion ambiguity, or when the phrase 
 begins with a particle obstructing the connection which 
 subsists between the different portions of the sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 U 
 
 1. For that agency he applied without a recommendation. 
 
 '1. Cultivate your intellectual powers by habits of study and reflection. 
 
 3. The idea is very happily applied under one of its forms. 
 
 *n. 
 
 1. He applied for that agency, without a recommendation 
 
 2. Cultivate your intellectual powers, especially by habits of study, &c 
 B. The idea is very happily applied, at least under one of its forms. 
 
 K E M A K K S. 
 
 a. In the first three examples, the phnises beginning with the 
 prepositions " without," " by," " under," are closely connected with 
 both portions of the sentence in which they severally occur, and 
 therefore should not be preceded by a comma. 
 
 b. If, in the first example of the second class, the comma were 
 omitted before the preposition "without," the sentence might be 
 wrongly understood to mean, that a person applied for an agency, 
 without its having any recommendation in its favor. Of the next 
 example, if written without the comma before the adverb " espe- 
 cially," the meaning might be, that, by habits of study and reflection, 
 you should cultivate particularly your intellectual powers, that is, 
 in preference to others ; but this is not the sense. In both of these 
 sentences, the insertion of the comma, as above, leads obviously to 
 the true signification. In the last example, the sense is brought out 
 more clearly by inserting a comma before the modifying words " at
 
 FINAL PHRASES. 79 
 
 least," because they belong rather to the phrase than to the whole 
 clause, and obstruct the connection between " applied " and " under 
 one of its forms." 
 
 c. When the use of a word qualifying the phrase interrupts but 
 slightly the connection between two parts of a sentence, the comma 
 is better omitted. Thus, though susceptible of being pointed, the 
 following sentences, where the final phrases are severally modified 
 by the words either, even, may be written without the comma : " A 
 good man will be happy either in this world or the next." " The 
 knowledge of nature cannot be exhausted even by the wisest." 
 
 d. But, if a final phrase conveys an additional thought, or is 
 preceded by another phrase, with which it docs not readily unite, 
 the comma should be inserted; as, "A strong idea of religion has 
 generally .prevailed, even among the most uncultivated savages." 
 " The ode was frequently sung at his request, either in the church or 
 at some occasional meeting of the choir." 
 
 e. The rule is applicable to a sentence ending with two phrases, 
 each beginning with a particle, which may be taken either separately 
 or as a compound phrase; the last or both referring to some portion 
 of what precedes. 
 
 f. A phrase, at the end of a clause or sentence, of an antithetical 
 character, is preceded by a comma; as, " Man's true destination is 
 not perfection, but the unceasing perfecting of his nature." See 
 Rule V., p. 45. 
 
 y. No point is required before a final phrase beginning with but, 
 in the sense of except; as, " None are poor but the mean in mind." 
 
 h. When a phrase begins with a verb in the infinitive mood, aud 
 its preposition signifies in order to, it should not be preceded by a 
 comma; as, " We do not pray to God to instruct him." Unless where 
 the omission of the point would too closely unite the latter portion 
 of the clause with the phrase ; as, " Our minds must go out into the 
 infinite and immortal regions, to find bufliciency and satisfaction for 
 the present hour." 
 
 t. If the words in order are expressed before the infinitive, the 
 phrase is usually preceded by a comma; as, "We should be vir- 
 tuous and devout, in order to refine and elevate our nature." 
 
 j. Final phrases, referring to time, measure, or distance, whether 
 they begin with a preposition or are elliptical, should not be preceded 
 by any point; as, " Byron was born on Jan. 22, 1788, and died April 
 19, 1824." "The mason built the wall a hundred feet hiyh." 
 " Some men can easily walk four milts an /</. "
 
 80 THE COMMA. 
 
 k. But when the last phrase consists of a date, and the preceding 
 one ends with a noun, it is better to distinguish the phrases by a 
 comma, unless they are connected by means of a preposition ; as, 
 " The mills were destroyed by Jlre, Sept. 28, 1854." " Peace was 
 concluded between England and France in February, 1763." 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 State why, in conformity with Rule XII. (p. 78), commas are used in some of 
 these sentences, and omitted in others : 
 
 He was a man of extraordinary powers, both of mind and body. 
 The fertile earth is fragrant after soft showers. 
 Take heed not to place thyself in the power of temptation. 
 View the path you are entering on, with an enlightened mind. 
 The grandeur of Rome has vanished like a spectre in the night. 
 Poisons are sweet in the moral world, as truly as in the natural. 
 Do thy best to pluck this crawling serpent from my breast. 
 Poverty of mind is often concealed under the garb of splendor. 
 Repentance is not a single act, but a habit of virtue. 
 Truth is not hidden from us by an impenetrable veil. 
 All great things are so, only by the assemblage of small things. 
 Call off the thoughts when running upon disagreeable objects. 
 Keep an inventory of your friends, rather than of your goods. 
 
 Mention why, in accordance with the above Remarks, commas are inserted or 
 omitted in the following sentences : 
 
 Thou art a soldier even to Cato's wishes. 
 
 I knew the facts of the case even when- 1 wrote to you. 
 
 Judge not either capriciously or by a factitious standard. 
 
 He was a Columbus in a brave heart, if not in achievement. 
 
 Virtue is not the creature of will, but necessary and immutable. 
 
 Our best works are fractious, not complete and rounded unities. 
 
 Nothing remained but to throw himself on the mercy of Heaven. 
 
 Let me find a charter in your voice to assist my simpleuess. 
 
 He left the room to see whether all was safe. 
 
 Cultivate the art of reading, in order to read well. 
 
 Patrick Kelly left Ireland seventeen years ago. 
 
 You will be sure to find me in the school at nine o'clock, A.M. 
 
 Adam Smith was born in Scotland, 1723, and died 1790. 
 
 The lyre was invented 1004 B.C.; and paper in China, 105 B.C.
 
 FINAL PHRASES. 81 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 In agreement with, the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 78-80), let common be inserted 
 or omitted in the following sentences : 
 
 A year is much in human life particularly to the very young and 
 very old. (Rule, it.) 
 
 Follow the perfections of your enemies rather than the errors of 
 your friends. (Rule, n. ; and Remark/".) 
 
 The love of praise should be preserved under proper subordina- 
 tion to the principle of duty. (Rule, I.) 
 
 The soul becomes great by the habitual contemplation of great 
 objects. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Do not employ your wit either to insult or to offend your asso- 
 ciates. (Remark c.) 
 
 I often come to this quiet place to breathe the airs that ruffle thy 
 face. (First of Remark A.) 
 
 A true philosopher is careful to preserve an evenness of mind 
 both in prosperity and adversity. (Rule, $ II.) 
 
 How superior is the man of forbearance and gentleness to every 
 other man in the collisions of society! (Rule, $ it.) 
 
 Christianity represents physical evil as the direct appointment of 
 God's love. (Rule, $ i.) 
 
 The active mind of man seldom or never rests satisfied with its 
 present condition how prosperous soever. (Rule, it.) 
 
 The saint owes much of the grace and elegance of his spirit to 
 the influences of sorrow in some form. (Rule, i.) 
 
 A great mind is formed by a few great ideas not by an infinity of 
 loose details. (Rule, both sections; and Remarks e,f.) 
 
 The first indications of genius disclose themselves at a very early 
 period. (Rule, I.) 
 
 The knowledge of any one truth acts as an introducer and inter- 
 preter between us and all its kindred truths. (Rule, $ i.) 
 
 We cannot bid farewell to so large a portion of human history 
 without deep and earnest thought. (Rule, it.) 
 
 Herbert always attracted friends and strangers by the elegance 
 and benignity of his manners. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Law should not be the rich man's luxury but the poor man's 
 remedy. (Rule, $ n.; and Remark /.) 
 
 There are Christians who defer to some perpetual and concurrent 
 authority either in a living person or in a body of persons. (Rule, 
 n.;. and Remark d.)
 
 82 THE COMMA. 
 
 The intellectual powers may be exercised to the neglect and 
 stifling of the moral and spiritual. (Rule, n.) 
 
 Half of what passes among men for talent is nothing but strong 
 health. (Rule, i. ; and Remark g.) 
 
 Sensible men show their good sense by saying much in a few 
 words. (Rule, $ I.) 
 
 Shake not the credit of others in endeavoring to establish your 
 own. (Rule, $ n.) 
 
 Ariosto, the eminent Italian poet, was born in the year of our 
 Lord 1474, and died 1533. (Remark j.) 
 
 Let your affections be cultivated with ardor and purity through 
 all the successive periods of life. (Rule, I. ; and Remark e.) 
 
 Let us not think of the departed as looking on us with earthly, 
 partial affections. (Rule, r.) 
 
 Who can look on this scene without an increase of love and 
 reverence and trust? (Rule, n.) 
 
 The dormant faculties of men seem only to be awaiting more 
 favorable circumstances to disclose themselves. (First of Rem. h.) 
 
 The soul is nursed for heaven by the discipline of a sacred sor- 
 row. (Rule, $ i.) 
 
 The well-being of a community cannot flow from the simple effect 
 of one great change however necessary or successful. (Rule, n.) 
 
 The grandeur and vastness of human hope are corresponded to 
 by a similar grandeur and vastness of human nature. (Rule, I.) 
 
 Some men put on the appearance of virtue in order to succeed in 
 their nefarious enterprises. (Rule, n.; and Remark i.) 
 
 There are many topics on which individuals may hold the greatest 
 diversity of opinion without any diminution of holy sympathy in the 
 essential principles of religion. (Rule, n.; and Remark e.) 
 
 Seek for distinction only among the honest and pious. Seek for 
 distinction but only among the honest and pious. (Rule, $ i., n.; 
 and Remarks c, d.) 
 
 Let us employ the powers which our Creator has given us in such 
 a manner as will be fitted to purify and elevate our nature. (Rule, 
 *n.) 
 
 Moral light must be intermingled with intellectual light to con- 
 duct us safely through our mortal course. (Rule, n. ; and last 
 portion of Remark h.) 
 
 No man can struggle, for years together, to evolve his character 
 into pure moral manhood without shedding around him a benignant, 
 life-giving influence. (Rule, $ n.)
 
 INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 83 
 
 RULE XIIL 
 Inverted or Transposed Expressions. 
 
 Many phrases which, in their natural or usual order, 
 do not require to be punctuated, are, when inverted, 
 set off by a comma from the rest of the sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. By Cowley, the philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus. 
 
 2. To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment 
 
 3. Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect and delightful. 
 
 4. In perusing the works of enlightened men, we ought to think much. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The natural or usual order of words in English composition, 
 if adopted in the above sentences, would run as follows : " The 
 philosopher Hobbes is compared by Cowley to Columbus." " Old 
 age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment to the wise and good." 
 " Sight is the most perfect and delightful of all our senses." " We 
 ought to think much in perusing the works of enlightened men." 
 It will be seen, that the phrases which have been punctuated in the 
 examples, are, when put in the usual order, written without com- 
 mas, in accordance with the first part of Rule XII., p. 78. 
 
 b. In the inverted or rhetorical style in which these sentences are 
 exemplified under the rule, it is obvious, that, if the comma were 
 omitted, we could not read or understand them, without a greater 
 exercise of the judgment than is required when that point is inserted 
 after each transposed phrase. 
 
 c. But the rule, as commonly laid down by grammarians, is by no 
 means universal in its application. The mere circumstance of the 
 transposition of a word or phrase is not a sufficient reason for intro- 
 ducing a comma, as may readily be seen by inspecting either a 
 single page of an author who adopts this style, or a few lines in any 
 of the poets; and indeed, were all such inversions punctuated, both 
 perspicuity and good taste would be in numberless instances violated. 
 On the other hand, actual usage is so discordant, that, in many cases, 
 it would seem to be a matter of mere choice, whether an inverted 
 phrase should have a comma or not. By attention, however, to the 
 various modes in which the sentences under notice are formed, most 
 of the practical difficulties would be overcome.
 
 84 THE COMMA. 
 
 d. In accordance with the remark just made, the comma should 
 be dispensed with under the following circumstances, unless the 
 inverted portions of a sentence are both of them clauses, or severally 
 end and begin with words of the same part of speech, with a noun 
 and an adjective, or vice versA: 
 
 1. When the first inverted portion contains a noun governed by 
 a verb in the last part of the sentence; as, "That interesting and 
 valuable history he did not rend." " Him and his actions you will 
 very probably imitate." " The praise of judgment has Virgil justly 
 contested with Homer." 
 
 2. When the second portion of the sentence commences with a 
 verb, whether principal or auxiliary, before its nominative ; as, " At 
 the bottom of the garden ran a little rivulet." " Of the variegated 
 mountain shall nought remain unchanged." " Underneath our 
 happiest mirth is a calm fountain of sober thought." 
 
 3. When a preposition is removed from the word to which it 
 usually belongs, and placed at the beginning of the inverted phrase; 
 as, " With that portion of the work he was the least satisfied;'" in- 
 stead of, " He was the least satisfied with that portion of the work." 
 " To egotists and pedants I have a strong antipathy." " Of all 
 truly noble feelings they were quite unsusceptible." 
 
 4. When the first of the inverted portions of a sentence begins 
 with the words it is, or only ; as, " It is in the sphere of intellect alone 
 that men are becoming truly civilized." " Only on a few slight 
 occasions they felt disposed to be merciful." 
 
 6. When, though a distinct articulation may require a slight 
 pause, an inverted phrase can be read in close connection with what 
 follows it, without affecting the import of the sentence; as, " In 
 infancy the mind is peculiarly ductile." " To each the soul of each 
 how dear! " " By these swords we acquired our liberties." " In 
 a lucid manner the orator expressed his ideas." 
 
 6. When an expression precedes an inverted phrase which is 
 connected more closely with the latter portion of the sentence than 
 with the former; as, " However opposite may be the sides from 
 which we start at the foot of the mountain, in approaching its summit 
 we approach one another." 
 
 e. By carefully comparing the examples given under Remark d 
 with those under the rule, and with a few additional ones, which, 
 for the sake of reference, we shall now present, the student will be 
 struck with the fact,- that, though in some respects similar to each
 
 INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 85 
 
 other, they are in other and various respects dissimilar; and lie will 
 also perceive, that, while the insertion of a comma in the examples 
 belonging to Remark J would be of no advantage in bringing out the 
 true meaning of the sentences, the omission of the point between 
 the inverted portions of those about to be exhibited would operate 
 to a greater or less extent in impeding an easy comprehension of the 
 
 1. That interesting and valuable history which you lent him, he did not read 
 
 Uim whose actions you approve, you will very probably imitate. 
 
 The praise of judgment, Virgil has justly ecu tested with Homer. 
 2 At the bottom of the garden, a little rivulet ran. 
 
 Of the variegated mountain, nought shall remain unchanged. 
 
 Underneath our happiest mirth, there is a cairn fountain of sober thought. 
 
 3. With that portion of the work, Jeffrey was the least satisfied. 
 To egotists and pedants, sensible men have a strong antipathy. 
 Of all feelings that are truly noble, they were quite unsusceptible. 
 
 4. In the sphere of intellect alone, men are becoming truly civilized. 
 On a few slight occasions, they felt disposed to be merciful. 
 
 By forgetfulness of injuries, we show ourselves superior to them. 
 
 5. In youth, shun the temptations to which youth is exposed. 
 
 To each, honor is given. By these, various opinions may be held. 
 
 In a remarkably striking and luoid manner, the orator expressed his idean. 
 
 6. In approaching the summit of a mountain, we approach one another. 
 
 /. When, however, no serions error would be produced by the 
 omission of the comma, the briefer inverted phrases, even those 
 belonging to the above class, may be left unpointed, if they occur 
 in clauses set off by commas ; as, " On piety humanity is built, and 
 on humanity much happiness, and yet still more on piety itself." 
 Instances of this kind are often met with in poetry. 
 
 g. But such inverted words as appear in the second and third 
 examples of No. 5 above, where the omission of the comma would 
 manifestly tend to confusion or error, must in all cases be punc- 
 tuated. So also must any phrase that is equivalent to a clause, or 
 into which it is easily convertible; as, " In believing attainment, 
 impossible, you will make it so; " that is, " If you believe," &c. (see 
 Rule XIV., p. 89); the only exception to the use of the point here 
 being when such a phrase is used under the circumstances specified 
 in Remark d 6. 
 
 h. All inverted phrases, when preceded by other phrases or by 
 clauses, are treated as parenthetical expressions, and punctuated 
 according to Rule VIII. and the remarks thereon, pp. 64. 66.
 
 86 THE COMMA. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISK. 
 
 ff/iy, according to Rule XIII. and Remarks (pp. 83-86), are commas inserted 01 
 omitted between the transposed expressions in the fallowing sentence* ? 
 
 To most, religion is a mere tradition or a momentary feeling. 
 
 In fearless freedom he arose. By vicious examples be not misled. 
 
 Of all ill habits, that of idleness is the most incorrigible. 
 
 The first-fruit of your daily thoughts consecrate to God. 
 
 In all sublime scenes, there is a mixture of the awful. 
 
 With earnest heart I humbly crave my latter end like his may oe. 
 
 The history of past ages, men often read to little purpose. 
 
 Her crysta.1 lamp the evening star has lighted. 
 
 To minds of a devout temper, the eternal is mirrored in the temporal 
 
 In the British Museum is the original work of Copernicus. 
 
 Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you. 
 
 Only by degrees we turn our thoughts inwardly on ourselves. 
 
 Without much thought, books cannot be profitably read. 
 
 To public opinion all states must in a measure bow. 
 
 Of good delivery, distinct articulation is an essential requisite. 
 
 Against great force of reasoning it is in vain to contend. 
 
 By the faults or errors of others, wise men correct their own. 
 
 In early years the habits of industry are most easily acquired. 
 
 At his control, despair and anguish fled the struggling soul. 
 
 Through her rags do the winds of the winter blow bleak. 
 
 To study the science of spirit, I must enter my own soul. 
 
 All the appearances of nature I was careful to study. 
 
 By good nature, half the misery of human life is assuaged. 
 
 In silent and solitary places, genius is often found. 
 
 Into that glorious world he constantly beckons us to follow him. 
 
 Like a spectre hi the night, the grandeur of Rome is vanished. 
 
 Scipio, Milton called " the height of Rome." In thee I confide. 
 
 It is only by devotion to liberal pursuits that we can be truly libeial 
 
 Greater exploits than force, counsel and wisdom achieve. 
 
 To thee I pour my prayer. In power and wealth exult no more. 
 
 What is the right path, few men take the trouble of inquiring. 
 
 This great error I wish to expose. It is a place he aspires to hold. 
 
 In meeting with a madman, feign yourself a fool. 
 
 To those whose interests are in danger, time is valuable. 
 
 For want of this, genius has been a scourge to the world. 
 
 In eternity God dwelleth, free from anger and from pain. 
 
 With the many, life is one round of never-ceasing toil.
 
 INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 87 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Punctuate the following sentences, or leave them unpointed, in accordance with 
 the thirteenth, Rule and the Remarks thereon: 
 
 In the production and preservation of order all men recognize 
 something that is sacred. (Rule, and Remark e 6.) 
 
 From the right exercise of our intellectual powers arises one of 
 the chief sources of our happiness. (Remark d 2, 3.) 
 
 Through life truth ought to be one of the great objects of human 
 pursuit. (Rule, and Remark e 6.) 
 
 In the attainment of all excellence in the arts patronage and 
 genius should go hand in hand. (Rule.) 
 
 Education is at home a friend, abroad an introduction, in solitude 
 a solace, in society an ornament. (Remark d 5.) 
 
 In every material action of your life consider well its probable 
 result. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 
 
 Of all our virtuous emotions those of kind regard are the most 
 readily imitated. (Rule.) 
 
 In the solemn silence of the mind are formed those great resolu- 
 tions which decide the fate of men. (Remark d 2.) 
 
 Before giving way to anger try to find a reason for not being 
 angry. (Rule, and last portion of Remark g.) 
 
 In the acuteness of the external senses some of the inferior animals 
 excel our species. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 
 
 Over matchless talents probity should throw its brightest lustre. 
 (Rule, and Remark e 3.) 
 
 It is from the spirit's own pearl that the good embellish their 
 character. (Remark d 4.) 
 
 From the little root of a few letters science has spread its branches 
 over all nature, and raised its head to the heavens. (Rule.) 
 
 Only in the light of a sublime faith can the history of our race be 
 read without despondency. (Remarks d 2, 4.) 
 
 In the ruffled and angry hour we view every appearance through 
 a false medium. (Remark e 6.) 
 
 It is through moral and spiritual power that the rivers of thought 
 and feeling are to be turned. (Remark d 4.) 
 
 Friend of the brave ! in peril's darkest hour 
 
 Intrepid Virtue looks to thee for power. (Remark d 6.) 
 
 Of all treasons against humanity there is no one worse than his 
 who employs great intellectual force to keep down the intellect of 
 his less-favored brethren. (Rule.)
 
 88 THE COMMA. 
 
 In these hours of golden leisure my chief haunt is the banks of a 
 small stream. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 
 
 This view of religion I propose to make the subject of some free 
 discussion. (Remark dl.) 
 
 In amusement and novel-reading only the girl spends all her 
 evening hours. (Rule, and Remark e 4.) 
 
 On feelings allied to these priestcraft and sorcery have often 
 fastened themselves. (Rule, and Remark e 3.) 
 
 In order to improve the mind we ought less to learn than to con- 
 template. (Rule, and last portion of Remark g.) 
 
 With what you have be satisfied. All you hear believe not. 
 (Remark d, third line.) 
 
 In the hurry and eagerness of selfish competition we underrate 
 the silent influence of moral character. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 
 
 When others are asleep, hi its own contemplations the soul finds 
 a source of solace and pleasure. (Remark d 6.) 
 
 In not learning your business perfectly you cannot give satisfac- 
 tion to your employer. (Rule; and Remark e 6, and last of g.) 
 
 To every character its fitting position and appropriate function 
 have been assigned. (Remark d 3.) 
 
 It is to the unaccountable oblivion of our mortality that the world 
 owes all its fascination. (Remark d 4.) 
 
 By doing nothing we learn to do ill. To command any subject 
 adequately we must stand above it. (Rule, and last of Remark g.) 
 
 In this struggle his moral discipline consists. On no other terms 
 could he be at once a dweller on earth and an heir of heaven. 
 ( Remark d 3, 2, 5.) 
 
 On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 
 
 Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 
 
 Even from the tomb the yoice of nature cries, 
 
 Eren in our ashes live their wonted fires. (Rem. d 3, 1, 5, 2.) 
 
 Through the dim veil of the visible and perishing man catches a 
 glimpse of the vast significance of the unseen and the eternal. (Rule, 
 and Remark e 6.) 
 
 On beds of green sea-flower thy limbs shall be laid, 
 
 Around thy white bones the red coral shall grow, 
 
 Of thy fair yellow locks threads of amber be made, 
 
 And every part suit to thy mansion below. (Rem. d 3, 5, and /.) 
 
 Into every human being has God breathed an immortal soul. 
 Into every human being God has breathed an immortal soul. (Re- 
 marks d2 and e 2.)
 
 DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 89 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 One Clause Depending on Another, 
 
 Two clauses, one depending on the other, are sepa- 
 rated by a comma. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your life be blameless 
 
 2. Wealth is of no real use, except it be well employed. 
 
 3. Unless it blossoms in the spring, the tree will not bear fruit in autumn. 
 
 4. Till we can go alone, we must lean on the hand of a guide. 
 
 6. Fill thy heart with goodness, and thou wilt find that the world is full of good. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 n. Sentences containing dependent clauses are generally distin- 
 guished by one of them beginning with a particle expressive of 
 condition, admission, purpose, causation, time, or place. They are 
 not, however, necessarily so constructed, as is shown in the fifth 
 example, the clauses of which depend, one on the other, not in form, 
 but in sense ; being equivalent to " If thou fill thy heart with 
 goodness, thou wilt find," &c. 
 
 b. A phrase having the import of a conditional clause, and put at 
 the beginning of the sentence, is also distinguished by a comma; as, 
 " To be good, you must do good ; " that is, " That you may be good, 
 you must do good." See p. 85, last portion of g. 
 
 c. When, in a sentence relating to time, place, or manner, the 
 clause beginning with an adverb is put last, and is closely connected 
 in sense with what precedes it, the comma should not be inserted; 
 as, " I love my kind where'er I roam." " You will reap as you 
 sow." Clauses like these may be regarded as akin to the restrictive 
 relative. See Rule VII., n., p. 57. 
 
 d. But if the adverbs when, where, &c., have only a faint reference 
 to time or place, or introduce an additional idea, they should be 
 preceded by a comma; as, " Refrain not to speak, when by speaking 
 you may be useful to others." " Andrew sailed for California, 
 where he does a flourishing business." 
 
 e. When the conjunctions if and because are used to bind closely 
 together the two clauses between which they are severally placed t 
 the comma is unnecessary ; as " You may go if you will." " Sin 
 is not less dangerous because men are hardened by it."
 
 90 THE COMMA. 
 
 /'. No point should be introduced between two clauses united by 
 the conjunction that, signifying purpose or design, if it is closely 
 connected with the preceding verb ; as, " He visited the springs that 
 he might improve his health." But a comma must be inserted if 
 the conjunction is separated at some distance from the verb; as, 
 " Let us consider the following propositions, that we may fully under- 
 stand the subject." 
 
 g. The comma is usually admissible between the clauses, when 
 the words in order come before the conjunction that, unless they are 
 preceded immediately by the verb ; as, " Caesar visited Britain, in 
 order that he might conquer the inhabitants." " The man travelled 
 in order that he might regain his strength." 
 
 h. The distinction recommended in the punctuation of the first 
 example under each of the Remarks f and g may seem rather nice; 
 but, undoubtedly, the phrase in order that obstructs the flow of a 
 sentence more than the simple conjunction that. 
 
 ORAL KXEKCISES. 
 
 fihow how Rule XIV. is applicable to the punctuation of the sentences thai 
 follow i 
 
 Where thoughts kindle, words spontaneously flow. 
 
 The good which men do is not lost, though it is often disregarded. 
 
 If there were no cowardice, there would be little insolence. 
 
 Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot enter. 
 
 It were no virtue to bear calamities, if we did not feel them. 
 
 Make men intelligent, and they become inventive. 
 
 Though a civilization may die, it leaves imperishable records. 
 
 People are rude and unpolite, because they are ignorant. 
 
 Wherever we are, we are not forgotten by a kind Providence. 
 
 Were patrons more disinterested, ingratitude would be more rare. 
 
 Since none enjoy all blessings, be content with a few. 
 
 Go where a man may, home is the centre to which his heart turns. 
 
 As we grow older, life becomes dim in the distance. 
 
 We obey the laws of society, because they are the laws of virtue. 
 
 While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 
 
 Dare to be good, whatever evil may surround you. 
 
 If their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. 
 
 When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 
 
 Make up your mind to do a thing, and you will do it. 
 
 Every thing is beautiful, if left where nature meant it to be.
 
 DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 91 
 
 Huw do the Remarks (pp. 89, 90) apply to the punctuation of the folhtring 
 sentences : 
 
 Drop upon Fox's grave the tear, 'twill trickle to his rival's bier. 
 
 By playing with a fool at home, he'll play with you abroad. 
 
 I will see you when yon arrive. I will go whither thou goest. 
 
 He went away as soon as I came. Use time as if you knew its value 
 
 Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. 
 
 Quietness and peace flourish where justice and reason govern. 
 
 Let us live while we live. Fear not, while acting justly. 
 
 He went to the city of Manchester, where he remained for a year. 
 
 The age of miracles is past, while that of prejudice remains. 
 
 Sense chines with the greatest lustre, when it is set in humanity. 
 
 I fled because I was afraid. Speak clearly if you would be understood 
 
 Truth is .to be loved, purely and solely because it is true. 
 
 Live well that you may die well. We go that we may be in time. 
 
 Be studious and diligent, in order that you may become learned. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WKITTEN. 
 
 Point, or leave unpointed, the following sentences, according to the principle* laid 
 down in the fourteenth. Rule and the Remarks : 
 
 When the great man is laid in his grave lies of malice are apt to 
 give way to lies of adulation. (Rule.) 
 
 Decide not by authoritative rules when they are inconsistent with 
 reason. (Rule, and Remark <) 
 
 A man may comfort himself for the wrinkles in his face provided 
 his heart be fortified with virtue. (Rule.) 
 
 We cannot turn in any direction where the Creator's love does 
 not smile around us. (Remark c.) 
 
 If theological gossip were the measure of religious faith we should 
 be the devoutest of all human generations. (Rule.) 
 
 We cannot raise the moral standard of the depressed classes till we 
 have first improved their social condition. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 Unless he put a bridle on his tongue the babbler will soon shut 
 himself out from all society. ( Rule. ) 
 
 Have respect for yourself that others may not disrespect you. 
 (Rule, and last sentence of Remark /.) 
 
 We should be ashamed of many of our actions were the world 
 acquainted with our motives. (Rule.) 
 
 By timely resisting them the greatest evils may be overcome. 
 Rule, and Remark 6. )
 
 92 THE COMMA. 
 
 If there be nothing celestial without us it is only because all is 
 earthly within. (Rule.) 
 
 Remember your own feelings in order that you may judge of the 
 feelings of others. (Rule, and Remarks g, h.) 
 
 Where the whole is one dark blot of shade there can be no 
 picture. (Rule.) 
 
 Breathe into men a fervent purpose and you awaken powers 
 before unknown. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 Some people endeavor to divert their thoughts lest their minds 
 should reproach them. (Rule.) 
 
 We were present when General Lafayette embarked at Havre for 
 New York. (Remark c.) 
 
 When we combat error with any other weapon than argument 
 we err more than those whom we attack. ( Rule. ) 
 
 Let all dispose their hours till midnight when again we pray your 
 presence. (Remarked) 
 
 In how small a compass lie all the elements of man's truest hap- 
 piness if society were only conducted in a rational spirit! (Rule.) 
 
 Suppress the first desires of evil as soon as they arise, and extin 
 gnish the spark before it spreads. (Remark c.) 
 
 Where true religion has prevented one crime false religions have 
 afforded a pretext for a thousand. (Rule.) 
 
 Our hearts should be filled with gratitude when we contemplate 
 the wonderful works of nature. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 The lives of men should be filled with beauty even as the earth 
 and heavens are clothed with it. (Rule.) 
 
 Rear stronger minds and they will lift up the race to sublimer 
 heights of dignity and power. (Rule, and Remark a.) 
 
 There never is true eloquence except when great principles and 
 sentiments have entered into the substance of the soul. (Rule.) 
 
 We live that we may die. Attend that you may receive instruc- 
 tion. (Remark /, first sentence.) 
 
 If women fulfilled truly their divine errand there would be no 
 need of reforming societies. (Rule.) 
 
 We compare the divine Mind with ours that we may have some- 
 thing within the grasp of our reason to dwell upon. (Last of Rem. f. ) 
 
 We weep over the dead because they have no life, and over the 
 living because they have no perfection. (Remark e.) 
 
 Give me a larger eye and I will reveal to you another rank of 
 worlds marshalled behind those whose shining hosts you now behold. 
 (Rule, and Remark a.)
 
 CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 93 
 
 RULE XV. 
 Correlative Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 
 
 I. Two correlative expressions, united by the 
 conjunction as or than, are written without a point 
 between them. 
 
 II. But, when united by any other word than 
 these conjunctions, the correlative expressions are dis- 
 tinguished by a comma. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L 
 
 1. Men are never | so easily deceived || as when they plot to deceive others. 
 
 2. A child in the humblest walks of life is | as richly gifted || as in the highest. 
 
 3. Only | such repentance is beneficial || as makes us wiser and better. 
 Do not spend | more time in bed || than is required for sleep. 
 
 II. 
 
 1. But | though learned and methodical, || yet the teacher was not a pedant. 
 
 2. A great man will | neither trample on a worm, || nor cringe before a king. 
 
 3. All know that | as virtue is its own reward, || so vice is its own punishment. 
 
 4. Yes, | the more we see of a truly good man, || the better we love him. 
 
 It E M A U K S. 
 
 a. To indicate the true chanicter of the sentences just quoted, we 
 have put two perpendicular lines between each pair of correlative 
 expressions, and a single line before the first expression, in each 
 example. It will be seen, that the phrases or clauses beginning seve- 
 rally with the correlative words, " so as," " as as," " such as," 
 " more than," which occur in the first class of examples, have a 
 stronger attraction to each other than those commencing with the 
 correlatives " though yet," " neither nor," " as so," " the more 
 the better," in the second; and that, on this account, the expressions 
 under the former division are properly written without commas, and 
 those under the latter with them. 
 
 6. When the conjunction but is improperly used, after so, for at 
 and a negative, the sentence is subject to the principle of punc- 
 tuation contained in the first section of the rule; as, " There is no 
 opinion so absurd but has \as not to have] some philosopher or other 
 to produce in its support."
 
 94 THE COMMA. 
 
 c. When, in sentences referable to the first division of the rule, 
 the last of the correlative words requires a comma after it, a comma 
 should also be inserted between the correlative expressions ; as, " The 
 mind that boasts of its rich endowments is so limited and cramped, 
 as, in comparison with what it might enjoy, to be utterly poor and 
 naked." It is evident, that, without the point before the conjunction 
 as, this word would seem to be more closely united with the preced- 
 ing than with the following portion of the sentence, to which it 
 rather belongs. 
 
 d. Correlative expressions should be separated, if ambiguity of 
 sense would be occasioned in any instance by the omission of the 
 comma before the second correlative; as, " Greater is he that pro- 
 phesieth, than he that speaketh with tongues." Without the point, 
 the sentence might be improperly read so as to mean, " Greater 
 is he that prophesieth with tongues than he that speaketh with 
 tongues." 
 
 e. So, also, in respect to the same class of sentences, the correla- 
 tive expressions are better separated by a comma, when they consist 
 of two or more phrases ; as, " We can no more preserve a stationary 
 attitude | in the moral world, than we can refuse to accompany the 
 physical earth | in its rotation." Here, the insertion of the point, 
 though not essential, shows more clearly those portions of the sen- 
 tence to which each set of phrases belongs, and by this means serves 
 to bring out the sense. 
 
 f. As an exception to the second division of the rule, it may be 
 remarked, that the comma is better omitted between clauses contain- 
 ing the correlative words to or such tiiat, when they are closely 
 connected ; as, " John was so much injured that he could not walk." 
 " The earthquake produced such a shock tluvt it awoke us all." 
 
 g. But if these correlatives are placed at or near the beginning 
 of the clauses to which they respectively belong, or if tb last cor- 
 relative word has a comma after it, the clauses should be separated, 
 agreeably to the rule; as, " So benevolent a man was he, that almost 
 every act of his was devoted^o the well-being of his race." "Man 
 is so created, that, let his wants be as simple as they will, he must 
 labor to supply them." 
 
 h. Expressions beginning with both and, whether or, either or, 
 neithei nw, are generally separated by a comma when each is a 
 clause, but left unpointed when one of them is a phrase ; as, " \eitiier 
 flatter yourselves, nor permit others to flatter you." " We cannot 
 trace either their causes or their effects."
 
 CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 95 
 
 ORAL KXEKCISES. 
 
 Agreeably to Rule XV. (p. 93), state why some of the following sentences are 
 printed with, and others without,, the comma, . 
 
 It is easier to rouse the passions than to direct the mind. 
 
 When pride cometh, then cometh shame. She is as good as he. 
 
 No one is so much alone in the universe as a denier of God. 
 
 As we do to others, so shall it be done unto us. 
 
 Man gains wider dominion by his intellect than by his right arm. 
 
 Wherever man is, there are the elements of poetry. 
 
 Every one has as much vanity as he is deficient in understanding. 
 
 If you know that your object is good, then without hesitation seek it 
 
 A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. 
 
 Though truth is fearless and absolute, yet she is meek and modest. 
 
 I have returned to refute a libel as false as it is malicious. 
 
 The more industrious you are, the sooner will you learn a trade. 
 
 Be governed more by a regard to duty than by a prospect of gain. 
 
 Such as the tree is, such will be the fruit. 
 
 We can discover nothing so sublime as the spirit of self-sacrifice. 
 
 The better a proverb is, the more trite it generally becomes. 
 
 Show how the preceding Remarks will apply to the punctuation of correlative 
 clauses and phrases in the following sentences t 
 
 No errors are so trivial but they deserve to be mended, and no ski 
 so slight but it should be repented of and renounced. 
 
 Our sympathy is always awakened more by hearing the speaker, 
 than by reading his works in our closet. 
 
 Only such sorrow purifies and blesses, as comes to us in the pur 
 suit of high and noble ends. 
 
 Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox, and 
 hatred therewith. 
 
 Virtue is so amiable that even the vicious admire it. So frowued 
 the mighty combatants, that hell grew darker at the sight. 
 
 Such was the rush of the people, that but few could be admitted 
 to the lecture. 
 
 Grace of manners is so essential to rulers, that, whenever it is 
 neglected, their virtues lose a great degree of lustre. 
 
 Whether my gift be liberal, or whether it be niggardly, is not the 
 question. Whether right or wrong, I am held responsible. 
 
 We can neither fly from the presence of God, nor escape his 
 sight Virtue is neither a phantom nor a vain vision.
 
 96 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXEKCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Let these sentences be punctuated or not, agreeably to the fifteenth Rule and the 
 Remarks (pp. 93, 94) : 
 
 We are so afraid of each other's doctrines that we cannot cure 
 each other's sins. (Rule, n. ; and Remark g.) 
 
 Does not the glorious sun pour down his golden flood as cheerily 
 on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace V (Rule, i.) 
 
 We must not only avoid what God has forbidden but do what he 
 has commanded. (Rule, n.) 
 
 One angel's history may be a volume of more various truth than 
 all the records of our race. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Although men are accused for not knowing their own weakness 
 yet perhaps as few know their own strength. (Rule, n.) 
 
 He is a better man who wisely speaks than he who talks at ran- 
 dom. (Remark d.) 
 
 No sublimity is so real as that which makes itself deeply felt in 
 union with beauty. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Though he were as rich as Croesus still would man be dissatisfied 
 with his condition. (Rule, I., n.) 
 
 Better live an honest poor man than die a selfish and grasping 
 mUlionnaire. (Rule, i.) 
 
 What thou forbiddest us that will we shun and abhor: what thou 
 commandest us that will we love and pursue. (Rule, n.) 
 
 My engagements are of such a character as will deprive me of 
 partaking the festivities of the day. (Rule, \ i.) 
 
 Such is the course of nature that whoever lives long must outlive 
 those whom he loves. (Rule, n. ; and Remark g.) 
 
 The doll-shop is as fit a place for studying character as the fashion- 
 able dinner-party, the assembly, or the ball-room. (Remark e.) 
 
 The rarer the beauty of the external scene the deeper should be 
 the impression of the unseen God. (Rule, n.) 
 
 Of things invisible, the evidence can never be such as those who 
 rely on purely intellectual assurance will demand. (Rule, i.) 
 
 The more a man speaks of himself the less he likes to hear 
 another spoken of. ( Rule, n. ) 
 
 Nothing appears to us so beautiful in human experience as the 
 reciprocal affection of parents and children. (Rule, i.) 
 
 The gigantic genius of Shakspeare so far surpassed the learning 
 and penetration of his time that his productions were little read and 
 less admired. (Rule, n. ; and Remark g.)
 
 CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 97 
 
 Rather do good than seem to be. So live with men as if God 
 saw you. (Rule, i.) 
 
 The progress of some men is so rapid that they keep ahead of 
 common sense. (Remark f.) 
 
 Neither could he obtain the benefits which he desired nor avert 
 the calamities which he feared. (Rule, n. ; and first of Remark h.) 
 
 I am as ranch known to God as if I were the single object of his 
 attention. (Rule, I.) 
 
 Art is capable of not only imitating nature in her graces but even 
 of adorning her with graces of her own. (Rule, n.) 
 
 Hither the mere will of the magistrate or the conscience of the 
 individual must decide in the case. (Remark h, second portion.) 
 
 The more the love of poetry is cultivated and refined the more do 
 men strive to make their outward lives rhythmical and harmonious. 
 (Rule, n.) 
 
 There is no part of social life which affords more real satisfaction 
 than those hours which one passes hi rational and unreserved con- 
 versation. (Rule, i.) 
 
 Not more do we discern in the writings of Shakspeare the greatest 
 manifestation of human genius than in the reality of Christ the high- 
 est expression of the Divine. (Remark e.) 
 
 The more highly we cultivate our minds here the better shall we 
 be prepared for the nobler pursuits of the next stages of our exist- 
 ence. (Rule, u.) 
 
 It had been better for them not to have known the way of right- 
 eousness than, after they have known it, to turn from the holy 
 commandment delivered unto them. (Remark c or e.) 
 
 As no cause 
 
 For such exalted confidence could e'er 
 Exist so none is now for fixed despair. (Rule, f n.) 
 
 The age in which George II. reigned was not by any means 
 marked by such striking features of originality or vigor as some of 
 the preceding eras. (Rule, I.) 
 
 There is nothing which employs the mind and the heart so attrac- 
 tively as the close study of character in all its smaller peculiarities. 
 (Rule, i.) 
 
 The universe at large would suffer as little in its splendor and 
 variety by the destruction of our planet as the verdure and sub- 
 lime magnitude of a forest would suffer by the fall of a single leaf. 
 (Remark e.) 
 
 1
 
 98 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 Phrases and Clauses in the same Construction. 
 
 Two or more phrases or clauses, when in the same 
 construction, are separated by a comma from each other, 
 and, when they do not complete a proposition, from the 
 remainder of the sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. No one ought unnecessarily to wound the feelings of his neighbors, or to 
 
 insult their religious prepossessions. 
 
 2. Regret for the past, grief at the present, and anxiety respecting the future, 
 
 are plagues which affect the generality of men. 
 
 3. Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and gleams out in the hues 
 
 of the shell and the precious stone. 
 
 4. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use 
 
 them. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The first and second of these sentences exemplify the use of 
 phrases in the same construction ; the third and fourth, that of clauses. 
 Both kinds of expressions are said to be in the same construction, 
 for these reasons, that, in the first example, the infinitives " to 
 wound," " to insult," are each governed by one and the same verb, 
 "ought;" that, in the second, the whole series of phrases forms a 
 compound nominative to the verb "are;" that, in the third, the 
 verbs " haunts " and " gleams," occurring respectively in the two 
 clauses, have the same nominative, "bennty;" and that, in the 
 fourth, the clauses are all formed alike, and have a mutual relation. 
 In the second example, the co-ordinate expressions do not conclude 
 the proposition ; and therefore a comma is put after the last of these, 
 in order to point out their common dependence on what follows. 
 
 b. When two brief phrases are formed alike, and united by either 
 of the conjunctions and, or, nor, the comma is better omitted between 
 them ; as, " A healthy body and a sound mind should be preserved 
 as real blessings." "The pastimes of youth have a tendency to 
 invigorate the body or to expand the mind." The omission of the 
 point is particularly recommended, when two phrases form a com- 
 pound parenthetical expression, or belong to one ; as, " \Ve must file 
 a protest against the practice of destroying the birds of the garden; 
 for, besides depriving us of the beauty of their appearance and (he music
 
 EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE. 99 
 
 of their song, it lets in a flood of insects, whose numbers the birds 
 wsre commissioned to keep down." See p. 46, /. 
 
 c. If, however, by omitting the comma, two such phrases might 
 be read so as to obscure or pervert the meaning, the point must be 
 inserted; as, "Receive blessings with thankfulness, and afflictions 
 with resignation." See also p. 29, f. 
 
 d. When two connected phrases are different hi form or in the 
 number of words, their relation to the context is better seen when 
 they are set off by commas ; as, " Undue susceptibility, and the pre- 
 ponderance of mere feeling over thoughtfulness, may mislead us." 
 
 e. The same mode of punctuation is adopted for a word and a 
 phrase, or for a series consisting partly of words and partly of phrases ; 
 a comma, however, being put after the last particular, when it does 
 not end the clause ; as, " Calmness, modesty, candor, forgetfulness of 
 self, and love of others, are all required for the occasion." 
 
 f. But, to prevent ambiguity, a little care is sometimes necessary 
 to discriminate phrases from single words, as in the following sen- 
 tence : " Their depravity, their spiritual ignorance and destitution, are 
 awfully great." Were a comma put after " ignorance," the sentence 
 would be analyzed improperly, and convey a wrong meaning; 
 whereas the sense of the passage requires the Italicized portion to be 
 viewed, not as a phrase and a word, but as a mere phrase, and punc- 
 tuated as above. By omitting the adjectival words, " their spiritual," 
 which qualify both of the nouns " ignorance " and " destitution," the 
 punctuation would, according to Rule III., p. 37, be thus exhibited: 
 " Their depravity, ignorance, and destitution are awfully great." 
 
 y. When a series consists both of words and phrases, all con- 
 nected by one of the conjunctions and, or, nor, the comma should be 
 omitted between the single words, but inserted between the phrases ; 
 as, " Some men would be distinguished in their occupation or pur- 
 suit or profession, or in the style of living, or in the dignity of office, 
 or in the glare and pride and pomp of power." See p. 38, h. 
 
 A. When a series consists of phrases or clauses, united by either 
 of the conjunctions just named, the particulars are separated from 
 one another by a comma; as, " Reach the goal, and gain the prize, 
 and wear the crown." But, if the series is used parenthetically, the 
 commas may be omitted ; as, " Through the soul we have direct 
 access to God, and, by a trustful heart and a submissive will and a 
 devoted service, may spiritually unite ourselves with him." See 6. 
 
 i. Pairs of words are regarded as phrases, and punctuated in 
 accordance with the rule; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and
 
 100 THE COMMA. 
 
 distress, follow a civil war." " Whether we eat or drink, labor or 
 sleep, we should be moderate." 
 
 j. It is very usual, particularly in the United States, to omit the 
 comma between the number of a house or shop and the street, and 
 after the name of a month when preceding that of the year to which 
 it belongs; but, as these words are employed neither adjectively nor 
 in apposition, the point should, beyond all doubt, be inserted; as, 
 " No. 140, Broadway, New York, January, 1855." " Thomas Tegg, 
 bookseller, 73, Cheapside." In accordance with the same principle, 
 a comma should be put after a reference made to any of the sacred 
 books, when it is followed immediately by the chapter and verse ; as, 
 "John, xvi. 20:" unless the references to Scripture are numerous, 
 when, for the sake of neatness, the comma is better omitted. 
 
 fc. Consecutive or co-ordinate clauses, if not joined by a conjunc- 
 tion, are sometimes better distinguished by a semicolon or a colon 
 than by a comma; as, " Death is certain; time, uncertain." " Death 
 is certain: time is uncertain." See Rule XVTL, p. 104. 
 
 L To exhibit the limits of the rule, it may not be improper to 
 anticipate what will be more fully treated of in the next section ; 
 namely, that clauses, when separable into smaller portions requiring 
 the comma, are separated from each other by a semicolon ; as, " How 
 strange it seems, that the passion of love should be the supreme 
 mover of the world ; that it is this which has dictated the greatest 
 sacrifices, and influenced all societies and all times; that to this the 
 loftiest and loveliest genius has ever consecrated its devotion; that 
 but for love there were no civilization, no music, no poetry, no 
 beauty, no life beyond the brute's! " The sentences given to exem- 
 plify the rule are not thus divisible, and are therefore punctuated 
 only by means of the comma. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 Say wky, according to Rule XVI., commas are Inserted in these sentences i 
 
 To cleanse our own opinions from falsehood, our hearts from 
 malignity, and our actions from vice, is our first concern. 
 
 Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and perform what yen 
 promise. 
 
 Great moral principles, pure and generous dispositions, cannot be 
 confined to this or that spot. 
 
 The true worshipper of beauty sees it in the lowliest flower, meets 
 it in every path, enjoys it everywhere.
 
 EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE. 101 
 
 Eloquence is to be attained by the full culture, the general en- 
 riching, of the heart and mind. 
 
 Has God provided for the poor a coarser earth, a thinner air, a 
 paler sky ? 
 
 The voice of merriment and of wailing, the steps of the busy and 
 the idle, have ceased in the deserted courts. 
 
 Man was created to search for truth, to love the beautiful, to 
 desire what is good, and to do the best. 
 
 You may dazzle men's eyes with large enterprises in philanthropy, 
 but possess nothing of the philanthropic spirit. 
 
 Beauty flows in the waves of light, radiates from the human faca 
 divine, and sparkles in the pathway of every child. 
 
 The devil loves nothing better than the intolerance of reformers, 
 and dreads nothing so much as their charity and patience. 
 
 Infinite space, endless numbers, and eternal duration, fill the mind 
 with great ideas. 
 
 Assign the reasons given in the Remarks (pp. 98, 99) far the insertion or the 
 omission of commas in such sentences as the following . 
 
 It is education that characterizes mental power as the talent of 
 an angel or the capacity of a fiend. 
 
 Eminent talent and distinguished attainment are sometimes con- 
 nected with obliquity of character. 
 
 The student may, by close application and by proper culture, 
 attain ease and grace in his composition. 
 
 Some persons mistake abhorrence of vice for uncharitableness, 
 and piety for enthusiasm. 
 
 Suffering often calls forth our best feelings, and the highest energies 
 of the mind. 
 
 Fraud, enthusiasm, and narrowness of view, often shape the 
 premises to fit the conclusion. 
 
 The beauty of his moral character, his generous impulses and 
 sympathies, were .the theme of every tongue. 
 
 Babylon and Troy and Tyre, and even early Rome, are passing 
 already into fiction. 
 
 Age never dims their sight, nor slackens their speed, nor weakens 
 their force, nor abates their fidelity. 
 
 Perfection of mind consists of firmness and mildness, of force and 
 tenderness, of vigor and grace. 
 
 On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, the Puritans 
 looked down with contempt.
 
 102 THE COMMA. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Let tht punctuation of such of the following sentences as require to be pointed 
 accord with the Rule and Remarks (pp. 98-100) : 
 
 Joint effort conquers nature hews through mountains rears pyra- 
 mids dikes out the ocean. (Rule.) 
 
 With a callous heart, there can be no genius in the imagination 
 or wisdom in the mind. (Rule, and Remark c.) 
 
 Genius deals with the possible creates new combinations disco- 
 vers new Jaws and acts from an insight into principles. (Rule.) 
 
 Refined manners and polite behaviour must not be deemed alto- 
 gether superficial. (First of Remark b.) 
 
 To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world 
 and to be wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide. (Rule.) 
 
 Thou art capable of something purer nobler infinitely better than 
 thou hast become. (Remark e.) 
 
 Familiarity with the world's vices can never reveal to you the 
 world's great truths or enable you to fathom its deep realities. (Rule.) 
 
 It should be the first object of education to form a pure heart 
 high principle an earnest and ingenuous spirit. (Rule.) 
 
 We live in times that call for wisdom in contemplation and virtue 
 in action. (Rule, and Remark c.) 
 
 Every human being has a work to carry on within duties to per- 
 form abroad influences to exert which are peculiarly his. (Rule.) 
 
 Resolute thoughts find words for themselves and make their own 
 vehicle. (Rule.) 
 
 The man of enlightened understanding and persevering ardor 
 has many sources of enjoyment which the ignorant man cannot 
 reach. (First of Remark b.) 
 
 The only distinctions in society which should be recognized are 
 those of the soul of strong principle of incorruptible integrity of useful- 
 ness of cultivated intellect of fidelity in seeking for truth. (Rule.) 
 
 To the poor and the desolate the timid and the anxious the weary 
 and the aged the idea of a common brotherhood must be full of light. 
 (Rule, and Remark i.) 
 
 The pure, kind, trustful heart, intent on duty and only ambitious 
 of usefulness, bears, in the beaming eye and open brow and gladsome 
 voice, unfailing evidence of inward peace and joy. ( Last of Rem. h.) 
 
 Do the voice of the wise and the arm of the brave and the blood 
 of the patriot go for nothing in the wild conflict that is desolating 
 the earth? (Rule, and first of Remark h.)
 
 EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE. 103 
 
 I know of no great expounder of moral principle I know of no elo- 
 quent teacher of divine truth who is more useful in God's world, than 
 a business-man that carries his religion into his business. (Rule.) 
 
 Can we imagine that God's highest gifts of intelligence imagina- 
 tion and moral power were bestowed to provide only for animal 
 wants? (Remark e.) 
 
 Ancient superstition introduced the fine arts into her train called 
 the powers of genius to her aid and employed the painter and the 
 poet to hold out her charms to the world. (Rule.) 
 
 Want and anxiety and habitual discontent and hate of fancied 
 oppression can never raise a class and excite it to noble efforts. 
 (Rule, and Remarks f, g.) 
 
 How often, in surveying the great man's splendid mansion and 
 wandering through his ancient woods and beautiful gardens, have we 
 met with some touching memorial of human affection ! (Remark A, 
 both sentences.) 
 
 That fortitude which has encountered no dangers that prudence 
 which has surmounted no difficulties that integrity which has been 
 attended by no temptations can at best be considered but as gold 
 not yet brought to the test. (Rule.) 
 
 Surely this is a world of plenteousness and beauty and gladness 
 of loves and friendships of blessed homes and holy altars of sacred 
 communions and lofty aspirations and immortal prospects. (Rule, 
 and Remarks g, 6, and first of h.) 
 
 Faith is the root and foundation of whatever is noble and excel- 
 lent in man of all that is mighty and admirable in his intellect of all 
 that is amiable and praiseworthy in his affections of all that is sound 
 and stable in his moral being. (Rule.) 
 
 Put holy truth in every false heart ; instil a sacred piety into every 
 worldly mind and a blessed virtue into every fountain of corrupt 
 desires ; and the anxieties of philanthropy might be hushed and the 
 tears of benevolent prayer and faith might be dried up and patriotism 
 and piety might gaze upon the scene and the prospect with unmin- 
 gled joy. (Rule, and Remarks d, h, k, I.) 
 
 The culture of the intellect is an unmixed good, when it is sacredly 
 used to enlighten the conscience to feed the flame of generous senti- 
 ment to perfect us in our common employments to throw a grace 
 over our common actions to make us sources of innocent cheerfulness 
 and centres of holy influence and to give us courage strength sta- 
 bility amidst the sudden changes and sore temptations and trials of 
 life. (Rule, and Remarks b, e.)
 
 104 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 Clauses having a Verb understood. 
 
 When, in a compound sentence, the clauses have 
 each a different nominative, but have only one verb, 
 expressed in the first clause and understood in the 
 others, the ellipsis, or place of the verb, should be 
 supplied by a comma. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, to outshine others. 
 
 2. The wise man considers what he wants; the fool, what he abounds in. 
 
 8. The wise man is happy in his own approbation ; the fool, in the applause 
 of his fellows. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. In the above examples, a comma is inserted after the second 
 nominative, " fool," to indicate, in the first sentence, the ellipsis of 
 th'e verb " seeks ; " in the second, that of the verb " considers ; " and, 
 in the third, that of the verb and adjective, " is happy." Hence a 
 semicolon is required before the second nominative to divide each 
 sentence into the two larger portions of which it consists, and to 
 show the relation of its various parts. 
 
 6. But, if two clauses have a bearing on a final expression, 
 the comma should be omitted after the second nominative, and the 
 semicolon before it changed into a comma ; as, " Herder had more of 
 the Oriental fancy, Schleiermacher more of the European acnteness, 
 in Ms composition." Foe, were a semicolon put after " fancy," and a 
 comma after " Schleiermacher," as in the rule, the phrase " in his 
 composition " would seem to be connected only with the last clause, 
 though it belongs equally to both. 
 
 c. So, also, when two short clauses are joined by either of the 
 conjunctions and, or, nor, but, and any word but a noun follows 
 the second nominative, the comma should be omitted where the verb 
 is understood, and the semicolon after the first clause exchanged for 
 a comma; as, " Life is precarious, and death certain." If a semicolon 
 were placed after the word " precarious," it would be necessary to 
 separate " death " and " certain " by a comma; as, " Life is preca- 
 rious ; and death, certain." But such a mode of punctuation would 
 be too rigid, and is not required for bringing out the sense.
 
 THE VERB UNDERSTOOD. 105 
 
 d. When, too, in a series of clauses, each ellipsis is followed by a 
 preposition or by the comparative as, the free style of pointing seems 
 more appropriate ; as, " Mathematicians have sought knowledge in 
 figures, philosophers in systems, logicians in subtilties, and meta- 
 physicians in sounds." 
 
 e. If, however, obscurity would arise, either in two clauses or 
 in a series, from the omission of the comma, as, for instance, 
 when the preposition of is used, the punctuation adopted in the 
 examples under the rule must be followed. Thus: " Power reminds 
 yon of weakness ; permanency, of change ; life, of death ; light, of 
 darkness ; and the true, of the false." 
 
 f. When lightness or vivacity characterizes the style, the free 
 mode of pointing is preferable to the other, if no ambiguity would 
 arise from its use, as in the following passage : " There is a magic in 
 the sound of * Stop thief! stop thief! ' The tradesman leaves his 
 counter, and the carman his wagon; the butcher throws down 
 his tray, the baker his basket, the milkman his pail, the errand- 
 boy his parcels, the school-boy his marbles, the paver his pickaxe, 
 fhe child his battledoor: away they run pellmell, helter-skelter." 
 
 ORAL BXBRCISK8. 
 Why. according to Rule XVII., are commas inserted in these sentences 1 
 
 Curiosity allures the wise; vanity, the foolish; and pleasure, both 
 
 The Grecians excelled in precepts; the Romans, in examples. 
 
 Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist. 
 
 Passion overcomes shame ; boldness, fear; and madness, reason. 
 
 Anger prompts men to contention ; avarice, to oppression. 
 
 The benevolent man is esteemed; the penurious, despised. 
 
 A robber employs violence ; and a thief, cunning and guile. 
 
 The young are slaves to novelty ; the old, to custom. 
 
 War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. 
 
 The Doric dialect was broad and rough ; the Ionic, smooth. 
 
 Semiramis built Babylon; Dido, Carthage; and Romulus, Rome. 
 
 Labor brings pleasure ; idleness, pain. 
 
 Plants are formed by culture ; men, by education. 
 
 One murder makes a villain ; millions, a hero. 
 
 Pleasant recollections promote cheerfulness ; and painful ones, gloom 
 
 Crowns were the playthings of Napoleon ; thrones, his footstool. 
 
 Truth belongs to the man ; error, to his age. 
 
 Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness, to fewer virtues.
 
 106 THE COMMA. 
 
 Assign the reasons for the punctuation of Uie following- sentences, agreeably to 
 tiie Remarks (pp. 104-5) : 
 
 Our existence has no support, our life no aim, our spiritual weak- 
 ness no power to lean upon, without God. 
 
 Shakspeare was the greatest poet, Newton the most distinguished 
 mathematician, that England ever produced. 
 
 The coarse worm yields us a beautiful fly, and the thorny bush 
 a lovely flower. 
 
 The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive specula- 
 tion, but those of Pope by minute attention. 
 
 Shakspeare died in 1616, Milton in 1674, Dryden in 1700, Pope hi 
 1744, and Goldsmith in 1774. 
 
 Bonaparte was a man of unbounded ambition ; and Washlngtcu, 
 of disinterested patriotism. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Punctuate those sentences to which no references are given, in accordance with 
 Rule XVII. ; and the others agreeably to the Remarks i 
 
 The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by loftiness 
 of thought ; that of Dante by intensity of feeling. 
 
 Concession is no humiliation nor admission of error any disgrace. 
 (Remark c.) 
 
 Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy; 
 Aristotle most correctness. 
 
 The sculptor sees a statue and the philosopher a principle, where, 
 to the general eye, all is " without form, and void." (Remark b.) 
 
 Homer's imagination is by much the most rich and copious; 
 Virgil's the most chaste and correct. 
 
 The cupola is taken from the human skull pillars from legs thatch- 
 ing from hair and tiling from the scales of fish. (Remark d.) 
 
 Reading maketh a full man ; conference a ready man ; and writing 
 an exact man. 
 
 Avarice must come to the hour of utter destitution and pride to 
 the hour of utter prostration. (Remark c.) 
 
 The quality the most difficult to be found in public situations is 
 probity; the least difficult confidence. 
 
 Some men are eminent for what they possess some for what they 
 achieve and others for what they are. (Remark d.) 
 
 The first ingredient in conversation is truth : the next good sense ; 
 the third good-humor; and the fourth wit.
 
 TUE VERB UNDERSTOOD. 107 
 
 All our mental perceptions suggest their opposites, the finite 
 the infinite; the seen the unseen; time eternity; creation a God. 
 
 A pictured landscape recalls a familiar scene and a portrait a 
 familiar countenance. (Remark c.) 
 
 Talent is full of thoughts; genius of thought. One has definite 
 acquisitions ; the other indefinite power. 
 
 Addison taught the intellect and fancy and Richardson the pas- 
 sions, to move at the command of virtue. (Remark b or c.) 
 
 Nature had no obstacles that he did not surmount; space no 
 opposition that he did not spurn. 
 
 Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy 
 Aristotle most correctness, of judgment. (Remark b.) 
 
 To mourn without measure is folly; not to mourn at all insensi- 
 bility. Foresight is simple; retrospect multiform. 
 
 The young are slaves to novelty the old to custom the middle- 
 aged to both the dead to neither. (Remark d.) 
 
 Custom respects things which are done by the majority ; habit 
 those which are done by individuals. 
 
 A man's true prosperity often begins when he is said to be ruined 
 and his ruin when he is said to be prospering. (Remark c.) 
 
 Genius is the intuitive perception of what is ; moral sentiment 
 the feeling of what ought to be. 
 
 Chaucer most frequently describes things as they are Spenser as 
 we wish them to be Shakspeare as they would be and Milton as they 
 ought to be. (Remark d.) 
 
 Delicacy leans more to feeling; correctness more to reason ana 
 judgment. The former is the gift of nature ; the latter more the 
 product of culture and art. 
 
 Rashness is the error of youth ; and timid caution of age. Hurry 
 Is the mark of a weak mind; despatch of a strong one. (Rule, aud 
 Remark e.) 
 
 All nature \a but art, unknown to thee ; 
 All chance direction which thou canst not see ; 
 All discord harmony not understood ; 
 All partial evil universal good. 
 
 The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation and 
 the fool when he recommends himself to the applause of those about 
 him. (Remark c.) 
 
 Fear urges us to action; terror to flight. The idle want steadi- 
 ness of purpose ; the indolent power of exertion. Children have 
 understanding. 1 ;; men intellect.
 
 108 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 Clauses consisting of Short Quotations or Remarks. 
 
 A short quotation, or any expression that resembles 
 a quotation, is separated by a comma from the clause 
 which precedes it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Dr. Thomas Brown truly says, " The benevolent spirit is as universal in its 
 
 efforts as the miseries which are capable of being relieved." 
 
 2. One of the first lessons of a judicious education is, Learn to think and to 
 
 discriminate. 
 
 8. It may be laid down as a sacred maxim, that every man is wretched in 
 proportion to his vices. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. By a short quotation is meant a single sentence, containing the 
 remark of another writer. By an expression resembling a quotation 
 is indicated a remark, of some degree of importance, to which atten- 
 tion is called in the introductory clause. Such a remark ia not 
 uufrequently preceded by the conjunction " that," as in the third 
 example ; and, in these cases, the comma is usually inserted before 
 the particle. 
 
 b. Some writers annex a dash [ J to the comma; but this is 
 unnecessary, except before emphatic or long passages. If, however, 
 quotations or remarks extend to two or more sentences, and are for 
 uially or specially introduced, a colon is preferable. 
 
 c. When an indirect quotation or a remark is preceded by a very 
 brief clause, the comma is not required; as, "Andrew says he loves 
 me." "7 doubt not that mind is immortal." " It is impossible that 
 we should make Walter fully understand his ignorance." 
 
 d. But, if the remark or quotation consists of phrases which require 
 to be punctuated, a comma should precede the conjunction, even 
 when the introductory part of the sentence is quite short ; as, " Ossian 
 says, that sorrow, like a cloud on the sun, shaded the soul of Clessa- 
 mour." A comma should also be inserted after the conjunction, if 
 an inverted or an adverbial phrase begins the remark; as, "It is 
 certain, that, in the declension of taste and science, language will 
 degenerate." The reason for the punctuation in such instances is, 
 that the omission of the comma would bring the word " that " into
 
 SHORT QUOTATIONS. 109 
 
 too close a contact wi:h that part of the sentence with which it has 
 the least affinity. For the sentence is obviously divisible into two 
 portions, less connected than others which require to be pointed; the 
 first ending, in the former of these examples, with the verb " says," 
 and, in the latter, with the adjective " certain." 
 
 e. The comma may be omitted before that, when the clause on 
 which the conjunction depends does not precede the remark, but is 
 thrown in between its parts ; as, " In the ancient world, it is well 
 known that the name of poet was the same as that of prophet." This 
 omission takes place because a comma is put after the first portion 
 of the sentence, and because the repetition of the point would tend to 
 give a false view of the construction, and thereby obscure the sense. 
 
 f. But when, in similar sentences, the conjunction is omitted, the 
 comma should be substituted, agreeably to the principle adopted in 
 parenthetical expressions ; as, " In the ancient world, it it well known, 
 the name of poet was the same as that of prophet." See page 64, 
 Rule VIII. 
 
 g. A clause which begins with what, when, where, if, or how, indi 
 eating an indirect question or remark, is not usually separated from 
 its antecedent clause; as, " Will no one tell me what she sings? " 
 " Revelation clearly informs us how we may obtain happiness." 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 Say why, according to Rule XVIII., the following sentences are punctuated i - 
 
 Patrick Henry commenced by saying, " It is natural to man to 
 indulge in the illusions of hope." 
 
 The great and decisive test of genius is, that it calls forth power 
 in the souls of others. 
 
 I am not now to discuss the question, whether the souls of men 
 are naturally equal. 
 
 The very correct remark has been made, that " it is a great loss 
 to lose an affliction." 
 
 I reply, I do and must regard heaven as a world of intercourse 
 and sympathy. 
 
 His grand excellence was this, that he was a true man. There 
 is much in the proverb, " Without pains, no gains." 
 
 Such seems to be the disposition of man, whatever makes a dis- 
 tinction produces rivalry. 
 
 It is a law of man's nature, that he should endeavor to act before- 
 hand the part to which he is destined in a higher state of being.
 
 110 THE CO3IMA. 
 
 How do the preceding Remarks (pp. 108-9) apply to the insa (ion or the omission 
 of comma* in the sentences tliat follow 1 
 
 St. John says that God ia love. Swift asserts that uo man ever 
 wished himself younger. 
 
 Every one knows James is a very prolific writer. I trnst you 
 feel the importance of the subject. 
 
 It cannot be questioned, that we are, as yet, only in the rudiments 
 of the great science of education. 
 
 Wirt writes, that, as a statesman, Alexander Hamilton was dis- 
 tinguished for the great extent of his views. 
 
 Ere another day pass, I hope that you will find yourself surrounded 
 by your wife and children. 
 
 By the sweat of our brow, I say, we have to earn the little which 
 we possess. 
 
 We all know how a man of mighty genius can impart himself to 
 other minds. 
 
 EXEUCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Insert commas or not between the clauses of the following sentences, in accord- 
 ance with the eightcentji Rule and the Remarks: 
 
 Seneca tells us " There is a settled friendship, nay, a near relation 
 and similitude, between God and good men." (Rule.) 
 
 In the great science of society, it must be confessed that we have 
 much to learn. (Remark e.) 
 
 They know not what they say who cry out " Let us build taber- 
 nacles of rest." (Rule.) 
 
 Thou knowest that virtue can never be despoiled of its deathless 
 crown. (Remark c.) 
 
 It may be laid down as an unfailing and universal axiom that 
 "all pride is abject and mean." (Rule.) 
 
 We know it is wrong. I tell you that I have not your book. - 
 He said she bought it. (Remark c.) 
 
 The true ennoblement of our nature consists in the feeling that 
 our existence stretches beyond the bounds of this globe. (Rule.) 
 
 It is well known what strange work there has been in the world, 
 under the name and pretence of reformation. (Remark g.) 
 
 Thou shalt take np this proverb against the king of Babylon, and 
 gay " How hath the oppressor ceased ! " (Rule.) 
 
 In the din and bustle of Business, it may be the voice of conscience 
 and duty speaks unheard. (Remark f.)
 
 SHORT QUOTATIONS. Ill 
 
 I say unto all Watch. It is a true saying that we are never too 
 old to be taught. (Rule.) 
 
 Coleridge said he had the habit of seeking for the " good and 
 beautiful " in all his eyes beheld. (Remark c.) 
 
 There is no foundation for the popular doctrine that a state may 
 flourish by arts and crimes. (Rule.) 
 
 Some dream that they can silence, when they will, 
 
 The storm of passion, and say "Peace, be still." (Hem. c, and Rule.) 
 
 It has long been a subject of inquiry whether there existed in 
 nature a universal language. (Rule.) 
 
 Keep it in view that the great object of study is to fit the mind 
 to be an instrument of usefulness hi life. (Rule.) 
 
 It is not enough that we have great qualities: we must also have 
 the management of them. (Remark c.) 
 
 A celebrated modern writer says "Take care of the minutes, 
 and the hours will take care of themselves." (Rule.) 
 
 We affirm that, without some portion of enthusiasm, no person 
 ever became a true poet or painter. (Remark d, second sentence.) 
 
 It was said of Socrates that he brought philosophy down from 
 heaven to dwell among men. (Rule.) 
 
 I may say that, of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten 
 are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. 
 (Remark d, second sentence.) 
 
 Tell me when was it that you felt yourself most strongly inclined 
 to go astray ? Tell me when it was that you felt yourself most 
 strongly inclined to go astray. (Rule, and Remark g.) 
 
 It is one among tho pious and valuable maxims which are 
 ascribed to Francis de Sales " A judicious silence is always better 
 than truth spoken without charity." (Rule.) 
 
 In delineating the character of Dr. Bowditch, it deserves to be 
 mentioned that he was eminently a self-taught and self-made man. 
 (Remark e.) 
 
 Let me ask you are your resolutions as firm as when you first set 
 out in the spiritual life V Let me ask you if your resolutions are as 
 firm, &c. (Rule, and Remark </.) 
 
 The poet Gray, one of the most intellectual and fastidious of 
 men, says " Happy they who can create a rose-tree, or erect u 
 honeysuckle ! " ( Rule. ) 
 
 Thou knowest that principle, grounded in the eternal laws of 
 mind and emanating from the unchangeable essence of God, cannot 
 perish. (Rule, and first of Remark d.)
 
 112 THE COMMA. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Numeral Figures and Words. 
 
 With the exception of dates, figures consisting of four 
 or more characters are pointed with a comma before 
 every three from the end, or between each class of 
 hundreds. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The population of China in 1743, according to the French missionaries, 
 was 150,029,855 J in 1825, according to Dr. Morrison, 352,866,002. 
 
 K E M A R K S. 
 
 a. Properly speaking, the comma, as here used, is neither a gram- 
 matical nor a rhetorical point; but, for the easy understanding of 
 the value of sums, it is exceedingly useful. The rule is inserted in 
 this place, merely because a more appropriate situation could not 
 be found for it in the book. 
 
 b. When put in words, numbers are usually left unpointed ; as, to 
 take the first calculation in the example, " The population of China 
 in 1743 was fifteen millions twenty-nine thousand eight hundred and 
 fifty-five." 
 
 c. When round numbers are used, and no comparison is made 
 between one sum and another, words are preferable to figures ; as, 
 "According to Balbi, the entire population of Africa is thirty-nine 
 millions." 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Punctuate the figures, except those expressive of dates i 
 
 The sun is 883210 miles in diameter, about 2774692 miles in 
 circumference, and distant from the earth about 95000000 of miles. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains rise 12500 feet above the level of the 
 ocean ; the Andes, 21440 feet. 
 
 On April 17, 1790, Dr. Franklin died at Philadelphia, aged eighty- 
 four, and bequeathed $4444 to the people of Boston, for the benefit 
 of young married artificers. 
 
 Population of the city of New York in 1790 was 33131 ; hi 1800, 
 60489; in 1810, 96373; in 1820, 123706; in 1830, 202589; in 1840, 
 312710; in 1850,515507.
 
 113 
 
 SECT. II. THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 The SEMICOLON [ ; ] is used to separate such parts 
 of a sentence as are somewhat less closely connected 
 than those separated by a comma. 
 
 RULE I. 
 A Sentence consisting of Two Conjoined Clauses. 
 
 When two clauses are united by either of the con- 
 junctions for, but, and, or an equivalent word, the 
 one clause perfect in itself, and the other added as a 
 matter of inference, contrast, or explanation, they 
 are separated by a semicolon. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a 
 
 great deal. 
 
 2. Genius breaks from the fetters of criticism ; but its wanderings are sanc- 
 
 tioned by its majesty and wisdom. 
 
 8. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth; and it has ever been 
 esteemed a presage of rising merit. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. When a conjunction unites two clauses incapable of being 
 subdivided by a comma, in the last of which the nominative is 
 understood, the insertion of a comma between the clauses is prefer- 
 able to that of the semicolon. Thus, were the nominative " it," in 
 the third example, omitted, the sentence would be punctuated as 
 follows : " Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth, and ha? 
 ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit." See page 98. 
 
 6. When a sentence consists of three or more clauses, united by a 
 conjunction, none of which are susceptible of division, a semicolon 
 8
 
 114 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 should be put between those which are least connected in sense, 
 and a comma only between the others ; as, " The woods may dis- 
 appear, but the spirit of them will never now; for it has been felt 
 by a poet, and we can feel for ever what he felt." 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Repeat the preceding Definition and Rule, and say why semicolons are inserted 
 in the following- sentences : 
 
 All cannot be great ; and nobody may reasonably expect all the 
 world to be engaged with lauding his merits. 
 
 Idleness is the parent of every vice ; but well-directed activity is 
 the source of every laudable pursuit and worldly attainment. 
 
 Examinations are formidable even to the best prepared ; for the 
 greatest fool may ask more than the wisest man can answer. 
 
 An entire retreat from worldly affairs is not what religion requires ; 
 nor does it even enjoin a long retreat from them. 
 
 Religion must be the spirit of every hour; but it cannot be the 
 meditation of every hour. 
 
 A clownish air is but a small defect; yet it is enough to make a 
 man disagreeable. 
 
 We have carved a cross upon our altars ; but the smoke of our 
 sacrifice goes up to Thor and Odin still. 
 
 Reasoning implies doubt and uncertainty ; and therefore God does 
 not reason. 
 
 Endless existence is a great truth; but an immortality of pure 
 affections and holy employments is far greater. 
 
 Men must have recreation; and literature and art furnish that 
 which is most pure, innocent, and refining. 
 
 Do not think yourself perfect; for imperfection is natural to 
 humanity. 
 
 Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden; but Dryden cer- 
 tainly wanted the diligence of Pope. 
 
 Life is felt to be a great and gracious boon by all who enjoy its 
 light ; and this is not too much felt. 
 
 Never value yourself upon your fortune ; for this is the sign of a 
 weak mind. 
 
 Virtue i a real honor; whereas all other distinctions are merely 
 
 titular. 
 
 Distracted and surprised with deep dismay 
 At these sad tidings; but no time was then 
 For long indulgence to their tears or grief.
 
 TWO CONJOINED CLAUSES. 115 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Let the following sentences be punctuated agreeably to the preceding Rule and 
 Remarks t 
 
 Make a proper use of your time for the loss of it can never be 
 regained. 
 
 Truth will pass down in fragments to posterity but posterity will 
 collect and compose them into a whole. 
 
 Ivy is the beauty Df old ruins and your faith is not unlike it for 
 it springs up so strongly from amidst fallen hopes. (Remark b.) 
 
 Mere knowledge may be idle but belief and love will, and mast, 
 go forth in action. 
 
 He is a freeman whom the truth makes free 
 And all are slaves beside. 
 
 Chaucer followed nature everywhere but never went beyond her. 
 (Remark a.) 
 
 Good and evil are inseparable companions but the latter often 
 hides behind the back of the former. 
 
 Liberal dealing is better than almsgiving for it tends to prevent 
 pauperism, which is better than to relieve it. 
 
 The proud have no friends in prosperity for then they know no- 
 body and none in adversity for then no one knows them. (Rem. b.) 
 
 Property left to a child may soon be lost but the inheritance of 
 virtue will abide for ever. 
 
 Outward suffering is the lot of human nature and it is cheering 
 to see it bravely borne even on the battle-field. 
 
 A good conscience is a continual feast and proves a spring of joy 
 amidst the greatest distresses. (Remark a.) 
 
 The study of truth is perpetually joined with the love of virtue 
 for there is no virtue which derives not its original from truth. 
 
 A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to atheism but depth in 
 philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion. 
 
 Infidelity is not always built upon doubt for this is diffident nor 
 philosophy always upon wisdcm for this is meek. (Remark b.) 
 
 Some persons make a long story short but most persons make a 
 short story long. Scott built a castle but he broke his heart. 
 
 We promise according to our hopes but perform according to our 
 fears. (Remark a.) 
 
 The esteem of wise and good men is the greatest of all temporal 
 encouragements to virtue and it is the mark of an abandoned spirit 
 to have no regard to it
 
 116 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 RULE H. 
 Expressions divided into Simpler Parts. 
 
 A semicolon is placed between two or more parts of 
 a sentence, when these, or any of them, are divisible 
 by a comma into smaller portions. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; but by 
 
 the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works. 
 2 The noblest prophets and apostles have been children once ; lisping the 
 
 speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought, of boyhood. 
 8. As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not perceive it moving; 
 
 BO our advances in learning, as they consist of such minute steps, are 
 
 perceivable only by the distance. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. It is obvious, that, if the smaller portions of a sentence require 
 to be separated by a comma from each other, the construction and 
 sense of the whole passage will be more readily perceived, if the 
 larger divisions are set apart by the insertion of a point indicating a 
 less intimate connection. This will show the propriety of putting 
 a semicolon, in the first example, between the negative and the 
 affirmative portion of the sentence; in the second, between the clause 
 and the series of phrases; and, in the third, between the members. 
 
 b. When, however, in a sentence resolvable into two or more larger 
 portions that require to be separated by a semicolon, the last ends 
 with a series of phrases, of which only the final one is capable of 
 subdivision, the comma will usually be found sufficient to distinguish 
 all the final terms. Thus: " As, with a small telescope, a few feet in 
 length and breadth, man learns to survey heavens beyond heavens, 
 almost infinite; so, with the aid of limited senses and faculties, does 
 he rise to the conception of what is beyond all visible heavens, 
 beyond all conceivable time, beyond all imagined power, beauty, and 
 glory." 
 
 c. When the insertion of a semicolon would tend to break up the 
 harmony or the dependencies of the thought expressed, the larger 
 portions of a sentence, though its smaller parts are susceptible of 
 being grammatically divided, should be separated only by a comma,
 
 EXPRESSIONS DIVIDED INTO PARTS. 117 
 
 as in the following passage : " Like one of those wondrous rocking 
 stones reared by the Druids, which the finger of a child might vibrate 
 to its centre, yet the might of an army could not move from its 
 place, | our Constitution is so nicely poised and balanced, that it 
 seems to sway with every breath of opinion, yet so firmly rooted 
 in the heart and affections of the people, that the wildest storms of 
 treason and fanaticism break over it in vain." This sentence, though 
 containing seven grammatical parts, or pointed groups of words, is 
 divisible into two main portions, the first ending with the word 
 " place ; " but these larger portions cannot be more separated from 
 each other than the smaller one's, because they are so compactly and 
 finely bound together, that any other mark than a comma would 
 tend to loosen their connection, and to mar the unity which runs 
 throughout the whole passage. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Assign the reason for the insertion of semicolons In the following sentences : 
 
 Prosperity is naturally, though net necessarily, attached to virtue 
 aud merit; adversity, to vice and folly. 
 
 The furnace of affliction may be fierce; but, if it refineth thy soul, 
 the good of one meek thought shall outweigh years of torment. 
 
 Every thing that happens is both a cause and an effect; being the 
 effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows. 
 
 There is a fierce conflict of good and evil throughout the universe; 
 but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last. 
 
 Argument, as usually managed, is the worst sort of conversation ; 
 as it is generally, in books, the worst sort of reading. 
 
 The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn ; and Egypt, 
 Greece, Rome, Gaul, Britain, America, lie folded already in the 
 first man. 
 
 He was respectful, not servile, to superiors; affable, not improperly 
 familiar, to equals ; and condescending, not supercilious, to those 
 beneath him. 
 
 The little, bleak farm, sad and affecting in its lone and extreme 
 simplicity, smiled like the paradise of poverty; when the lark, lured 
 thither Dy some green barley-field, rose ringing over the solitude. 
 
 As a malicious censure, craftily worded and pronounced with 
 assurance, is apt to pass with mankind for shrewd wit; so a virulent 
 maxim in bold expressions, though without any justness of thought, 
 \s readily received for true philosophy.
 
 118 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 It is the first point of wisdom to ward off evils; the second, to 
 make them beneficial. 
 
 The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a perpetual smile ; 
 and eyes, through which shine the light of other worlds, are often 
 dimmed with tears. 
 
 The golden rule is a protest against selfishness; and selfishness, 
 cleaving as it does to the inmost core of our being, is the besetting 
 in of the world. 
 
 Books are standing counsellors and preachers, always at hand, 
 and always disinterested; having this advantage over oral instructors, 
 that they are ready to repeat their lesson as often as we please. 
 
 EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Agreeably to the Rule (p. 116), insert semicolons in the following sentences i 
 
 By granting that intellectual improvement was unfavorable to 
 productions of the imagination, we should look to the least culti- 
 vated minds for bolder flights than to Milton, Pope, or Byron the 
 absurdity of which is seen by the mere statement of it. 
 
 Wordsworth, in his poetry, works out wisdom as it comes from 
 the common heart of man, and appeals to that heart in turn causing 
 us to recognize the truth, that there is something in humanity which 
 deserves alike our love and reverence. 
 
 The most precious of all possessions is power over ourselves power 
 to withstand trial, to bear suffering, to front danger power over plea- 
 sure and pain power to follow our convictions, however resisted by 
 menace and scorn the power of calm reliance in scenes of darkness 
 and storms. 
 
 There, cold and lifeless, is the heart which just now was the seat 
 of friendship there, dim and sightless, is the eye whose radiant and 
 enlivening orb beamed with intelligence and there, closed for ever, 
 are those lips on whose persuasive accents we have so often and so 
 lately hung with transport. 
 
 But who the melodies of morn can tell? 
 
 The wild brook, babbling down the mountain-side 
 
 The lowing herd the sheepfold'8 simple bell 
 
 The pipe of early shepherd, dim descried 
 
 In the lone valley echoing far and wide, 
 
 The clamorous horn along the cliffs above 
 
 The hollow murmur of the ocean-tide 
 
 The hum of bees the linnet's lay of love 
 And the full choir that wakes the universal grove.
 
 EXPRESSIONS DIVIDED INTO PARTS. 119 
 
 tnsert commas and semicolons In the jotluinng sentences, where they are required 
 by the references : 
 
 Be not anxious impatient over-inquisitive but thoughtful serious 
 and calm. (Page 116, Rule; and p. 37, Rule.) 
 
 If ever Christianity appears hi its power it is when it erects its 
 trophies upon the tomb when it takes up its votaries where the world 
 leaves them and fills the breast with immortal hope in dying mo- 
 ments. (Page 116, Rule; p. 89, Rule and d; p. 98, Rule.) 
 
 When we look up to heaven and behold the sun shining in glory 
 or the moon and the stars walking in brightness untaught nature 
 prompts us to adore Him that made them to bow down and worship 
 in the temple not made with hands. (Page 116, Remark c; p. 98.) 
 
 Every particle of dust every grain of sand every minutest atom 
 is an active agent in the mighty whole making itself felt through 
 all the masses in our solar system and through this on all systems 
 in the universe. (Rule, p. 116; and Rule, p. 98.) 
 
 When the virtuous father of a family stands before us great hi 
 native worth of soul amidst all the outward tokens of poverty and 
 an humble calling what a feeling of honor and sympathy goes forth 
 spontaneously from our hearts to greet that truest expression of 
 hnman respectability! (Page 116, Remark c; p. 64; p. 79, A.) 
 
 As we trust the long-tried affection of a human friend when for 
 reasons satisfactory to him he now and then withholds from us his 
 ultimate purposes so pious souls acquiescing in ignorance and con- 
 scious of absolute dependence on the Parent Mind dissolve their 
 fears and their doubts in perfect faith. (Page 116, Rule; p. 89, Rule 
 and d; and p. 64.) 
 
 There also are the eloquence the literature the poetry of all times 
 and tongues, those glorious efforts of genius that rule with a never- 
 dying sway over our sympathies and affections commanding our 
 smiles and tears kindling the imagination wanning the heart filling 
 the fancy with beauty and awing the soul with the sublime the ter- 
 rible the powerful the infinite. (Page 116, Rule and b; pp. 37, 57, 
 61, 98.) 
 
 Though sometimes on passing from the turmoil of the city and 
 the heats of restless life into the open temple of the silent universe 
 we are tempted to think that there is the taint of earth and here the 
 purity of heaven yet sure it is that God is seen by us through man 
 rather than through nature and that without the eye of our brother 
 and the voices of our kind the winds might sigh and the stars look 
 down on us in vain. (Page 116, Rule; p. 64; p. 98, Rule and b.)
 
 120 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 RULE HI. 
 A Series of Expressions having a Common Dependence. 
 
 When, in a series of expressions, the particulars 
 depend on a commencing or a concluding portion of 
 the sentence, they should be separated from each other 
 by a semicolon, if they are either laid down as distinct 
 propositions, or are of a compound nature. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that 
 she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be 
 progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, 
 of which we have not the slightest idea. 
 
 2. To give an early preference to honor above gain, when they stand in 
 competition; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without 
 dishonest arts; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no dissimulation, are 
 the indications of a great mind, the presages of future eminence and usefulness 
 in life. 
 
 3. If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the 
 purest patriotism ; of the highest integrity, public and private ; of morals 
 without a stain; of religious feelings without intolerance and without extra- 
 vagance, the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation 
 of all these ideas. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The first sentence exemplifies a series of clauses, being each a 
 distinct proposition, but depending all on the words that precede 
 them, namely, " philosophers assert." The second example illus- 
 trates a series of expressions, the first two consisting each of a 
 phrase and a clause; the third, of two coupled phrases; and all 
 depending on the portion which concludes the sentence, on the 
 predicate, " are the indications of a great mind," &c. The third 
 example exhibits a series of phrases, which, according to Rule XVI., 
 p. 98, would be punctuated only with a comma, were it not for the 
 compound phrase, "of the highest integrity, public and private," 
 the subdivision of which requires to be distinguished by a point less 
 significant than that between the other phrases. 
 
 b. Commas are sometimes preferable to semicolons, when none of 
 the particulars in a series of clauses, except perhaps the last, are
 
 SERIES OF EXPRESSIONS. 121 
 
 divisible into simpler portions. This mode of punctuation should be 
 adopted when the particulars begin each with a verb, and have a 
 common nominative on which they depend, as in the following pas- 
 sage: "Poetry \ reveals to us the loveliness of nature, bi-inys back 
 the freshness of early feeling, revives the relish of simple pleasures, 
 keeps unquenched the enthusiasm which warmed the spring-time of 
 our being, refines youthful love, strengthens our interest in human 
 nature by vivid delineations of its tenderest and loftiest feelings, 
 spreads our sympathies over all classes of society, knits us by new 
 ties with universal being, and, through the brightness of its prophetic 
 visions, hel/>s faith to lay hold on the future life." See page 98. 
 
 c. If a series of phrases, of which some at least are compound, 
 though none of them parts of clauses, depends on the commencing 
 or the concluding portion of a sentence, and any of them are capable 
 of being subdivided by means of a comma, all the depending portions 
 should be separated from each other by a semicolon ; as, " By doing, 
 or at least endeavoring to do, our duty to God and man ; by acquiring 
 an humble trust in the mercy and favor of God, through Jesus Christ; 
 by cultivating our minds, and properly employing our time and 
 thoughts ; by correcting all unreasonable expectations from the world 
 and from men ; and, in the midst of worldly business, habituating 
 ourselves to calm retreat and serious recollection, by such means 
 as these, it may be hoped, that, through the divine blessing, our days 
 shall flow in a stream as unruffled as the human state admits." 
 
 d. Accordingly, such phrases as those which occur in the following 
 sentence, though dependent on another expression, are punctuated 
 better by the comma: "The world is still renewed with fresh life 
 and beauty, with a constant succession of trees and plants, with a 
 new race of animals, with a new generation of men." 
 
 . Some punctuators insert a dash, instead of a semicolon or a 
 comma, between clauses or phrases dependent on other expressions. 
 But, though it is not denied that in the more rhetorical kind of such 
 sentences, this mark may be adopted, the semicolon or the comma is 
 usually preferable, because the frequent recurrence of dashes, thence 
 ensuing, would be unpleasant to the eye, without affording a propor- 
 tionate aiu to the understanding, and would mar the effect which 
 they have when properly and necessarily used. 
 
 f. The dash, however, appended to a comma, as in the second and 
 third examples under the rule, is suitably put after the last particular, 
 that the relation of all the particulars to the portion on which they 
 depend may be more clearly shown. See Chap. III., Sect. III.
 
 122 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Show how the Rule (p. 120) may be applied to the insertion of the semicolons in 
 the following' sentences i 
 
 To have even our earthly being extended in everlasting remem- 
 brance ; to be known wherever the name of virtue can reach ; and to 
 be known as the benefactors of every age, by the light which we have 
 diffused, or the actions which we have performed or prompted, who 
 is there that does not feel some desire of this additional immortality? 
 
 Is there any splendor to be found in distant travels beyond that 
 which sets its morning throne in the golden east ; any dome sublimer 
 than that of heaven ; any beauty fairer than that of the verdant and 
 blossoming earth ; any place, though invested with all the sanctities 
 of old time, like that home which is hushed and folded within the 
 embrace of the humblest wall and roof? 
 
 Leigh ton is great by the magnificence of thought; by the sponta- 
 neous emanations of a mind replete with sacred knowledge, and 
 bursting with seraphic affections; by that pauseless gush of intel- 
 lectual splendor, in which the outward shell, the intermediate letter, 
 is eclipsed and almost annihilated, that full scope may be given to 
 the mighty effulgence of the informing spirit. 
 
 Happy, thrice happy, he who relies on the eternity of the soul; 
 who believes, as the loved fall one after one from his side, that they 
 have returned to their native country; who feels that each treasure 
 of knowledge he attains, he carries with him through illimitable 
 being; who sees in virtue the essence and the element of the world 
 he is to inherit. 
 
 There are men whose powers operate in leisure and in retirement, 
 and whose intellectual vigor deserts them in conversation; whom 
 merriment confuses, and objection disconcerts; whose bashfulness 
 restrains their exertion, and suffers them not to speak till the time 
 of speaking is past; or whose attention to their own character makes 
 them unwilling to utter at hazard what has not been considered, and 
 cannot be recalled. 
 
 That benevolence which prompted Jesus to incessant exertion; 
 which supported him through unparalleled suffering; which was 
 alike the soul of his discourses, his actions, and his miracles ; which 
 shone through his life and his death ; whose splendors were around 
 his brow when he expired on the cross, and when he sat down on 
 the right hand of the Majesty on high, what is it but a glorious 
 revelation of the glorious truth, that God is love ?
 
 SERIES OF EXPRESSIONS. 128 
 
 EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Insert semicolon* or commas between the particulars of each series in these 
 sentences, IH accordance icit/i the Rule and Remarks (pp. 120-21) : 
 
 The great tendency and purpose of poetry is to carry the mind 
 above and beyond the beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life 
 to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more profound 
 and generous emotion. (Rule, and Remark c.) 
 
 He was framed to enjoy equally the fire of poetic or the abstruse- 
 ness of philosophical writings to watch the meteor-flash of oratory 
 or to trace iii history's page the even course of milder eloquence. 
 (Remark </.) 
 
 Benevolence remembers the slave pleads his cause with God and 
 man recognizes in him a human brother respects in him the sacred 
 rights of Immunity and claims for him, not as a boon but as a right, 
 that freedom without which humanity withers, and God's child is 
 degraded into a tool or a brute. (Remark 6.) 
 
 If tliou hast never tasted the holy peace which descends into the 
 simplest heart, when it fervently realizes the presence of God if no 
 gle;iin from the future life ever brightens thy earthly way if the 
 sores mid irritations of thy contact with the world are never soothed 
 and softened by the healing consciousness of a divine love, thou 
 hast studied to little purpose, and the fountains of a true happiness 
 are yet sealed up to tliee. (Rule.) 
 
 The bad phenomenon of character, which is mainly to be traced 
 to impulse, is that of uncertainty of a being on whom no dependence 
 can be placed who is driven hither and thither by every wind that 
 blows who receives impressions one day from one quarter, another 
 day from another who has neither fixed principles in his intellect, 
 nor harmony and consistency in his conduct. (Rule.) 
 
 No matter in what language the stranger's doom may have been 
 pronounced no matter what complexion, incompatible with freedom, 
 an Indian or an African sun may have burned upon him no matter 
 in what disastrous battle his liberty may have been cloven down no 
 mutter with what solemnities he may have been devoted upon the 
 altar of slavery, the first moment he touches the sacred soil of 
 Britain, the altar and the god sink together in the dust his soul 
 walks abroad in her own majesty his body swells beyond the 
 measure of his chains, that burst from around him and he stands 
 redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled by the irresistible Genius 
 of Universal Emancipation. (Rules, pp. 120, 110.*
 
 124 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 Let the following paragraphs be punctuated throughout, in consistency aitfi 
 
 the Rule and Remarks (pp. 120-21), and with preceding portions of tin. 
 
 work : 
 
 Wherever on this earth an understanding is active to know and 
 serve the truth wherever a heart beats with kind and pure and gene- 
 rous affections wherever a home spreads its sheltering wing over 
 husband and wife and parent and child there under every diver- 
 sity of outward circumstance the true worth and dignity and peace 
 of man's soul are within reach of all. 
 
 In the light of beauty that floats over the changing aspects of the 
 material universe in the grand interpreting thought which pervades 
 the broken story of the ages and translates it into coherency in the 
 spirit which comes to you from the smiles of gladness and the tears 
 of sorrow and softens your heart hi geiiial sympathy with human 
 weal and human woe in the interchange of ideas which kindles 
 enthusiasm and draws a higher meaning and purpose out of life 
 acknowledge realities which transcend the limits of sense own a 
 spiritual world whose mysteries encompass you on every side by 
 whose laws you are bound and in whose issues of endless unfolding 
 you are yourself perhaps destined to be involved. 
 
 Those who have shone in all ages as the lights of the world the 
 most celebrated names that are recorded in the annals of fame 
 legislators the founders of states and the fathers of their country 
 on whom succeeding ages have looked back with filial reverence 
 patriots the guardians of the laws who have stemmed the torrent of 
 corruption in every age heroes the saviours of their country who 
 have returned victorious from the field of buttle or more than victo 
 rious who have died for their country philosophers who have opened 
 the book of nature and explained the wonders of almighty power 
 bards who have sung the praises of virtue and of virtuous men 
 whose strains carry them down to immortality with a few excep- 
 tions have been uniformly on the side of goodness and have been as 
 distinguished in the temple of fame. It was one of the maxims 
 which governed their lives that there is nothing in nature which can 
 compensate wickedness that although the rewards and punishments 
 which influence illiberal and ungenerous minds were set aside that 
 although the thunders of the Almighty were hushed and the gates 
 of paradise were open no more they would follow religion and virtue 
 for their own sake and co-operate with eternal Providence in per- 
 petual endeavors to favor the good to depress the bad and to 
 promote the happiness of the whole creation.
 
 SENTENCES SLIGHTLY CONNECTED. 125 
 
 RULE IV. 
 Short Sentences slightly Connected. 
 
 When several short sentences follow one another, 
 slightly connected in sense or in construction, they 
 should be separated by a semicolon. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, lire, and feel. 
 
 2. Every thing grows old ; every thing passes away ; every thing disappears. 
 8. She presses her child to her heart ; she drowns it in her tears ; her fancy 
 
 catches more than an angel's tongue could describe. 
 
 K E M A K K S. 
 
 a. Without instituting any comparison between the merits of a 
 concise and a dill use style of composition, which, indeed, is out of 
 our province, we may observe, that a printed page, when crowded 
 with short sentences, and having, in consequence, a great number 
 of capitals and large spaces, is offensive to the eye. As a matter of 
 taste, therefore, as well as of propriety, it is recommended, that, 
 wherever a number of short successive sentences are evidently 
 allied to one another in thought, expression, or construction, as in 
 the examples under the rule, semicolons be substituted for full 
 points. 
 
 b. In poetry very often occur short sentences which could not 
 be separated by a full point, without destroying the connection 
 which subsists between them; for, hampered by the peculiar struc- 
 ture of verse, and more attentive to the fineness of his thoughts, the 
 harmony of his numbers, and the appropriateness of his imagery, 
 than to any regular train of ideas, the poet is frequently obliged to 
 omit the connecting and disjunctive particles, so useful in prose 
 composition in knitting together parts of sentences which are closely 
 related in sense, and in separating those which are distinct. Espe- 
 cially in the more common kinds of verse, consisting of stanzas 
 regularly formed, as used in songs, ballads, and hymns, it is better 
 to point the sentences, of which they consist, with semicolons or 
 colons, according to their various relations, except where the dis- 
 tinctions in thought and expression are prominent; for, in all snch 
 cases, periods must be used.
 
 126 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 c. When, in a series of short sentences, each particular is con- 
 structed exactly alike, and the last is preceded by the conjunction 
 and, the separation may be indicated by a comma, instead of a semi- 
 colon, agreeably to the rule on page 98 ; as, " The pride of wealth is 
 contemptible, the pride of learning is pitiable, the pride of dignity 
 is ridiculous, and the pride of bigotry is insupportable." 
 
 OltAL, EXKUCISK. 
 What is tlie reason for tlie insertion of semicolons in these sentence* ? 
 
 The wind and rain are over ; calm is the noon of day ; the clouds 
 are divided in heaven; over the green hill flies the inconstant suu. 
 
 The old men sit at their doors; the gossip leans over her counter; 
 the children shout and frolic in the streets. 
 
 There is good for the good; there is virtue for tiie faithful; there 
 is victory for the valiant; there is spirituality for the spiritual. 
 
 The evidences of religion have been collected ; its doctrines have 
 been elucidated; the attacks of its enemies have been repelled; the 
 morals of its professors, upon the whole, have been purified. 
 
 When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity; when he 
 describes, we expect embellishment; when he decides or relates, we 
 desire plainness and simplicity. 
 
 The Christian orator speaks the truth plainly to his hearers ; he 
 awakens them; he shows them their impending danger; he excites 
 them to action. 
 
 The temples are profaned; the soldier's curse resounds in the 
 house of God; the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs; 
 horses neigh beside the altar. 
 
 The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy represents 
 a disastrous event; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of man- 
 kind; pjustoral poetry describes rural life; and elegy displays the 
 tender emotions of the heart. 
 
 Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
 The dark, unfat homed caves of oceau bear; 
 Full mauy a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 
 
 We pay no homage at the tomb of kings to sublime our feelings : 
 we trace no line of illustrious ancestors to support our dignity ; we 
 recur to no usages, sanctioned by the authority of the great, to 
 protract our rejoicing. No: we love liberty; we glory in the rights 
 of men ; we glory in independence.
 
 SENTENCES SLIGHTLY CONNECTED. 127 
 
 KXKKCISK TO BE W1UTTKN. 
 
 Separate these sliort sentences by means of semicolons, in accordance wtth Uie 
 Rule and Remarks (p. 125) : 
 
 He is poor perhaps his plans have been defeated he finds it diffi- 
 cult to provide for the exigencies of life sickness is permitted to 
 invade the quiet of his household long confinement imprisons his 
 activity. 
 
 When we read a classical poet, we feel as if we had entered a 
 marble temple, where a cool silence reigns a few quiet statues 
 gleam around us, pure and naked a few short inscriptions tell of the 
 deeds of heroes all is calm, grand, and simple, to the highest per- 
 fection of art. 
 
 There is a pleasure In the pathless woods 
 
 There is a rapture on the lonely shore 
 
 There is society, where none intrudes, 
 
 By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 
 
 The world is fair around thee the bright and blessed sun shineth 
 on thee the green and flowery fields spread far, and cheer thine eye, 
 and invite thy footstep the groves are full of melody ten thousand 
 creatures range freely through all the paths of nature: but tliou art 
 not satisfied as they are. 
 
 Genius, mental power, has surrounded your homes with comfort 
 it has given you the command of the blind forces of matter it has 
 exalted and consecrated your affections it has brought God's immea- 
 surable universe nearer to your hearts and imaginations it has made 
 flowers of paradise spring up even in poor men's gardens. 
 
 It is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because that is to excel 
 many others it is pleasant to grow better, because that is to excel our- 
 selves it is pleasant to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that 
 is victory it is pleasant to command our appetites and passions, 
 and to keep them in due order within the bounds of reason and 
 religion, because that is empire. 
 
 Saints have established our religion by their lives martyrs have 
 confirmed it by their deaths hypocrites have added strength to it 
 by their dissimulation tyrants have purified it by their persecutions 
 infidels have corroborated it by their opposition the arrows of its 
 enemies have served for its protection the resistance which it has 
 met with from the combined wit and genius and malice of mankind 
 have brought forth those illustrious and immortal defences which 
 establish its truth upon the basis of demonstration.
 
 128 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 RULE V. 
 Lists of Words, Phrases, and Numbers. 
 
 A semicolon is put before as, viz., to wit, namely, 
 i. e., or that is, when they precede an example or a 
 specification of particulars, or subjects enumerated ; 
 and also between these particulars, when they consist 
 each of a disjunct pair of words, or of a single word or 
 phrase but slightly connected with the others. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Many words are differently spelled iu English ; as, " Inquire, enquire ; jail, 
 
 gaol; sceptic, skeptic." 
 
 2. To Greece we are indebted for the three principal orders of architecture ; 
 
 namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. 
 
 3. De Quiucey's Philosophical Writers, 2 Tola. ' Vol. 1. Hamilton ; Mackin- 
 
 tosh; Kant; Herder; Kichter; Lessing. Vol. 2. Bentley; Parr. 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 When at, namely, thai is, &c., with the terms after them, are used 
 parenthetically, they should be preceded only by a comma; as, 
 " The word ' reck,' that is, care, denotes a stretching of the mind." 
 " Of the three cardinal virtues, namely, faith, hope, and charity, 
 the greatest is charity." See pp. 64, 72. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Say why semicolons are used in the following sentences . 
 
 The inseparable preposition pre is derived from the Latin prce; 
 as in " prefix, prejudice, predetermine," 
 
 Some men distinguish the period of the world into four ages ; viz., 
 the golden age, the silver age, the brazen age, and the iron age. 
 
 Logicians say that the operations of the mind are three ; namely, 
 1. Simple apprehension ; 2. Judgment; 3. Discourse, or reasoning. 
 
 Our duties to individuals are classed under four heads ; viz., as 
 arising from affinity; friendship; benefits received; contract. 
 
 Find the increase in the population from 1790 to 1800; to 1810: 
 1820; 1830; 1840; 1850; from 1800 to 1810; 1810 to 1850.
 
 12U 
 
 SECT. III. THE COLON. 
 
 The COLON [ : J is used in a sentence between 
 parts less connected than those which are divided by a 
 semicolon, but not so independent as separate, distinct 
 sentences. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 n. It is to be regretted that some grammarians have expressed a 
 wish to discard the use of the colon, and that others have ventured 
 even to expel it from their systems of punctuation. But, though iu 
 former times it was common to employ this point where the semi- 
 colon or the period might have been more serviceable, there are in 
 composition well-ascertained cases in which the insertion of the 
 colon tends to bring out the idea of a writer with greater facility. 
 The truth of this remark may be tested by a comparison of the sen- 
 tences which will now be exhibited to illustrate the proper use of the 
 colon, with those which have been cited in pp. 113-28 in exempli- 
 fication of the semicolon, and with others, of a different character, 
 requiring the period, which will be treated of in the next section. 
 
 b. On the other hand, some writers are accustomed to insert 
 colons between clauses or phrases, where, both from the construction 
 and the sense, semicolons should be used. Thus, in a work recently 
 published, which, though remarkable for the excellence of its thoughts 
 and the beauty of its style, is very inaccurately punctuated, the 
 larger portions of the following passages are separated by the colon, 
 instead of the semicolon : " There are sorrows that affect a more 
 private sphere of action: and these, too, have their appropriate 
 compensations." " We must not violate the first principles of 
 eternal reason: we must not disregard those instinctive promptings 
 of onr spiritual nature which are as much fundamental realities of 
 our being, and as essential conditions of all truth, as the principles 
 of reason itself: and, in our earnest efforts to find out God and 
 understand his ways, we must admit no view inconsistent with the 
 highest notion that we can form of a perfect Spirit." 
 9
 
 loO THE COLON. 
 
 RULE I. 
 Tvx> Clauses not Joined by a Conjunction. 
 
 A colon should be put after a clause that is complete 
 in itself, but is followed, without a conjunction, by some 
 remark, inference, or illustration. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Virtue Is too lovely and useful to be immured in a cell : the world IB her 
 
 sphere of action. 
 
 2. Nor was the religion of the Greek drama a mere form : it was full of truth, 
 
 spirit, and power. 
 
 8. In business there is something more than barter, exchange, price, pay- 
 ment: there is a sacred faith of man in man. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The chief difference between this rule and that on page 113 
 is, that the semicolon is used between two clauses when they are 
 united by a conjunction, and the colon when the particle is omitted. 
 
 Thus, 
 
 Avoid affectation ; for it U a contemptible weakness. 
 Avoid affectation : it is a contemptible weakness. 
 
 In many cases, however, the Insertion of the connective would 
 injure the beauty or force of the sentiment, as in the examples 
 nnder the rule. 
 
 b. When the conjunction is omitted between clauses having only 
 one verb, a semicolon is preferable, because, by the ellipsis of the 
 verb, the portions of the sentence are dependent in their construc- 
 tion, and more closely allied ; as, " The path of truth is a plain aud 
 safe path; that of falsehood, a perplexing maze." See page 104. 
 
 c. Two clauses, of which the former raises the expectation of 
 the latter, or which express a comparison or a contrast one with the 
 ether, but without the use of a connecting word, are subject to 
 the rule ; as, " Anger is like rain : it breaks itself upon that on which 
 it falls." " Cowards die many times : the valiant never taste of 
 death." 
 
 d. Conformably also to the rule, a colon is put after the adverbs 
 yea, no, or after the vocative case when following them, if they are 
 equivalent to a sentence answering a question previously asked or 
 implied; as, " Will he pretend to say that this is an offensive war,
 
 TAVO CLAUSES NOT CONJOINED. 131 
 
 a war of conquest? Yes: the gentleman has dared to make this 
 assertion, and for reasons no less extraordinary than the assertion 
 itself." " Can Rolla's words add vigor to the virtuous energies 
 which inspire your hearts V No: you have judged, as I have, the 
 foulness of the crafty plea by which these bold invaders would 
 delude you." These words are, indeed, often found with a mark of 
 exclamation after them; but they are merely abbreviated, though 
 forcible, modes of expressing approval or denial, and have the 
 signification of the sentence, " I emphatically answer in the affirma- 
 tive," or " in the negative." 
 
 e. When placed at the beginning of several sentences, to all of 
 which they refer, the adverbial words again, once more, in conclusion, 
 and the absolute phrases to proceed, to conclude, &c., which have the 
 import of clauses, may be distinguished by a colon; as, " To sum up 
 all: My friends, the time is short. We are as guests iu a strange 
 land, who tarry but one night. We wander up and down," &c. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Jifler reciting the Definition of the colon, mention why that point is inserted m 
 the following sentences i 
 
 Harbor no malice in thy heart: it will be a viper in thy bosom. 
 
 Men's evil manners live in brass: their virtues we write in water. 
 
 Be on thy guard against flattery : it is an insidious poison. 
 
 Do not insult a poor man: his misery entitles him to pity. 
 
 Never flatter the people: leave that to such as mean to betray them. 
 
 Endeavor to excel: much may be accomplished by perseverance. 
 
 Study to acquire the habit of thinking: no study is more important 
 
 Reading is but an instrument: education is to teach its best use. 
 
 To rule one's anger is well : to prevent it is better. 
 
 The word must be spoken: we want more justice, and less charity. 
 
 It is a miserable thing to live in suspense: it is the life of a spider. 
 
 There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time: 
 wisdom is the repose of the mind. 
 
 A human heart throbs beneath the beggar's gabardine: it is no 
 more than this that stirs with its beating the prince's mantle. 
 
 The present life is not wholly prosaic, precise, tame, and finite : 
 to the gifted eye, it abounds in the poetic. 
 
 To be free, to have the mind of a freeman, is not to consider 
 liberty as a privilege which a few only are to enjoy, and which, like
 
 132 THE COLON. 
 
 some narrow and limited good, would become less by distribution: it 
 is to wish, and to wish ardently, that all partook of the blessing. 
 
 Selfishness is the poison of a true devotion: love is its only fitting 
 instrument. 
 
 Birth and death have an indissoluble correlation : they presuppose 
 each other. 
 
 It is unworthy of one great people to think falsely of another : it 
 is unjust, and therefore unworthy. 
 
 The passionate are like men standing on their heads: they see all 
 things the wrong way. 
 
 Pride is increased by ignorance: those assume the most who know 
 the least. Do not despise human life: it is the gift of God. 
 
 He who receives a good turn should never forget it: he who does 
 one should never remember it. 
 
 All reasoning is retrospect: it consists in the application of facts 
 and principles previously known. 
 
 Real goodness does not attach itself merely to life: it points to 
 auother world. 
 
 Laziness grows on people: it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron 
 chains. The prodigal robs his heir: the miser robs himself. 
 
 Nothing is denied to well-directed labor: nothing is ever to be 
 attained without it. 
 
 The silence of nature is more impressive, would we understand it, 
 than any speech could be : it expresses what no speech can utter. 
 
 Good temper is like a sunny day: it sheds a brightness over every 
 thing. Insist on yourself: never imitate. 
 
 Satire should not be like a saw, but a sword: it should cut, and 
 not mangle. 
 
 The philosophies of antiquity addressed themselves to the intel- 
 lect: the simple words of Jesus lay hold of the heart. 
 
 The actions of men are like the index of a book : they point out 
 what is most remarkable in them. 
 
 Character is like stock in trade : the more of it a man possesses, 
 the greater his facilities for making additions to it. 
 
 Men are often warned against old prejudices: I would rather warn 
 them against new conceits. 
 
 The greatness of a gift cannot be determined by its absolute 
 amount: it can be truly ascertained only by a moral standard. 
 
 Music resembles poetry : in each 
 
 Are numerous graces which no methods teach, 
 
 And which a master-hand alone can reach.
 
 TWO CLAUSES NOT CONJOINED. 133 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Let colons be inserted between the clauses of these sentences* in accordance viith 
 the Ruin or the Remarks (pp. 130-31) : 
 
 For the training of goodness, the ancient reliance was on the right 
 discipline of habit and affection the modern is rather on illumination 
 of understanding. 
 
 But no the Union cannot be dissolved its fortunes are too brilliant 
 to be marred; its destinies, too powerful to be resisted. (Rule, and 
 Remarks rf, 6.) 
 
 There is a true eloquence, which yon cannot too much honor it 
 calls into vigorous exercise both the understanding and the heart of 
 the hearer. 
 
 As the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties to the task 
 before him, and tears sometimes fall on the page he is studying; so 
 it is in the school of God's providence there are hard lessons in it. 
 
 This is certain nothing can be done without a recurrence, before 
 every thing else, to strict justice in all the departments of human 
 intercourse. 
 
 Strive to be a simple, honest, faithful man whatever hidden talent 
 you possess will then come forth in its genuineness, and exert all its 
 power. Proceed I am all attention. 
 
 Are these to be conquered by all Europe united? No, sir no 
 united nation can be, that has the spirit to resolve not to be con- 
 quered. ( Remark d.) 
 
 The prophet gives the incentives to action the philosopher supplies 
 matter for reflection. One recurs to the heart and the conscience 
 as his medium of influence the other addresses himself to pure 
 intellect. 
 
 It is with narrow-souled people as with narrow-necked bottles 
 the less they have in them, the more noise they make in pouring it 
 out. A little praise is good for a shy temper it teaches it to rely 
 on the kindness of others. 
 
 As the fire-fly only shines when on the wing, so it is with the 
 human mind when at rest, it darkens. Cotemporaries appreciate 
 the man, rather than his merit posterity will regard the merit, rather 
 than the man. 
 
 I care not. Fortune, what you me deny 
 Yon cannot rob me of free Nature's grace ; 
 You cannot shut the windows of the sky, 
 Through which Aurora shows her brightening face
 
 134 THE COLON. 
 
 RULE n. 
 
 Conjoined Members of Sentences. 
 
 When a sentence consists of two members which are 
 united by a conjunction or an adverb, and either of 
 them is divisible into clauses separated by semicolons, 
 a colon should be used before the connecting word. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not 
 see it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever 
 saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such 
 minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance. 
 
 2. Without the capacity of suffering, we might have been what the world, 
 In its common language, terms happy; the passive subjects of a series of 
 agreeable sensations : but we could not have had the delights of conscience ; 
 we could not have felt what it is to be magnanimous, to have the toil and the 
 combat and the victory. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. These sentences are obviously divisible each into two portions. 
 But, as they are susceptible of being subdivided into smaller parts, 
 some of which should be separated by the semicolon, according to 
 the rule on page 116; so, by reason of the principle that a remoter 
 connection requires a point indicating a greater separation, the 
 colon is introduced between the members ; namely, before the con- 
 necting words " so " and " but." 
 
 b. In a long sentence, crowded with distinct clauses, of which 
 several are united by conjunctions, it is better to insert a period than 
 a colon between the two members, or largest portions; as in the 
 following passage from Sir Humphrey Davy: " I envy no quality of 
 mind or intellect, in others, be it genius, power, wit, or fancy; but, 
 if I could choose what would be most delightful, and I believe most 
 useful, to me, I should prefer a firm religious belief to every other 
 blessing. For it makes life a discipline of goodness; creates new 
 hopes when all earthly hopes vanish ; and throws over the decay, the 
 destruction, of existence, the most gorgeous of all lights; awakens 
 life even in death, and from corruption and decay calls up beauty 
 and divinity; makes an instrument of fortune, and shame the ladder 
 of ascent to Paradise; and, far above all combinations of earthly
 
 CONJOINED MEMBERS. 135 
 
 hopes, calls up the most delightful visions of palms and amaranths, 
 the gardens of the blest, the security of everlasting joys, where the 
 sensualist and the sceptic view only gloom, decay, annihilation, and 
 despair." 
 
 c. The mode of punctuation recommended in the last remark is 
 worthy of being adopted in the generality of the long passages, whose 
 parts are joined by connecting or disjunctive words, which sometimes 
 appear in the writings of the present day. But in the compositions 
 of the old English writers, which, with much excellence of matter, 
 are usually characterized more by unwieldiness than refinement of 
 style, sentences often occur, whose members are united either by 
 a relative pronoun, which is sometimes preceded by a preposition, 
 or by an adverb or participle equivalent to the pronoun. In such 
 cases, it is seldom that the members, however lengthened, can be 
 separated by a period, without injuring the texture of the parts. 
 However painful, therefore, it may be to the eye of the reader to 
 fall on a page unrelieved by periods and corresponding breaks, the 
 editor or the printer of a work of that kind should conform his 
 punctuation to the nature of the composition; never deviating from 
 the original by substituting a full point for the semicolon or the 
 colon, unless where the character of the sentiments or the form of 
 expressing them obviously admits of such a separation. Thus, the 
 colon should be preserved between the members, or larger parts, of 
 the following sentences; the first being taken from Dean Swift, 
 and the second from an earlier writer, George Sandys : " I swore 
 and subscribed to these articles with cheerfulness and content, 
 although some of them were not so honorable as I could have 
 wished; which proceeded wholly from the malice of Skyresh Bol- 
 golam, the high admiral: whereupon my chains were immediately 
 unlocked, and I was at full liberty." " The parts I speak of are 
 the most renowned countries and kingdoms : once the seats of most 
 glorious and triumphant empires, the theatres of valor and heroical 
 actions, the soils enriched with all earthly felicities; the places 
 where Nature hath produced her wonderful works ; where arts and 
 sciences have been invented and perfected ; where wisdom, virtue, 
 policy, and civility have been planted, have flourished; . . . where 
 the Son of God honored the earth with his beautiful steps, wrougtit 
 the works of our redemption, triumphed over death, and ascended 
 into glory: which countries, once so glorious and famous for their 
 happy estate, are now, through vice and ingratitude, become the 
 most deplored spectacles of extreme misery; the wild beasts of
 
 136 THE COLON. 
 
 mankind having broken in upon them, and rooted out all civility, and 
 the pride of a stern and barbarous tyrant possessing the thrones of 
 ancient and just dominion." 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Why are colons inserted between the members of these sentences ? 
 Everyone must, of course, think his own opinions right; for, if 
 he thought them wrong, they would no longer be his opinions: but 
 there is a wide difference between regarding ourselves as infallible, 
 and being firmly convinced of the trutn of our creed. 
 
 He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended ; 
 
 One dream of his childhood his fancy passed o'er : 
 
 But his battles are fought, and his march it is ended ; 
 
 The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more. 
 
 How many things are there which a man cannot, with any face 
 or comeliness, say or do himself ! A man can scarce allege his own 
 merits with modesty, much less extol them ; a man cannot some- 
 times brook to supplicate or beg; and a number of the like: but all 
 these things are graceful in a friend's mouth, which are blushing in 
 a man's own. 
 
 When once our labor has begun, the comfort that enables us to 
 endure it is the prospect of its end: for though, in every long work, 
 there are some joyous intervals of self-applause, wh'en the attention 
 is recreated by unexpected facility, and the imagination soothed by 
 incidental excellences not comprised in the first plan ; yet the toil 
 with which performance struggles after idea is so irksome and 
 disgusting, and so frequent is the necessity of resting below that 
 perfection which we imagined within our reach, that seldom any 
 man obtains more from his endeavors than a painful convictiou of 
 his defects, and a continual resuscitation of desires which he feels 
 himself unable to gratify. 
 
 Patriots have toiled, and in their country's cause 
 
 Bled nobly ; and their deeds, as they deserve, 
 
 Receive proud recompense. We give in charge 
 
 Their names to the sweet lyre. The historic Muse, 
 
 Proud of the treasure, marches with it down 
 
 To latest times ; and Sculpture, in her turn, 
 
 Gives bond in stone and ever-during brass. 
 
 To guard them, and to immortalize her trust : 
 
 But fairer wreaths are due, though never paid, 
 
 To those who, posted at the shrine of truth, 
 
 Have fal'en in her defence.
 
 CONJOINED MEMBERS. 137 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Insert both the semicolon and tke colon wherever required m these sentences : 
 
 The republic may perish the wide arch of our ranged union may 
 fall star by star its glories may expire stone after stone its columns 
 and its Capitol may moulder and crumble all other names which 
 adorn its annals may be forgotten but as long as human hearts 
 Bhall anywhere pant, or human tongues shall anywhere plead, for 
 a true, rational, constitutional liberty, . those hearts shall enshrine 
 the memory, and those tongues shall prolong the fame, of George 
 Washington. 
 
 We are not merely to transmit the world as we receive it to 
 teach, in a stationary repetition, the arts which we have received 
 as the dove builds, this year, just such a nest as was built by the 
 dove that went out from the ark, when the waters had abated but 
 we are to apply the innumerable discoveries, inventions, and im- 
 provements which have been successively made in the world, 
 and never more than of late years, and combine and elaborate 
 them into one grand system of condensed efficacy and quickened 
 vitality, in forming and bringing forward our successors. 
 
 We may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gather- 
 ings in field or forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment 
 great revivals may bear away thousands on a torrent of sympathy 
 but it is all in vain, if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent 
 culture of every right disposition and the quiet practice of every 
 duty in vain, unless they patiently engrave the commandments on 
 inward tables, unless they hear a still voice in the soul, and retain a 
 steady warmth there, when the noise has ceased and the flames have 
 died away, as on the ancient mount of revelation. 
 
 As water, whether it be the dew of heaven or the springs of the 
 earth, doth scatter and lose itself in the ground, except it be col- 
 lected into some receptacle, where it may by union comfort and 
 sustain itself and, for that cause, the industry of man hath framed 
 and made spring-heads, conduits, cisterns, and pools, which men 
 have accustomed likewise to beautify and adorn with accomplish- 
 ments of magnificence and state, as well as of use and necessity so 
 knowledge, whether it descend from divine inspiration or spring 
 from human sense, would soon perish, and vanish to oblivion, if it 
 were not preserved in books, traditions, conferences, and places 
 appointed, as universities, colleges, and schools, for the receipt and 
 comforting the same.
 
 138 THE COLON. 
 
 RULE Ul. 
 dictations, Remarks, S$c., formally introduced. 
 
 A colon should be placed before a quotation, a 
 speech, a course of reasoning, or a specification of 
 articles or subjects, when formally introduced. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The air was sweet and plaintive; and the words, literally translated, 
 were these : " The winds roared and the rains fell, when the poor white man, 
 faint.and weary, came, and sat under our tree." 
 
 2. Let us take, in illustration, three poets, in an ascending scale of intel- 
 lectual precedence: Keats, the representative of sensitiveness; Byron, of 
 wilfulness; Shakspeare, of self-direction. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. By a formal introduction to a quotation, &c., is meant the use 
 of any phrase, or mode of expression, drawing the attention of the 
 reader to what is about to be said. 
 
 b. Some writers put a dash after the colon, in order to distinguish 
 more clearly the quotation from the introductory matter ; as, " The 
 words, literally translated, were these : * The winds roared, 1 " &c. 
 But this seems unnecessary, unless the words cited begin a new 
 paragraph, which usually occurs when they consist of more than 
 one sentence. 
 
 c. When a quotation is short, and closely connected with the 
 words preceding it, a comma between the parts is sufficient. See 
 page 108. 
 
 d. When quotations or remarks are introduced by one of the 
 connective and explanatory words, as, namely, that is, a semicolon 
 before and a comma after it are preferable to the colon ; as, " I pur- 
 chased the following articles; namely, tea, sugar, coffee, and raisins." 
 The reason is, that the connection between the' introductory remark 
 and the example, or the articles enumerated, is rendered more inti 
 mate by the use of the explanatory word. See page 128. 
 
 e. When the subjects or things specified consist of words or 
 phrases in apposition with a preceding noun, or with that which 
 is equivalent to it, without any formal introduction, a comma and 
 a dash are used; as, "Energy and audacity of will characterize all 
 ruling men, statesmen, generals, reformers, orators."
 
 QUOTATIONS FORMALLY INTRODUCED. 139 
 
 OHAL, EXEKCISE. 
 Say why colon* art inserted before quotations, $c., in the following sentences .- 
 
 All our conduct towards men should be influenced by this im 
 portant precept: " Do unto others as ye would that others should do 
 unto you." 
 
 The discourse consisted of two parts: in the first was shown the 
 necessity of exercise; in the second, the advantages that would 
 result from it. 
 
 Speaking of party zeal, Pope makes this judicious remark : 
 " There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, hi 
 which the most ignorant were not the most violent; for a bee is not 
 a busier animal than a blockhead." 
 
 Be our plain answer this: The throne we honor is the people's 
 choice; die laws we reverence are our brave fathers' legacy; the 
 faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity with all man- 
 kind, and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave. 
 
 The philosopher Malebranche makes this curious remark: " It is 
 possible that some creatures may think half an hour as long as we 
 do a thousand years, or look upon that space of duration which we 
 call a minute as an hour, a week, a month, or a whole age." 
 
 It is only necessary to make the experiment to find two things: 
 one, how much useful knowledge can be acquired in a very little 
 time; and the other, how much time can be spared, by good man- 
 agement, out of the busiest day. 
 
 In a letter from Oxford to my brother Amos, his late pupil, for 
 whom John Henderson always entertained the highest esteem, he 
 thus expresses himself: " See that you govern your passions. What 
 should grieve us but our infirmities ? what make us angry but 
 our own faults? " 
 
 The words with which Beattie concludes one of the most beautiful 
 stanzas of his principal poem, express a sentiment with which it is 
 impossible for us not to sympathize: 
 
 " Oh ! bow canst them renounce the boundless store 
 Of charms that Nature to her votary yields? 
 The warbling woodland, the resounding shore, 
 The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields; 
 All that the genial ray of morning gilds, 
 And all that echoes to the song of even ; 
 All that the mountain's sheltering bosom shields, 
 And all the dread magnificence of heaven ; 
 Oh! how canst thou renounce, and hope to be forgiven? "
 
 140 THE COLON. 
 
 EXKKCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 LA these sentences be punctuated agreeably to tlie preceding Rule and 
 Remarks (p. 138) : 
 
 We all admire this sublime passage " God said ' Let there be 
 light;' and there was light." (Hule, and Remark c.) 
 
 Now, pray, remember this Unmixed carbonic acid gas, when 
 inhaled, is a deadly poison. (Rule.) 
 
 The infinitive mood is often used as the nominative to a verb 
 as, " To err " that is, error, " is human." (Remark d; and p. 128, 
 Remark.) 
 
 When the Roman historians describe an extraordinary man, this 
 always enters into his character as an essential part of it he was of 
 incredible industry and of remarkable application. (Rule.) 
 
 Ye who still linger on the threshold of life, doubting which path 
 to choose, remember that, when years shall be passed, and your feet 
 shah 1 stumble on the dark mountain, you will cry bitterly, but cry 
 in vain " youth! return: oh! give me back my early days." 
 (Remark c.) 
 
 Silvio Pellico, in his excellent work on the " Duties of Men," thus 
 remarks " To love our country with truly elevated feeling, we ought 
 to begin by supplying it, in ourselves, with citizens, of whom that 
 country need not feel ashamed." (Rule.) 
 
 Listening intently at the chimney, which communicated with that 
 below, I distinctly heard the husband utter these words "Well, come 
 now: must we kill them both?" To which the woman replied 
 " Yes;" and I heard nothing more. (Rule, and Remark c.) 
 
 When the love of fame acts upon a man of genius, the case 
 appears to stand thus The generality of the worid, distinguished by 
 the name of readers, observe, with a reluctance not unnatural, a 
 person raising himself above them. All men have some desire of 
 fame, and fame is grounded on comparison. (Rule.) 
 
 One of the best writers of the present day, but perhaps one of 
 the least known, John James Tayler, says, when comparing the 
 labors of the philosopher with those of the prophet " The philosopher, 
 on the other side, cautiously accepting the material transmitted to 
 him, explores it with the keen edge of his analysis, and pares oft 
 from the vital substance of truth the impure accretions which it has 
 contracted in the grosser atmosphere of the popular belief, and which 
 must check its growth and expansion when placed in the thin, pure 
 air of a higher region." (Rule.)
 
 TERJIS IN THE RULE OF THREE. 141 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The Chanting Service in the Liturgy. 
 A mark similar to a colon is inserted in every verse 
 of the Psalms used in the " Book of Common Prayer," 
 and in works of a like nature ; as, " My tongue is the 
 pen : of a ready writer." 
 
 REMARK. 
 
 This mark does not represent a grammatical point, but is inserted 
 for the use of choirs, where the Psalms, and other portions of the 
 Liturgy, are chanted; and serves only to divide a verse into two 
 parts. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Terms in the Rule of Three. 
 
 In arithmetical works, the terms used in the Rule of 
 Three are set off by colons. Thus, the expression, 
 "As 111 Ibs. is to $6.45, so is 37 Ibs. to $2.15," is put 
 in the form, "111 Ibs. : $6.45 : : 37 Ibs. : $2.15." 
 
 CA.Nri.l l>l.\i; RKMAKK8. 
 
 a. Some of the rules on the proper application of the colon and 
 the dash ought to be rejected in works where their observance 
 would occasion ambiguity; as in books of arithmetic, where colons 
 are used for proportion, and where the dash is put as a mark for 
 subtraction. Should these marks frequently occur, it will not be 
 improper to substitute a semicolon where the construction requires 
 the grammatical colon or the dash. 
 
 b. In works printed prior to this century, the colon was some- 
 times used to denote abbreviation; and, even at the present day, it 
 is occasionally so employed in writing. This mode of punctuation, 
 however, may be justly regarded as erroneous; the period being 
 almost universally preferred as the mark denoting the contraction 
 of words.
 
 142 
 
 SECT. IV. THE PERIOD. 
 
 The PERIOD, or Full Point [ . ], serves to indicate 
 the end of a sentence which is assertive in its nature, 
 and independent of any following sentence. 
 
 RULE I. 
 Complete and Independent Sentences. 
 
 When a sentence is complete in itself, and is neither 
 connected in construction with what follows, nor of an 
 interrogatory or exclamatory nature, its termination is 
 marked with a period. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Truth is the basis of every virtue. It is the voice of reason. Let ite pre- 
 
 cepts be religiously obeyed. Never transgress its limits. 
 
 2. The right is the supreme good, and includes all other goods. In seeking 
 
 and adhering to it, we secure our true and only happiness. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. For the mode of pointing short sentences which are slightly 
 connected with each other, see page 125. 
 
 b. A full point is admissible between two parts of a long sentence, 
 though they are closely connected in sense by a particle, when either 
 of them can be divided into more simple parts, separated from one 
 another by a semicolon or a colon; as in the following passage, in 
 which the writer treats of Shakspeare: " Other men may have led, 
 on the whole, greater and more impressive lives than he; other meu. 
 acting on their fellows through the same medium of speech that he 
 used, may have expended a greater power of thought, and achieved 
 a greater intellectual effect, in one consistent direction ; other men, 
 too (though this is very questionable), may have contrived to issue
 
 INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 143 
 
 the matter which they did address to the world, in more compact 
 and perfect artistic shapes. But no man that ever lived said such 
 splendid extempore things on all subjects universally; no man that 
 ever lived had the faculty of pouring out, on all occasions, such a 
 flood of the richest and deepest language." 
 
 c. When the two larger portions of a continuous passage are joined 
 by a conjunction, they may be separated by a period, if several of the 
 minor parts are united to each other also by conjunctions. See 
 p. 134, Remark b. 
 
 d. A full point should be used between two sentences, joined by 
 a conjunction, though their parts are incapable of being separated 
 by a semicolon or a colon, if they do not depend one on the other 
 in construction, and are not directly couuected ; as, " There are 
 thoughts and images flashing across the mind in its highest moods, 
 to which we give the name of inspiration. But whom do we honor 
 with this title of the inspired poet? " 
 
 e. From the last remark and example, it is evident that the kind 
 of point used depends less on the connecting word than on the 
 construction and nature of the sentences. Accordingly, we find 
 numerous instances, particularly in the Bible, of not only sentences, 
 but paragraphs and chapters, beginning with and, and other con- 
 junctions ; as, " For the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that 
 is a householder, who went out early in the morning to hire laborers 
 into his vineyard. And, when he had agreed with the laborers for a 
 penny a day, he sent them into his vineyard. And he went," &c. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Mention the grammatical use of the period, and the reason fur inserting tliat 
 point in the sentences that follow t 
 
 The benefits of conversation greatly depend on the previous 
 attainments of those who are supposed either to communicate 
 knowledge or to receive it. If, therefore, instruction be neglected, 
 conversation will grow trifling; if perverted, dangerous. 
 
 Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. The 
 liberal student will therefore endeavor to collect ideas on subjects 
 which can eurich the understanding. Languages, and a taste for 
 elegant letters, will form but a small part of his literary objects. He 
 will dedicate a great portion of his time to the sciences properly so 
 denominated. He will search for knowledge, not only in books, but 
 in the exchange, the manufactory, the world at large. From these
 
 144 THE PERIOD. 
 
 various sources, he will collect food for the mincl, on which he will 
 afterwards ruminate. 
 
 There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beauti- 
 ful island, famous in story and in song. Its area is not so great as 
 that of the State of Louisiana, while its population is almost half that 
 of the Union. It has given to the world more than its share of 
 genius and of greatness. It has been prolific in statesmen, warriors, 
 and poets. Its brave and generous sons have fought successfully all 
 battles but their own. Ln wit and humor, it has no equal; while its 
 harp, like its history, moves to tears by its sweet but melancholy 
 pathos. 
 
 Be servants of truth and duty, each in his vocation. Be sincere, 
 pure in heart, earnest, enthusiastic. A virtuous enthusiasm is 
 always self-forgetful and noble. It is the only inspiration now 
 vouchsafed to man. Blend humility with learning. Ascend above 
 the present in place and time. Regard fame only as the eternal sha- 
 dow of excellence. Bend in adoration before the right. Cultivate 
 alike the wisdom of experience and the wisdom of hope. Mindful 
 of the future, do not neglect the past: awed by the majesty of anti- 
 quity, tuni not with indifference from the future. 
 
 I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and dis- 
 grace, stop where you are. The past and the present call on you to 
 advance. Let what you have gained be an impulse to something 
 higher. Your nature is too great to be crushed. You were not 
 created what you are, merely to toil, eat, drink, and sleep, like the 
 inferior animals. If you will, you can rise. No power in society, 
 no hardship in your condition, can depress you, keep you down, in 
 Knowledge, power, virtue, influence, but by your own consent. 
 Make yourselves worthy of your free institutions, and strengthen 
 and perpetuate them by your intelligence and your virtues. 
 
 This world is full of beauty, .full of innocent gladness. Open 
 your inmost sense to all the influences of what is brightest and 
 happiest in the scenes around you. Let the spirit be clear and 
 transparent, to receive and transmit these blessed influences of the 
 Creator's love, and send out the light of them on other hearts. Only 
 a pure and gentle soul can feel them. Koep yours so that they do 
 not come to you in vain. There is impiety in letting all this beauty 
 rise and set on us daily unfelt. To sympathize with the loveliness 
 which blooms and sparkles in every aspect of this terrestrial para- 
 dise is silent praise, that worship of the heart, more audible to 
 the ear of God than the chanted litany of the cathedral.
 
 INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 145 
 
 tn accordance with the Rale and the Remarks (pp. 142-3), say iehy period* are 
 inserted in the following passages : 
 
 Legitimate reasoning is impossible without severe thinking; and 
 thinking is neither an easy nor an amusing employment. The reader 
 who would follow a close reasoner to the summit and absolute prin- 
 ciple of any one important subject has chosen a chamois-hunter for 
 his guide. Our guide will, indeed, take us the shortest way, will save 
 us many a wearisome and perilous wandering, and warn us of many 
 a mock road, that had formerly led himself to the brink of chasms 
 and precipices, or at least in an idle circle to the spot from whence 
 he started. But he cannot carry us on his shoulders : we must strain 
 our own sinews as he has strained his, and make firm footing on the 
 naked rock for ourselves by the blood of toil from our own feet. 
 
 There is no one, of ever so little understanding in what belongs 
 to a human constitution, who knows not, that without action, mo- 
 tion, and employment, the body languishes and is oppressed; its 
 nourishment runs to disease ; the spirits, employed abroad, help to 
 consume the parts within; and nature, as it were, preys upon her- 
 self. For although an inclination to ease, and moderate rest from 
 action, be as natural and useful to us as the inclination we have 
 towards sleep ; yet an excessive love of rest, and a contracted aver- 
 sion to employment, must be a disease in the mind, equal to that of 
 a lethargy in the body. 
 
 This calamity is peculiar to man. The inferior tribes know 
 nothing of it. They obey the laws of their life, and so they have 
 no dread of what is to come. The lamb gambols alike through the 
 green pastures or to the place of slaughter. Up to the last flutter 
 of her wings, the bird ceases not to trill her matins upon the air. 
 But the only immortal being upon the earth lives in dread of death. 
 The only being to whom death is an impossibility fears every day 
 that it will come. And if we analyze the nature of this fear, and 
 explore the cause of it, we shall not be at all certain that it will not 
 follow the mere natural man into a future life, and have an important 
 part in its retributions. 
 
 When we look at different races of animals, though all partake of 
 that mysterious property, life ; yet what an immense and impassable 
 distance is there between the insect and the lion ! They have no bond 
 of union, no possibility of communication. During the lapse of ages, 
 the animalcules which sport hi the sunbeams a summer's day, and 
 then perish, have made no approximation to the king of the forests. 
 Bat in the intellectual world there are no such barriers. All minds are 
 10
 
 J46 THE PERIOD. 
 
 essentially of one origin, one nature, kindled from one divine flame; 
 and are all tending to one centre, one happiness. This great truth, to 
 us the greatest of truths, which lies at the foundation of all religion 
 and of all hope, seems to me not only sustained by proofs which satisfy 
 the reason, but to be one of the deep instincts of our nature. 
 
 In whatever way, and in whatever century, the Homeric poems 
 might be created and fashioned, they place before us a time when 
 the heroic age was on the decline, or had perhaps already gone by. 
 For there are two different worlds which both exist together in the 
 compositions of Homer, the world of marvels and tradition, which 
 still, however, appears to be near and lively before the eyes of the 
 poet; and the living circumstances and present concerns of the world, 
 which produced the poet himself. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Insert periods in their respective places, and substitute capitals for small letters 
 at the beginning of the sentences . 
 
 The character of Washington is among the most cherished con- 
 templations of my life it is a fixed star in the firmament of great 
 names, shining, without twinkling or obscuration, with clear, steady, 
 beneficent light it is associated and blended with all our reflections 
 on those tilings which are near and dear to us. 
 
 Truly good books are more than mines to those who can under- 
 stand them they are the breathings of the great souls of past times 
 genius is not embalmed in them, as is sometimes said, but lives in 
 them perpetually but we need not many books to answer the great 
 ends of reading a few are better than many; and a little time, given 
 to a faithful study of the few, will be enough to quicken thought and 
 enrich the mind. 
 
 We stand on the threshold of a new age, which is preparing to 
 recognize new influences the ancient divinities of violence and wrong 
 are retreating to their kindred darkness the sun of our moral uni- 
 verse is entering a new ecliptic, no longer deformed by images of 
 animal rage, but beaming with the mild radiance of those heavenly 
 signs, Faith, Hope, and Charity the age of chivalry has gone : an age 
 of humanity has come the horse, which gave the name to the first, 
 now yields to man the foremost place in serving him, in doing him 
 good, in contributing to his welfare and elevation, there are fields of 
 bloodless triumph nobler far than any in which warriors ever con- 
 quered here are spaces of labor wide as the world, lofty as heaven.
 
 HEADINGS AND SUBHEADS. 147 
 
 RULE IL 
 Headings, Subheads, Phrases in Titlepages, $c. 
 
 A period is put after a heading or a subhead, indi- 
 cating the kind of matter treated of; after any term 
 placed over a column of contents or figure-work ; after 
 the address of a person or of persons, as used in epis- 
 tolary and other writings ; after every signature to a 
 document ; after the name of a book or its description, 
 preceding the author's name, hi a titlepage ; and after 
 any word or phrase used in imprints, catalogues, &c., 
 when it is not intimately related to what follows. 
 Thus: 
 
 L CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. I. IHTBODUCTIOIT. P^. 
 
 Sect. I. The Importance and Uses of Correct Punctuation . . . . 1 
 
 Notes illustrating its Value 18 
 
 Sect. II. Plan of the Work, and Definitions of the Terms used ... 19 
 
 Definitions of Sentences, &c 20 
 
 2. To Mr. Solomon Piper. 
 
 Dear Sir, We hereby acknowledge the receipt of your favor of the 2fatli 
 instant, addressed to our society, in which you are pleased, for reasons 
 assigned, to present an organ to be placed in our new meeting-house for the 
 purpose of aiding in public worship. Be pleased, dear sir, to accept the thank* 
 of the society. 
 
 Very gratefully and respectfully, yours, &c., 
 
 JONATHAN K. SMITH 
 ASA H. Fux. 
 
 Du, F*. tt, MM. XflA IlEALD 
 
 3. The First-class Standard Header, for Public and Prirate Schools. By Epes 
 Sargent. Boston : Phillips, Sampson, and Company. 1864. 
 
 Mill (John Stuart). A System of Logic, Katiocinative and Inductive. Third 
 edition. London, 1861. 
 
 Christmas with the Poets; a Collection of Songs, Carols, and Descriptive 
 Verses, relating to the Festival of Christmas.
 
 148 THE PERIOD. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. No point should be attached to the name of any article or 
 subject which is followed, as in the first example, by leaders, or 
 several points serving to lead the eye to a term or figure put at the 
 end of the line, and completing the sense. 
 
 b. When the subjects of a chapter or section, specified in a head- 
 ing or in the contents or index of a book, are distinct, they should 
 be separated by a period; but, if closely connected in sense, they are 
 more appropriately marked by a minor point, according to the degree 
 of connection subsisting between them ; as, " Chap. II. America. 
 Discovery and Settlement: Columbus, Americus, Cabot, &c. Con- 
 quest of Mexico: Cortez, Pizarro, &c." 
 
 c. When the names in signatures are followed each by an explana- 
 tory term, the full point should be placed after the latter; as, 
 
 JAMES MARSHALL, President. JOHS THOMSON, 
 
 TIMOTHT TOMPKISS, Treasurer. WILLIAM PARK, ) 
 
 RULE HI. 
 
 Names, Titles, and other Words, abbreviated. 
 
 The period must be used after every abbreviated 
 word. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted in them. 
 
 2. Dr. H. Marsh, F.R.S., &c., Bishop of Peterborough; b. 1757, d. 1839. 
 
 8. The Plays of \Vm. Shakspcare are sometimes printed from the text of Oeo. 
 Stevens, Esq., and Edw. Malone, Esq. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 o. When an abbreviated word ends a sentence, only one period is 
 used to show the omission of the letters, and the termination of the 
 sentence ; but any other poiut required by the construction should 
 be inserted after the period, as exemplified above in the abbrevia- 
 tions " F.R.S., &c.," and the " Esq." which appears after the name 
 of George Stevens. In such lists of words, however, as contain 
 many abbreviations, the period only may be used, if no obscurity, 
 or doubtfulness of meaning, would be produced by the omission of 
 the grammatical point. See p. 151, Remark c.
 
 WORDS ABBREVIATED. 149 
 
 b. In books printed at Edinburgh, the period is omitted after an 
 abbreviated word which retains the last letter; as, " Dr Combe; Mr 
 Buckingham." But this does not seem to be a sufficient reason for 
 deviating from general usage. 
 
 c. Some printers use the apostrophe to indicate an ellipsis ol 
 intermediate letters in words which are fully pronounced; as, " Cha's; 
 W'm , " a style of pointing that should never be resorted to, except 
 in -abbreviations of long and unusual words, and where saving of 
 space is essential, as in headings to columns of figure-work. 
 
 <l. Words derived from a foreign language, and introduced into 
 the English, may be written or printed without the period, when 
 they are uniformly used as contractions, and pronounced accord- 
 ingly; as, "Two per cent is but small interest." Here, "cent," th 
 abbreviation of the Latin centum, being now an English word, and 
 pronounced as such, the period is unnecessary. 
 
 e. Such words as 1st, 2dly, 12mo, 8vo, 8, are not, strictly speak- 
 ing, abbreviations ; for the figures represent the first letters of each 
 word. The period, therefore, should not be used, unless any of these 
 terms come at the end of a sentence. When several subjects are 
 specified, or when particular days of a month or various sizes of 
 books are often mentioned, words of this form are perhaps unobjec- 
 tionable; but, in the usual kinds of composition, it would be better to 
 write them in full ; as, " The command of the army was given in 1796 
 to Napoleon Bonaparte, then in the twenty-seventh year of his age." 
 
 /. When the letters of the alphabet (A, B, C; a, 6, c, &c.) are 
 employed as significant signs, or for the purpose of reference, it is 
 better to point them, not as abbreviations, but as ordinary words, 
 in accordance with the construction of the sentences in which they 
 occur; as, "The dominical letters for 1776 were G, F: therefore 
 the first Sunday in January was the 7th of the month. Then, A 
 representing the 7th January, D would represent the 7th February; 
 1), the 7th March ; G, the 7th April ; B, the 7th May ; E, the 7th June ; 
 and G, the 7th July." When placed at the beginning of a line, they 
 are treated as subcaptions or sideheads, which, agreeably to Rule 
 II., p. 147, require to be followed by a period, and which, in the Italic 
 form, are so used throughout the present work. 
 
 y. Proper names, when shortened and meant so to be pronounced, 
 ehould not, except at the end of a sentence, be written or printed 
 with a full point; as, " On the poet's tombstone were inscribed the 
 words, ' rare Ben Jonson ! ' " 
 
 k. Lists of abbreviated words will be given in Appendix, No. IV.
 
 150 THE PERIOD. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 Marks or Figures used instead of Words. 
 
 When either marks or Arabic figures are substituted 
 for words, the period should not be used, except at the 
 end of a sentence ; but the full point is inserted before 
 decimals, and between pounds and shillings. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. He borrows S5,000, and agrees to pay interest at 6 per cent per annum 
 
 2. As an illustration of our remarks, see 2, If 10, notes * and t- 
 
 3. 8 + 9 + 7X13 5 + 10X6 12X2^5 + 21 = 777. 
 
 4. 1. 10s. 6d. sterling is equivalent to 86.78, United-States money. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Marks and figures are considered as representative signs, not 
 abbreviations. Hence the propriety of the rule. 
 
 b. When figures are put in a tabular or columnar form, periods 
 are not inserted; but, when they occur in regularly constructed 
 sentences or in dates or headings, that point should be used which 
 would be adopted if they were written in words. 
 
 BULE V. 
 Letters used for Figures or Words. 
 
 When numerals are written in characters of the 
 alphabet, instead of words or Arabic figures, it is usual 
 to insert periods after them in all situations ; and, 
 when employed as dates, to separate by periods the 
 portions into which they are divided when audibly 
 read. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. In proof of his position, the learned divine referred to Gen. Ti. 12. 18. 
 
 Ps. brv. 2; Ixxviii. 39. Acts ii. 17. 1 Cor. I. 29. 
 X. In the titlepages of books and in inscriptions, dates are sometimes put in 
 
 capitals, instead of figures; as, M.DCCC.LV. for 1855.
 
 LETTERS FOR FIGURES OR WORDS. 151 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. A full point is, in the first example, put after chapters vi., Ixv., 
 Lxxviii., ii., and i. ; and, in the second, after M., DCCC., and LV., 
 not as being equivalent to the grammatical period, but merely be 
 cause, of all the marks, it is the least offensive to the eye, and has 
 been generally employed in such cases. 
 
 6. In referring to the chapters of the Bible, some writers use the 
 Arabic figures; as, " Gen. 6. 12, 13," or "6: 12, 13;" putting after 
 them a colou or a period. But the mode exhibited in the first exam- 
 ple under the rule is supported by the best usage, and is, we think, 
 much preferable iu its more clearly distinguishing the chapters from 
 the verses. 
 
 c. Bible and other references are sometimes made by the insertion 
 of a comma after the period ; as, " Gen., vi., 12, 13 ; " " Vol. i., part 
 iv., sect, ii., 3." But, though this mode of punctuation is more 
 accurate than that which omits the comma, it is less simple ; and, 
 because uncouth in its appearance, should not be adopted, unless, 
 as in Remark a, it is essential to a clear discerning of the sense. - 
 See p. 100, second portion of Remark j. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Assign tlie reasons given in the four preceding Rules and the Remarks for the 
 punctuation of headings, names of buukx, abbreviations, marks, figures, and 
 numeral capitals, <i tltey occur in the following sentences i 
 
 What will j100 amount to in 84 years, at 4i per cent per annum, 
 compound interest? (Rule IV.; and Remark d, under Rule III.) 
 
 The train leaves New York at 9 o'clock, A.M., and 44, P.M.; 
 returning at 10 in the evening. (Rules IV. and III.) 
 
 But the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same region, 
 for the reasons already given. See chap. vi. xii. f 4, p. 630. 
 (Rule III.; and Rule V., Remark c.) 
 
 Poetical Works. Mark Akenside. Lond. 1865. 2 vols. 12mo . . . 4638 
 (Role II. and Item, a ; Rule HI., last of Item, a, Kern, e ; Rule IV.) 
 
 To R. H. Dana, jun., Esq., the well-known author of " Two Years 
 before the Mast," the community are greatly indebted. (Rule III. 
 and first of Remark a.) 
 
 Titus died in the third year of his reign, and the 41st year of his 
 age, not without suspicion of being poisoned by his brother Domi- 
 tian, who succeeded him. (Remark e, under Role III.)
 
 152 THE PERIOD. 
 
 Young as he was, the gentleman earned the approbation of his 
 friends, and at length became M.D., F.R.S., F.A.S. (Rule III. and 
 first of Remark a.) 
 
 Constantino the Great was advanced to the sole dominion of the 
 Roman world, A.D. 325, and soon after openly professed the Chris- 
 tian faith. (Rule III.; Rule IV., last portion of Remark 6.) 
 
 LECTURE II. The later Literature of the Greeks. Their Sophists and 
 
 Philosophers. The Alexandrian Age 29 
 
 (Rule II. and Remark a.) 
 
 Thomas Campbell wrote some beautiful lines on the Scottish 
 king, James IV., who fell at the battle of Flodden. (Rule III.; and 
 Remark o, first portion.) 
 
 The sentiments which chivalry inspired had a wonderful influ- 
 ence on manners and conduct, during the 12th, 13th, and 14th 
 centuries. (Remark e, under Rule III.) 
 
 " Why so crusty, good sir? " "Zounds! " cries "mil, in a taking, 
 " Who wouldn't be crusty with half a year's baking? " 
 
 (Remark g; under Rule in.) 
 
 There are only two common principles on which every work of 
 imagination must more or less proceed, 1st, On the expression 
 of those feelings which are common to all men of elevated thinking; 
 and, 2d, On those patriotic feelings and associations peculiar to the 
 people in whose language it is composed, and on whom it is to exert 
 its nearest and most powerful influence. (Remark e, under Rule III.) 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1. The Early Tears of Elizabeth's Reign; Summary of their 
 Literature. 2. Literary Greatness of the next Eighty Years; Division 
 into Three Eras. REIGX OP ELIZABETH FROM 1580. 3. Social Cha- 
 racter of the Time; its Religious Aspect; Effects on Literature. 4. Minor 
 Elizabethan Writers ; their Literary Importance ; the Three Great Names. 
 (Rule II. and Remark b.) 
 
 The following are some of the marble statues, in the Museum of 
 Naples, which most impressed me : 
 
 Psyche; a fragment, but full of feeling, grace, and beauty; by some, 
 ascribed to Praxiteles. 
 
 A bust of Caraculla, animated and lifelike. 
 
 Two equestrian statues of Balbus and his son, found at HerciUaneum ; 
 rimplc. noble, and dignified. 
 
 A beautiful bas-relief of Daedalus and Icarus. 
 
 A fine head of Alexander. (Rule 11. )
 
 153 
 
 CHAPTER 111. 
 
 THE GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL POINTS. 
 
 BESIDES the Comma, the Semicolon, the Colon, and 
 the Period, which are properly regarded as the most 
 essential points in bringing out the sense of a written 
 or printed composition, there are a few other marks, 
 partly grammatical and partly rhetorical, well deserv- 
 ing the attention of those who desire to have their 
 writings, whether of an epistolary or of a more elabo- 
 rate nature, easily understood : 
 
 1. The NOTE OF INTERROGATION . . . f V 1 
 
 2. The NOTE OF EXCLAMATION . . . . f ! j 
 8. The MARKS OF PARENTHESIS . . . ( ) 
 4. The DASH 1 J 
 
 In classifying these points as both grammatical and 
 rhetorical, we mean to imply, not that those which 
 have come under consideration afford no facilities in 
 delivery, but that the Marks of Interrogation, Excla- 
 mation, and Parenthesis, and the Dash, have a more 
 direct bearing on that art. They are rhetorical, in 
 proportion to the degree in which they exhibit the 
 force and intensity of a style that is rhetorical in its 
 structure ; but they are also grammatical, because they 
 often serve to indicate, in connection with other marks, 
 the nature, construction, and sense of the passages in 
 which they occur.
 
 154 
 
 SECT. L THE NOTES OF INTERROGATION 
 AND EXCLAMATION. 
 
 1. The NOTE OF INTERROGATION [ ? ] shows that 
 a question is denoted by the words to which it is 
 annexed. 
 
 2. The NOTE OF EXCLAMATION [ ! ] indicates pas- 
 sion or emotion. 
 
 REM A RK 8. 
 
 a. The notes of interrogation and exclamation do not mark the 
 relative pauses of the voice ; occupying, as they do, sometimes 
 the place of the comma or the semicolon, and sometimes that of the 
 colon or the period. But they are usually put at the end of sen- 
 tences, and are equivalent to a full point; requiring, therefore, in 
 the majority of instances, the word that follows to begin with a 
 capital letter, as after the period. 
 
 6. In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish the difference be- 
 tween an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence. As a general 
 rule, however, it may be observed, that after words in which au 
 answer is implied, or to which one is expected to be given, the note 
 of interrogation is added; and after those, though apparently de- 
 noting inquiry, where no answer is involved or intended, the note 
 of exclamation is the proper and distinctive mark. If the writer of 
 such passages has a clear conception of his own meaning, he can 
 be at no loss which of the points should be used; but if the lan- 
 guage is ambiguous, and requires to be punctuated by a printer or 
 an editor, either of the marks may, under the circumstances, be 
 regarded as admissible. 
 
 c. In treating of the interrogative and exclamative marks, writers 
 on punctuation, laying too much stress on the rhetorical character 
 of these points, are wont to say that they cause an elevation of the 
 voice. But, though it must be acknowledged that they assist much 
 in the proper delivery of the passages hi which they occur, it will
 
 INTERROGATORY EXPRESSIONS. 155 
 
 not be denied that this results only from a knowledge of. a writer's 
 meaning, and from the kind of phraseology which he employs. 
 That the notes of interrogation and exclamation have far less to 
 do with the inflections of the voice than is commonly imagined, will 
 be fully apparent from the following sentences, some of which 
 require a rise, and others a fall, hi their pronunciation : " Shall we 
 in your person crown' the author of the public calamities, or shall 
 we destroyMihn ? " "What is the happiness that this world cau 
 give* y Can it defend us from disasters' 'I " "Oh that these lips had 
 language' ! " " ilow mysterious are the ways of Providence*! " 
 
 RULE I. 
 Expressions in the Form of Questions. 
 
 An interrogative mark is placed at the termination 
 of every question, whether it requires an answer, or, 
 though in its nature assertive, is put, for the sake of 
 emphasis, in an interrogative form. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Why, for so many a year, has the poet or the philosopher wandered 
 amid the fragments of Athens or of Rome; and paused, with strange and 
 kindling feelings, amid their broken columns, their mouldering temples, their 
 deserted plains? It is because their day of glory is past. 
 
 2. How can lie exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble who only 
 believes, that, after a short term on the stage of existence, he is to sink into 
 oblivion, and to lose his consciousness for ever? 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Ths first of these passages exemplifies a sentence expressive 
 of direct inquiry; the second, one that is assertive in its meaning, but 
 interrogative in its structure or form. 
 
 6. The mark of interrogation should not be used when it is only 
 affirmed that a question has been asked, and the expression denoting 
 inquiry is put in any other shape than that of a direct question; as, 
 "I was asked if 1 would stop for dinner." If put in the interroga- 
 tive form, this sentence would be read and punctuated according tc 
 the rule: " 1 was asked, ' Will you stop for dinner 'i ' "
 
 156 THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 
 
 c. In some instances, however, a question may be assertive in its 
 form, but interrogative in its sense; as, " You will stop for dinner? " 
 In order to distinguish a sentence of this kind from one that is 
 affirmative both in form and signification, it is obvious that the note 
 of interrogation should be employed. 
 
 d. It is a common error, both with writers and printers, to 
 tniike one interrogative mark represent several successive questions, 
 which, though connected in sense, are in construction distinct and 
 separate; and to substitute semicolons or dashes where notes of 
 interrogation should be used. In the following passage, therefore, 
 each question should be distinguished by its appropriate mark, and 
 not by dashes, which are used in the original : " What is civilization ? 
 Where is it ? What does it consist in ? By what is it excluded ? 
 Where does it commence? Where does it end? By what sign is it 
 known? How is it defined? In short, what does it mean? " 
 
 e. When, however, the expressions denoting inquiry cannot be 
 separated, and read alone, without materially injuring the sense, one 
 mark of interrogation, placed at the end of all the questions, will 
 be sufficient ; as, " Ah ! whither now are fled those dreams of great- 
 ness; those busy, bustling days; those gay -spent, festive nights; 
 those veering thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared thy 
 life?" 
 
 f. When sentences or expressions which were affirmative when 
 spoken or originally written are quoted by a writer in the form of a 
 question, the interrogative point should be put after the marks of 
 quotation [" "J, and not before them; as, 
 
 " The passing crowd " is a phrase coined in the spirit of indifference. 
 1'et, to a man of what Plato calls " universal sympathies,'' and even to the 
 plain, ordinary denizens of this world, what can be more interesting than 
 " the passing crowd "? 
 
 Bat, for the sake of neatness, any of the four grammatical points, 
 when required, should be put before the quotation-marks, as they 
 are not likely to give a false meaning to the words cited. 
 
 g. The interrogative mark should be inserted immediately after 
 a question which formally introduces a remark or a quotation; as, 
 " Who will not cherish the sentiment contained in the following 
 words of Washington ? ' The nation which indulges towards another 
 an habitual hatred or an habitual fondness is, in some degree, a slave. 
 It is a slave to its animosity or to its affection, either of which is 
 sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interest.' "
 
 INTERROGATORY EXPRESSIONS. 157 
 
 DUAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Afler mentioning the distinctive uses of tlte notes of interrogation and exclama- 
 tion, say why interrogative marks are inserted in these sentences .- 
 
 Are there not seasons of spring in the moral world V and is not 
 the present age one of them ? 
 
 Who can look only at the muscles of the hand, and doubt that 
 man was made to work? 
 
 The past, the mighty past, the parent of the present, where is 
 it? What is it? 
 
 Are the palaces of kings to be regarded with more interest than 
 the humbler roofs that shelter millions of human beings ? 
 
 If a wicked man could be happy, who might have been so happy 
 as Human ? 
 
 Who would tear asunder the best affections of the heart, the 
 noblest instincts of our nature? 
 
 Have you more liberty allowed you to wound your neighbor's 
 character than you have to shed his blood ? 
 
 A gaudy verbosity is always eloquence in the opinion of him that 
 writes it; but what is the effect on the reader? 
 
 Bion, seeing a person who was tearing the hair of his head for sor- 
 row, said, " Does this man think that baldness is a remedy for grief? " 
 
 Is the celestial fire which glowed in their hearts for ever quenched, 
 and nought but ashes left to mingle with the earth, and be blown 
 around the world ? 
 
 You say you will repent in some future period of time; but are 
 you sure of arriving at that period of time? Have you one hour in 
 your hand ? Have you one minute at your disposal ? 
 
 What but the ever-living power of literature and religion pre- 
 served the light of civilization, and the intellectual stores of the past, 
 undiminished in Greece, during the long and dreary ages of the 
 decline and downfall of the Roman empire? 
 
 Who shall sunder me from such men as Fenelon and Pascal and 
 Borromeo, from Archbishop Leighton, Jeremy Taylor, and John 
 Howard? Who can rupture ttie spiritual bond between these men 
 and myself? Do I not hold them dear? Does not their spirit, flow- 
 ing out throngh their writings and lives, penetrate my soul ? Are 
 they not a portion of my being? Am I not a different man from 
 what I should have been, had not these and other like spirits acted 
 on mine? And is it in the power of synod or conclave, or of all the 
 ecclesiastical combinations on earth, to part me from them ?
 
 158 NOTE OK INTERROGATION. 
 
 Show how the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 155-6) apply to Vte punctuation of tliest 
 sentences 
 
 " Honest man," says I, " be so good as to Inform me whether 1 
 am in the way to Mirlington." 
 
 The question is not what we might actually wish with our present 
 views, but what with juster views we ought to wish. 
 
 When a king asked Euclid the mathematician, whether he could 
 not explain his art to him in a more compendious manner, he was 
 answered that there was no royal way to geometry. 
 
 ''The sun not set yet, Thomas?" "Not quite, sir. It blazes 
 through the trees on the hill yonder, as if their branches were all ou 
 fire." 
 
 The Phffinicians invented letters; but what did they do with 
 them ? Apply them to the record, the diffusion, transmission, and 
 preservation of knowledge ? 
 
 You do not expect me to leave my family, when we are all so 
 comfortable, and brave the perils of a long passage and sickly cli- 
 mate, for the mere chance of getting gold V 
 
 To purchase heaven, has gold the power? 
 Can gold remove the mortal hour? 
 In life can love be bought with gold ? 
 Are friendship's pleasures to be sold? 
 No : all that's worth a wish or thought, 
 Fair virtue gives unbribed, unbouglit. 
 
 Can gray hairs make folly venerable ? aud is not their period to 
 be reserved for retirement and meditation ? 
 
 Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens above us, mere 
 decorations of the night, or suns and centres of planetary systems ? 
 
 Where be your gibes now; your gambols; your songs; your 
 flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table in a roar? 
 
 Are you conscious of a like increase in wisdom, in pure en- 
 deavors to make yourself and other men what you and they ought 
 to be? 
 
 Greece, indeed, fell; but how did she fall? Did she fall like 
 Babylon ? Did she fall " like Lucifer, never to hope again " ? 
 
 Is there any man so swelled by the conceit of his union with the 
 true church, as to stand apart, and say, " I am holier than thou"? 
 
 What do you say ? What? I really do not understand you. lie 
 so good as to explain yourself again. Upon my word, I do uot. 
 Oh! now I know: you mean to tell me it is a cold day. Why did 
 you not say at once, " It is cold to-day " ?
 
 EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS. 159 
 
 RU.LE II. 
 Expressions indicating Passion or Emotion, 
 
 An exclamative mark is put after expressions de- 
 noting an ardent wish, admiration, or any other strong 
 emotion ; after interjections, words used as interjections, 
 or clauses containing them ; and after terms or expres- 
 sions in an address, corresponding to the vocative case 
 in Latin, when emphatic. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Would that we had maintained our humble state, and continued to live lu 
 
 peace and poverty ! 
 
 2. now sweet are the slumbers of him who can lie down on his pillow, and 
 
 renew the transactions of every day, without condemning himself ! 
 8. What a fearful handwriting upon the walla that surround the deeds of 
 
 darkness, duplicity, and sensual crime! 
 4. Bah ! that's the third umbrella gone since Christmas. What were you to 
 
 do! Why, let him go home in the rain, to be sure. 
 6. Away, all ye Caesars and Napoleons! to your own dark and frightful 
 
 domains of slaughter and misery! 
 6. Friends, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my cause, and be silent that 
 
 you may hear. 
 
 BEMARK8. 
 
 a. With the exception of the dash, there is probably no point 
 respecting which more vague and inaccurate conceptions are enter- 
 tained than in regard to the applying of the note of exclamation. 
 Some writers freely make use of this mark where the sentiments 
 do not contain one iota of emotion, and foist it in on every possible 
 occasion, sometimes in a twofold or a triplicate form ; thus vainly 
 trying to hide their lack of pathos or of passion by a bristling array 
 of dagger-like points. Others, again, indulge a questionable taste 
 for the same mark, by using it wherever their diction is capable 
 of conveying emotion to others, but where neither the structure of 
 the expressions employed, nor the tones or inflections of the voice 
 required in reading, will admit of the point. On this subject, we 
 quote the judicious remarks of the Rev. Joseph Robertson, in his 
 "Kssay on Punctuation," third edition, Lend. 1791, p. 113: "It may
 
 160 NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 
 
 not be improper to caution the young and inexperienced writer 
 against the immoderate use of exclamations. Whenever we see a 
 page in prose profusely interspersed with points of admiration, we 
 generally find it full of unnatural reveries, rant, and bombast. The 
 Sacred Writings, and particularly the Psalms, abound with expivs- 
 sions of the warmest piety, and the most elevated descriptions of 
 the Divine nature; .... but our translators, in conformity to the 
 sober majesty of the original, have seldom introduced the note of 
 admiration." 
 
 b. Generally speaking, only those sentences, clauses, or phrases 
 should have the note of exclamation, which demand a fervid, pas- 
 sionate mode of delivery; or which commence with any of the 
 interjections; with verbs in the imperative mood, adverbs, or prepo- 
 sitions, uttering a stem command or forcibly calling attention ; with 
 the adverbs Jioio, what, unless they denote affirmation or inquiry ; or 
 with the case of address, when used in a solemn style, or emphasized 
 by the use of the word 0. 
 
 c. Between the interjections and oh there exists an essential 
 difference, which is frequently neglected even by some of our best 
 writers. The former is properly prefixed to an expression in a 
 direct address; but the latter ought never to be so employed. 
 should be used without the mark of exclamation immediately after 
 it; but o/i, sometimes with and sometimes without it, according to 
 the construction and sense of the passage in which the word occurs. 
 The following sentences will illustrate the difference spoken of, and 
 the true mode of punctuation : 
 
 1. The heavens and earth, Lord! proclaim thy boundless power. 
 
 2. When, my countrymen! will you begin to exert your vigor? 
 
 3. blessed spirit, who art freed from earth! rejoice. 
 
 4. Oh ! nothing is further from my thoughts than to deceive you. 
 
 5. Oh, what a glorious part you may act on the theatre of humanity ! 
 
 6. Oh that all classes of society were both enlightened and virtuous! 
 
 In the first three examples, the particle may be justly regarded as 
 the sign of the case of address, which with its assistance conveys a 
 feeling of greater emphasis or passion than it usually does without 
 the sign : the note of exclamation being, in the first instance, put 
 after the vocative word; in the second, after the vocative phrase; 
 and, in the third, after the vocative clause. In the last three exam- 
 ples, the interjection, according to the form adopted (oh) and the 
 manner in which it is applied, is obviously a different word. In 
 the example numbered 4, the word o/t is followed immediately by the
 
 EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS. 161 
 
 mark denoting exclamation, because it is independent of the next 
 expression, which closes merely with a period, there being nothing 
 characteristic of emotion in the structure of the language used. In 
 the fifth example, the interjection is pointed with a comma, because 
 this word is grammatically separable from the part of the sentence 
 beginning with " what; " but the note of exclamation, which would 
 have been put after oh if the following expression had been simply 
 affirmative, is placed at the end of all, to show the unity of strong 
 feeling which runs throughout. In the sixth and last example, the 
 interjection is not separated by any point from the conjunction 
 " that," on account of its intimate relation to what follows; and the 
 mark denoting an ardent wish is therefore, as in the preceding exam- 
 ple, placed at the close of the sentence. 
 
 d. In accordance with the mode of punctuation adopted in the 
 examples illustrating Remark c, it is recommended, that wherever 
 interjections, or any other words indicative of deep emotion or fervid 
 passion, are not meant to be significant in themselves, but to form 
 part of a phrase, clause, or sentence, the mark of exclamation be put 
 not after each of these words, but only at the end of each expression ; 
 as, " Ah me ! " " Alas, my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die ! " 
 " All hail, ye patriots brave ! " " Rouse, ye Romans ! rouse, ye 
 slaves! " This simple style of pointing seems much preferable to 
 "Ah! me!" "Alas! my noble boy! that thou shouldst die!" &c.; 
 is sufficiently expressive for all the purposes of animated composition ; 
 and tends to preclude, what every author must dread, the charge of 
 affectation or of quackery. 
 
 e. A remark similar to what is applied to the note of interroga- 
 tion, p. 156, Remark f } may be made here. When expressions which 
 were assertive in their original state are quoted, and used in an 
 exclamatory manner, the point indicating astonishment, irony, or any 
 other feeling, should be put after the marks of quotation; as, 
 
 " It IB perfectly allowable," says I/ord Suffolk, " to use all the means 
 which God and nature have put into our hands." .... My lords, we are 
 called upon, as members of this house, as men, as Christians, to protest 
 against such horrible barbarity. " That God and nature hare put into our 
 hands " ! What ideas of God and nature that noble lord may entertain, 1 
 know not; but I know that such detestable principles are equally abhorrent 
 to religion and humanity. 
 
 This is evidently the fair mode of pointing such extracts ; the notes 
 of interrogation and exclamation denoting sentiments quite different 
 from those felt by the persons to whom the words quoted belong. 
 11
 
 162 NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Why are notes of exclamation inserted in the following example*? 
 
 Alas, poor Yorick ! Alas for the man who has not learned to vror 
 We shall be so happy! Live, live, ye incomparable pan-! 
 Behold the daughter of Innocence ! How peaceful is the grave ! 
 Freedom! thou art not, as poets dream, a fair young girl. 
 How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood ! 
 All hail, thou noble land, our fathers' native soil! 
 Praise to the men for whose writings I am the better and wiser ! 
 What! kill thy friend who lent thee money, for asking thee for :t! 
 The secret I implore: out with it! speak! discover! utter! 
 Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! 
 Down, soothless insulter ! I trust not the tale. Ha, ha, ha ! 
 Charge, Chester, charge! on, Stanley, on! Out, out, Lucetta! 
 Oh the great deep of suffering in every human breast ! 
 
 How often, in an instant, doth a hand unseen shift the scene of 
 the world ! Alas ! those happy days are gone. 
 
 When we pass from the living world to the dead, what a sad pic- 
 ture do we behold ! Oh the grave ! the grave ! 
 
 Happy were it for us, did we constantly view the great Creator 
 and Preserver of all continually manifesting himself in his works ! 
 
 Hay the sun, in his course, visit no land more free, more happv, 
 more lovely, than this our own country ! 
 
 What mighty and remote revolutions hath the human mind pre- 
 dicted by observing the present positions of the heavenly bodies ! 
 
 How pleasant will it be to mark the soul thus moving forward in 
 the brightness of its course ! 
 
 Tremble, man ! whosoever thou art, who art conscious to thy- 
 self of unrepented sins. Peace of mind thou shalt never enjoy. 
 
 What a multitude of that living host, now glorious in the blaze of 
 arms and burning with desires of conquest, will fall and perish ! 
 
 On you and on your children be the peril of the innocent blood 
 which shall be shed this day ! 
 
 1 know not what course others may take ; but, as for me, give me 
 liberty, or give me death ! 
 
 What noble institutions ! what a comprehensive policy ! what wise 
 equalization of every political advantage ! 
 
 flow beautiful is all this visible world ! how beautiful in its action 
 and itself! The will of God be done I
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. 163 
 
 Show haw the Remarks (pp. 160-61) apply to the punctuation of the 
 following sentences : 
 
 O Providence ! how many poor insects of thine are exposed to be 
 trodden to death in each path ! 
 
 This, men of Athens ! my duty prompted me to represent to 
 you on this occasion. 
 
 sacred, wise, and wisdom-giving plant, mother of science I now 
 f feel thy power within me. 
 
 thou who future things canst represent as present, heavenly 
 instructor! I revive at this last sight; assured that man shall live. 
 
 Oh! I could be bounded in a nutshell, and count myself a king 
 of infinitt) space, were it not that I have had bad dreams. 
 
 Oh I yon are wounded, my lord. Oh ! many a dream was in the 
 ship an hour before her death. 
 
 Oh, how seldom has a pang shot through our hearts at the sight 
 of our ruined fellow-creatures ! 
 
 Oh, bloodiest picture in the book of time ! Sarmatia fell, unwept, 
 without a crime. 
 
 Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away 
 their brains ' 
 
 Oh the insupportable anguish of reflecting that they died of huu- 
 ger, when there was bread enough and to spare ! 
 
 Alas for his poor family ! Alas that folly and falsehood should 
 be so hard to grapple with ! 
 
 Daughter of Faith, awake 1 arise ! illume the dread unknown, the 
 chaos of the tomb ! 
 
 Alas, poor creature! I will soon revenge this cruelty upon the 
 author of it. 
 
 Ugh ! I look forward with dread for to-morrow. Up, comrades, 
 up ! Away with him to prison ! 
 
 Fie, fie, fie ! pah, pah ! Give me an ounce of civet, good apothe- 
 cary, to sweeten my imagination : there's money for thee. 
 
 Ah the laborious indolence of him who has nothing to do ! the 
 preying weariness, the stagnant ennui, of him who has nothing to 
 obtain! 
 
 But hall, ye mighty masters of the lay, 
 Nature's true sons, the friends of man and truth '. 
 
 How exceedingly prepossessing must have been the appearance 
 of this young man, which made an impression upon Jesus so strong 
 and evident as to cause it to be remarked that " Jesus lovod him " !
 
 164 INTERROGATIVE AND EXCLA5IATIVE MARKS. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Let notes of interrogation and exclamation be inserted in the following sentences 
 agreeably to the principles laid daum in the tico preceding Rule*, and thr 
 Remarks under them (pp. 155-161): 
 
 Peace to their manes Slay the turf lie lightly on their breast, 
 and the verdure over their grave be as perpetual as their memories 
 (Kule II.) 
 
 Is he who triumphed in the hope of immortality inferior to the 
 worm, his companion in the tomb Will light never rise on the long 
 night of the grave (Rule I.) 
 
 What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite 
 in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable iu action 
 how like an angel in apprehension how like a god (Rule II.) 
 
 Triptolemus asked Mordannt, with a voice which faltered with 
 apprehensiou, whether he thought there was any danger. ( Remark b, 
 under Kule I.) 
 
 How many bright eyes grow dim how many soft cheeks grow 
 pale how many lively forms fade away into the tomb and none 
 can tell the cause that blighted their happiness. (Rule II.) 
 
 Von do not think, I hope, that I will join in conversation with 
 such a man, or that I will so far betray my character as to give coun- 
 tenance to such desperate proceedings (Remark c, under Rule I.) 
 
 How happy the station which even- minute furnishes opportuni- 
 ties of doing good to thousands how dangerous that which every 
 moment exposes to the injury of millions (Rule II.) 
 
 Where is the man who is entitled to set a boundary to himself 
 in the path of righteousness, saying, " Hitherto shall I go, but no 
 further" (Rule I. and Remark f.) 
 
 Wherever an agonizing people shall perish, in a generous convul- 
 sion, for want of a valiant arm and a fearless heart, they will cry, in 
 the last accents of despair, " Oh for a Washington, au Adams, a 
 Jeffersou" (Rule H. and Remark c.) 
 
 What words can declare the immeasurable worth of books what 
 rhetoric set forth the importance of that great invention which 
 diffused them over the whole earth to glad its myriads of minds 
 (Rule I. and Remark d.) 
 
 By what inconceivable perversion of taste and of labor has he 
 trained, for the sentiments of his religion, a mode of expression so 
 uncongenial with the eloquence of his country, and so adapted to dis- 
 sociate them from all connection with that eloquence ^tule 1.)
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. 165 
 
 It is good to make earth and ocean, winds and flames, sun and 
 star?, tributary to our present well-being: how much better to make 
 them minister to our spiritual wants, teachers of heavenly truth, 
 guides to a more glorious Being than themselves, bonds of union 
 between man and his Maker (Rule II.) 
 
 Why is it that the names of Howard and Thornton and Claikson 
 aud Wilberforce will be held in everlasting remembrance Is it not 
 chiefly on account of their goodness, their Christian philanthropy, 
 the overflowing and inexhaustible benevolence of their great minds 
 (Rule I. and Remark e.) 
 
 Victims of persecution how wide an empire acknowledges the 
 sway of your principles Apostles of liberty what millions attest 
 the nnthenticity of your mission Meek champions of truth no stain 
 of private interest or of innocent blood is on the spotless garments of 
 your renown. (Rule II.) 
 
 Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am to what place shall I 
 betake myself Shall I go to the capitol alas it is overflowed with 
 my brother's blood ; or shall I retire to my house yet there I be- 
 hoM my mother plunged in misery, weeping and despairing. (Rules 
 I. and 11.) 
 
 What is it only in dreams that beauty and loveliness have beamed 
 on me from the human countenance; that 1 have heard tones of 
 kindness which have thrilled through my heart; that I have found 
 sympathy in suffering, and a sacred joy in friendship Are all the 
 great and good men of past ages only dreams (Rule II.; Rule I. 
 and Remark .) 
 
 Does not the mind, after all, spread its own hue over all the 
 scenes of life Does not the cheerful man make a cheerful world 
 Does not the sorrowing man make a gloomy world Does not every 
 mind make its own world Does it not as if indeed a portion of 
 the Deity were imparted to it does it aot almost create the scene 
 around it (Rule I. and Remark d.) 
 
 Why has God placed man amidst this boundless theatre, revealed 
 around him this endless creation, touched his heart with the love of 
 beauty, and given him this delightful and awful interest in all that 
 meets his eye, if he is merely a creature of the earth, soon to shut 
 his eyes on these majestic scenes, and to be buried for ever in a 
 narrow grave Does this love of the infinite, this attachment to the 
 universe, seem suitable to so frail a nature Do they, not suggest 
 the idea of a being who belongs to the universe, and who is to fill an 
 ever -widening sphere (Rule I.)
 
 166 INTERROGATIVE AND EXCLAMATIVE MARKS. 
 
 Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, and now them art 
 in full sight of God. John Milton thou art among the angels and 
 the seraphs that were once thy glorious song; and this world is dear 
 to them for what thou thyself wert in it. Oh, how sublimely dost 
 thou move in heaven, the love of saints and heroes, and spirits 
 multitudinous (Rule II. and Remark c.) 
 
 Nature how in every charm supreme (Rule II.) 
 
 Can storied urn or animated bust 
 
 Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath 
 
 Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
 
 Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death (Rule I.) 
 
 A crippled and suffering child, looked at from without, seems the 
 heaviest of domestic afflictions. Yet, once confided to our care, 
 what an object of tender interest it becomes 4 What gentle and holy 
 affections hover over it What a web of soft and fostering duty is 
 woven round it It gives new beauty and value to life. * We would 
 fain keep it with us for ever. What a void is left when it is removed 
 by the hand of death (Rule II.) 
 
 What must sound reason pronounce of a mind, which, in the train 
 of millions of thoughts, has wandered to all things under the sun, 
 to all the permanent objects or vanishing appearances in the crea- 
 tion, but never fixed its thought on the Supreme Reality; never 
 approached, like Moses, to "see this great sight" (Remark f t 
 under Rule I.) 
 
 Oh the littleness of man's heart, capable of loving only by units 
 and in successive emotions, and therefore contracting the infinite 
 heart of God to the narrowness of his own Oh the meanness of 
 man's thoughts, when he takes the foot-rule, by which he measures 
 his earthly dwelling, as his base-line of triangulation for measuring 
 the amplitude of the heavenly temple (Rule II., Remark c.) 
 
 Who is the man whom you select from the record? of time as the 
 object of your special admiration Is it he who lived to indulge 
 himself; whose current of life flowed most equably and pleasurably; 
 whose desires were crowned most liberally with mean* of gratifica- 
 tion; whose table was most luxuriantly spread; and whom fortune 
 made the envy of his neighborhood by the fulness of her gifts Were 
 such the men to whom monuments have been reared, and whose 
 memories, freshened with tears of joy and reverence, grow and 
 flourish and spread through every age Oh, no (Rule I. and Re- 
 mark e; Rule II., Remark d.)
 
 167 
 
 SECT. II. MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 
 
 MARKS OF PARENTHESIS consist of two curved 
 lines ( ), which serve to indicate that an expression 
 is inserted in the body of a sentence, with which it 
 has no connection in sense or in construction. 
 
 K E M A R KS. 
 
 . These two curves are sometimes called parentheses, or a paren 
 thesis, the same word that indicates the kind of phrase or clause 
 which they enclose. But, as this designatiou tends to produce 
 ambiguity or confusion of ideas, it would be better to name them 
 "marks of parenthesis," and to restrict the term " parenthesis" to 
 signify, what it properly means, those words which are put between 
 such portions of a sentence as are intimately connected in sense and 
 in construction. 
 
 b. Marks of parenthesis were once used in greater abundance than 
 they are at the present day; many phrases and clauses now pointed 
 with commas having been formerly enclosed by curved lines. This 
 probably arose from the fact, that the older writers were more accus- 
 tomed to an involved style of composition, which could not be read 
 without the frequent use of parenthetical marks ; whereas modern 
 authors, many of them with less beauty and justness of sentiment, 
 are wont to adopt a freer and an uncomplicated mode of writing. 
 Hence, the eye being but little habituated to marks of parenthesis, 
 there is a growing tendency to dispense with them, even when the 
 structure of a sentence demands their insertion. Those intermediate 
 expressions, indeed, which are less harsh or abrupt, or do not hinder 
 the flow of the sentence into which they are thrown, are more easily 
 read by means of commas than with the help of marks of parenthe- 
 sis ; but, on the other hand, it is evident, that a whole sentence, or a 
 part of a sentence, introduced into the body of another, with which 
 it does not harmonize, is more clearly distinguished, and that the eye 
 is better able to connect the main portions, when the proper paren- 
 thetical marks are introduced. See pp. 64, 66.
 
 168 MAKKS OF PARENTHESIS. 
 
 RULE. 
 Words thrown obliquely into the Body of a Sentence. 
 
 The marks of parenthesis enclose only those words 
 which break the unity of the sentence into which they 
 are thrown, and which may therefore be omitted with- 
 out injury to its sense or its construction. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1 . The Egyptian style of architecture (see Dr. Pocock, not his discourses, but 
 
 his prints) was apparently the mother of the Greek. 
 
 2. If we exercise right principles (and we cannot have them unless we exer- 
 
 cise them), they must be perpetually on the increase. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. If a point would not be required between those parts of a 
 sentence iu which a parenthesis occurs, none should be used along 
 with the parenthetical marks; as, " Are you still (I fear you are) fai 
 from being comfortably settled?" Here these marks are unac- 
 companied by any point, because, in its simple state, the sentence 
 would be without it; as, "Are you still far from being comfortably 
 settled?" 
 
 b. But, when a comma or any other point is necessary where the 
 incidental clause is thrown in, it should be placed after tlie last mark 
 of parenthesis; as, " Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret 
 to the proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action 
 among men." Some writers would punctuate this and similar sen- 
 tences with the same point before each of the marks ; as, " Left now 
 to himself, (malice could not wish him a worse adviser,) he resolves on 
 a desperate project." But the former mode of pointing is preferable, 
 as it connects the parenthesis more closely with the preceding part 
 of the sentence, to which it is usually most related. 
 
 r. Sometimes the parenthetical portion of a sentence is designed 
 to express either inquiry or an emotion of wonder, astonishment, 
 delight, &c., when the main passage is in its nature affirmative. In 
 cases of this kind, the point required, if there were no parenthesis, 
 is to be inserted before the first mark under consideration, and that 
 which be'ongs to the enclosed portion before the second; as, " While
 
 WOUDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE. 169 
 
 the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men, (and why 
 should he not desire it'/) he disdains to receive their good-will by 
 dishonorable means." 
 
 d. On the other hand, the parenthesis is sometimes explanatory 
 or affirmative ; and the portion of the sentence with which it is con- 
 nected, interrogative. Thus: " The righteousness which is of faith 
 epeaketh on this wise: Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend 
 into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above;) or, Who 
 shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from 
 the dead.) But what saith it?" In this passage, the points used 
 with the marks of parenthesis are applied differently from those 
 inserted in the example illustrating Remark c; but the principle is 
 the same. 
 
 e. Before the first parenthetical mark, however, no point should 
 be used, if not required in case the parenthetical words were omit- 
 ted; as, "The rocks (hard-hearted varlets!) melted not into tears, 
 nor did the trees hang their heads in silent sorrow." 
 
 f. Occasionally, the parenthesis is so little connected with the 
 portion that follows it, that a period is required before the last mark, 
 though no point whatever, or only a comma, is necessary to unite 
 the parts before and after the parenthesis; as, 
 
 The path to bliss abounds with many a snare : 
 
 Learning is one, and wit, however rare. 
 
 The Frenchman, first in literary fame, 
 
 (Mention him, if you please. Voltaire? The same.) 
 
 With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied, 
 
 Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died. 
 
 g. Though, strictly speaking, a parenthesis is an interruption of 
 the sense of a passage, yet the marks indicating it may sometimes 
 be used to enclose a word, phrase, or clause, placed at the end of a 
 sentence; as, "The next night we were introduced at the Prince 
 of Craon's assembly (he has the chief power in the grand duke's 
 absence). The princess," &c. But such a mode of punctuation is 
 seldom needed in a style characterized either by unity or elegance. 
 
 ft. In the Scriptures, particularly in the Letters of the Apostle 
 Paul, parentheses are found consisting of distinct sentences, which 
 require to be separated by full points from the context, as in the 
 following example: " Brethren, be followers together of me, and 
 mark them who walk so as ye have us for an ensample. ( For many 
 walk, of whom I have told you often, and now tell you even weeping, 
 that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ; whose end is destruo-
 
 170 MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 
 
 tion, whose god is their belly, and whose glory is in their sname ; who 
 mind earthly things.) For our conversation is in heaven ; from 
 whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ." 
 
 t. In reports of speeches, where a particular reference is some- 
 times made either to the present or a fonner speaker, or where the 
 sense of the auditors is expressed by approbation or disapprobation, 
 it is usual to enclose the inserted words within marks of parenthesis ; 
 as, " The lucid exposition which has been made of the object of the 
 meeting by the Right Reverend Bishop (M'llvaine) lightens the task 
 of recommending it to an audience like this. I do not know but I 
 should act more advisedly to leave his cogent and persuasive state- 
 ment to produce its natural effect, without any attempt on my part 
 to enforce it (No.)" 
 
 j. Some writers would put within parenthetical marks such 
 words as are thrown into sentences to correct grammatical errors ; 
 as, "I am now as well as when you was (were) here." But, as will 
 be shown hereafter, it is better to use brackets, that the language 
 introduced may be clearly distinguished from the original; as (to 
 take the same example), " I am now as well as when you was [were] 
 here." 
 
 k. Sometimes marks of parenthesis are used to enclose an ex- 
 pression standing apart from the context, and added by way of 
 explanation, or in reference to some other passage. Examples 
 of this kind may be seen in the " Exercises to be written," which 
 occur hi the present treatise. The same marks are also used, par- 
 ticularly in dictionaries and in didactic and scientific works, to 
 enclose the Arabic figures or the letters of the alphabet, when enu- 
 merating definitions of words, or subjects treated of; as, "(A.) The 
 unlawfulness of suicide appears from the following considerations: 
 (1.) Suicide is unlawful on account of its general consequences. 
 (2.) Because it is the duty of the self-murderer to live in the world, 
 and be useful in it. (3.) Because he deprives himself of all further 
 opportunity to prepare for happiness in a future state." But, unless 
 it ia necessary to distinguish the letters or figures from the simpler 
 modes of specification, the marks of parenthesis are better omitted. 
 
 I. When a parenthetical expression is short, or coincides with the 
 rest of the sentence, the marks of parenthesis may be omitted, and 
 commas used instead ; as, " Every star, if we may judye by analogy, 
 is a sun to a system of planets." The intervening words says I, says 
 he, and others of a similar character, should all be writ! en only with 
 commas. See p. 65, Remark c.
 
 WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE. 171 
 
 OKAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Show how the Rule and the Remarks apply to the punctuation of these 
 sentences i 
 
 I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an 
 air of pity. 
 
 The Tyrians were the first (if we may believe what is told us by 
 writers of high antiquity) who learned the art of navigation. 
 
 Pleasure (whene'er she sings, at least) 's a siren, 
 That lures, to flay alive, the young beginner. 
 
 The profound learning and philosophical researches of Sir Wil- 
 liain Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) were the 
 wonder and admiration of his contemporaries. 
 
 Know, then, tUis truth (enough for man to know) : 
 Virtue alone is happiness below. 
 
 Whether writing prose or verse (for a portion of the work is in 
 prose), the author knows both what to blot, and when to stop. 
 
 Do we, then (for this one question covers the whole ground of 
 this subject), do we observe the strict conditions of our vast and 
 unsurpassubly momentous work? 
 
 . The most remote country, towards the East, of which the Greeks 
 had any definite knowledge (and their acquaintance with it was, at 
 the best, extremely imperfect), was India. 
 
 While they wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?) 
 they disdain dishonorable means. 
 
 I am so ill at present, (an illness of my own procuring last night: 
 who is perfect?) that nothing but your very great kindness could 
 make me write. 
 
 She had managed this matter so well, (oh, how artful a woman 
 she was!) that my father's heart was gone before 1 suspected it was 
 in danger. 
 
 Perhaps (for who can guess the effects of chance ?) 
 Here Hunt may box, or Mahomet may dance. 
 
 Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts! 
 the fatal consequences of a wicked life. 
 
 Edward, lo! to sudden fate 
 
 ( \\Vave we the woof: the thread is spun.) 
 
 Half of thy heart we consecrate. 
 (The web is wove ; the work i done.)
 
 172 MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 
 
 The air was mild as summer, all corn was off the ground, and 
 the sky-larks were singing aloud (by the way, I saw not one at 
 Keswick, perhaps because the place abounds in birds of prey). 
 
 She was one 
 Fit for the model of a statuary 
 
 (A race of mere impostors when all's done : 
 I've seen much finer women, ripe and real, 
 Than all the nonsense of their stone ideal). 
 
 A certain man was sick, named Lazarus, of Bethany, the town 
 of Mary and her sister Martha. (It was that Mary who anointed 
 the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair, whose 
 brother Lazarus was sick.) Therefore his sisters sent unto him, 
 saying, Lord, behold, he whom thou lovest is sick. 
 
 From an original and infinitely more lofty and intellectual state 
 of existence, there remains to man, according to the philosophy of 
 Plato, a dark remembrance of divinity and perfection. 
 
 Yet, in the mere outside of nature's works, if I may so express 
 myself, there is a splendor and a magnificence to which even untu- 
 tored minds cannot attend without great delight. 
 
 " You say," said the judge, " that the bag you lost had a hundred 
 and ten dollars in it? " " Yes, sir." " Then," replied the judge, 
 " this cannot be your bag, as it contained but a hundred dollars." 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN". 
 Introduce the marks of parenthesis into their respective places i 
 
 Not a few are the incitements of the working classes would they 
 were greater! to the accumulation of property, and even to the 
 investment of land. (Remark e.) 
 
 The finest images which Joseph Hall conjures up and many of 
 them are wonderfully fine never displace the great truths for the 
 sake of which they are admitted. (Remark a.) 
 
 There is nothing that we call a good which may not be converted 
 into a curse that is, nothing that is providential or external, and not 
 of the soul ; nor is there an evil of that nature which is not tho- 
 roughly a good. (Remark6.) 
 
 There is a power have you not felt it '/ in the presence, conversa- 
 tion, and example of a man of strong principle and magnanimity, to 
 lift us, at least for the moment, from our vulgar and tame habits of 
 thought, and to kindle some generous aspirations after the excel- 
 lence which we were made to attain. (Remarks e, L)
 
 WORKS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE. 173 
 
 Under God, and by those spiritual aids which are ever vouchsafed 
 in exact proportion to our endeavors to obtain them, how gracious 
 and glorious is this truth ! we are morally and religiously, as well as 
 intellectually, the makers of ourselves. (Remark c.) 
 
 Sir, I hope the big gentleman that has just sat down Mr. Francis 
 Archer will do me the justice to believe, that, as I receive little 
 satisfaction from being offended, so I am not sedulous to find out 
 cause for offence. Applause. (Remark i.) 
 
 I mention these instances, not to undervalue science it would bo 
 folly to attempt that; for science, when true to its name, is true 
 knowledge, but to show that its name is sometimes wrongfully 
 assumed, and that its professors, when not guided by humility, may 
 prove but misleading counsellors. (Remark b.) 
 
 And he said unto them that stood by, Take from him the pound, 
 and give it to him that hath ten pounds. And they said unto him, 
 Lord, he hath ten pounds. For I say unto you, that unto every one 
 who hath shall be given; and from him that hath not, even that 
 which he hath shall be taken away from him. (Remarks L, h.) 
 
 " Young master was alive last Whitsuntide," said the coachman. 
 44 Whitsuntide ! alas ! " cried Trim,extending his right arm, and falling 
 instantly into the same attitude in which lie read the sermon, " what 
 is Whitsuntide, Jonathan " for that was the coachman's name, " or 
 Shrovetide, or any other tide or time, to this 'i " (Remark b.) 
 
 No lesson of a practical kind and all lessons ought to be practical 
 requires to be so often repeated as that which enjoins upon the mind 
 a state of passivity ; for what an electrical thing is it ! How does it 
 dart forth alter this and that, flitting from sweet to sweet for it never 
 willingly tastes of bitter things, and "feeding itself without fear"! 
 (Remarks a, b.) 
 
 Inquiring the road to Mirlington, I addressed him by the name of 
 Honesty. The fellow whether to show his wit before his mistress, 
 or whether he was displeased with my familiarity, I cannot tell 
 directed me to follow a part of my face which, I was well assured, 
 could be no guide to me, and that other parts would follow of con- 
 sequence. (Remarks a, b.) 
 
 Socrates has often expressly said, that he considered human life 
 in general and without doubt the state of the world in his day must 
 have eminently tended to make him so consider it in the light of an 
 imprisonment of the soul, or of a malady under which the nobler 
 spirit is condemned to linger, until it be set free and purified by the 
 healing touch of death. (Remark a.)
 
 174 
 
 SECT, in. THE DASH. 
 
 The DASH [ ] is a straight horizontal line, used 
 for the purposes specified in the following rules. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Notwithstanding the advantages resulting from the proper use 
 of the dash, the most indistinct conceptions have been formed in 
 regard to its nature and its applications. Many authors, some of 
 them of high standing in the literary world, as well as a majority 
 of letter-writers, are wont to employ this mark so indiscriminately 
 as to prove that they are acquainted neither with its uses, nor with 
 those of the other points whose places it is made to supply. Some 
 use it instead of a comma; others, instead of a semicolon; not a 
 few, where the colon is required ; and a host, between every sentence 
 and after every paragraph. Others go even further, by introducing 
 it between the most commonplace words and phrases, apparently to 
 apprise the reader, through the medium of his eye, what perhaps he 
 could not discover by his judgment, that the composition before him 
 is distinguished for brilliance of diction, tenderness of sentiment, or 
 force of thought. But surely the unnecessary profusion of straight 
 lines, particularly on a printed page, is offensive to good taste, is an 
 index of the dasher's profound ignorance of the art of punctuation, 
 and, so far from helping to bring out the sense of an author, is better 
 adapted for turning into nonsense some of his finest passages. 
 
 b. From these abuses in the application of the dash, some writers 
 have strongly questioned its utility in any way as a sentential mark. 
 So long, however, as modes of thought are different, and the style 
 of composition corresponds with the peculiarities of an author's 
 mind, so long will it be necessary occasionally to use the dash. 
 The majestic simplicity of Scripture language may dispense with the 
 use of this mark; but the affected and abrupt style of a Sterne, 
 the broken and natural colloquialisms of a Shukspeare, the diffusive 
 eloquence of a Chalmers, and the parenthetical inversions of a 
 Bentham or a Brougham, will scarcely admit of being pointed only 
 with the more common and grammatical stops.
 
 BROKEN AND EPIGRAMMATIC SENTENCES. 17fl 
 
 RULE I. 
 Broken and Epigrammatic Sentences. 
 
 The dash is used where a sentence breaks off ab- 
 ruptly, and the subject is changed ; where the sense is 
 suspended, and is continued after a short interruption ; 
 where a significant or long pause is required ; and 
 where there is an unexpected or epigrammatic turn hi 
 the sentiment. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band? Was there 
 
 ever but I scorn to boast. 
 
 2. Then the eye of a child who can look unmoved into that " well unde- 
 
 filed," in which heaven itself seems to be reflected? 
 8. You have given the command to a person of illustrious birth, of ancient 
 
 family, of innumerable statues, but of no experience. 
 4. UERE LIES THE GREAT 4'alse marble ! where? Nothing but sordid dust 
 
 lies here. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. In the preceding examples, no grammatical point is used with 
 the dash, because, in the first two and the last one, none would seem 
 to be required if the sentences broken off had been finished; and 
 because, in the third, the word " but," before the mark showing the 
 suspensive pause, is intimately connected in sense with the phrase 
 that follows it. But if the parts of a sentence, between which the 
 pause of suspension is to be made, are susceptible of being gram- 
 matically divided, their proper point should be inserted before the 
 dash; as, " He sometimes counsel takes, and sometimes snuff." 
 
 6. Passages of the following kind, in which an unfinished ques- 
 tion is taken up immediately afterwards in an alternate form, may 
 be brought under the operation of the present rule ; the dash, with 
 a comma before it, being placed after the commencing portion cf the 
 sentence: "Who could best describe to you a country, he who 
 had travelled its entire surface, or he who had just landed on its 
 shores? Who could best breathe into you the spirit of Christian 
 love, he who had scarcely learned to control his own passions, 01 
 Jesus of Nazareth?"
 
 176 THE DASH. 
 
 OKAL EXKKCISK. 
 Why are dashes inserted in the following sentences ? 
 
 Men will wrangle for religion, write for it, fight for it, any thing 
 but live for it. 
 
 Greece, Carthage, Rome, where are they? The pages of his- 
 tory how is it that they are so dark and sad ? 
 
 If you will give me your attention, I will show you but stop ! 
 I do not know that you wish to see. 
 
 Leonidas, Cato, Phocion, Tell, one peculiarity marks them all: 
 they dared and suffered for their native land. 
 
 If thou art he, so much respected once but, oh, how fallen! 
 how degraded ! 
 
 The good woman was allowed by everybody, except her husband, 
 to be a sweet-tempered lady when not in liquor. 
 
 I take eh! oh! as much exercise eh! as I can, Madam 
 Gout. You know my sedentary state. 
 
 Hast thou but how shall I ask a question which must bring 
 tears into so many eyes V 
 
 When Jesus saw his mother, and the disciple standing by whom 
 he loved, he saith unto his mother, Woman, behold thy son ! 
 Then saith he to the disciple, Behold thy mother ! 
 
 When the poor victims were bayoneted, clinging round the knees 
 of the soldiers, would my friend but I cannot pursue the strain of 
 iny interrogation. 
 
 "Lord Cardinal! if thou think'st on heaven's bliss, 
 Hold up thy hand ; make signal of that hope." 
 He dies, and makes no sign. 
 
 Approaching the head of the bed, where my poor young com- 
 panion, with throat uncovered, was lying, with one hand the monster 
 grasped his knife, and with the other ah, cousin ! with the otliei 
 he seized a ham. 
 
 Good people all, with one accord, 
 
 Lament for Madam Blaize, 
 Who never wanted a good word 
 
 From those who spoke her praise. 
 
 A " Hamlet," a " Paradise Lost," and a St. Peter's Church, 
 are they not, each after its kind, creations to which nothing can be 
 added, and from which nothing can be taken away, without disturb- 
 ance of their serene, absolute completeness ?
 
 BROKEN AND EPIGRAMMATIC SENTENCES. 177 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 In the following- sentences, insert dashes wherever necessary . 
 
 "I forgot my" "Your portmanteau V " hastily interrupted 
 Thomas. " The same." 
 
 Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are too 
 weak, too powerless, to express them. 
 
 To reward men according to their worth alas ! the perfection of 
 this, we know, amounts to the millennium. 
 
 " Please your honor," quoth Trim, " the Inquisition is the vilest " 
 " Prithee, spare thy description, Trim. I hate the very name of it," 
 said my father. 
 
 Frankness, suavity, tenderness, benevolence, breathed through 
 their exercise. And his family But he is gone: that noble heart 
 beats no more. 
 
 Thou dost not mean 
 
 No, no : thou wouldst not hare me make 
 
 A trial of my skill upon my child! 
 
 What beside a few mouldering and brittle ruins, which time Is 
 imperceptibly touching down into dust, what, beside these, remains 
 of the glory, the grandeur, the intelligence, the supremacy, of the 
 Grecian republics, or the empire of Rome ? 
 
 In thirty years the western breeze had not fanned his blood : lie 
 had seen no sun, no moon, in all that time; nor had the voice of 
 friend or kinsman breathed through his lattice. His children but 
 here my heart began to bleed, and I was forced to go on with another 
 part of the portrait. 
 
 The people lifted up their voices, and blessed the good St. Nicho- 
 las; uiid, from that time forth, the sage Van Kortland was held in 
 more honor than ever for his great talent at dreaming, and was 
 pronounced a most useful citizen and a right good man when lie 
 was asleep. 
 
 I now solemnly declare, that, so far as personal happiness is con- 
 cerned, I would infinitely prefer to pass my life as a member of the 
 bar, in the practice of my profession, according to the ability which 
 God has given me, to that life which I have led, and in which I havn 
 held places of high trust, honor, respectability, and obloquy. 
 
 At church, in silks and satins new, 
 
 With hoop of monstrous size, 
 She never slumbered in her pew 
 
 But when she shut her eyes. 
 12
 
 178 THE DASH. 
 
 RULE II. 
 A Concluding Clause on which other Expressions depend, 
 
 A dash should be used after several words or ex- 
 pressions, when these constitute a nominative which 
 is broken off, and resumed in a new form ; and after 
 a long member, or a series of phrases or clauses, when 
 they lead to an important conclusion. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. That patriotism which, catching its inspirations from the immortal 
 God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below all lesser, grovelling, 
 personal interests and feelings, animates and prompts to deeds of self-sacri- 
 fice, of valor, of devotion, and of death itself, that is public virtue; that 
 is the noblest, the Bublimest, of all public virtues. 
 
 2. When ambition practises the monstrous doctrine of millions made for 
 individuals, their playthings, to be demolished at their caprice; sporting 
 wantonly with the rights, the peace, the comforts, the existence, of nations, 
 as if their intoxicated pride would, if possible, make God's earth itself their 
 football, is not the good man indignant? 
 
 3. The infinity of worlds, and the narrow spot of earth which we call our 
 country or our home ; the eternity of ages, and the few hours of life ; the 
 almighty power of God, and human nothingness, it is impossible to think 
 of these in succession, without a feeling like tltat which is produced by the 
 sublimest eloquence. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Instead of a comma and a dash, which are used in these exam- 
 ples immediately before the finishing clause of the sentence, some 
 writers and printers would insert a semicolon or a colon; but the 
 punctuation adopted above seems to exhibit the construction and 
 sense to more advantage, and to be more in harmony with the 
 rhetorical character of such passages. 
 
 b. On the other hand, many would put dashes, in the third 
 example, instead of the semicolons which we have introduced. The 
 mode of punctuation here exhibited seems to be preferable, on 
 account of its greater definiteness ; showing, as it does, by the 
 insertion, between the particulars of the compound series, of a point 
 different from that used before the last portion of the sentence, buth 
 the similarities and the distinction which exist between its various 
 parts. See p. 120, Rule; p. 121, c, e, /.
 
 A CONCLUDING CLAUSE. 179 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 State why dashes are inserted in the following sentences : 
 
 To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold 
 wti:it there is of true in the old, let this be our endeavor. 
 
 At school and at college, the great vision of Rome broods over the 
 mind with a power which is never suspended or disputed : her great 
 men, her beautiful legends, her history, the height to which she rose, 
 and the depth to which she fell, these make up one-half of a stu- 
 dent's ideal world. 
 
 The noble indignation with which Emmett repelled the charge of 
 treason against his country, the eloquent vindication of his name, 
 and his pathetic appeal to posterity, in the hopeless hour of condem- 
 nation, all these .entered deeply into every generous bosom; and 
 even his enemies lamented the stern policy that dictated his exe- 
 cution. 
 
 That gush of human sympathy which brought tears into Charles 
 Lamb's eyes, when he mingled in the living tide which pours through 
 the sti-eets of London, and he felt his heart beat responsive to the 
 warm pulse of joy as it throbbed past him, what was it but 
 the vivid consciousness of God ; the breath of the Father, softening the 
 bosom over which it swept, and filling it with his own merciful ten- 
 derness towards the great family of man ? 
 
 The grasp of a child's little hand around one of our fingers; its 
 mighty little crow, when excited by the playfulness of its nurse; 
 its manful spring upon the little woolpack legs that refuse to bear its 
 weight, are all traits of more or less pleasantness. Every step in 
 the attainment of physical power; every new trait of intelligence, 
 as they one by one arise in the infantine intellect, like the glory 
 of night, starting star by star into the sky, is hailed with a heart- 
 burst of rapture and surprise, as if we had never known any thing 
 so clever or so captivating before. 
 
 The affections which spread beyond ourselves, and stretch fai 
 Into futurity ; the workings of mighty passions, which seem to arm 
 the soul with an almost superhuman energy; the innocent and 
 irrepressible joy of infancy; the bloom and buoyancy and dazzling 
 hopes of youth ; the throbbings of the heart, when it first wakes to 
 love, and dreams of a happiness too vast for earth; woman, with 
 her beauty and grace and gentleness, and fulness of feeling, and 
 depth of affection, and blushes of purity, and the tones and looks 
 which only a mother's heart can inspire, these are all poetical.
 
 180 THE DASH. 
 
 EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Let dashe* be introduced into these sentences, in accordance with the Rule . 
 
 The collision of mind with mind; the tug and strain of intel- 
 lectual wrestling; the tension of every mental fibre, as the student 
 reaches forth to take hold of the topmost pinnacle of thought; the 
 shout of joy that swells up from gladsome voices, as he stands upon 
 the summit, with error under his feet, these make men. 
 
 The modest flower, nestling in the meadow-grass ; the happy tree, 
 as it laughs and riots in the wind; the moody cloud, knitting its 
 brow in solemn thought ; the river that has been flowing all night 
 long; the sound of the thirsty earth, as it drinks and relishes the 
 rain, these things are as a full hymn when they flow from the melody 
 of nature, but an empty rhythm when scanned by the finger of art. 
 
 If we would see the foundations laid broadly and deeply on which 
 the fabric of this country's liberties shall rest to the remotest gene- 
 rations: if we would see her carry forward the work of political 
 reformation, and rise the bright and morning star of freedom over 
 a benighted world, let as elevate the intellectual and moral character 
 of every class of our citizens, and especially let us imbue them 
 thoroughly with the principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Above all the fret and tumult of actual existence, above the 
 decrees of earth's nominal sovereigns, above all the violence and 
 evil which render what is called history so black a record of folly 
 and crime, above all these, there have ever been certain luminous 
 ideas, pillars of fire in the night of time, which have guided and 
 guarded the great army of humanity, in its slow and hesitating, but 
 still onward, progress in knowledge and freedom. 
 
 When, at God's decree, human greatness from all its .state falls 
 to the ground like a leaf; when death, usually doing its work in 
 silence, seems to cry out over the bier of the high and distinguished; 
 when some figure, that has moved with imposing tread in our sight, 
 towers still more out of the dark valley ; when the drapery of mourn- 
 ing unrolls itself from private chambers to line the streets, darken 
 the windows, and hang the heavens in black; when the stroke of the 
 bell adds a sabbath solemnity to the days of the week, and the boom 
 of guns, better fired over the dead than at the living, echoes all 
 through our territory ; while the wheels of business stop, and labor 
 leans its head, and trade foregoes its gains, and communication, 
 save on one thinne, ceases, we may well ask the meaning and 
 cause.
 
 A CONCLUDING CLAUSE. 181 
 
 Insert both semicolons and dashes in their respective places .- 
 
 Wherever on this earth an understanding is active to know 
 and serve the truth wherever a heart beats with kind and pure and 
 generous affections wherever a home spreads its sheltering wing 
 over husband and wife, and parent and child, there, under every 
 diversity of outward circumstance, the true worth and dignity and 
 peace of man's soul are within reach of all. 
 
 When, in addition to the mere spectacle and love of nature, there 
 is a knowledge of it too when the laws and processes are under- 
 stood which surround us with wonder and beauty every day when 
 the great cycles are known, through which the material creation 
 passes without decay, then, in the immensity of human hopes, there 
 appears nothing which need stagger faith it seems no longer strange 
 that the mind which interprets the material creation should survive 
 its longest period, and be admitted to its remoter realms. 
 
 The infinite importance of what he has to do the goading convic 
 tdon that it must be done the utter inability of doing it the dreadful 
 combination, in his mind, of both the necessity and incapacity the 
 despair of crowding the concerns of an age into a moment the 
 impossibility of beginning a repentance which should have been 
 completed, of setting about a peace which should have been con- 
 cluded, of suing for a pardon which should have been obtained, 
 all these complicated concerns without strength, without time, with- 
 out hope with a clouded memory, a disjointed reason, a wounded 
 spirit, undefined terrors, remembered sins, anticipated punishment, an 
 angry God, an accusing conscience, all together intolerably augment 
 the sufferings of a body which stands in little need of the insupporta- 
 ble burthen of a distracted mind to aggravate its torments. 
 
 If thou art a child, and hast ever added a sorrow to the soul, or 
 a furrow to the silvered brow, of an affectionate parent if thou art a 
 husband, and hast ever caused the fond bosom that ventured its 
 whole happiness in thy arms to doubt one moment of thy kindness 
 or thy truth if thou art a friend, and hast ever wronged, in thought, 
 word, or deed, the spirit that generously confided in thee if thou art 
 a lover, and hast ever given one unmerited pang to that true heart 
 that now lies cold and still beneath thy feet, then be sure that every 
 unkind look, every ungracious word, every ungentle action, will 
 come thronging back upon thy memory, and knocking dolefully at 
 thy soul then be sure that thon wilt lie down sorrowing and repentant 
 on the grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the unavailing 
 tear, more deep, more bitter, because unheard and unavailing.
 
 182 THE DASH. 
 
 RULE III. 
 Ttie Echo, or Words repeated Rhetorically, 
 
 The dash is used before what is termed by elocu- 
 tionists the echo ; that is, before a word or phrase 
 repeated in an exclamatory or an emphatic manner. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly brought up, 
 in the tent of my father, that most excellent general shall I, the conqueror 
 of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps 
 themselves shall I compare myself with this half-year captain? a cap- 
 tain, before whom should one place the two armies without their ensigns, I 
 am persuaded he would not know to which of them he is consul. 
 
 2. Newton was a Christian ; Newton ! whose mind burst forth from the 
 fetters cast by nature on our finite conceptions ; Newton ! whose science 
 was truth, and the foundation of whose knowledge of it was philosophy ; not 
 those visionary and arrogant presumptions which too often usurp its najne, 
 but philosophy resting on the basis of mathematics, which, like figures, can- 
 not lie; Newton! who carried the line and rule to the utmost barriers of 
 creation, and explored the principles by which, no doubt, all created matter 
 is held together and exists. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Before the iteration of the words " shall I," in the first example, 
 dashes are put without any other point, to show that what precedes 
 is unfinished. After the expression, " this half-year captain," a note 
 of interrogation is placed, because the question terminates here. 
 
 b. In the second example, semicolons are introduced before the 
 dashes, in order to separate with greater clearness the various mem- 
 bers, some of which are divisible into clauses. But, in the more 
 simple kinds of sentences (as in the first five under the Oral Exer- 
 cise, p. 183), a comma will be sufficient before the dash. 
 
 c. After expressions of the kind under consideration, it is seldom 
 necessary to put the exclamatory mark; as, " Edmund Burke was a 
 man who added to the pride, not merely of his country, but of his 
 species ; a man who robed the very soul of inspiration in the 
 splendors of a pure and overpowering eloquence." The construction 
 of the language used, arid the nature of the sentiment, will readily 
 indicate what point, if any, should be inserted.
 
 THE ECHO. 183 
 
 </. When a parenthesis is introduced before an iterated expression, 
 the dash should both precede and follow the parenthetical marks: 
 as, 
 
 When I am old (and, oh, how soon 
 
 Will life's sweet morning yield to noon, 
 
 And uoon's broad, fervid, earnest light 
 
 Be shaded in the solemn night! 
 
 Till like a story well-nigh told 
 
 Will seem my life, when I am old), 
 
 When I am old, this breezy earth 
 
 Will lose for me its voice of mirth; 
 
 The streams will have an undertone 
 
 Of sadness not by right their own. 
 
 e. The dash is also sometimes used before that which is merely 
 an echo of the thought previously expressed; or, in other words, 
 when the same idea is repeated in a different form in the same 
 sentence ; as, " Our own nature is the first and nearest of all reali- 
 ties, tiie corner-stone of the entire fabric of truth." In many of 
 these passages, however, when they are of a less rhetorical nature, 
 the dash may be omitted ; as, " There is nothing more prejudicial 
 to the grandeur of buildings than to abound in angles; a fatUt 
 obvious in many, and owing to an inordinate thirst for variety, 
 which, whenever it prevails, is sure to leave very little true taste " 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 Explain the reason why dashes are inserted in these sentences t- 
 
 You speak like a boy, like a boy who thinks the old, gnarled 
 oak can be twisted as easily as the young sapling. 
 
 Never is virtue left without sympathy, sympathy dearer and 
 tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it, and proved its fidelity. 
 
 There are, indeed, I acknowledge, to the honor of the human 
 kind, there are persons in the world who feel that the possession 
 of good dispositions is their best reward. 
 
 The faithful man acts not from impulse, bat from conviction, 
 conviction of duty, the most stringent, solemn, and inspiring con- 
 viction that can sway the mind. 
 
 All great discoveries, not purely accidental, will be gifts to in- 
 sight ; and the true man of science will be he who can best ascend 
 into the thoughts of God, he who burns before the throne in the 
 clearest, purest, mildest light of reason.
 
 184 THE DASH. 
 
 Man is led to the conception of a Power and an Intelligence supe- 
 rior to his own, and adequate to the production and maintenance of 
 all that he sees in nature; a Power and Intelligence to which he 
 may well apply the term infinite. 
 
 Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty as to give its 
 sanction to measures thus obtruded and forced upon them ? mea- 
 sures, my lords, which have reduced this late-flourishing kingdom 
 to scorn and contempt. 
 
 He hears the raven's cry ; and shall he not hear, and will he not 
 avenge, the wrongs that his nobler animals suffer? wrongs that 
 cry out against man, from youth to age, hi the city and iu the field, 
 by the way and by the fireside. 
 
 The voices in the waves are always whispering to Florence, in 
 their ceaseless murmuring, of love ; of love eternal and illimita- 
 ble, not bounded by the confines of this world or by the end of time, 
 but ranging still, beyond the sea, beyond the sky, to the invisible 
 country far away. 
 
 Twas my cradle in childhood, that ocean so proud ; 
 And in death let me hare its bright waves for my shroud; 
 Let no sad tears be shed, when I die, over me ; 
 But bury me deep in the sea, in the 8ea. 
 
 Then I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their great-grand- 
 mother Field once was, and how in her youth she was esteemed the 
 best dancer (here Alice's little right foot played an involuntary 
 movement, till, upon my looking grave, it desisted) the best 
 dancer, I was saying, in the county, till a cruel disease, called a 
 cancer, came, and bowed her down with pain ; but it could never 
 bend her good spirits, or make them stoop, but they were still upright, 
 because she was so good and religious. 
 
 Harriet complied, and read ; read the eternal book for all the 
 weary and the heavy-laden ; for all the wretched, fallen, and neglected 
 of this earth ; read the blessed history in which the blind, lame, 
 palsied beggar, the criminal, the woman stained with shame, the 
 shunned of all our dainty clay, have each a portion that no human 
 pride, indifference, or sophistry, through all the ages that this world 
 shall last, can take away, or by the thousandth atom of a grain 
 reduce ; read the ministry of Him who, through the round of 
 human life, and all its hopes and griefs, from birth to death, from 
 infancy to age, hud sweet compassion for and interest in its every 
 scene and stage, its every suffering and sorrow.
 
 THE ECHO. 185 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WKIPTEN. 
 Let dashes be inserted before Vie echoes in the following passages i 
 
 We must take a wakeful and active interest, that seeks them out; 
 an interest that examines into the causes of their degradation, and 
 labors to raise them to a more just social position; an interest that 
 comes from faith in man as the child of God, and from faith in God 
 as the heavenly Father ; an interest that never despairs of the fallen 
 or the lost, but makes Him who was the friend of publicans and 
 sinners its model. 
 
 Truth should be enshrined in our inmost hearts, and become the 
 object of our fervent contemplation, our earnest desire and aspira- 
 tion. Consecrate, above all things, truth, whatever prejudices it 
 may proscribe, whatever advantages it may forfeit, and whatever 
 privileges it may level ; truth, though its recompense should be the 
 privations of poverty or the darkness of the dungeon ; truth, the first 
 lesson for the child, and the last word of the dying; truth, the world's 
 regenerator, God's image on earth, the essence of virtue in the cha- 
 racter, the foundation of happiness in the heart; truth, the whole 
 truth, and nothing but the truth. 
 
 It is the sorrow which draws sweetness from the affections, and 
 is hallowed by conscience, the sorrow that mingles its sanctifying 
 drop in the cup of virtuous love and pure-souled friendship, the 
 Borrow which mortifies young ambition, and tempers presumptuous 
 enthusiasm, the sorrow which makes us feel our weakness and in- 
 efficiency, when we have put forth earnest efforts to serve the truth 
 and aid human progress, this is the sorrow which chastens and exalts 
 the spirit, and fills it with a noble seriousness, and binds it by holier 
 ties to that ideal of perfection and blessedness which never perishes 
 from the trust and the aspiration of the true servants of God. 
 
 It remains with you, then, to decide, whether that freedom at 
 whose voice the kingdoms of Europe awoke from the sleep of ages, 
 to run a career of virtuous emulation in every thing great and good; 
 the freedom which dispelled the mists of superstition, and invited 
 the nations to behold their God; whose magic torch kindled the rays 
 of genius, the enthusiasm of poetry, and the fiame of eloquence; 
 the freedom which poured into our lap opulence and arts, and 
 embellished life with innumerable institutions and improvements, 
 till it became a theatre of wonders ; it is for you to decide, whether 
 this freedom shall yet survive, or be covered with a funeral pall, and 
 wrapped in eternal gloom.
 
 f 
 
 186 THE DASH. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 A Parenthesis coalescing with the Main Passage. 
 
 When parentheses or intermediate expressions, that 
 easily coalesce with the construction of the sentences 
 in which they occur, are separable into portions requir- 
 ing points, dashes may be used instead of the common 
 marks of parenthesis. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The whole deportment of a child is delightful. Its smile always so 
 ready when there is no distress, and so soon recurring when that distress haa 
 passed away is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. 
 
 2. The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without, if not, as some 
 philosophers have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet in a moral sense, exist 
 within us. 
 
 K E BI A K K.S. 
 
 . When & sentence, being assertive, can be read without a point 
 between the parts into which a parenthesis is introduced, that 
 is, on the supposition of its being excluded, none will be requisite 
 along with the dashes ; as in the first example under the rule, which, 
 if the parenthesis were omitted, would read thus : " Its smile is like 
 au opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond." 
 
 b. But when, without the parenthesis, such a sentence would 
 require a comma or any other grammatical mark at the place where 
 the parenthesis occurs, both the dashes must be preceded by that 
 mark, as in the second example. 
 
 c. The parenthetical portion, even though incapable of subdi- 
 vision, is enclosed by dashes, when it contains an echo of what 
 precedes, or is thrown in by way of explanation; as, "It was under 
 the influence of impulse the impulse of nature on his own poetic 
 spirit that Burns went forth singing in glory and in joy on the 
 mountain-side." 
 
 d. If the parenthesis is expressive of inquiry or emotion, a note 
 of interrogation or of exclamation should be used before the second 
 dash, whatever may be tiie point, if any, required before the first; 
 as, "How little may it not be? the most considerate feel tho 
 import of a grateful acknowledgment to God!" "In conformity
 
 A COALESCING PARENTHESIS. 187 
 
 with a rule of the Trotters, ' never to flinch from duty,' I stand 
 here, not to make a speech, for who would expect me to make a 
 speech ? but to thank you for the honor you have done us, and to 
 give yon some reminiscences of the Trotter family." 
 
 e. The following passage, which, as requiring a dash before the 
 echoed word "not," belongs to Rule III., p. 182, should, though 
 perhaps it does not contain a strictly parenthetical expression, 
 have the same mark before the conjunction " but," in accordance 
 with the examples under the present rule, in order to show the rela- 
 tion of the first two larger portions of the sentence to the latter: 
 " Luther entered Rome, not in the mood of the scholar or the poet, 
 not to study inscriptions, or muse over the ruins of fallen grandeur, 
 but with the burning zeal of a devout pilgrim, who hoped to find 
 there a fountain which would slake the deep thirst of his soul." 
 
 /. Though but partially embraced by the rule, the following is a 
 sentence which requires for its elucidation a similar mode of pointing: 
 " The finest displays of power, such as those which delineate 
 Prometheus blessing mankind, and defying the thunder of Jove, 
 even when fastened to the ban-en rock, with the vulture tugging at 
 his heart, what are they but the principles which have animated 
 men who have struck for freedom ; braving the dungeon, the stake, 
 and the scaffold, in their enthusiasm for liberty, and their determina- 
 tion to emancipate themselves and their fellow-creatures?" Here, 
 it will be seen, the nominative case is interrupted by the parenthesis, 
 and then repeated in an interrogative form. (See Rule II., p. 178.) 
 To exhibit this interruption and change, made with a view of im- 
 parting intensity to the language, the parenthetical dashes, preceded 
 each by a comma, are used. 
 
 g. Where one parenthetical clause is contained within another, 
 both of which should be distinctly perceived, that which is less 
 connected in construction, whatever the order, may be enclosed by 
 the usual marks, and the other set off by dashes, as in the following 
 lines : 
 
 " Sir Smug," he cries (for lowest at the board 
 Just made fifth chaplain of his patron lord; 
 His shoulders witnessing, by many a shrug, 
 How much his feelings suffered sat Sir Smug), 
 " Your office is to winnow false from true : 
 Come, prophet, drink, and tell us what think you." 
 
 h. For the merely grammatical mode of pointing parentheses and 
 parenthetical expressions, see pp. 64, 65 ; 107-170.
 
 188 THE DASH. 
 
 OUAT, EXERCISE. 
 
 Shout hov theft sentences exemplify the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 186-7) : 
 
 There are times they only can understand who have known 
 them when passion is dumb, and purest love maintains her whole 
 dominion. 
 
 The true test of a great man that, at least, which must secure 
 his place among the highest order of great men is his having been 
 in advance of his age. 
 
 In youth that is to say, somewhere between the period of child- 
 hood and manhood there is commonly a striking development of 
 sensibility and imagination. 
 
 To Andersen a young man of vivid fancy, fine senses, and 
 cordial sympathies, who had been reared in the blessed air of 
 renunciation every thing in Italy was a delight. 
 
 The magnificent creations of Southey's poetry piled up, like 
 clouds at sunset, in the calm serenity of his capacious intellect 
 have always been duly appreciated by poetical students and critical 
 readers; but by the public at large they are neglected. 
 
 In pure description, such as is not warmed by passion, or deep- 
 ened by philosophical reflection, Shelley is a great master. 
 
 In the heathen world, where mankind had no divine revelation, 
 but followed the impulse of nature alone, religion was often the 
 basis of civil government. 
 
 Demosthenes, Julius Caesar, Henry the Fourth of France, Lord 
 Bacon, Sir Isaac Newton, Franklin, Washington, Napoleon, dif- 
 ferent as they were in their intellectual and moral qualities, were 
 all renowned as hard workers. 
 
 When we look up to the first rank of genius, to Socrates and 
 Plato and Pythagoras, to Paul and Luther, to Bacon and Leibnitz 
 and Newton, we find they are men who bow before the infinite 
 sanctities which their souls discern. 
 
 There was a deep wisdom in the governing maxim of the old 
 Catholic church, though often, it must be confessed, meagrely 
 understood and falsely applied, that truth is to be found in a 
 central point equally remote from divergent errors. 
 
 The poetic temperament that had led Channing to the beach in 
 Newport, and to the willow walk in Cambridge, thrilling his soul 
 with the sense of beauty, with yearnings to be free from imperfec- 
 tion, and visions of good too great for earth, was working strongly 
 in him.
 
 A COALESCING PARENTHESIS. 189 
 
 Truth, courage, and justice those lion virtues that stand round 
 the throne of national greatness shape their blunt manners and 
 their downright speech. 
 
 Religion who can doubt it ? is the noblest of themes for the 
 exercise of intellect. 
 
 I wished oh ! why should I not have wished V that all my 
 fellow-men possessed the blessings of a benign civilization and a 
 pure form of Christianity. 
 
 And the ear, that gathers unto its hidden chambers all music 
 and gladness, would you give it for a kingdom? 
 
 As thus I mused amidst the various train 
 . Of toil-worn wanderers of the perilous main, 
 Two sailors well I marked them (as the beam 
 Of parting day yet lingered on the stream, 
 And the sun sunk behind the shady reach) 
 Hastened with tottering footsteps to the beach. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Insert in the following sentences the parenthetical dashes, witii the pointg 
 accompanying tliem when required i 
 
 In our dwellings and in concert-rooms, ay, and in opera-houses 
 BO the theme be pure and great there is preaching as surely as within 
 church- walls. (Remark b.) 
 
 Either there is a resemblance and analogy but how imperfect 
 between the attributes of the Divinity and our conceptions of them, 
 or we cannot have any conceptions at all. (Remark d.) 
 
 It is no exaggeration to say, that Milton alone has surpassed if 
 even he has surpassed some of the noble sonnets of Wordsworth, 
 dedicated to liberty and inspired by patriotism. (Remark c.) 
 
 It is when man is in his truest moods and these come never 
 oftener than in his sorrows and self-cornmunings that he finds him- 
 self most in harmony with nature, and most rejoices in her kindly 
 and wholesome influence. (Remark b.) 
 
 When we read the maxims of La Rochefoucault which, false as 
 they would be if they had been intended to give us a faithful 
 universal picture of the moral nature of man, were unfortunately 
 too faithful a delineation of the passions and principles that imme- 
 diately surrounded their author, and met his daily view in the 
 splendid scenes of vanity and ambitious intrigue to which his obser-
 
 190 THE DASH. 
 
 vation was confined it is impossible not to feel, that, acute and subtle 
 as they are, many of these maxims must have been only the expres- 
 sion of principles which were floating, without being fixed in words, 
 in the minds of many of his fellow-courtiers. (Remark 6.) 
 
 The gods of the Greeks those graceful forms which Homer drew 
 in verse, and Phidias realized in marble were scarcely more irra- 
 tional than the objects to which, in the name of Christianity, many 
 have paid their homage. (Remark a.) 
 
 When a people shall learn that its greatest benefactors and most 
 important members are men devoted to the liberal instruction, of all 
 its classes to the work of raising to life its buried intellect it will 
 have opened to itself the path of true glory. (Remark c.) 
 
 The contest between Christianity and the heathenish philosophy 
 between the old polytheism and the new belief, a poetical mythology 
 and a religion of morality is the most remarkable intellectual contest 
 which has ever been exhibited and determined among the human 
 race. (Remark a.) 
 
 Christianity which, as a reform lastingly affecting all the social 
 relations of men, yet remains to be philosophically estimated (our 
 limits forbid our entering upon that tempting field of inquiry) had 
 sown the seeds whose fruit might supplement the pre-existing sys- 
 tem. ( Remark g.) 
 
 With regard to the powers of speech those powers which the very 
 second year of our existence generally calls into action, the exercise 
 of which goes on at our sports, our studies, our walks, our very 
 meals, and which is never long suspended, except at the hour of 
 refreshing sleep how few surpass their fellow-creatures of common 
 information and moderate attainments ! ( Remark b. ) 
 
 If we were to imagine present together, not a single small group 
 only of those whom their virtues or talents had rendered eminent 
 in a single nation, but all the sages and patriots of every country 
 and period, without one of the frail and guilty contemporaries that 
 mingled with them when they lived on earth; if we were to imagine 
 them collected together, not on an earth of occasional sunshiue and 
 alternate tempests like that which we inhabit, but in some still 
 fairer world, in which the only variety of the seasons consisted in n 
 change of beauties and delights a world in which the faculties and 
 virtues that were originally so admirable continued still their glorious 
 and immortal progress does it seem possible that the contemplation 
 of such a scene, so nobly inhabited, should not be delightful to him 
 who might be transported into it? (Remark b.)
 
 ELLIPSIS OF THE WORD "NAMELY." 191 
 
 RULE V. 
 Ellipsis of the Adverb " Namely," $c. 
 
 The dash is commonly used where there is an ellipsis 
 of such words as namely, that is, and others having a 
 similar import. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first we come 
 
 to, Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Hilton. 
 
 2. Nicholas Copernicus was instructed in that seminary where it is always 
 
 happy when any one can be well taught, the family circle. 
 8. Gray and Collins aimed at the dazzling imagery and magnificence of lyrical 
 poetry, the direct antipodes of Pope. 
 
 KKM A BR 8. 
 
 a. This rule may be properly regarded as a branch of that on 
 page 175, in reference to significant pauses; but it is here separately 
 introduced, in consequence of its utility, and the frequency of its 
 application to the purpose mentioned. 
 
 b. In the first two examples, the adverb namely, and, in the third 
 example, the words which are, might be expressed where the dash is 
 inserted ; this mark being, in such cases, unnecessary. But it wil. 
 readily be seen, that, as exhibited in the briefer mode and witli the 
 rhetorical mark, the sentences are more effective than they would 
 be if the words understood were supplied. 
 
 c. A comma is required before the dash, in accordance with the 
 second branch of the rule, page 41, on words and phrases in appo- 
 sition. The dash is annexed merely to lengthen the pause made in 
 delivery. 
 
 d. Should the dash be necessarily used often in the same page for 
 other purposes, it may not be improper to omit it, and to substitute 
 a colon or a semicolon for the comma and dash, before such a speci- 
 fication of particulars as occurs hi the first example under the rule. 
 
 e. When words after which namely is understood are followed by 
 a quotation or a remark making sense in itself, the comma and dash 
 are better omitted, and a colon substituted in their place; unless the 
 quotation or remark commences a new paragraph, when a comma 
 or colon and a dash are used, according to the degree of connection 
 subsisting between the parts of the passage. See page 138.
 
 192 THE DASH. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 Why are dashes inserted in tlie following sentences ? 
 
 From an illusion of the imagination arises one of the most important 
 principles in human nature, the dread of death. 
 
 \Ve should be enterprising in the exercise of our own minds, and 
 in exploring the great sources of truth, nature, man, revelation. 
 
 I am come to regard the world as an arena in which I have to do 
 two things, improve others, and improve myself. 
 
 Kings and their subjects, masters and slaves, find a common level 
 in two places, at the foot of the cross, and in the grave. 
 
 The essence of all poetry may be said to consist in three things, 
 invention, expression, inspiration. 
 
 Angry thoughts canker the mind, and dispose it to the worst 
 temper in the world, that of fixed malice and revenge. 
 
 There are two kinds of evils, those which cannot be cured, and 
 those which can. 
 
 I see in this world two heaps, one of happiness, and the other 
 of misery. 
 
 Amongst us men, these three things are a large part of our vir- 
 tue, to endure, to forgive, and ourselves to get pardon. 
 
 The orations of Caesar were admired for two qualities which are 
 seldom found together, strength and elegance. 
 
 Among uncivilized nations, only one profession is honorable, 
 that of arms. 
 
 In 1813, Moore entered upon his noble poetical and patriotic 
 task, writing lyrics for the ancient music of his native country. 
 
 Milton's life was a true poem ; or it might be compared to an an- 
 them on his own favorite organ, high-toned, solemn, and majestic. 
 
 Nearly all the evils that afflict the sons of men flow from one 
 source, wealth, or the appropriation of things to individuals and 
 to i.ocieties. 
 
 It is remarked by Rousseau, that every people in the ancient 
 world that can be said to have had morals has respected the sex, 
 Sparta, Germany, Rome. 
 
 The best shelter that the world affords us is the first, the affec- 
 tions into which we are born, and which are too natural for us to 
 know their worth till they are disturbed. 
 
 In my analysis of the nature of love, I have stated its two great 
 elements, a vivid pleasure in the contemplation of the object of 
 regard, and a desire of the happiness of that object.
 
 ELLIPSIS OF THE WORD ''NAMELY." 193 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 huert a comma and a dash where the ellipsis of the adverb " namely," or a 
 similar expression, occurs in the following sentences t 
 
 The more sympathies we gain or awaken for what is beautiful, 
 by so much deeper will be our sympathy for that which is most 
 beautiful the human soul. 
 
 Many a brilliant reputation resembles a pageant showy and un- 
 substantial, attracting the acclamations of the crowd, and forgotten 
 as soon as it has passed. 
 
 Faith builds, in the dungeon and the lazar-house, its sublimest 
 shrines ; and up, through roofs of stone, that shut up the eye of 
 Heaven, ascends the ladder where the angels glide to and fro 
 Prayer. 
 
 The violator of the sacred laws of justice feels, that the unhappy 
 effects of his own conduct have rendered him the proper object of 
 the resentment and indignation of mankind, and of what is the 
 natural consequence vengeance and punishment. 
 
 If men would confine their talk to those subjects only which they 
 understood, that which St. John informs us took place once in heavea 
 would happen very frequently on earth "silence for the space of 
 half an hour." 
 
 It is very difficult for those who, in early youth, have strug- 
 gled with extreme penury, and who have been suddenly raised to 
 affluence, not to have at their heart what may seem like original 
 constitutional avarice to those who do not reflect on its cause a love 
 of money, when the love of money seems so little necessary to 
 them. 
 
 The tools of labor are a sceptre of higher empire than monarch 
 ever swayed that of dominion over the earth and elements; they 
 are the weapons wherewith man achieves the purest and most 
 benignant of all conquests the subjugation of the powers of material 
 nature to the service of humanity; and they are instruments also 
 of the best of all worship that which a fertilized earth sends up 
 towards a gracious Heaven. 
 
 Friend of my bosom, thou more than a brother, 
 Why wert then not born in my father's dwelling? 
 So might we talk of the old familiar faces 
 IIow some they have died, and some they have left me, 
 And some are taken from me. All are departed ; 
 All, all, are gone, the old familiar faces. 
 13
 
 194 THE DASH. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 Subheads, $*c., to Paragraphs. 
 
 The dash should be inserted between a title and the 
 subject-matter, and also between the subject-matter 
 and the authority from which it is taken, when they 
 occur in the same paragraph. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 FIDELITY TO GOD. WhateTer station or rank Thou shalt assign me, I wiH 
 die ten thousand deaths sooner than abandon it. Sucratcs. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The dash is sometimes inserted between a question and an 
 answer, when they come together in the same paragraph ; as, " Who 
 created you V God." 
 
 6. So, also, the dash is useful to connect separate paragraphs, 
 dialogues, &c., when it is deemed necessary to save room. Thus : 
 
 "How are you, Trepid? How do yon feel to-day, Mr. Trepid? " "A 
 great deal worse than I was, thank you ; almost dead, I am obliged to you." 
 " Why, Trepid, what is the matter with you? " " Nothing, I tell you, in 
 particular; but a great deal is the matter with me in general." 
 
 c. Some writers put a dash after the name of an interlocutor, when 
 it precedes in the same line the language which he utters. But, as 
 the name is usually distinguished from the sentiment by its being put 
 in Italics or in small capitals, the dash is unnecessary; as, 
 
 Archbishop. What is your business with me, my friend T 
 Oil Bias. I am the young man who was recommended to you by your 
 nephow, Don Fernando. 
 
 d. A dash is commonly inserted between the word chapter or 
 section with its accompanying numeral, and the title of a subject, 
 when they are placed in the same line. Thus : 
 
 8SCT. LV. THB POWEE OF IMAGINATION. 
 
 e. On the other hand, a dash is put after an expression connected 
 in sense and construction with what follows, if the latter begins a 
 new line; as, " Occasionally, perhaps, he was 
 
 'Lofty and sour to them that loved bun not; 
 But to those men that sought him, sweet as summer.' "
 
 OMISSION OF LETTERS. 195 
 
 RULE VII. 
 Omission of Letters, Figures, or Words. 
 
 The dash is often used to denote an omission of 
 letters or figures. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. By H ns! for .... By Heavens! 
 
 2. Matt. ix. 16 Matt. ix. 1, 2, 8, 4, 6, . 
 
 8. The years 1855^56 The years 1856, 1856. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. With the exception of the dash in the ellipsis of figures, this 
 mark may be made of various lengths, as directed by the taste of 
 the writer or printer, or in proportion to the number of letters or 
 words omitted. 
 
 b. When, at the beginning or end of a poetical quotation, a por- 
 tion is omitted, it is recommended that a blank be left, instead of 
 rising the dash ; the position of the lines sufficiently indicating the 
 ellipsis; as, 
 
 Oh ! it Is excellent 
 To have a giant's strength. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Show how the two preceding Rules, and the Remarks under them, are applicablt 
 to the insertion of the dashes found in tliene sentences < 
 
 By the L ! madam, you wrong me, ami the world shall know 
 
 it. Though you have put me into darkness, and given your drunken 
 cousin rule over me, yet have I the benefit of my senses as well as 
 your ladyship. 
 
 Canon the Sixth. All words and phrases which are remarkably 
 harsh and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, may justly 
 b judged to merit degradation. JAMIESON : Grammar of Rhetoric, 
 p. 64. 
 
 OBSEQUIES. We celebrate noble obsequies to those we love, 
 more by drying the tears of others than by bedding our own ; and 
 the fairest funeral wreath we can hang on their tomb is not so fair 
 as a fruit-offering of good deeds. Richter.
 
 196 THE DASH. 
 
 Q. What is the Scripture doctrine of progress ? A. Brethren, 
 I count not myself to have apprehended; but this one thing I do. 
 forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth to those 
 which are before, I press towards the mark for the prize of the high 
 calling of God in Christ Jesus. (Phil. iii. 13 15.) 
 
 Don. Good-morrow, Count Erizzo: you are early. 
 Are you bound to the palace? 
 
 Erit. Ay, Donate, 
 
 The common destination ; but I go 
 With an old friend. 
 
 Dun. What, Celso, thou turned courtier? 
 
 In the silence of evening, conscience has a distinct and audible 
 voice. And for us, erring, sinning men, it is greatly wise to listen, 
 
 " To talk with our past hours, 
 And ask them what report they bore to heaven, 
 And how they might have borne more welcome news." 
 
 A SOFT ANSWER TURNETH AWAY WRATH. The Eorse in the 
 Pound, and the Cattle in the Field. The horse of a pious man in 
 Massachusetts happening to stray into the road, a neighbor of the 
 man who owned the horse put him in the pound. Meeting the owner 
 soon after, he told him what he had done, and added, " If ever I 
 catch him in the road hereafter, I'll do just so again." " Neighbor," 
 .replied the other, "not long since, I looked out of my window in the 
 night, and saw your cattle in my mowing ground ; and I drove them 
 out, and shut them in your yard; and I'll do it again." Struck with 
 the reply, the man liberated the horse from the pound, and paid the 
 charges himself. Anecdotes of Kindness and Philanthropy. 
 
 SECT. CLXXVHI. A CONSISTENT SERVANT. 
 
 A very rich lady in Boston had in her employment a young man 
 from the country. On certain occasions, he was instructed to 
 
 inform any company who might ring at the door, that Mrs. was 
 
 not at home. 
 
 One day, John made his reply to an intimate friend of the lady, 
 who shortly went away, leaving a card and a promise to call again. 
 
 As the card was handed to Mrs. , she said, " John, what did you 
 
 say to the lady? " "I told her yon were not at home." " Well, 
 John, I hope you did not laugh '{ " " Oh, no I ma'am," said John: 
 " I never laugh when I tell a lie."
 
 197 
 
 CHAPTER TV. 
 
 LETTER, SYLLABIC, AND QUOTATION POINTS. 
 
 THE points treated of in the two preceding chapters 
 have been classified into two kinds, 1 . The gram- 
 matical ; and, 2. The grammatical and rhetorical. As 
 previously stated, they are used for the purpose of 
 developing the sense of a composition, by exhibiting 
 the various connections and constructions of words, 
 phrases, and clauses ; and of aiding the delivery, by 
 showing the nature of sentences, as affirmative, inter- 
 rogative, emotional, parenthetic, suspensive, or broken. 
 The marks to be considered in this chapter are 
 
 1. The APOSTROPHE [ ' ] 
 
 2. The HYPHEN [ - ] 
 
 8. The MARKS OF QUOTATION . . . . [ " " J 
 
 These are put into a class different from the others, 
 because, though they serve to bring out the sense and 
 to aid a just delivery, they do not exhibit any analysis 
 of sentences, or point out the relation of their parts to 
 one another, but call the attention merely to letters 
 or syllables, as do the Apostrophe and Hyphen, or to 
 something foreign to the meaning and construction of 
 the passages to which they are prefixed and annexed, 
 as is the case with the Marks of Quotation.
 
 198 
 
 SECT. I. THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 The APOSTROPHE [ ' ] is a mark distinguished in 
 appearance from a comma, only in being placed above 
 the line ; but its uses are altogether different. 
 
 RULE I. 
 Elision of Letters, or Shortening of Words. 
 
 The apostrophe is used, chiefly in poetry and in 
 familiar dialogue, to denote the omission of a letter 
 or of letters. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I've . . abbreviated for . I have. 
 
 'em them. 
 
 i'the in the. 
 
 o'er over. 
 
 don't do not. 
 
 'gainst against. 
 
 he 'a .... . he is. 
 
 ne'er never. 
 
 thou'rt thou art 
 
 'tis it is. 
 
 who'd who would 
 
 you'll you will. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. A word pronounced in full should not be abbreviated with the 
 apostrophe, except in headings to column-work, where saving of 
 room is necessary, and where the full point at the end would not 
 indicate the word intended. See p. 149, Remark c. 
 
 b. Though not, strictly speaking, abbreviations, the plurals of 
 mere letters or of Arabic figures are formed by the insertion of an 
 apostrophe before the ; as, "Mark all the a's and o's in your 
 exercise." " In this sum there are four 2's and three 5's." 
 
 c. It was once a common practice, especially in verse, to write 
 and print thai 1 and thro', instead of though and through ; but these 
 abbreviated forms are now discontinued, for the very just reason 
 that they do not shorten the pronunciation of the words, the chief 
 object for which abbreviations are used. To prevent, however, the
 
 ELISION OF LETTERS. 199 
 
 turning of a line in poetry, so as to occupy the space of two, which is 
 offensive to the eye, thai 1 and thro 1 may occasionally be thus printed. 
 
 d. Borough, the termination of some proper names, is not unfre- 
 quently contracted into bro or boro, either with or without the 
 addition of an apostrophe; as, Marlbro, Soutliboro\ If the abbre- 
 viation is made, the apostrophe should be used to indicate the 
 omission of the last letters; but, except in lines where room must 
 be saved, it would be much better to write and print all such words 
 in full; as, Marlborough. Edinboro' is a barbarous corruption of 
 Edinburgh, and should never deface a printed page. 
 
 e. The particle till, being a substitute for until, which is now 
 seldom used, should not be preceded by an apostrophe. 
 
 f. The mark under notice is erroneously used in the words to, 
 the, heaven, power, every, tJireatening, and others of a similar nature, 
 when written, as they frequently are in verse, V, lh\ heav'n, poufr, 
 cv'ry, threatening, &c.; for, though apparently, in the full or un- 
 elided form, making a syllable additional to the number of the feet 
 required by the verse, they are never pronounced differently from 
 the same words in prose, nor does this pronunciation at all affect the 
 rhythm. Indeed no elocutionist or poet deserving of the mime would 
 read the phrases, " to attain perfection " and " the accomplished 
 sofa," in the following lines, as if written tattain perfection, thaccom- 
 pliihed sofa; though, judging -from the mode in which they were 
 originally printed (" t' attain, th' accomplished"), a reader might 
 imagine that this absurd pronunciation was requisite. The verse 
 in which they occur should therefore stand thus : 
 
 So slow 
 
 The growth of what is excellent ; go hard 
 To attain perfection in this nether world. 
 Thus, first, Necessity Invented stools; 
 Convenience next suggested elbow-chairs; 
 And Luxury, the accomplished sofa next. 
 
 ff. It seems to have been the practice in former times to pro- 
 nounce, as an additional syllable, the ed in the imperfect tense of 
 verbs, in past participles, and in participial adjectives; and hence 
 arose the propriety, in poetical works of a bygone age, of omitting 
 the e in words of this sort, and of supplying its place with an apos- 
 trophe, when the termination treated of coalesced in pronunciation 
 with the primitive to which d or ed was attached. Now, however, 
 that this syllable is not separately enunciated in prose, except in 
 learned, beloved, cursed, vnnged, when used as adjectives, and in some
 
 200 THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 instances where a combination of harsh consonants necessarily 
 requires the ed always to be articulated as a syllable; and except 
 also in Sacred Scripture, portions of which should be read in a very 
 solemn manner, the propriety of supplying the place of the e with 
 an apostrophe is exceedingly questionable. In many recent publica- 
 tions, therefore, the mark of elision has been thrown iiside in regard 
 to such words, and a grave accent placed on the e in those only which 
 are lengthened for the sake of the rhythm; as will be seen in the 
 following lines : 
 
 I praised the sun, whose chariot rolled 
 
 On wheels of amber and of gold; 
 
 I praised the moon, whose softer eye 
 
 Gleamed sweetly through the summer sky ; 
 
 And moon and sun in answer said, 
 
 " Our days of light are numbered." 
 
 /Some writers, however, prefer to mark the additional syllable by an 
 acute accent or a diaeresis on the vowel; as, mailed or heightened. 
 But, as the acute accent is sometimes used in poetry to point out a 
 change in the true accentuation of a word, as asptct, instead of 
 Aspect, and the diaeresis to separate in pronunciation two vowels 
 coming together, as Danae, it would be better to appropriate in 
 verse the grave accent to the lengthening of words ending in ed. 
 
 h. In the preceding paragraph, we have endeavored to show the 
 inutility of substituting the apostrophe for an e, in the termination 
 ed, when pronounced in union with a preceding syllable. It may, 
 however, be proper to admit, that many respectable authors and 
 printers adopt a middle course in reference to the words under con- 
 sideration. They always retain the e in the imperfect tense and 
 perfect participle of those verbs whose infinitive ends in that letter, 
 but in poetry use an apostrophe in the same forms of verbs, when 
 the infinitive terminates with a consonant; as, "to grieve, grieved; 
 to gain, gain'd." They also, as a matter of course, reject as useless 
 the accent in such a word as numbered, when the ed forms an addi- 
 tional syllable ; the e being retained as an exception to their general 
 rule, in order to show that the ed does not coalesce with the pre- 
 ceding syllable. The mode of using the vowel and the apostrophe, 
 here adverted to, is exemplified in the following lines : 
 
 Ages elapsed ere Homer's lamp appear'd, 
 And ages ere the Mantuan swan was heard : 
 To carry nature lengths unknown before, 
 To give a Milton birth, asK'd ages more.
 
 ELISION OF LETTERS. 201 
 
 i. Though but indirectly connected with punctuation, it may bo 
 remarked, that some of the past participles, having the termination 
 ed, are in verse frequently written or printed with a <, as in the 
 words blest, dreat, dreamt; and this mode of spelling, though not 
 analogical, is by no means unpleasant to the eye. In prose, how- 
 ever, when participles having both terminations occur, it is better 
 to adopt that which is more usual; being, to speak generally, the 
 regular form, ed. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 State tilt reason given in the Rule for inserting an apostrophe in the worcLt 
 tlius marked, and read them both in Uie elided and t/te fuU form i 
 
 'Mid such a heavenly scene as this, death is an empty name. 
 
 Thou'lt yet survive the storm, and bloom in paradise. 
 
 Methought that I lay naked and faint 'neath a tropic sky. 
 
 If I'd a throne, I'd freely share it with thee. 
 
 That lesson in my memory I'll treasure up with care. 
 
 I might have lived, and 'joyed immortal bliss. 
 
 'Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks, and sights unholy. 
 
 Let me thy voice betimes i'the morning hear. 
 
 Night stretches forth her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 
 
 The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone. 
 
 E'en with the tender tear which nature sheds o'er those we love. 
 
 Thou'rt neither fair nor strong nor wise nor rich nor young. 
 
 You're overwatched, my lord: lie down and rest. 
 
 Here 's a marvellous convenient place for our rehearsal. 
 
 Give a single lightning glance, and he'll dwindle to a calf. 
 
 One, 'midst the forests of the West, by a dark stream is laid. 
 
 Whene'er I wander in the grove, and gaze upon the lake. 
 
 Do not ask who'll go with you: go ahead. 
 
 Tie up the knocker; say I'm sick, I'm dead. 
 
 Go to, I'll no more oft: it hath made me mad. 
 
 If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth. 
 
 Or in some hollowed seat, 'gainst which the big waves beat. 
 
 Faint 's the cold work till thou inspire the whole. 
 
 A mingled air: 'twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild. 
 
 That errand-bound 'prentice was passing in haste. 
 
 You've pulled my bell as if you'd jerk it off the wire. 
 
 Of herself survey she takes, but 'tween men no difference makes. 
 
 For,'twixt the hours of twelve and one, methought I heard him shriek
 
 202 THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Siuno how the insertion or the omission of apostrophes in certain wordi, occurring 
 in tJiese portions of verse, is borne out by the preceding Remarks t 
 
 Strike till the last armed foe expires! 
 
 Here Edwin and his Emma oft would stray, 
 To enjoy the coolness of the evening breeze. 
 
 The toiling ploughman drives his thirsty teams 
 To taste the slippery streams. 
 
 Though darkness o'er a slumbering world 
 
 Uer sable mantle throw, 
 Returning splendors are unfurled, 
 
 And all is bright below. 
 
 Unthinking, idle, wild, and young, 
 I laughed and talked, and danced and sung; 
 And, proud of health, of freedom vain, 
 Dreamt not of sorrow, care, or pain. 
 
 Serenity broods o'er my mind ; 
 
 For I daily pray to Ueaven, 
 That, when the hour of death arrives, 
 
 My sins may be forgiven. 
 
 But come, thou goddess fair and free, 
 In heaven ycleped Euphrosyne, 
 And by men heart-easing Mirth ; 
 Whom lovely Venus, at a birth, 
 With two sister Graces more, 
 To ivy-crowned Bacchus bore. 
 
 Oh ! when my friend and I 
 In gome thick wood have wandered heedless on, 
 Hid from the vulgar eye, and sat us down 
 Upon the sloping cowslip-covered bank, 
 Where the pure, limpid stream has slid along 
 In grateful errors through the underwood, 
 Sweet murmuring, methought the shrill-tongued thresh. 
 Mended his song of love; the sooty blackbird 
 Mellowed his pipe, and softened every note ; 
 The eglantine smelled sweeter, and the rose 
 Assumed a dye more deep ; whilst every flower 
 Vied with its fellow-plant in luxury 
 Of dress. Oh ! then, the longest summer's day 
 Seemed too, too much in haste ; still the full heart 
 Had not imparted half: 'twas happiness 
 Too exquisite to last. Of joys departed, 
 Not to return, how painful the remembrance 1
 
 ELISION OF LETTERS. 203 
 
 EXKliCISE TO UK WRITTEN. 
 
 Insert the apo.-stroplie wherever necessary ; and mark a grave accent on Uu 
 vowel in ED it' oerae. vili.cn pronounced as an additional syllable i 
 
 As Yorkshire Humphrey, tother day, 
 Oer London Bridge was stumping. 
 
 That forked Hash, that pealing crash, 
 SrcuK'd from the wave to sweep her. 
 
 At once they sprang 
 With haste aloft, and, peering bright. 
 Descried afar the blessed sight. 
 
 For who but He that arched the skies 
 Could rear the daisy's purple bud. 
 Mould its green cup, its wiry stem, 
 Its fringed border nicely spin, 
 And cut the gold-embossed gem, 
 That, set in silver, gleams within? 
 
 Oer Idalia's velvet green the rosy-crowned Loves are seen 
 
 Now, brothers, bending oer the accursed loom, 
 Stamp we our vengeance deep, and ratify his doom. 
 
 From seventeen years till now, almost fourscore, 
 Here lived I, but now live here no more. 
 
 Then lighted from his gorgeous throne ; for now 
 Twixt host and host but narrow space was left. 
 
 Approach, and read (for thou canst read) the lay 
 Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn. 
 
 Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulphurous bolt, 
 Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak, 
 Than the soft myrtle. 
 
 A bearded man, 
 
 Armed to the teeth art thou : one mailed hand 
 Grasps the broad shield, and one the sword. 
 
 Blest be the day I scaped the wrangling crew 
 From Pyrrho's maze and Epicurus' sty, 
 And held high converse with the godlike few, 
 Who, to the enraptured heart and ear and eye, 
 Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody. 
 
 It gazes on those glazed eyes, it hearkens for a breath ; 
 
 It does not know that kindness dies, and love departs from death.
 
 204 THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 RULE IL 
 The Genitive or Possessive Case. 
 
 The apostrophe is used to distinguish the possessive 
 case of nouns ; which is usually formed in the singular 
 number by adding to the nominative an , with an 
 apostrophe before it, and in the plural by simply an- 
 nexing this mark. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. What majesty attends Night's lovely queen! 
 
 2. The Ages' voice speaks everlasting truth. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The apostrophe is sometimes used in the singular number 
 without the additional *, when the nominative ends in s, ss, ce, or x ; 
 as, " Moses 1 rod," " for righteousness 1 sake," " for conscience 1 sake," 
 " the administratrix' sale." This mode of punctuation holds good 
 chiefly in proper names having a foreign termination, and in such 
 common nouns as are seldom used in the plural, an exception to 
 the rule of forming the possessive singular, which is founded on the 
 propriety of modifying the disagreeable nature of the hissing sound. 
 
 b. Recourse, however, should not be had to the principle laid 
 down in the preceding remark, when its adoption would cause ambi- 
 guity, or when the addition of the s is not offensive to a refined ear. 
 For instance, the Italic words in the phrases, " BUI-OS'S Poems," 
 "James's book," " Thomas's cloak," " the fox's tail," though they 
 contain the hissing sound, are not particularly unpleasant, and are far 
 more analogical and significant than the abbreviated forms, " Burnt" 1 
 Poems," " James 1 book," " Thomas' cloak," " the fox 1 tail." 
 
 c. We have no doubt that the distinctions here suggested are 
 important, and accord with the genius of the English language ; but 
 in poetry none but the author himself should change the form of 
 the possessive, whether written with or without the annexed *, as, 
 unless the whole line were recast, such an alteration would probably 
 mar the harmony of the verse. Even in prose, a printer should not 
 take the liberty of changing the form of a possessive, without the 
 consent of the author; this matter being yet a subject on which 
 there is a difference of opinion among literary men.
 
 THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 205 
 
 d. To form the possessive case plural, the apostrophe, with an 
 after it, is added to the nominative plural, when it does not end 
 in that letter ; as, " .Men's passions ; women's tenderness ; children's 
 jcys." 
 
 e. The possessive case of pronouns is formed without an apos- 
 trophe; as, 
 
 BI.N<;I;LAR. PLURAL. 
 Mine. Ours. 
 
 Yours. Yours. 
 
 His. Theirs. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Hers. Theirs. 
 
 Its. Theirs. 
 
 Whose. Whose. 
 
 Some grammarians would use the apostrophe before the s in ours, 
 yours, hers, its, theirs. But the impropriety of this is evident from 
 the mode in which the other pronouns in the possessive case are 
 always written; namely, mine, his, and whose; which exhibit the 
 case without the mark in question. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 State tlie reanun for the insertion and position of the. apostrophe in these 
 sentences t 
 
 A man's manners not unfrequently indicate his morals. 
 
 On eagle's wings he seemed to soar. Our enemies' resistance. 
 
 The shepherd-swain on Scotia's mountains fed his little flock. 
 
 And the Persians' gems and gold were the Grecians' funeral pyre. 
 
 We will not shrink from life's severest due. Woman's rights. 
 
 Few columns rose to mark her patriots' last repose. 
 
 The sun is the poet's, the invalid's, and the hypochondriac's friend. 
 
 The ladies' gloves and shawls were exceedingly handsome. 
 
 Philippa was the name of Edward the Third's queen. 
 
 majestic Night, Nature's great ancestor, Day's elder bora! 
 
 He must strike the second heat upon the Muses' anvil. 
 
 Mother's wag, pretty boy, father's sorrow, father's joy. 
 
 Spirit of Good ! on this week's verge I stand. 
 
 Bid them in duty's sphere as meekly move. 
 
 Why is that sleeper laid to rest in manhood's pride V 
 
 Who loves not spring's voluptuous hours, or summer's splendid reign '/ 
 
 Is sparkling wit the world's exclusive right ? 
 
 The Turk awoke : he woke to hear his sentry's shriek. 
 
 The people's shouts were long and loud. Thy mercies' monument 
 
 A friend should bear a friend's infirmities. The ox's hide.
 
 206 THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Show how the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 204-5) are applicable to the possessive 
 case in tlie following phrases and sentences i 
 
 Adam's book, not Adams's : the book did not belong to Adams. 
 
 John Quincy Adams's death was no common bereavement. 
 
 Sir Humphrey Davy's safety-lamp. Davis's Straits. 
 
 Josephus's " History of the Jews " is a very interesting work. 
 
 Andrew's hat, not Andrews's. Andrews's " Latin Reader." 
 
 For quietness' sake, the man would not enter into any dispute. 
 
 Col. Matthews's delivery. Matthew's Gospel, not Matthews's. 
 
 The witness's testimony agreed with the facts of the case. 
 
 Let Temperance' smile the cup of gladness cheer. 
 
 Nor roamed Parnassus' heights nor Pindus' hallowed shade. 
 
 There is no impropriety in speaking of the cockatrice's den. 
 
 I oft have sat on Thames' sweet bank to hear my friend. 
 
 Like the silver crimson shroud, that Phoebus' smiling looks doth grace. 
 
 Faustus' offence [the offence of FaustusJ can never be pardoned. 
 
 After two years, Porcius Festus came into Felix's room. 
 
 EXERCISE TO UK WRITTEN. 
 
 Agreeably to the Rale and the Remarks, insert apostrophes in, or annex them 
 to, the nouns in tlie possessive case which occur in the following sentences ; 
 but let tlie pronouns remain unmarked : 
 
 The traveller went to lodge, not in Mr. Jacobs house, but in Mr. 
 Jacobss. (Rule, and Remark b.) 
 
 I am going to the booksellers [sing.] to purchase Popes Homer 
 and Dry dens Virgil. (Rule.) 
 
 Procrustes bed. -7- Hortensius influence. Achilles shield. Po- 
 cahontas father. Sophocles Greek Grammar. (Remark a.) 
 
 The precepts of wisdom form tlie good mans interest and happi- 
 ness. (Rule.) 
 
 Robert Burnss prose as well as poetical writings are astonishing 
 productions. (Remark b.) 
 
 Fames proud temple shines afar. From mens experience do 
 thou learn wisdom. (Rule, and Remark d.) 
 
 They applauded that conduct of his, but condemned hers and 
 yours. The reason of its being done 1 cannot tell. (Remark e.) 
 
 He had the surgeons [ting.], the physicians [siny.\, and the 
 apothecarys advice. (Rule.) 
 
 The tendency of Dickenss genius, both in delineating the actual 
 and the natural, is to personify, to individualize. (Remark b.)
 
 THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 207 
 
 Goethes " Wilhelm Meister" was the rich result of ten years 
 labor. (Rule.) 
 
 John Parrys children played with David Parriss. Williams wig 
 was purchased at Mr. Williamss shop. (Rule, and Remark 6.) 
 
 I would rather have arrived at one profound conclusion of the 
 sages meditation in his dim study, than to win that gaze of the mul- 
 titude. (Rule.) 
 
 Should you have occasion to refer, in writing or in print, to 
 Burns sermons, meaning the sermons of Burn, you must be careful 
 to put the apostrophe in its right place. (Rule, and comp. Rem. 6.) 
 
 A drunkard once reeled up to him with the remark, " Mr. White- 
 field, I am one of your converts." "I think it very likely," was 
 the reply; " for I am sure you are none of Gods." (Rule.) 
 
 I was surprised to see so many young idle sparks listening 
 quietly and attentively to Dr. David Sparkss lecture on Drusius, 
 Grotius, and Michaelis theological works. (Remarks 6, a.) 
 
 And still the Greek rushed on, beneath the fiery fold, 
 
 Till, like a rising sun, shone Xerxes tent of gold. (Remark a.) 
 
 Education does not commence with the alphabet: it begins with 
 a mothers look; with a fathers nod of approbation, or a sign of 
 reproof; with a sisters gentle pressure of the hand,, or a brothers 
 noble act of forbearance ; with handfuls of flowers in green dells, on 
 hills and daisy meadows ; with birds nests admired, but not touched ; 
 with humming bees and glass hives; with pleasant walks in shady 
 lanes; with thoughts directed, in sweet and kindly tones and words, 
 to nature, to beauty, to acts of benevolence, to deeds of virtue, to 
 the sense of all good, and to God himself. (Rule.) 
 
 Behold Affections garden, whose sweet flowers 
 
 A blending of all odors, forms, and hues 
 
 Were nursed by Fancy and the gentle Muse 
 
 In heaven-born Poesys delightful bowers. 
 
 Ye who appreciate the poets powers, 
 
 And love the bright creations of his mind, 
 
 Come, linger here awhile, and ye shall find 
 
 A noble solace in your milder hours : 
 
 Here Byrons genius, like an easrle. towers 
 
 In dread sublimity; while Rogers lute, 
 
 Moores native harp, and Campbells classic flute, 
 
 Mingle in harmony, as beams with showers. 
 
 Can their high strains of inspiration roll, 
 
 Nor soothe the heart, nor elevate the soul? (Rule.)
 
 208 
 
 SECT. II. THE HYPHEN. 
 
 The HYPHEN [ - ] is sometimes employed to join 
 the constituent parts of compound and derivative words. 
 It is also used to divide words into syllables, for the 
 purpose either of exhibiting the pronunciation, or of 
 showing the simple portions into which words of more 
 than one syllable may be resolved. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. From this explanation, it will be seen that the hyphen is used 
 for two very different purposes, to join anil to separate. As a 
 mark of junction, it is inserted between the simple words of which 
 certain compounds ai - e formed; and, in peculiar circumstances, be- 
 tween a preposition, or a portion of a word, and the word to which 
 it is prefixed; as, " the inhuman and fiendish slave-trade ; " " a man 
 of pre-eminence ; " " the Neo-PlaUmic philosophers." As a mark 
 of separation, it is employed by lexicographers and by writers or 
 printers to analyze words, and to divide them into syllables ; by the 
 former to show as accurately as possible the pronunciation, and by 
 the latter to disunite portions of words that cannot be brought into 
 a line of manuscript or of letterpress. 
 
 b. The distinction between a compound and a derivative word is, 
 that the former consists of two or more simple words which are 
 separately and commonly used in English; whereas the latter is 
 made up of simple words, or portions of words, which are not each 
 i.eparately current in the language; as, pseudo-apostle. See page 23, 
 Def. XII.' 
 
 c. But the simple words which make up compounds and deriva- 
 tives are not always united by the hyphen ; a few only of the latter 
 being thus distinguished, and a very considerable number of the 
 former, particularly those which form compound nouns, having 
 coalesced so closely in pronunciation as to require them to be
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 209 
 
 presented to the eye as one word. It is, therefore, a matter of 
 importance to ascertain when it will be proper to join the parts 
 of compounds with the hyphen, and when to unite them without 
 this connecting mark. The mode of using the hyphen in syllabica- 
 tion is also attended with difficulties, which may, in a great measure, 
 be obviated by an appeal to certain principles. 
 
 RULE L 
 Compound Words. 
 
 I. When each of the words of which a compound 
 is formed retains its original accent, they should be 
 united by a hyphen. 
 
 II. But, when the compound word has only one 
 accent, its parts are consolidated ; being written or 
 printed without the hyphen. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 f I. 
 
 1. The all'-wise 7 God. 
 
 2. In'cense-breatb/ing morn. 
 
 n. 
 
 1. A fortunate book 'seller, 
 
 2. A mean rn/blenian. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 n. The words "all-wise" and "incense-breathing," "bookseller" 
 and " nobleman," are compounds, because they severally represent, 
 not two separate ideas, but one compound idea. The primitives which 
 enter into the composition of " all'-wise' " and " in'cense-breath'ing " 
 retain the same accents as they had before these compounds were 
 formed; but, as they could not be readily distinguished if written or 
 printed closely together, the only mode of showing that they are 
 compound is by inserting a hyphen between them. On the other 
 hand, the simple words forming the compounds "bookseller" ajid 
 " nobleman " do not both retain the accents which are heard in the 
 phrases, " a seller of books," " a man who is noble," but so perfectly 
 coalesce in pronunciation as to form one unbroken, continuous word, 
 14
 
 210 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 with a single accent, bookfseUer, no'bleman ; the hyphen, therefore, 
 being unnecessary. 
 
 6. In the preceding paragraph, it was said that a compound word 
 represents a compound idea, and not two ideas. This definition, Dr. 
 Latham, from whom we borrowed it, illustrates (in his work on the 
 " English Language," page 359) by the expression, " a sharp-edged 
 instrument," which means an instrument with sharp edges ; whereas 
 a skar2> edged instrument denotes an instrument that is sharp and 
 lias edges. It may not be practicable to apply the remark in each 
 and all case? ; but it is certain that compounds have often a signi- 
 fication very different from that which the same words convey when 
 written apart, and that this difference should be indicated by the 
 mode of exhibiting them. Thus, blackbird is properly written as one 
 word, because it represents a particular species of birds ; whereas a 
 black bird means any bird that is black. A glass-ltouse is a house in 
 which glass is made, while a ylass house is a house made of glass. 
 The good-man of a house may, for aught we know, be a very bad 
 man ; and a good man may, for certain reasons, have no claim what- 
 ever to the civility implied in the use of the compound: yet both 
 terms, if correctly written, will be understood. Forget me not literally 
 expresses an earnest desire, on the part of a speaker or a writer, 
 that he should be remembered; but, in a metaphorical sense, the 
 same words, when combined, forget-me-not, denote a certain 
 flower, emblematic of friendship or fidelity. 
 
 c. All compounds, therefore, should be so written as will best 
 exhibit their true pronunciation, and the ideas intended to be ex- 
 pressed, objects which, we have seen, may to some extent be 
 effected either by consolidating the simples, or by uniting them with 
 a hyphen. And here the rule already laid down might naturally be 
 expected to come to our aid, as being founded on the characteristics 
 and tendencies of the English language itself. But, notwithstanding 
 the obvious worth and utility of the rule, the practice of some of 
 our best authors and printers, as to the mode of exhibiting many 
 of the compounds in use, is so conflicting, and the inconsistencies of 
 perhaps all our lexicographers are so numerous, not to speak of their 
 defect in distinguishing the compounds which have only one accent 
 from those which have two, that it would be regarded as pedantry 
 or presumption for a punctuator to attempt subjecting each of the 
 compound words to the operation of the rule; and, on the other 
 hand, it would be impracticable for him, without filling a volume, to 
 give perfect lists of all the compounds, with the fluctuating and
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 211 
 
 different modes in which they are presented in dictionaries and other 
 books. It will therefore be oar aim merely to specify some of the 
 exceptions to the rule, and to throw out a few suggestions applicable 
 to certain classes of compounds; recommending that, in all cases 
 where the general and best usage as to the insertion or the omission 
 of the hyphen cannot readily be learned, recourse be had, when the 
 accentuation is previously known, to the rule itself. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE. 
 
 d. According to the first section of the rule, those simples in a 
 compound word which retain their original accent should be united 
 by a hyphen. The exceptions to this principle are not very nume- 
 rous, and consist chiefly 1. Of a few compounds in common use, 
 such as etferlasfing, not'withstand'ing, which are universally written, 
 at the present day, each as one unbroken word : 2. Of such as termi- 
 nate in monger ; as, bor'ouyhmong'er, i'ronrnong'er: 3. Of almost all 
 those beginning with the prepositions over, under; as, (/verbal'ance, 
 un'derttand'ing. 
 
 e. According to the second section of the rule, when only one of 
 the simple words retains its original accent in a compound, they 
 are consolidated, being written without a hyphen. But to this 
 principle there is a considerable number of exceptions, which may, 
 however, be mostly reduced to the following classes : 
 
 1. Those compounds in which the first of the primitive words 
 ends, and the second begins, with the same letter ; as, bvokf -keeping, 
 ear'-ring, gluic'-worm, nighf-time, poor'-rate, rear'-rank, rough'-hewn. 
 The word ofl'times, however, is usually written without the hyphen. 
 
 2. Those compounds in which the first of two primitives ends, 
 and the second begins, with a vowel; as, Jire'-arms, pine'-apple, 
 peacef-offerimj. 
 
 8. Those whose meaning would be obscured, or whose pronuncia- 
 tion would be less easily known, by the consolidation of the simples; 
 as, ass^head, pof-herb, soap'-hause, Jirsf-rate. The reason for the 
 division of these and similar primitives is, that the s, t, and p are 
 pronounced separately from the h following them, and the st from 
 the r; whereas, when in their usual state of combination, /i, th, ph, 
 and ttr are each pronounced with one impulse of the voice. 
 
 4. All compounds ending with the word tree; as, beech'-trer, 
 date'-tree, penr'-tree, ap'plt-tree : also those terminating with book; 
 as, day'-book, red'-bouk, shoj/-bovk.
 
 212 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 8. Nouns formed of a verb and an adverb or preposition ; as, a 
 break'-down, a look'-out, a ttart'-up: or of a present participle and a 
 noun ; as, dicell'ing-place, hum'ming-bird, prinfing-press, spin'ning-mill, 
 wrifing-schooL 
 
 6. Adjectives, or epithets, which are formed in a great variety of 
 ways ; as, air' -built, heart '-broken ; first' -born, onef-legged, two'-leaved ; 
 ffl'-bred, above'-said, down' -trodden ; church' -going, brainf -racking ; 
 good' -looking, hard' -working ; grown' -up, unlooked-for, unheard'-of. 
 
 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES AND COMPOUND NOUNS. 
 
 f. An immense majority of the compound adjectives in the 
 English language, whether with one or two accents, have their 
 primitives united by a hyphen. A few, however, of very common 
 occurrence, and having only one accent, are consolidated; namely, 
 those which are the same as the one-accented compound nouns from 
 which they have been taken; as, high'land: those formed from them 
 either by adding ed or ing, or by changing er into these letters ; as, 
 coVwebbed (from cob'web), shoefmaking (from shoe' maker): and those 
 terminating with the words faced, coming, holding, and like; as, 
 bareffaced, forth' coming, slave! 'holding, chUd'like (the word like, how- 
 ever, being preceded by a hyphen, when joined to a proper name, or 
 to a word ending in I; as, Eve'-Uke, owl'-like). To which may be 
 added the words anath'er, freefborn, in'born, oul'door. 
 
 ff. Board, house, room, side, stone, time, yard, are usually consoli- 
 dated with a preceding noun if of one syllable, and are united by a 
 hyphen to it if consisting of more than one ; as, cupboard, shovel-board ; 
 tchoolhouse, senate-house; bedroom, composition-room; roadside, moun- 
 tain-side ; tombstone, eagle-stone ; daytime, dinner-time ; graveyard, 
 timber-yard. But the word town-house is commonly hyphened; so, 
 also, town-liatt, seed-hall, &c. 
 
 h. The compound nouns ending in the word woman are irregular 
 in their form ; as, goodwoman, needlewoman, tirewoman ; market-woman, 
 oyster-woman. If, however, these last two compounds have severally 
 two accents, and the three preceding have each only one, fhey will 
 be subject to the main rule, as given on page 209. 
 
 . Compound nouns are sometimes formed by uniting a present 
 participle and an adverb or preposition ; as, the coming-togeOier, the 
 carrying-away, the sending-off, the pulling-down, the blotling-out. A 
 hyphen is inserted between the parts of all such compounds, which 
 are readily known by their taking an article before them, as in the 
 examples here given.
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 213 
 
 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS IN APPOSITION. 
 
 J. Nouns in apposition are written and printed apart; as, Sister 
 Anne, Brother Marshall, Father Taylor, Professor Bush, the tyrant 
 Nero, the poet Milton, that fellow Turpin, the Illy Asphodel. But, 
 when put before a common noun, whether singular or plural, the 
 words sister, brother, fellow, severally form part of a compound; as, 
 the sister-city, my brother -ministers, our fellow-men ; and, in all such 
 cases, the hyphen should be used. Fatherhood, brotherhood, and 
 sisterhood are not regarded as exceptions; for, according to the 
 distinction made between compounds and derivatives, these terms 
 will be subject to Rule II., p. 219; being each employed as one word, 
 and without a hyphen, because the termination hood is not separately 
 found, with the sense here used, in the English language. 
 
 k. The pronouns he, she, are commonly united by a hyphen 
 to the nouns which they precede and qualify; as, he-calf, she-asses. 
 The words male and female, when adjectives, are better put sepa- 
 rately from the nouns which they qualify; as, a male descendant. 
 
 NOUNS USKD ADJECTIVELT. 
 
 I The first of two nouns, when it denotes the material or sub- 
 stance of which a thing is made, should stand apart from the noun 
 which it qualifies; as, brass pan, brick floor, glass jntcher, gold riny, 
 granite buildiny, mud cabin, oak chest, silver spoon, stone wall, tin basin. 
 But, when the nouns so coalesce in pronunciation that one of them 
 has lost its original accent, they should be written or printed as one 
 word ; as, rail'road, rain' drop, snov/ball. 
 
 m. Two nouns may also be written as distinct words, when the 
 former is put instead of an adjective; as, an angel woman (for an 
 anyelic woman), an anniversary feast (for an annual feast), business 
 connections (for mercantile or trading connections), a country trip (for 
 a rural trip), church government (for ecclesiastical government), giant 
 labor (for gigantic labor), gospel truth (for evangelical trutli), home life 
 (for domestic life), mountain billows (for huge billows), the north wind (for 
 the northern wind), the west part (for the western part). 
 
 n. The same remark is applicable to nouns of more than one 
 syllable, when they are necessarily used, for want of suitable adjec- 
 tives, to express the nature, quality, or some modification of the 
 nouns before which they are placed ; as, benefit societies, evening 
 amusements, family party, leisure hours, party ttrife. prose unilinijs 
 tummer sky, Sunday training, villai/e maid.
 
 214 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 o. So, also, compound nouns, when used adjectively, are separated 
 from the nouns which they precede or qualify; as, pindrop silence, 
 railway travel, a whalebone rod, the noonday sun ; twenty-hor$e power, 
 a custom-house officer, the council-room table. But when the compound 
 noun, and the simple noun which it precedes, have altogether but 
 one accent, they should appear as one word; as, high'wayman, 
 domes' day-book. 
 
 p. Two words, the last of which is a noun, though in their usual 
 construction separate, are hyphened when put before a noun which 
 they qualify, but are set apart from the hitter; as, high-water ntark, 
 short-metre stanzas, Sunday-school system, wibl-bcast skins, a bird's-eye 
 mew, a first-class car, a manual-labor business, an up-hill game, the 
 one-hour rule. 
 
 q. Proper names, when used as adjectives, should be separated 
 from the words which they qualify or characterize; as, Angola 
 sheep, April fool, Arganrl lamp, Barbary horse, Bristol st<me, California 
 gold, Kpsmn suits, French chalk, Jamaica pepper, Jerusalem artichoke, 
 Madeira wine, Newfoundland dug. 
 
 Xl'MKRAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 r. Two numerals expressing a compound number, if in their 
 ordinary construction, are united by a hyphen ; as, twenty-one, 
 ninety-nine: but if inverted, and a conjunction is placed between 
 them, so as to constitute a phrase, they are written or printed apart; 
 as, three ami thirty. The word fold is closely annexed to the cardi- 
 nals when they have only one syllable, but united to them by a 
 hyphen when they have more than one ; as, twofold, twelvefold ; 
 tldrty-fold, seventy-six-fold, two hundred-fold. The word penny is sub- 
 ject to the same principle; as, threepenny. fifteen-penny. Halfpenny 
 is an unhyphened compound; but one penny, two words. Pence, 
 being a noun, is entirely separated from the numerals which precede 
 it, when they consist of more than one syllable; as, fifteen pence: 
 but, like the words fold and penny, it is joined without the hyphen, 
 when they are monosyllabic ; as, fourpence, tenpence. 
 
 s. The simple words in such terms as one-half, tioo-thirds, five 
 nxteentits, though, strictly speaking, not compounds, are usually 
 joined together by the hyphen. 
 
 t. A half-dollar, a quarter-barrel, and all such compounds, are 
 written with a hyphen between the simple words; but, when an 
 article or a preposition intervenes, the parts of the phrase should be 
 separated ; as, half a pint, quarter of a pound.
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 215 
 
 ADJECTIVES CONSOLIDATED WITH NOUNS. 
 
 u. Adjectives are not unfrequently consolidated with the nouns 
 which they precede, when the compound thus formed admits of 
 but one accent; as, blackboard, bluebottle, foreground, freemason, 
 glassworks, goldsmith, hardJiead, highlands, hotspur, longboat, lowlands, 
 madhouse, mainmast, redbreast, roundhead, safeguard, stronghold, 
 iweetbread, twelvemonth, wilclfire. 
 
 v. Freewill having, when used adjective!}-, the accent on the 
 first syllable ; as, afreefwill offering should be written as one word ; 
 but, when employed in its proper character as a compound noun, 
 with the accent on the last syllable, the hyphen may be inserted 
 between its parts ; as, the doctrine of free-will'. 
 
 ic. Anybody, everybody, somebody, nobody, indicating persons, are, 
 in this form, distinguished from the phrases any body, every body, no 
 body, some body, which, as separate words, and with a pronunciation 
 different from that of the first class, refer to inorganic substances. 
 Something and nothing have also coalesced in pronunciation and 
 form; but everything and anything (like the words anyone and every 
 one) may follow the analogy of the language, by which adjectives 
 are separated from the nouns which they qualify. 
 
 x. When the noun which is qualified by an adjective retains its 
 original accent, the two words should not appear as a compound, 
 either with or without the hyphen. In the following and other 
 phrases, therefore, which are sometimes written as compounds, the 
 adjectives should stand apart: Animal magnetism, armed chair, attic 
 ttory, blank verse, common sense, earthen ware, gootl nature, good will, 
 ill humor, old age, old maid, redeeming love, the black art. 
 
 y. Such abbreviated sentences as good-morning, good-night, good-by 
 may have a hyphen between the parts of which they consist. 
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 
 
 z. Names of cities and other places, when formed of common 
 nouns, are consolidated; as, Barnstable, Btidgewater, Fairhaven, 
 Newjiort, Southbridge. When the second of the primitives is in itself 
 a proper name, it should be set apart from the first; as, North 
 Britain, New York: though, in spite of analogy, there are a few 
 exceptions; as, l-Msihnmpton and Southampton (the h, in the latter 
 word, being omitted), which usually appear as undivided words. 
 
 2 o. But those parts of the names of places which, according to the 
 usual construction, are disconnected, should be united by a hyphen
 
 216 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 when they are employed as adjectives ; as, the South-Boston foundry, 
 the Neio-Enyland people, the East-India Company. This remark is 
 well illustrated by Mr. Goold Brown, in his work, " The Grammar 
 of English Grammars," p. 159: " In modern compound names, the 
 hyphen is now less frequently \ised than it was a few years ago. 
 They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as adjectives ; 
 and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it. Thus the 
 phrase, the New London Bridge, can be understood only of a new 
 bridge in London ; and, if we intend by it a bridge in New London, 
 we must say, the New-London Bridge. So the New York Directory is 
 not properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for 
 York." 
 
 2 b. So, also, the word street, when forming part of a compound 
 epithet, is connected by a hyphen with the word preceding it; as, 
 a Wasliington-street omnibus : but, when otherwise used, it is better 
 written or printed separately; as, Washington Street, Boston. The 
 same rule will hold good in respect to such words as place, square, 
 court, &c. ; as, " Howard-place Church and Crown-court Chapel are 
 situated not far from Pemberton Square, New Brixton." 
 
 THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 2 c. When the possessive case, and the word which governs it, 
 do not literally convey the idea of property, or have lost this signi- 
 fication, they are connected by means of a hyphen ; as, Job's-tears, 
 Solomon' s-seal, Jesuits' -bark, beards-foot, goaCs-beard ; Jew's-harp ; St. 
 lltus's-dance, (he king' 's-evil. As compounds, these words do not 
 severally denote the tears which the Arabian patriarch shed, a seal 
 belonging to the wise Hebrew ruler, bark which is the property of 
 Jesuits, the foot of a bear, the beard of a goat, the harp of a Jew, the 
 dance of St. Vitus, the evil of the king. But, were the primitive 
 words from which they are formed put separately, they would have 
 these meanings. 
 
 2d. When, however, institutions, churches, law-courts, places, 
 rivejs, &c., are called after distinguished men, the names put in 
 the possessive case are separated from those of the objects which 
 they characterize; as, St. Mary's College, St. Peter's Church, St. 
 Pauts Churchyard, Queen's Bench, Van Diemen's Land, Merchants' 
 Exchange, the St. John's River. The names of holydays, if similarly 
 formed, may be written or printed in the same manner; as, New 
 Year's Day, All Saints' Day. In all such phrases, the hyphen is not 
 required, because they have severally but one signification.
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 217 
 
 2 e. If the possessive case, and the noun governing it, are used in 
 the literal sense of the words, and have only one accent, they should 
 be written or printed as a compound, without either apostrophe or 
 hyphen ; as, beeswax, crqftsmaster, doomsday, Itogslard, kinswoman, 
 lambsicool (but, if meaning ale mixed with sugar, &c., lamb's-wool, 
 according to Remark 2 c), newspaper, ratsbane, townsman, tradesman. 
 
 COMPOUND PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS. 
 
 2f. Compound pronouns have always their parts consolidated ; 
 as, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ownself, ownsclves ; 
 whoever, whomsoever, whatever, whatsoever. One's self is probably a 
 phrase, and not, as is sometimes written, a compound, oneself or 
 one's-self. I myself is also a phrase, or two words in apposition. 
 
 2y. Compound adverbs are, generally speaking, consolidated; as, 
 altogetJter, awhile, beforehand, evermore, henceforward, indeed, instead, 
 everywhere, nowhei'e, nevertheless, somehow, nowise, anywise, likewise, 
 wherewithal, hereupon, whithersoever. But to-day, to-night, to-morrow, 
 are almost universally printed with a hyphen. So also now-a-days ; 
 and perhaps such words as inside-out, upside-down. There is a ten- 
 dency on the part of American printers to spell the words for ever 
 as one continuous compound; but they everywhere occur iu the 
 common version of the Bible as a phrase; and, the eye being thus 
 accustomed to their separation, it would probably be better to retain 
 this form. By and by are obviously three words, though sometimes 
 written as a compound. 
 
 COMPOUND AND OTHER PHRASES. 
 
 2 h. All phrases which are thrown out of their usual order, and, 
 by a strange collocation, put before the nouns which they are made 
 to qualify, should have a hyphen between their parts; as, some 
 outrof-the-world place, a matte r-tf-f act-looking town, long-looked-for 
 news, out-of-duor business, raw-head-and-bloody-bones stories, the always- 
 wind-obeying deep, the ever-to-be-honored Chaucer, the half-burnt-through 
 bottvm of the saucepan, well-laid-out parks. 
 
 2 . When epithets are formed of an adverb ending in ly and ol a 
 participle, the two words are usually separated without the hyphen ; 
 as, a newly built house, a beautifully formed pen. The reason probably 
 is, that the structure of such adverbs does not easily admit of their 
 junction with the words modified. 
 
 2j. When a noun is placed before an adverb or preposition and 
 a participle, these do uot make a compound epithet, and should
 
 218 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 therefore be written or printed as two words; as, a catalogue well 
 arranged, love ill requited, the place before mentioned. 
 
 2k. Words in phrases should be written and printed separately; 
 as, above all, after all, at second hand, balm of Gilead, cheek by jowl, in 
 any wise (but, without the preposition, and as an adverb, anywise), 
 might and main, rank and file, tit for tat, tooth and nail. Of such 
 phrases, however, as father-in-law, attorneij-at-liw, commander-in 
 chief, the parts are usually connected by a hyphen. 
 
 2 1. When a compound phrase is formed of two or more words 
 which are severally associated in sense with one term, the primitives 
 should stand apart; as, cannon and musket balls. Were a hyphen 
 inserted between " inusket" and " balls," the meaning of the phrase 
 would not be cannon-balls and musket-balls, but cannon, or large 
 guns, and also balls for the musket. The following are additional 
 examples : Household and needle work ; land and river travel ; a chief 
 or master builder ; the watch and clock repairing business ; a son and 
 daughter in law ; second, third, or fourth rate effects. Some would 
 insert a hyphen between the parts of the last compound, and attach 
 it to the disjointed words ; as, iron-, cotton-, silk-, print-, and aye-works : 
 but, though more correct, this is a German mode of exhibiting such 
 compounds, with which the English eye is not familiar. All diffi- 
 culty would be obviated, were the phrases changed into language 
 more grammatical. 
 
 2 m. All foreign phrases should be written and printed as they 
 are found in the language from which they are taken; as, "John 
 Sharp, Secretary pro tempore." " It was a sine qua non, an indis- 
 pensable condition, that an agreement should be entered into." 
 " William said in Latin, Vade mecum, Go with me." But such 
 phrases, if they are used before nouns, or have been incorporated 
 into the English language, should follow the common analogy; as, 
 " John was elected pro-tempore Secretary." " This was a sine-qua- 
 non business." " That little book is an excellent vade-mecum." 
 
 For further information on this difficult subject, the reader 5s referred to 
 Mr. Goold Brown's invaluable work, before quoted; from which, while ven- 
 turing in some respects to differ in opinion, we have derived not a little 
 assistance as to the nature of compounds, and the forms in which they should 
 be presented. But the subject is not exhausted; and he who, with the 
 scholarship and industry of that gentleman, will devote himself to the classi- 
 fication of all the compounds in the language, would perform a good service 
 to a branch of literature which has been sadly neglected.
 
 DERIVATIVE WORDS. 219 
 
 RULE II. 
 Prefixes in Derivative Words. 
 
 I. If a prefix ends with a vowel, and the word 
 with which it is combined begins with a consonant ; or 
 if the former ends with a consonant, and the latter 
 begins with a vowel or a consonant, the compound 
 thus formed should appear as one unbroken word. 
 
 II. If, however, the prefix ends, and the word to 
 which it is united begins, with a vowel, both vowels 
 being separately pronounced, they should be con- 
 nected with a hyphen. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1 1. 
 
 1. Predetermine, resell, antedate. 
 
 2. Counteraction, multangular. 
 
 3 Supernatural, contemporaneous. 
 
 * II. 
 
 1. Pre-occupy, re-echo, ante-act. 
 
 2. Centra-indication, retro-enter 
 
 3. Supra-orbital, co-eternal. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. When the prefix ends with a vowel, and is followed by a word 
 beginning also with a vowel, many writers and printers place a dias- 
 resis over the latter, instead of a hyphen between them ; as, coeval. 
 But this mode of exhibiting derivatives does not seem to accord 
 with the genius of the English language, which, in ordinary compo- 
 sition, dispenses with accentual marks. It would, therefore, probably 
 be better to reserve the use of the diaeresis for words containing two 
 vowels separately pronounced, but not capable of being divided, 
 except for the purpose of syllabication and at the end of a line, by 
 the hyphen ; as in Jitelzebub, and in borrowed foreign words. 
 
 b. The adverbs afore arid fore, having now become almost obso 
 lete as separate words, are regarded as mere prefixes; which should, 
 therefore, without regard to accent, be subject to the present rule; 
 as, (Aforegoing, foredelermined, fore-<n-dained. See p. 208, Rem. 6. 
 
 c. As an exception to the first section of the rule, it is worthy 
 of remark, that a derivative which might be mistaken for a word 
 with the same letters, but a different meaning, should be distin-
 
 220 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 gnished from it by the insertion of a hyphen between its parts. 
 Thus, re-creation, denoting a new creation, is obviously a more 
 appropriate form of .this word than recreation, which, besides being 
 differently pronounced, signifies refreshment, or relaxation after toil. 
 Thus, also, a difference exists in meaning and pronunciation between 
 re-collect and recollect ; re-form, re-formation, and reform, reformation ; 
 which it is necessary to exhibit in corresponding modes. With the 
 exception of such words, the manner of writing derivatives having 
 the prefix re is governed by the rule. 
 
 d. Terms or epithets with prefixes of unusual occurrence, par- 
 ticularly if the compounds thus formed have two accents, should 
 be excepted from the operation of the first branch of the rule ; as, 
 astro-theology, concavo-convex, deutero-canonical, electro-magnetism. 
 
 e. The prefixes of proper names, or words used as such, substan- 
 tively or adjectively, follow both sections of the rule; as, Antenicene, 
 Antichrist, &c., Antitrinitarian, Fedobaptist, Cisalpine, Transatlantic ; 
 Anti-American, Pre-Adamic. But the words Neo-Plutonic, Anyla- 
 Saxon, Scoto- Hibernian, and others of a similar kind, accord in their 
 forms with those referred to in Remark d. 
 
 f. Extra is sometimes used as an adjective, and separated from 
 the noun which it qualifies; as, extra pay, extra work. As a prefix 
 in extraordinary, it is not followed by a hyphen, because its last 
 letter (a), though coming before a vowel, is silent in pronunciation. 
 
 g. The letter a, when by a colloquialism it represents one of the 
 prepositions on, in, at, to, should be united, without a hyphen, to 
 the following word, if consisting of only one syllable; as, aboard, 
 abed, afeld, apiece. 
 
 h. Bi and tri are usually consolidated with the words, or parts of 
 words, to which they are prefixed; as, biennial; triunity, triune. 
 
 i. Vicegerency, vicegerent, viceroyal, and viceroyalty are, in accord- 
 ance with the rule, written each as one word. The other words, of 
 which vice is a prefix, are, by almost universal custom, hyphened; 
 as, vice-president, vice-chancellar, &c. 
 
 j. Bi, ante, anti, counter, contra, stiper, supra, semi, demi, prefer, 
 and other common prefixes, are sometimes printed with a hyphen 
 after them; but thfire seem to be no just grounds for this division, 
 except when two vowels would otherwise come together, or when a 
 dissyllabic prefix ends, with the same consonant with which the next 
 portion of a long -word begins ; as, anti-evangelical, counter-revolution. 
 To make any exceptions besides these, and a few others such as 
 those noticed above, would lead to inextricable confusion.
 
 COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. 221 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Show how the Rules and the Remarks (pp. 209-20) apply to the insertion oj 
 hyphens in certain words, or to their omission in certain phrases, which 
 occur in Vie following sentences . 
 
 Better be trampled in the dust than trample on a fellow-creature. 
 
 Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 
 
 We have no doubt that instinct is a Heaven-ordained law. 
 
 What the nations look for is a loving and life-giving religion. 
 
 Keen-eyed revenge is riding round your- ranks. 
 
 When the wind-god frowns in the murky skies. 
 
 sailor-boy, sailor-boy ! peace to thy soul ! 
 
 He spoke no warrior-word, he bade no trumpet blow. 
 
 And soft-eyed cherub-forms around thee play. 
 
 The most remarkable winds are those denominated the trade-winds. 
 
 Many are the advantages of co-operation. 
 
 Self-abasement paved the way to villain bonds and despot sway. 
 
 Like ocean- weeds heaped on the surf-beaten shore. 
 
 Imagination is the truth-seeing and the beauty-seeing power. 
 
 Ben Jouson, the great dramatist, was co-eval with Shakspeare 
 
 The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value the 
 whole of the European and Asiatic mines. 
 
 Man possesses the great privilege of co-operating with his bene- 
 ficent Creator. 
 
 Philosophy will rise again in the sky of her Franklin, and glorv 
 rekindle at the urn of her Washington. 
 
 There is little of the intellectual or moral in that sort of independ 
 ence which is the proverbial characteristic of our countrymen. 
 
 Would that that noble people were re-instated in all their ancient 
 privileges ! 
 
 The instincts of multitudes feel afar the gathering earthquake, 
 which is to swallow up caste, privileges, and unjust distinctions. 
 
 Let your lately formed engagements be fulfilled with perfect good 
 faith. 
 
 The shrieks of agony and clang of arms re-echo to the fierce 
 alarms her trump terrific blows. 
 
 Illiterate and ill-bred persons are apt to be verbose, contradictory, 
 and loud in conversation. 
 
 There is a mother-heart in all children, as well as a child-heart 
 in all mothers.
 
 222 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 Nature cries aloud for freedom as our proper guide, oar birthright 
 and our end. 
 
 Thousands of state-projects, on the vastest scale, have been con- 
 ceived, executed, and forgotten. 
 
 Deep-hearted practical faithfulness is not separable long from 
 true-thoughted practical faith. 
 
 In the face of the young fop above mentioned was seen an imper- 
 tinent smile of affectation. 
 
 They are but sluggards in well-doing who know to do good only 
 when they have a purse iu their hand. 
 
 If man could ascend to dwell at the fountainhead of truth, he 
 would be re-absorbed in God. 
 
 In moments of clear, calm thought, I feel more for the wrong-doer 
 than for him who is wronged. 
 
 Edward the Sixth was a boy-king and a puppet-prince, invested 
 with supreme power, but acting without any volition of his own. 
 
 The term " bridegroom," strange as it seems, is given to a newly 
 married man. 
 
 Education can hardly be too intellectual, unless by intellectual 
 you mean parrot-knowledge, and other modes of mind-slaughter. 
 
 The churchyard bears an added stone; the fireside shows a vacant 
 chair. 
 
 Columbus was for years an all but heart-broken suitor to royal 
 stocks and stones. 
 
 Many who have worshipped within these walls are now in the 
 higher house, in the church of the First-born. 
 
 If any one affirms that the juxtaposition of a number of particles 
 makes a hope, he affirms a proposition to which I can attach no 
 idea. 
 
 In shipwrecks we are furnished with some of the most remark- 
 able examples of trust in God, of unconquerable energy, and of 
 tender, self-sacrificing love. 
 
 The fair-weather sailor may equip himself tolerably from the 
 storehouse of Epicurus; but stronger tackle will be needed when 
 the masts are bending and the cordage straining in the storm. 
 
 A man of no feeling must necessarily be unhappy, since the 
 texture of his heart affords him no superabundant sensibility for 
 the sufferings of his fellow-creatures. 
 
 You talk of the prosperity of your city. Do not point me to your 
 thronged streets. Is it a low-minded, self-seeking, gold-worshipping 
 man-despising crowd which I see rushing through them ?
 
 COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. 223 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 In this exercise, let tfie compound and derivative words be written agreeably tt 
 tlie two preceding Rules and the Remarks : 
 
 Genius has no chartered license to wander away from the eternal 
 land marks of morality. (Rule I., n.) 
 
 The selfish use rules as means of self indulgence, and the narrow 
 minded over look the end in the means. (Rule I., I. and n.) 
 
 Every rail road, connecting distant regions, may be regarded as 
 accomplishing a ministry of peace. (Rule I., n.) 
 
 Genius, in its highest function, cannot co exist with a corrupted 
 moral sentiment. (Rule II., 11.) 
 
 The new moon silvered the lofty pines, and the stars twinkled 
 with rare brilliancy from their dark blue depths. (Rule I., i.) 
 
 He who has a good son in law has gained a son : he who has a 
 bad one has lost a daughter. (Rule I., Remark 2 k.) 
 
 What is religious instruction to the vain, the frivolous, the in 
 different, the pre occupied and fore closed mind? (Rule II.) 
 
 Is a woman ambitious to ply a black smith's hammer, when she 
 can wield so cunningly the thin, flitting sword of the spirit? 
 (Rule I., ii.) 
 
 The distance of the earth from the sun is, in round numbers, one 
 hundred millions of miles; which is, of course, the radius or semi 
 diameter of its orbit. (Rule II., i.) 
 
 Perhaps the sermons which have cost a clergy man the least 
 effort may some times have the most effect on his hearers. (Rule I., 
 II.; and Remark 2 </.) 
 
 The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of immense im- 
 portance ; but they pre suppose in the mind to which they are 
 applied an active co operation. (Rule II., I. and 11.) 
 
 As some instruments are tuned with a tuning fork, some dis- 
 courses seem to have been pitched with a pitch fork. (Rule I., 
 Remark e 5, and n.) 
 
 The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in vehement 
 re action against the prevailing tendencies of an exceedingly cor- 
 rupted civilization. (Rule II., n.) 
 
 lie is gone on the mountain, he is lost to the forest, 
 Like a summer dried fountain, when our need was the sorest : 
 The fount, re appearing, from the rain drops shall borrow ; 
 Dut to us comes no cheering, to Duncan no morrow. 
 
 (Rule I , M-i ll-i { n.; I., u.)
 
 224 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 RULE HI. 
 
 The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their 
 Pronunciation. 
 
 The hyphen is u&ed between the syllables of a word, 
 to exhibit, as accurately as possible, its true pronuncia- 
 tion ; no regard being paid to the mode in which it has 
 been formed or derived. 
 
 hab-it 
 pref-ace 
 trib-ute 
 proph-et 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ap-a-tby 
 pref-er-enoe 
 trin-i-ty 
 po-lyg-a-my 
 
 i: E M A i: K s. 
 
 as-tron-o-my 
 an-tip-o-des 
 bi-og-ra-pher 
 rev-e-la-tion 
 
 a. A syllable is a combination of letters uttered by one impulse 
 of the voice; as hob or ha in the word habit, according to the specific 
 principle of syllabication which may be adopted. A single letter of 
 a word, pronounced by itself, is also termed a syllable ; as i or o in 
 the exclamation io! 
 
 b. The mode of syllabication laid down in the rule is, unques- 
 tionably, the only one fitted for conveying the true sounds of words, 
 or rather for making some approach to an accurate pronunciation; 
 and all spelling-books should be constructed on this principle, a 
 principle which, though recommended by Dr. Lowth and adopted 
 by lexicographers, has been neglected by some of our most popular 
 writers of elementary works for children. It must, however, be 
 acknowledged, that many words are divided in the same manner, 
 whether regard be had to their pronunciation, or to the mode in 
 which they have been formed ; as, horse-man, sa-cred, be-ing, tin-lion, 
 a-merufanent ; and that there are others, the true sounds of which 
 cannot be correctly shown by any kind of syllabication, without a 
 change in the letters; sucli as the words acid, docile, ancient, specify, 
 digit, register. 
 
 c. The rule given above is adopted by American printers in the 
 division of such words as cannot be entirely brought into one and 
 the same line; but the rule which follows is generally preferred by 
 British typographers
 
 SYLLABICATION. 225 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Form, 
 Derivation, or Meaning. 
 
 The hyphen is employed in words in such a manner 
 as is best calculated to show their origin, composition, 
 or import, and to exhibit the syllables in their neatest 
 form. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ha-bit 
 pre-face 
 
 tri-bute 
 pro-phet 
 
 a-pa-thy 
 pre-fer-ence 
 tri-ni-ty 
 po-ly-ga-my 
 
 R E M A R K 8. 
 
 as-tro-no-my 
 an-ti-po-des 
 bi-o-gra-pher 
 re-ve-la-tion 
 
 a. Agreeably to this rule, and partially in accordance with that 
 which precedes it, 
 
 1. Compound and derivative words are resolved into their primi- 
 tives ; as, school-master, hand-writing, pen-knife, snuff-box, looking- y lass; 
 arch-angel, geo-logy, Iheo-cracy, ortho-graphy. 
 
 2. Prefixes, affixes, and grammatical terminations; are separated; 
 as, dis-continue, en-able, trans-port ; shear-er, bwd-ed, print-ing ; 
 Jsing-dom, false-hood, differ-ence, commnnd-ment. 
 
 3. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, are divided; as, la-ity, 
 a-eri-al, re-al, stere-olype, r,i-al, pi-tty, li-on, tri-umph, co-alesce, po-et, 
 medi-um, zo-olngy, vow-el, cru-elfy, vacu-um. 
 
 4. One consonant between two vowels is to be joined to the latter 
 syllable ; as, ta-lent, ftt-lal ; me-lon, le-ver ; spi-ril, si-lence ; cyanic, 
 ty-ro; le-ga-cy, mo-no-po-ly. Kxcept a;, and single consonants when 
 they belong to the former portion of a derivative word; as, ex-ile, 
 ea-ist, ex-amine ; up-on, dis-ease, circum-(im/>ient. 
 
 6. Two or more consonants belong to the latter syllable, when 
 thsy are capable of beginning a word; as, ta-ble, sti-Jle, lu-cre, o-gle, 
 mav^gre, stro-jjhe, de-stroy. 
 
 6. But when the consonants cannot begin a word, or when the 
 vowel preceding them is short, the first should be separated; as, 
 ab-bey, ac-cent, vel-lum, ab-ject, gar-den, lawn-dry, pam-phlet ; sac-rifice, 
 detriment, blas-pheme, dis-tress, min-streL 
 15
 
 226 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 b. It is desirable that compound and derivative words should, at 
 the ends of lines, be divided in such a manner as to indicate their 
 principal parts. Thus, schml-master is preferable to schovlmas-ter, 
 di-fipprove to disap-proce, resent-ment to re-sentment, ortho-doxy to 
 or-thodoxy; though, as regards the analysis of words into syllables, 
 the latter mode is unobjectionable. From the narrowness of the 
 printed line, however, in some books, the principle recommended 
 cannot always be adhered to. 
 
 c. The terminations lion, sion, rial, lial, and many others, formerly 
 pronounced as two syllables, but now only as one, must not be 
 divided either in spelling or at the end of a line. 
 
 d. A syllable consisting of only one letter, as the a in cre-ation, 
 should not commence a line. This word would be better divided, 
 crea-tion; and so all others of a similar kind. But such a syllable, 
 coming immediately after a primitive, is by some printers brought 
 to the beginning; as, consider-able. 
 
 e. A line of print must not end with the first syllable of a word, 
 when it consists of a single letter; as, a-bide, e-normous: nor begin 
 with the last syllable, when it is formed of only two letters; as, 
 natlim-nl, lench-er, similar-ly. For regard should be had to the prin- 
 ciples of taste and beauty, as well as to the laws of syllabication. 
 
 /. Three or more successive lines should not end with a hyphen. 
 A little care on the part of the compositor will, in general, prevent 
 an appearance so offensive to a good eye. Divisions, indeed, except 
 for purposes of spelling and lexicography, should take place as 
 seldom as possible. 
 
 EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Divide the foUow'mg words agreeably to both the preceding Rules ; namely, 
 according to their pronunciation, and according to their composition or 
 derivation i 
 
 Habit, vivid, considerable, speculative, philosophy, modification, 
 govern, individual, phenomenon, knowledge, elaborate, academical, 
 progress, critical, vacuum, labyrinth, animal, physiology, revelation, 
 constituent, reciprocally, vigor, accredited, curiosity, magnificent, 
 privacy, cherish, valuable, apology, idolater, equilibrium, solemn, 
 separate, metaphysics, liberal, modern, preface, gratify, biography, 
 literature, nominal, philanthropy, theocracy, barometer, preparation, 
 figure, natural, prelude, clamor, reformation, metropolis, represent, 
 recognize, rhetoric, diminish, articulate, peasant, antipodes, misery,
 
 SYLLABICATION. 227 
 
 recriminate, floriferous, desolate, preference, dedicate, bibliopolist, 
 eloquent, irregular, ventriloquist, memorable, reputation, doxology, 
 conspiracy, general, desultory, contribute, omnivorous, typographer, 
 oblivion, democracy, polygamy, citizen, stenography, parish, talent, 
 melodist, borough, prisoner, promise, clever, metal, discrimination, 
 theology, cylinder, paradise, monitory, solitude, sycophant, nobility, 
 cavalcade, rivulet, profitable, integrity, relative, jealous. 
 
 Insert the hyphen in those places only in which the division appears best at the 
 end and the beginning of lines, according to the Remarks, p. 226 : 
 
 Philosophy, intermediate, theology, magnificence, venturesome, 
 biographer, questionable, lithography, professing, zoology, demigod, 
 personate, widowhood, kaleidoscope, periphrasis, supervisor, geology, 
 animation, abhorrence, government, tautology, permanent, classical, 
 forgetfulncss, superficial, congenial, circumstances, metamorphosis, 
 subdivision, patronage, subordinate, beneficent, resistless, sufficient, 
 superhuman, pantheism, disappointment, typographical, microscope, 
 disinterestedness, benevolence, superficial, contradiction, sensibility, 
 happiness, misanthropy, imperfect, circumference, counteracting, 
 disproportionately, excitement, semicircle, predominate, artificial, 
 portfolio, equilibrium, manufacture, preternatural, nomenclature, 
 supernumerary, terraqueous, malefactor, primogeniture, resemble, 
 suicide, transaction, intercept, education, counterfeit, superlative, 
 transgression, supernatural, predestinate, typography, polysyllable, 
 introduction, confident, philology, sympathy, misinform, spiritless, 
 provision, appearance, belonging, cleverness, uniform, outnumber, 
 bedchamber, gardening, fishmonger, disrespectful, plenipotentiary, 
 doctorship, neighborhood, bedlamite, nonconformity, nightingale, 
 antediluvian, parsonage, correspond, forgetfulness, superabundant, 
 metaphorically, hydrophobia, antitrinitarian, putrefaction, alteration, 
 haughtiness, semidiameter, improvement, proposition, serpentine, 
 disjunction, intercourse, animalcule, bookselling, commonwealth, 
 colloquial, reasoning, polyglot, puerility, correctness, understanding, 
 preliminary, qualification, attaining, composition, commencement, 
 incompetence, exclusive, disapprobation, adventure, introduction, 
 gentleman, trinity, ticquaintance, consciousness, transubstantiation, 
 considering, persuasion, trigonometry, parallelogram, successfully, 
 improper, diffidence, moreover, inference, hydrostatics, recollection, 
 ameliorative, authorities, unwilling, autocrat, accelerate, emolument, 
 carnivorous, emaciated.
 
 228 
 
 SECT. III. MARKS OF QUOTATION. 
 
 MARKS OF QUOTATION [ " " ] are employed to 
 show that the words of an author or a speaker are 
 quoted. These marks consist of two inverted commas 
 placed at the beginning, and two apostrophes at the 
 end, of a quotation. 
 
 RULE I. 
 Words borrmoed from a Speaker or an Author. 
 
 A word, phrase, or passage, belonging to another, 
 and introduced into one's own composition, is distin- 
 guished by marks of quotation. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 To one who said, " I do not believe there is an honest man in the world," 
 another replied, " It Is impossible that any one man should know all the 
 world, but quite possible that one may know himself." 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. When a writer repeats his own language, and wishes to draw 
 to it particular attention, he properly uses the same marks as he 
 would employ were he transcribing the sentiments of another. Thus, 
 if the author of the present work wished again to give directions on 
 the grammatical points usually required before extracts, he might, 
 instead of referring merely to page 10S, copy from it the rule and 
 certain comments, prefixing and appending the marks under notice, 
 as follow: " A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a 
 quotation, is separated by a comma from the clause which precedes 
 it." " If, however, quotations or remarks extend to two or more
 
 QUOTATIONS. 229 
 
 sentences, and are formally or specially introduced, a colon is 
 preferable." " When an indirect quotation or a remark is preceded 
 by a very brief clause, the comma is not required." 
 
 b. Marks of quotation may be omitted where the matter taken is 
 not given in the exact words of the author; as, 
 
 Socrates said that he believed in the immortality of the soul. 
 
 In the direct form, the sentence would be correctly written thus : 
 
 Socrates said, "I believe that the soul is immortal." 
 
 c. It is usual to omit the quotation-marks when a mere phrase 
 or saying from a foreign language is distinguished by Italics; as, 
 
 Nil mortalibua ardnum. est is a bold but encouraging assertion. 
 
 d. In old works, it was a common practice to introduce all ex 
 tracts from Scripture in Italic characters; but, except when there 
 is a necessity for calling particular attention to certain words or 
 expressions, authors now generally and very properly prefer using 
 marks of quotation ; as, 
 
 One of the evangelists says, " Jesus wept." 
 
 e. Titles of books, and names of ships, &c., are sometimes writ- 
 ten without the inverted commas, and put in Italic characters; as 
 " Falconer, the author of The Shlpivreck, embarked on board the 
 Aurora frigate in the year 1769, and was supposed to have perished 
 with the vessel at sea." But, as Italics give an irregular look to a 
 printed page, quotation-marks are preferable ; as, 
 
 We may justly regard " Paradise Lost " as one of the noblest monuments 
 of human genius. 
 
 f. In speaking of certain words or phrases, some authors put 
 them in Italics. Others, however, prefer placing them within marks 
 of quotation; and, for the reason given in Remark e, this is the 
 more eligible mode of exhibiting them ; as, 
 
 We find the word " Pharisaical " very useful in our modern speech. 
 
 ff. When an example or an extract, particularly if in verse, is 
 begun in a new line, and set in a smaller type, the marks of quota- 
 tion are by some writers dispensed with. In cases, however, of this 
 kind, perhaps the generality of authors and printers use the inverted 
 commas and the apostrophes, agreeably to the rule; and this usage 
 is recommended, except in works containing numerous quotations, 
 which are well known to be such, as in the present book.
 
 230 MARKS OF QUOTATION. 
 
 RULE II. 
 One Quotation within another. 
 
 When one quotation is introduced within another, 
 the included one should be preceded by a single in- 
 verted comma, and closed by a single apostrophe. 
 
 E X A M r L E S. 
 
 1. When treating of Christian orators, Maury asks the following apposite 
 questions: "What is this you call eloquence? Is it the wretched trade of 
 imitating that criminal, mentioned by a poet in his satires, who ' balanced his 
 crimes before his judges with antithesis '? Is it the puerile secret of forming 
 jejune quibbles; of rounding periods; of tormenting one's self by tedious 
 studies, in order to reduce sacred instruction into a vain amusement? " 
 
 2. In describing the vast influence of a perfect orator over the feelings 
 and passions of his audience, Sheridan forcibly says, " Notwithstanding the 
 diversity of minds in such a multitude, by the lightning of eloquence they 
 are melted into one mass; the whole assembly, actuated in one and the same 
 way, become, as it were, but one man, and have but one voice. The universal 
 cry is, ' Let us march against Philip ; let us fight for our liberties ; let ns 
 conquer or die! ' " 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 o. Double marks should be used before and after a quotation 
 inserted in that which has been introduced into an extract; as, 
 " Charming, the friend of humanity in every condition and under 
 every garb, says, ' When I consider the greater simplicity of their 
 lives, and their greater openness to the spirit of Christianity, I am 
 not sure but that the " golden age " of manners is to begin among 
 those who are now despaired of for their want of refinement.' " 
 
 b. Some writers and printers observe the following direction, in 
 preference to the rule given in the text: That a single inverted 
 comma should be prefixed to a single quotation occurring in com- 
 position, and a single apostrophe annexed to it; but that two 
 inverted commas should be introduced before, and two apostrophes 
 after, another quotation occurring within the primary one; as, 
 ' There are times when the spirit, oppressed with pain, worn with 
 toil, tired of tumult, sick at the sight of guilt, wounded in its love, 
 baffled in its hope, and trembling in its faith, almost longs for the 
 " wings of a dove, that it might fly away," and take refuge amidst
 
 ONE QUOTATION WITHIN ANOTHER. 231 
 
 the " shady bowers," the " vernal airs," the " roses without thorns,'-' 
 the quiet, the beauty, the loveliness, of Eden.' But the great objec- 
 tion to tliis mode of setting off extracts is, that, by using single 
 marks to the quotations which are of primary importance, and 
 double to those which are merely secondary, we exhibit the former 
 less prominently than the latter. 
 
 c. The marks under consideration may with propriety be omitted 
 in some instances, where several quotations are so much involved 
 one within another, that the insertion of all the inverted commas and 
 the apostrophes would tend to obscure the meaning of the entire 
 passage; as, 
 
 In the New Testament we have the following words : " Jesus answered the 
 Jews, ' Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods ? ' " 
 
 By considering the example itself as an extract, there will be found 
 here no fewer than five quotations ; and yet, though two only are set 
 off with quotation-marks, the passage is perhaps more intelligible, and 
 to the eye certainly less offensive, than if printed thus : " In the New 
 Testament we have the following words: 'Jesus answered the Jews, 
 " Is it not written in your law, 'I said, " Ye are god " 'V " ' " 
 Ridiculous as it may appear, this mode of exhibiting quotations is 
 only the application of the principle contained in the rule, but car- 
 ried out beyond its legitimate purpose and extent. 
 
 d. Indeed, in quoting from such texts of Scripture as contain 
 citations from other books of the sacred canon, it is usual to present 
 them as they appear in the Common Version, without any quota- 
 tion-marks in the body of the passage; as, 
 
 St. Paul thus expresses himself: " Therein is the righteousness of God 
 revealed from faith to faith ; as it is written, The just shall live "by faith. 
 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness, and 
 on righteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness." In another 
 place the apostle says, " David also describcth the blessedness of the man 
 unto whom God imputeth righteousness without works, saying, Blessed are 
 they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is 
 the man to whom the Lord will not impute sin. Cometh this blessedness, 
 then, upon the circumcision only? " &c. 
 
 But the exhibiting of a quotation within a quotation without the 
 inverted commas, though more pleasing to the eye, is less accurate, 
 than it would be if they were used in a single form, as in the passage 
 above, lines six- and seven of Remark c. 
 
 c. See page 156, Remark f; and page 161, Remark e.
 
 232 MARKS OF QUOTATION. 
 
 RULE HI. 
 Extracts composed of Successive Paragraphs. 
 
 When an extract is composed of successive para- 
 graphs, each is commenced with inverted commas ; but 
 the apostrophes are not used till the quotation finally 
 terminates. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 To exemplify this rule, a passage, consisting of more than one paragraph, 
 may be taken from an essay by Godwin : 
 
 " No aubject is of more importance, in the morality of private life, than 
 that of domestic or family life. 
 
 " Every man has his ill humors, his fits of peevishness and exacerbation. 
 Is it better that he should spend these upon his fellow-beings, or suffer them 
 to subside of themselves? 
 
 " It seems to be one of the most important of the arts of life, that men 
 should not come too near each other, or touch in too many points. Excessive 
 familiarity is the bane of social happiness." 
 
 BEM ABKS. 
 
 a. When phrases or sentences in an extract consist of portions 
 not connected in the discourse or book from which they have been 
 taken, each portion should begin and end with the quotation-marks, 
 as in those cited on p. 228, Remark a ; unless several points (....) 
 are inserted to indicate the omission, in which case it will be suf- 
 ficient to put the marks of quotation at the beginning and the end 
 of the whole extract, if it is contained in one paragraph. 
 
 b. In the leading articles of newspapers, and sometimes in books, 
 when particular attention would be drawn to an extract embodied 
 hi the text, the inverted commas are placed at the beginning of each 
 line of the quotation ; as, Slavery must fall, because it stands in 
 " direct hostility to all the grand movements, principles, and reforms 
 " of our age ; because it stands in the way of an advancing world. 
 " One great idea stands out amidst the discoveries and improvements 
 " of modern times. It is, that man is not to exercise arbitrary, 
 " irresponsible power over man." But, except in the more transient 
 class of publications, this mode of exhibiting extracts is now seldom 
 used.
 
 QUOTATIONS. 233 
 
 ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Bhote how the Rules and the Remarks (pp. 228-30) apply to the use or omission 
 of qtutation-marlis in the f Mowing sentences t 
 
 The psalmist says again, " I am a stranger with thee and a so- 
 journer, as all my fathers were." 
 
 When Fenelon's library was on fire, " God be praised," said he, 
 " that it is not the dwelling of a poor man ! " 
 
 I repeat what I said on a former occasion, that " no man can be 
 happy who is destitute of good feelings and generous principles." 
 
 " There is but one object," says St. Augustine, " greater than the 
 soul ; and that one is its Creator." 
 
 Plato, hearing that some asserted he was a very bad man, said, 
 " I shall take care so to live that nobody will believe them." 
 
 " Let me make the ballads of a nation," said Fletcher of Saltoun 
 " and I care not who makes its laws." 
 
 " Any man," it has been well said, " who has a proneness to see 
 a beauty and fitness in all God's works, may find daily food for his 
 mind even in an infant." 
 
 A minister of some experience remarks, " I have heard more than 
 one sufferer say, ' I am thankful ; God is good to me ; ' and, when 
 I heard that, I said, ' It is good to be afflicted.' " 
 
 The celebrated and ingenious Bishop of Cloyne, in his " Principles 
 of Human Knowledge," denies, without any ceremony, the exist- 
 ence of every kind of matter whatever. 
 
 After Cicero, the literary history of the Romans is written in one 
 line of Tacitus, Gliscente adulations, magna ingenia dtterrebantur ; 
 " As adulation increased, great minds were deterred." 
 
 A being crowned with all the blessings which men covet and 
 admire, with youth, health, beauty, rank, genius, and fame, 
 writes four cantos of melodious verse to prove that he is the most 
 miserable of mortals. 
 
 Trench well says, " What a lesson the word ' diligence ' contains ! 
 How profitable is it for every one of us to be reminded, as we are 
 reminded when we make ourselves aware of its derivation from diUgo, 
 * to love,' that the only secret of true industry in our work is love 
 of that work!" 
 
 To the man who walks among the flowers which he has tended, 
 
 " Each odoriferous leaf^ 
 
 Each opening blossom, freely breathes abroad 
 Its gratitude, and thanks him with its sweets."
 
 234 MARKS OF QUOTATION. 
 
 EXERCISE TO BE WRITS ES. 
 
 Insert the marks of quotation agreeably to some of the directions given in 
 pp. 22S-32. 
 
 Johnson's Lives of the English Poets may justly be considered 
 RS the noblest specimen of elegant and solid criticism which any 
 age has produced. (Rule I. and Remark e.) 
 
 Terrific examples of license and anarchy in Greece and Rome 
 are quoted to prove, that man requires to be protected from himself; 
 forgetting the profound wisdom wrapped up in the familiar inquiry, 
 Quis cvstodiel ipsos custodes? Who shall guard the keepers? (Rule I. 
 and Remark c.) 
 
 An eloquent preacher asks, Who would not far prefer our wintry 
 storm, and the hoarse sighings of the east wind, as it sweeps around 
 us, if they will brace the mind to nobler attainments, and the heart 
 to better duties? [The author of this passage quotes the phrase, 
 " the hoarse sighings of the east wind."] (Rule II.) 
 
 What is the soul ? was a question once put to Marivanx. I know 
 nothing of it, he answered, but that it is spiritual and immortal. 
 Well, said his friend, let us ask Fontenelle, and he will tell us what 
 it Is. No, cried Marivaux : ask anybody but Fontenelle ; for he 
 has too much good sense to know any more about it than we do. 
 (Rule I.) 
 
 D' Alembert congratulated a young man very coldly, who brought 
 him the solution of a problem. I have done this to have a seat in 
 the Academy, said the young man. Sir, answered D' Alembert, 
 with such motives you will never earn one. Science must be loved 
 for its own sake, and not for the advantage to be derived. No other 
 principle will enable a man to make true progress. (Rule I.) 
 
 The following sarcastic rules for behavior are said by Goldsmith 
 to have been drawn up by an indigent philosopher : 
 
 1. If yon be a rich man, you may enter the room with three 
 loud hems, march deliberately up to the chimney, and turn your 
 back to the fire. 
 
 2. If you be a poor man, I would advise you to shrink into the 
 room as fast as you can, and place yourself, as usual, upon a corner 
 of a chair, in a remote corner. 
 
 3. If you be young, and live with an old man, I would advise 
 yon not to like gravy. I was disinherited myself for liking gravy. 
 (Rule UI.)
 
 235 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS AND CHARACTERS. 
 
 IK addition to the sentential points and marks treated 
 of in the preceding pages, there are other characters, 
 sometimes occurring in English composition, which 
 will now be explained. 
 
 I. BRACKETS, or CROTCHETS [ ], are employed for 
 the same purpose nearly as the marks of parenthesis ; 
 but they are usually confined to words, phrases, or 
 sentences, inserted in or appended to a quotation, and 
 not belonging to it ; as, " The captain had several men 
 died [who died] in the ship." 
 
 Brackets are chiefly intended to give an explanation, to rectify a 
 mistake, or to supply an omission. But they are also sometimes 
 used in dictionaries and in poetry to separate such words as are 
 put, for the saving of room, into lines to which they do not belong; 
 and in psalms and hymns to include verses that may be omitted by 
 a congregation. They are used, besides, in a single form, in printed 
 dramas, to note the entrance or the departure of certain characters ; 
 as, " [Exeunt Portia and Nerissa." 
 
 Marks of parenthesis and the brackets are often employed indis- 
 criminately; but the following rule, from Parker's " Exercises in 
 Rhetorical Reading," will aid the pupil in distinguishing the difl'er- 
 ence as to their application: " Crotchets [the writer means marks of 
 parenthesis J are used to enclose a sentence, or part of a sentence,
 
 236 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 
 
 which is inserted between the parts of another sentence: bracket* 
 are generally used to separate two subjects, or to enclose an expla- 
 nation, note, or observation, standing by itself." 
 
 The grammatical punctuation of the words or sentences enclosed 
 by brackets, and of the context, when they require such pointing, 
 should be the same as that adopted in respect to the parenthesis, and 
 to the clauses between which it is inserted. Sec pp. 168-70. 
 
 Dashes are sometimes used, one before the first bracket, and 
 another after the second, to lead the eye from the preceding portiou 
 of the main sentence to the latter. They may with propriety be 
 introduced in such passages as the following: "I know the banker 
 I deal with, or the physician I usually call in, [' There is no need,' 
 cried Dr. Slop (waking), 'to call in any physician in this case.'l 
 to be neither of them men of much religion." 
 
 II. A COMMA INVERTED [ ' ] is sometimes used 
 instead of a very small c, in many proper names 
 beginning with Mac; as, M l Donald, the abbreviation 
 of Macdonald. 
 
 This mark seems to be getting out of use ; authors and printers 
 now generally preferring the c, either on or above the line, as in 
 McKende, A&Farlnne. 
 
 The same mark is sometimes annexed to the letter in proper 
 names; as, O'Nett: but an apostrophe is more frequently used, and 
 is more correct; as, O'NdL 
 
 III. TVo COMMAS [ ] are occasionally employed 
 to indicate that something is understood which was ex- 
 pressed in the line and word immediately above ; as, 
 
 John Jones, Esq Plymouth. 
 
 John Smith, Esq 
 
 By many printers the commas are inverted [thus, " ] ; but the 
 mode of using them here presented, which was once very common, 
 is a more exact imitation of handwriting. 
 
 Names of different persons, though spelled hi the same way, as 
 the word " John " in the preceding lines, are commonly repeated.
 
 THE INDEX, BRACE, ETC. 237 
 
 IV. The INDEX, or HAND, points out a passage to 
 which special attention is directed ; as, " (jjjgT All orders 
 will be promptly and carefully attended to." 
 
 V. THREE STARS, placed in this form [%*], or 
 N.B., the initials of nota bene, " mark well," are some- 
 times used for the same purposes as the index. 
 
 The characters explained in the two preceding paragraphs are 
 employed chiefly in cards, handbills, advertisements, and catalogues; 
 seldom in books. 
 
 VI. The CARET [ A ] is used, only in manuscript, 
 to show where a letter or a word was accidentally 
 omitted, but which has afterwards been placed over 
 the line ; as, 
 
 p are 
 
 Disapointments and trials often blessings in disguise. 
 A A 
 
 VII. The BRACE [^-^] is used to connect a 
 number of words with one common term ; as, 
 
 3 barleycorns ) ( 1 inch ) 
 
 12 inches . . . . { are equal to < 1 foot > long measure. 
 Sfeet ) . (lyard) 
 
 This character is often found serviceable in lists of articles and 
 in tabular matter, where the object is to save room, or to avoid 
 repetition. The inside of a brace should, as in the example, be 
 turned to that part of the matter which contains most lines. 
 
 The brace was once generally used to bind together a triplet, or 
 three lines of poetry having the same rhyme; but this practice is 
 becoming obsolete. 
 
 A brace is sometimes put in the side-margin of a page to separate 
 dates, when placed there, from the text. *
 
 238 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 
 
 VIH. MARKS OF ELLIPSIS are formed by means 
 of a long dash, or of a succession of points or stars 
 
 [ , ....,****], of various lengths ; and are 
 
 used to indicate the omission of letters in a word, of 
 words in a sentence, or of sentences in a paragraph ; 
 as, 
 
 1. C s ia not uniformly distinguished for dignity, wisdom, patriotism 
 
 or philanthropy. 
 
 2. If the great have no other glory than that of their ancestors ; if theii 
 titles are their only virtues. .... their birth dishonors them, even in the 
 estimation of the world. 
 
 3. Some persons believe that there are no longer any duties to be fulfilled 
 beyond the tomb ; and there are but few who know how to be friends to the 
 dead. *** The name of our friends, their glory, their 
 family, have still claims on our affection, which it would be guilt not to feel. 
 They should live still in our heart by the emotions which subsist there ; in 
 our memory, by our frequent remembrance of them ; in our voice, by our 
 eulogiums ; in our conduct, by our imitation of their virtues. 
 
 In the first example, ' C s " is substituted for Congress; in 
 
 the second, a single clause is omitted; and, in the third, several 
 sentences are left out by the transcriber. Periods are considered 
 much less offensive to the eye than asterisks. 
 
 To avoid repetitions in catalogues, a dash is sometimes used 
 instead of the word or words immediately above ; as, 
 
 Pope's Works, with Notes and Illustrations, 6 Tola. calf. 
 Rape of the Lock., and other Poems. 
 
 For other elliptical uses of the dash, see pp. 175, 191, and 195. 
 
 TX. LEADERS are dots or periods, used in contents 
 and indexes of books, and in similar matter, to lead 
 the eye to the end of a line, for the completion of the 
 sense; as, 
 
 PS.. 
 
 Comma 27 
 
 Semicolon 113 
 
 Colon 129 
 
 Priod . . 142
 
 ACCENTS AND OTHER MARJvS. 239 
 
 X. ACCENTS. There are three marks, termed 
 Accents, placed over the vowels ; namely, the Acute 
 [ ' ], as in fancy ; the Grave [ x ], as in favor ; and 
 the Circumflex [ * ], as in fall. The acute accent 
 commonly represents a sharp, the grave a depressed, 
 and the circumflex a broad sound. 
 
 The grave accent is sometimes placed in verse over the vowel e, 
 to show that it must be fully pronounced ; as, cankered, Dirce. 
 See p. 199, Remark g. 
 
 These characters are also used to denote the inflections of the 
 voice, according to the system invented by Walker; and for various 
 purposes in the Latin, French, and other languages. 
 
 XI. MARKS OF QUANTITY. There are other 
 three marks, indicating the pronunciation, which are 
 sometimes classed among the accents ; namely, the 
 Long [ " ], as in rosy ; the Breve, or Short [ " ], as 
 in folly ; and the Diaeresis [ " ], as in aerial. 
 
 The diaeresis is usually placed over the latter of two vowels, and 
 denotes that they are to be pronounced separately. 
 
 XII. The CEDILLA is a mark resembling a comma 
 placed under the letter c, when it has the sound of 
 s before a or o, in words taken from the French ; as, 
 facade. 
 
 XIII. THE TILDE [ * ] is an accentual mark, placed 
 over n in Spanish to give that letter a liquid sound ; as, 
 tenor, sir. 
 
 If great accuracy is required, all such words should be thus printed 
 when occurring in English composition.
 
 240 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 
 
 XIV. MARKS OF REFERENCE. The Asterisk, or 
 Star [ * ], the Obelisk, or Dagger [ t ], the Double 
 Dagger [ J ], the Section [ ], Parallel Lines [ || ], 
 and the Paragraph [ IF J, are used, in the order here 
 presented, when references are made to observations 
 or notes in the margin. 
 
 When references are numerous, the above marks, when they have 
 been all used in one and the same page, and others are required, 
 should be doubled or trebled; as, **, ttt- 
 
 But, for purposes of reference, many authors prefer lowercase 
 Italic letters or Arabic figures, enclosed by marks of parenthesis 
 (a)ur(l): some usii.g the letters throughout the alphabet, or the 
 figures as Air as 10 or 100 inclusive, then beginning again with (a) or 
 (1); and others commencing each page with the first letter or figure. 
 
 As, however, all the above marks have a rather clumsy appear- 
 ance, particularly when they often occur in the same page, it has, 
 in more recent times, been regarded as an improvement to use, in 
 their order, letters or figures of a smaller size, technically called, 
 from their standing above the line, Superiors ; as, or '. If the notes 
 are placed in the margin, it is recommended that the letter or 
 figure l be the first reference of every page in which notes occur; but 
 that figures, and not letters, be employed in regular succession, as far 
 as required, if the notes are introduced at the end of the volume. 
 
 The ASTERISK is used in some dictionaries to note, either that a 
 word is of Greek origin, or is distinguished by some other pecu- 
 liarity; and the OBELISK., that a word or phrase is barbarous or 
 obsolete. In Roman-Catholic church-books, the asterisk is used to 
 divide each verse of a psalm into two parts, showing where the 
 responses begin. The obelisk is inserted, instead of the proper 
 square cross, in those places of the printed prayers and benedictions 
 where the priest is to make the sign of the cross. It is also used in 
 the briefs of the pope, and in the mandates of archbishops and 
 bishops, who put this symbol immediately before the signature of 
 their names. 
 
 The mark termed the SECTION [ ] is sometimes employed, as in 
 Locke's " Essay on the Human Understanding," to divide books or 
 chapters into smaller portions; and that called the PAKAGKAPH [ Tf ; 
 occurs frequently in the authorized version of the Bible.
 
 241 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES, 
 
 PUNCTUATED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN IN THB 
 PRESENT WORK. 
 
 THE following Exercises are presented in the hope, 
 that they will be not only perused as a source of plea- 
 sure and general improvement, but also studied with 
 relation to the art which they are meant to exemplify. 
 This can be done in one of two wa*ys : The reader 
 may, in passing from one sentence to another, assign, 
 either mentally or to a teacher, the reasons for the 
 punctuation adopted, by referring to the rules or 
 the remarks which are laid down in the preceding 
 pages as applicable to each separate case. Or he may 
 write out the exercises, one at a time, without any 
 points whatever ; and, in the course of a day or two, 
 take his transcribed copy, and, without aid from the 
 book, insert such marks as he thinks will best exhibit 
 the grammatical structure of the composition, the con- 
 nections or relations subsisting between the various 
 parts of its sentences, and the sense which the author 
 intended to express. He may then compare his manu- 
 script with the print, in order to ascertain in wliat 
 respects they correspond or differ ; introducing the 
 16
 
 242 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 points which he has omitted, or rectifying the errors he 
 has made. If the defects or mistake? are numerous, 
 he should carefully transcribe the exercise a second 
 time. 
 
 The Index, at the end of the book, will enable the 
 pupil, when his memory fails him, to discover any 
 particular rule or remark to which he may have occa- 
 sion to refer. 
 
 I. PRIDE AND HUMILITY. 
 
 Pride and humility are always relative terms. The}' imply a 
 comparison of some sort with an object higher or lower; and the 
 same mind, with actual excellence exactly the same, and with 
 the same comparative attainments in every one around, may thus 
 be either proud or humble, as it looks above or looks beneath. In 
 the great scale of society, there is a continued rise from one excel- 
 lence to another excellence, internal or external, intellectual or 
 moral. Wherever we may fix, there is still some one whom we 
 may find superior or inferior; and those relations are mutually 
 convertible as we ascend or descend. The shrub is taller than the 
 flower which grows in its shade; the tree, than the shrub; the rock, 
 than the tree; the mountain, than the single rock; and above all are 
 the sun and the heavens. It is the same in the world of life. From 
 that Almighty Being who is the Source of all life, to the lowest of 
 his creatures, what innumerable gradations may be traced, even in 
 the ranks of excellence on our own earth ! each being higher than 
 that beneath, and lower than that above; and thus, all to all, objects 
 at once of pride or humility, according as the comparison may be 
 made with the greater or with the less. 
 
 Of two minds, then, possessing equal excellence, which is the 
 more noble, that which, however high the excellence attained by 
 it, has still some nobler excellence in view, to which it feels its own 
 inferiority; or that which, having risen a few steps in the ascent of 
 intellectual and moral glory, thinks only of those beneath, and 
 rejoices in an excellence which would appear to it of little value if
 
 PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 243 
 
 only it lifted a single glance to the perfection above? Yet this 
 habitual tendency to look beneath, rather than above, is the character 
 of mind which is denominated " pride;" while the tendency to look 
 above, rather than below, and to feel an inferiority, therefore, which 
 others perhaps do not perceive, is the character which is denomi- 
 nated " humility." Is it false, then, or even extravagant, to say that 
 humility is truly the nobler; and that pride, which delights in the 
 contemplation of abject objects beneath, is truly in itself more 
 abject than that meekness of heart which is humble because it has 
 greater objects, and which looks with reverence to the excellence 
 that is above it, because it is formed with a capacity of feeling all 
 the worth of that excellence which it reveres ? 
 
 The accomplished philosopher and man of letters, to whom the 
 great names of all who have been eminent in ancient and modern 
 times, in all the nations in which the race of man has risen to glory, 
 are familiar, almost like the names of those with whom he is living 
 in society, who has thus constantly before his mind images of 
 excellence of the highest order, and who, even in the hopes which 
 he dares to form, feels how small a contribution it will be in his 
 power to add to the great imperishable stock of human wisdom, 
 may be proud indeed ; but his pride will be of a sort that is tem- 
 pered with humility, and will be humility itself if compared with 
 the pride of a pedant or sciolist, who thinks, that, in adding the 
 result of some little discovery which he may have fortunately made, 
 he is almost doubling that mass of knowledge in which it is scarcely 
 perceived as an element. 
 
 Pride, then, as a character of self-complacent exultation, is not 
 the prevailing cast of mind of those who are formed for genuine 
 excellence. He who is formed for genuine excellence has before 
 him an ideal perfection, that semper melius aliquid, which makes 
 excellence itself, however admirable to those who measure it only 
 with their weaker powers, seem to his own mind, as compared with 
 what he has ever in his own mental vision, a sort of failure. He 
 thinks less of what he has done than of what it seems possible to 
 do; and he is not so much proud of merit attained, as desirous of a 
 merit that has not yet been attained by him. 
 
 It is in this way that the very religion which ennobles man leads 
 him, not to pride, but to humility. It elevates him from the smoke 
 and dust of earth; but it elevates him above the darkness, that he 
 may see better the great heights that are above him. It shows him, 
 not the mere excellence of a few frail creatures, as fallible as him-
 
 244 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 self, but excellence, the very conception of which is the highest 
 effort that can be made by man: exhibiting thus constantly what it 
 will be the only honor worthy of his nature to imitate, however 
 faintly; and checking his momentary pride, at every step of his 
 glorious progress, by the brightness and the vastness of what is still 
 before him. 
 
 May I not add to these remarks, that it is in this way we are to 
 account for that humility which is so peculiarly a part of the Chris- 
 tian character, as contrasted with the general pride which other 
 systems either recommend or allow? The Christian religion is, 
 indeed, as has been often sarcastically said by those who revile it, 
 the religion of the humble in heart; but it is the religion of the 
 humble, only because it presents to our contemplation a higher 
 excellence than was ever before exhibited to man. The proud look 
 down upon the earth, and see nothing that creeps upon its surface 
 more noble than themselves: the humble look upward to their God. 
 
 THOMAS BKOWN. 
 
 H. ABOU BEN ADHEM. 
 
 Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!) 
 
 Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 
 
 And saw within the moonlight of his room, 
 
 Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 
 
 An angel writing in a book of gold. 
 
 Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold; 
 
 And to the presence in the room he said, 
 
 " What writest then ? " The vision raised its head, 
 
 And, with a look made of all sweet accord, 
 
 Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 
 
 " And is mine one ? " asked Abou. " Nay, not so," 
 
 Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 
 
 But cheerly still ; and said, " I pray thee, then, 
 
 Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 
 
 The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night 
 
 It came again, with a great wakening light, 
 
 And showed the names whom love of God had blest; 
 
 And, lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 
 
 LEIGH HUNT.
 
 PUNCTUATIOX EXEMPLIFIED. 245 
 
 III. PANEGYRIC ON ENGLAND. 
 
 No character is perfect among nations, more than among men : 
 but it must needs be conceded, that, of all the states of Europe 
 England has been, from an early period, the most favored abode of 
 liberty; the only part of Europe, where, for any length of time, 
 constitutional liberty can be said to have a stable existence. We 
 can scarcely contemplate with patience the idea, that we might have 
 been a Spanish colony, a Portuguese colony, or a Dutch colony. Y7e 
 can scarcely compare with coolness the inheritance which was trans- 
 mitted to us by our fathers, with that which we must have received 
 from almost any other country, absolute government, military 
 despotism, and the " holy inquisition." .... What hope can there be 
 for the colonies of nations which possess themselves no spring of 
 improvement, and tolerate none in the regions over which they rule ; 
 whose administration sets no bright examples of parliamentary inde- 
 pendence ; whose languages send out no reviving lessons of sound and 
 practical science, ... of manly literature, of sound philosophy; but 
 repeat, with every ship that crosses the Atlantic, the same debasing 
 voice of despotism, bigotry, and antiquated superstition ? 
 
 What citizen of our republic is not grateful, in the contrast which 
 our history presents? Who does not feel, what reflecting American 
 does not acknowledge, the incalculable advantages derived to this 
 land out of the deep fountains of civil, intellectual, and moral truth, 
 from which we have drawn in England? What American does not 
 feel proud that his fathers were the countrymen of Bacon, of Newton, 
 and of Locke? Who docs not know, that, while every pulse of civil 
 liberty in the heart of the British empire beat warm and full in the 
 bosom of our ancestors, the sobriety, the firmness, and the dignity, 
 with which the cause of free principles struggled into existence here, 
 constantly found encouragement and countenance from the friends 
 of liberty there? Who does not remember, that, when the Pilgrims 
 went over the sea, the prayers of the faithful British confessors, in 
 all the quarters of their dispersion, went over with them, while their 
 aching eyes were strained till the star of hope should go up in the 
 western skies? And who will ever forget, that, in that eventful 
 struggle which severed these youthful republics from the British 
 crown, there was not heard, throughout our continent in arms, a 
 voice which spoke louder for the rights of America, than that of 
 Burke or of Chatham within the walls of the British Parliament
 
 246 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 and at the foot of the British throne? No: for myself, I can truly 
 say, that, after my native land, 1 feel a tenderness and a reverence 
 for that of my fathers. The pride 1 take in my own country makes 
 me respect that from which we are sprung. In touching the soil of 
 England, I seem to return, like a descendant, to the old family seat ; 
 to come back to the abode of an aged and venerable parent I 
 acknowledge this great consanguinity of nations. The sound of my 
 native language, beyond the sea, is a music to my ear, beyond the 
 richest strains of Tuscan softness or Castilian majesty. I am not 
 yet in a land of strangers, while surrounded by the manners, the 
 habits, and the institutions under which I have been brought up. I 
 wander delighted through a thousand scenes, which the historians 
 and the poets have made familiar to us, of which the names are inter- 
 woven with our earliest associations. I tread with reverence the spots 
 where I can retrace the footsteps of our suffering fathers : the plea- 
 sant land of their birth has a claim on my heart. It seems to me a 
 classic, yea, a holy land ; rich in the memory of the great and good, 
 the champions and the martyrs of liberty, the exiled heralds of truth ; 
 and richer as the parent of this land of promise in the West. 
 
 I am not I need not say I am not the panegyrist of England. 
 I am not dazzled by her riches, nor awed by her power. The sceptre, 
 the mitre, and the coronet, stars, garters, and blue ribbons, seem 
 to me poor things for great men to contend for. Nor is my admira- 
 tion awakened by her armies mustered for the battles of Europe, her 
 navies overshadowing the ocean, nor her empire grasping the farthest 
 East. It is these, and the price of guilt and blood by which they are 
 too often maintained, which are the cause why no friend of liberty 
 can salute her with undivided affections. But it is the cradle and 
 the refuge of free principles, though often persecuted ; the school of 
 religious liberty, the more precious for the struggles through which 
 it has passed; the tombs of those who have reflected honor on all 
 who speak the English tongue ; it is the birthplace of our fathers, the 
 home of the Pilgrims, it is these which I love and venerate in 
 England. I should feel ashamed of an enthusiasm for Italy and 
 Greece, did I not also feel it for a land like this. In an American, it 
 would seem to me degenerate and ungrateful to hang with passion 
 upon the traces of Homer and Virgil, and follow without emotion the 
 nearer and plainer footsteps of Shakspeare and Milton. I should 
 think him cold in his love for his native land who felt no melting in 
 his heart for that other native country which holds the ashes of his 
 forefathers. EDWARD EVERETT.
 
 PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 217 
 
 IV. THE PEN AND THE PRESS. 
 
 young Genius walked out by the mountains and streams, 
 Entranced by the power of his own pleasant dreams, 
 Till the silent, the wayward, the wandering thing 
 Found a plume that had fallen from a passing bird's wing : 
 Exulting and proud, like a boy at his pliiy, 
 He bore the new prize to his dwelling away; 
 He gazed for a while on its beauties, and then 
 He cut it, and shaped it, and called it a PEN. 
 
 But its magical use he discovered not yet, 
 
 Till he dipped its bright lips in a fountain of jet; 
 
 And, oh ! what a glorious thing it became ! 
 
 For it spoke to the world in a language of flame; 
 
 While its master wrote on, like a being inspired, 
 
 Till the hearts of the millions were melted or fired : 
 
 It came as a boon and a blessing to men, 
 
 The peaceful, the pure, the victorious Pen. 
 
 Young Genius went forth on his rambles once more, 
 
 The vast, sunless caverns of earth to explore ; 
 
 He searched the rude rock, and with rapture he foumi 
 
 A substance unknown, which he brought from the ground; 
 
 He fused it with fire, and rejoiced at the change, 
 
 As he moulded the ore into characters strange, 
 
 Till his thoughts and his efforts were crowned with success, 
 
 For an engine uprose, and he called it the PRESS. 
 
 The Pen and the Press, blest alliance ! combined 
 To soften the heart, and enlighten the mind; 
 For that to the treasures of knowledge gave birth, 
 And this sent them forth to the ends of the earth : 
 Their battles for truth were triumphant indeed, 
 And the rod of the tyrant was snapped like a reed ; 
 They were made to exalt as, to teach us, to bless, 
 Those invincible brothers, the Pen and the Press. 
 
 JOHN CIUTCHLEY PRINCH.
 
 248 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 V. A TASTE FOR READING. 
 
 We cannot linger in the beautiful creations of inventive genius, 
 or pursue the splendid discoveries of modern science, without a new 
 sense of the capacities and dignity of human nature, which natu- 
 rally leads to a sterner self-respect, to manlier resolves and higher 
 aspirations. We cannot read the ways of God to man as revealed 
 in the history of nations, of sublime virtues as exemplified in the 
 lives of great and good men, without falling into that mood of 
 thoughtful admiration, which, though it be but a transient glow, is a 
 purifying and elevating influence while it lasts. The study of his- 
 tory is especially valuable as an antidote to self-exaggeration. It 
 teaches lessons of humility, patience, and submission. When we 
 read of realms smitten with the scourge of famine or pestilence, or 
 strewn with the bloody ashes of war ; of grass growing in the streets 
 of great cities ; of ships rotting at the wharves ; of fathers burying 
 their sons ; of strong men begging their bread ; of fields unfilled, 
 and silent workshops, and despairing countenances, we hear a 
 voice of rebuke to our own clamorous sorrows and peevish com- 
 plaints. We learn that pain and suffering and disappointment are 
 a part of God's providence, and that no contract was ever yet 
 made with man by which virtue should secure to him temporal 
 happiness. 
 
 In books, be it remembered, we have the best products of the 
 best minds. We should any of us esteem it a great privilege to pass 
 an evening with Shakspeare or Bacon, were such a thing possible. 
 But, were we admitted to the presence of one of these illustrious 
 men, we might find him touched with infirmitv, or oppressed with 
 weariness, or darkened with the shadow of a recent trouble, or 
 absorbed by intrusive and tyrannous thoughts. To us the oracle 
 might be dumb, and the light eclipsed. But, when we take down 
 one of their volume?, we run no such risk. Here we have their 
 best thoughts, embalmed in their best words : immortal flowers of 
 poetry, wet with Castalian dews, and the golden fruit of wisdom 
 that had long ripened on the bough before it was gathered. Here . 
 we find the growth of the choicest seasons of the mind, when mortal 
 cares were forgotten, and mortal weaknesses were subdued ; and the 
 soul, stripped of its vanities and its passions, lay bare to the finest 
 effluences of truth and beauty. We may be sure that Shakspeare 
 never out-talked his Hamlet, nor Bacon his Essays. Great writers
 
 PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 249 
 
 are indeed best known through their books. How little, for instance, 
 do we know of the life of Shakspeare; but how much do wo know 
 of him! . . 
 
 For the knowledge that comes from books, I would claim no more 
 than it is fairly entitled to. I am well aware that there is no inevi- 
 table connection between intellectual cultivation, on the one hand, 
 and individual virtue or social well-being, on the other. " The tree 
 of knowledge is not the tree of life." I admit that genius and learn, 
 ing are sometimes found in combination with gross vices, and not 
 unfrequcntly with contemptible weaknesses; and that a community 
 at once cultivated and corrupt is no impossible monster. But it is 
 no overstatement to say, that, other things being equal, the man 
 who has the greatest amount of intellectual resources is in the least 
 danger from inferior temptations, if for no other reason, because 
 he has fewer idle moments. The ruin of most men dates from some 
 vacant hour. Occupation is the armor of the sou!; and the train 
 of Idleness is borne up by all the vices. I remember a satirical 
 poem, in which the Devil is represented as fishing for men, and 
 adapting his baits to the taste and temperament of his prey; but the 
 idler, he said, pleased him most, because he bit the naked hook. To 
 a young man away from home, friendless and forlorn in a great city, 
 the hours of peril are those between sunset and bedtime; for the 
 moon and stars see more of evil in a single hour than the sun in his 
 whole day's circuit. The poet's visions of evening are all compact 
 of tender and soothing images. It brings the wanderer to his home, 
 the child to his mother's arms, the ox to his stall, and the weary 
 laborer to his rest. But to the gentle-hearted youth who is thrown 
 upon the rocks of a pitiless city, and stands " homeless amid a thou- 
 sand homes," the approach of evening brings with it an aching sense 
 of loneliness and desolation, which comes down upon the spirit like 
 darkness upon the earth. In this mood, his best impulses become a 
 snare to him ; and he is led astray because he is social, affectionate, 
 sympathetic, and warm-hearted. If there be a young man thus 
 circumstanced, within the sound of my voice, let me say to him, that 
 books are the friends of the friendless, and that a library is the home 
 of the homeless. A taste for reading will always carry you into the 
 best possible company, and enable you to converse with men who 
 will instruct you by their wisdom, and charm you by their wit; 
 who will soothe you when fretted, refresh you when weary, counsel 
 you when perplexed, and sympathize with you at all times. 
 
 GEOKGE S. HILLARD
 
 250 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 VI. RELATIVE PERFECTION. 
 
 There is a relative, as well as a more general, perfection in man, 
 which must not be lost sight of in examining the question of his 
 proper vocation in life. There is required of him, not only a culture 
 of his whole being as a man, but also a diligent and faithful adapta- 
 tion of certain of his powers to the particular circumstances in 
 which he is placed. Life's purpose is only adequately accomplished 
 in discharging both these claims; and, indeed, the more limited 
 service is a necessary condition of the general development. You 
 find yourself, then, occupying a given position in the world. It has 
 its appointed duties, its special opportunities of usefulness, trials 
 also, difficulties and temptations of its own. Take your lot as it is 
 assigned you, without murmuring. Make the best of it; and, if in 
 the eyes of men it seems unhonored and unenviable, ennoble it by 
 your own spirit, and work your way through it, by character and 
 honest industry, to something better and happier. If, on the other 
 hand, you find it accord with your inclination, and open before you 
 a fair prospect of worldly advancement, be assured there is nothing 
 irreligious in honorably aiming at success and eminence in it, and 
 still less in openly avowing that such is your object. Every pursuit 
 which conduces to the welfare of the world has its appropriate 
 honor attending it; and a genuine virtue is developed by enthusiasm 
 for what is highest in our own line of action. You may treat life as 
 a problem, which has to be wrought out to a successful result, with 
 certain moral conditions attached to it. Do not, because it looks 
 difficult, timorously shrink from attempting the solution; but work 
 through every part of it, whether you get the whole result or not, 
 without violating one of its moral conditions. Draw the utmost 
 from it that it will yield for temporal prosperity, for social weight 
 and position, for honor, usefulness, mental culture, and refined en- 
 joyment, consistently with the strictest integrity, with health and 
 the exercise of the affections, with a remembrance of the end of 
 life and a cheerful submission to the divine will. Whatever your 
 vocation in life, whether you labor with the head or with the 
 hand; whether you write books, or manufacture cloth; whether 
 your ships cross every sea, or your whole stock hi trade is contained 
 within the four walls of your humble shop; whether you sit on the 
 bench of justice, or earn your honest wages from week to week. 
 houcr your work as assigned you by God, who regards not its
 
 PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 251 
 
 subject-matter, but the spirit in which it is performed; and, as in 
 his sight, with a loyal and devoted heart, strive to be outdone by no 
 one in the completeness and efficiency of its execution. 
 
 This is the healthy view of our human world. Contentment, 
 cou.lort, abundance, depend on its wide diffusion. It would put 
 every one in his proper place, and fit him with his proper task. It 
 would let none be idle, and leave none in want. It would abolish 
 useless privilege, and bring all under the constraint of wholesome 
 duty. This view reconciles earth and heaven. While we are hi the 
 world, it makes us, in the best of senses, friends with the world, 
 but not less fitted for heaven when we pass away. It is also the 
 honest and sincere view. Thousands who disown it act upon it; and 
 none more so, and with a keener eye even to selfish advancement, 
 than some who put forth an exclusive claim to the religious cha- 
 racter. Such is the course of action which contributes to relative 
 perfection, by linking our individual lives through specific duties 
 with the general well-being of the world. 
 
 JOHN JAMKS TAYLKK. 
 
 VH. LABOR NOT LOST. 
 
 A genial moment oft has given 
 
 What years of toil and pain, 
 Of long industrious toil, have striven 
 
 To win, and all in vain : 
 Yet count not, when thine end is won, 
 
 That labor merely lost ; 
 Nor say it had been wiser done 
 
 To spare the painful cost. 
 
 When, heaped upon the altar, lie 
 
 All things to feed the fire, 
 One spark alighting from on high, 
 
 The flames at once aspire : 
 But those sweet gums and fragrant woods, 
 
 Its rich materials rare, 
 By tedious quest o'er lands and floods 
 
 Had first been gathered there. 
 
 B. C. TKKNCH
 
 252 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 VIII. ANCIENT AND MODERN WRITERS. 
 
 The classics possess a peculiar charm, from the circumstance 
 that they have been the models, I might almost say the masters, of 
 composition and thought in all ages. In the contemplation of these 
 august teachers of mankind, \vc are filled with conflicting emotions. 
 They are the early voice of the world, better remembered and 
 more cherished still than all the intermediate words that have been 
 uttered ; as the lessons of childhood still haunt us when the impres- 
 sions of later years have been effaced from the mind. But they 
 show with most unwelcome frequency the tokens of the world's 
 childhood, before passion had yielded to the sway of reason and the 
 affections. They want the highest charm of purity, of righteousness, 
 of elevated sentiments, of love to God and man. It is not in the 
 frigid philosophy of the Porch and the Academy that we are to seek 
 these; not in the marvellous teachings of Socrates, as they come 
 mended by the mellifluous words of Plato; not in the resounding line 
 of Homer, on whose inspiring tale of blood Alexander pillowed his 
 head ; not in the animated strain of Pindar, where virtue is pictured 
 in the successful strife of an athlete at the Isthmian games ; not hi 
 the torrent of Demosthenes, dark with self-love and the spirit of 
 vengeance; not in the fitful philosophy and intemperate eloquence 
 of Tully; not in the genial h'bertinism of Horace, or the stately 
 atheism of Lucretius. No : these must not be our masters ; in none 
 of these are we to seek the way of life. For eighteen hundred years, 
 the spirit of these writers has been engaged in weaponless contest 
 with the Sermon on the Mount, and those two sublime command- 
 ments on which hang all the law and the prophets. The strife is 
 still pending. Heathenism, which has possessed itself of such siren 
 forms, is not yet exorcised. It still tempts the young, controls the 
 affaire of active life, and haunts the meditations of age. 
 
 Our own productions, though they may yield to those of the 
 ancients in the arrangement of ideas, in method, in beauty of form, 
 and in freshness of illustration, are immeasurably superior in the 
 truth, delicacy, and elevation of their sentiments; above all, in the 
 benign recognition of that great Christian revelation, the brother- 
 hood of man. How vain are eloquence and poetry, compared with 
 this heaven-descended truth! Put in one scale that simple utter- 
 ance, and hi the other the lore of antiquity, with its accumulating
 
 PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 253 
 
 glosses and commentaries, and the last will be light and trivial in 
 the balance. Greek poetry has been likened to the song of the 
 nightingale, as she sits in the rich, symmetrical crown of the palm- 
 tree, trilling her thick-warbled notes; but even this is less sweet 
 and tender than the music of the human heart. 
 
 CHARLES SUMMER. 
 
 IX. THE TRUE SOURCE OF REFORM. 
 
 The great element of reform is not born of human wisdom; it 
 does not draw its life from human organizations. I find it only in 
 Christianity. " Thy kingdom come," there is a sublime and 
 pregnant burden in this prayer. It is the aspiration of every soul 
 that goes forth in the spirit of reform. For what is the significance 
 of this prayer V It is a petition that all holy influences would pene- 
 trate and subdue and dwell in the heart of man, until he shall think 
 and speak and do good from the very necessity of his being. So 
 would the institutions of error and wrong crumble and pass away 
 So would sin die out from the earth; and, the human soul living 
 in harmony with the divine will, this earth would become like 
 heaven. 
 
 It is too late for the reformers to sneer at Christianity; it is fool- 
 ishness for them to reject it. In it are enshrined our faith in human 
 progress, our confidence in reform. It is indissolubly connected with 
 all that is hopeful, spiritual, capable, in man. That men have mis- 
 understood it and perverted it, is true. But it is also true that the 
 noblest efforts for human melioration have come out of it, have been 
 based upon it. Is it not so ? Come, ye remembered ones, who sleep 
 the sleep of the just, who took your conduct from the line of Chris- 
 tian philosophy! come from your tombs, and answer. 
 
 Come, Howard! from the gloom of the prison and the taint of 
 the lazar-house, and show us what philanthropy can do when imbued 
 with the spirit of Jesus. Come, Eliot ! from the thick forest where 
 the red man listens to the word of life; come, Penn! from thy sweet 
 counsel and weaponless victory, and show us what Christian zeal 
 and Christian love can accomplish with the rudest barbarians or the 
 fiercest hearts. Come, Raikes! from thy lubors with the ignorant 
 and the poor, and show us with what an eye this faith regards the 
 lowest and least of our race ; and how diligently it labors, not for
 
 204 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 the body, not for the rank, but for the plastic soul that is to course 
 the ages of immortality. 
 
 And ye, who are a great number, ye nameless ones, who 
 have done good in your narrower spheres, content to forego renown 
 on earth, 'and seeking your reward in the record on high! come, and 
 tell us how kindly a spirit, how lofty a purpose, or how strong a 
 courage, the religion ye professed can breathe into the poor, the 
 humble, and the weak. 
 
 Go forth, then, Spirit of Christianity! to thy great work of re- 
 form. The Past bears witness to thee in the blood of thy martyrs, 
 and the ashes of thy saints and heroes. The Present is hopeful 
 because of thee. The Future shall acknowledge thy omnipotence. 
 
 E. H. CHAPIN. 
 
 X. GREAT MEN GENERALLY GOOD. 
 (See p. 124.) 
 
 Those who have shone in all ages as the lights of the world ; the 
 most celebrated names that are recorded in the annals of fame; 
 legislators, the founders of states, and the fathers of their country, 
 on whom succeeding ages have looked back with filial reverence; 
 patriots, the guardians of the laws, who have stemmed the torrent of 
 corruption in every age ; heroes, the saviours of their country, who 
 have returned victorious from the field of battle, or, more than victo- 
 rious, who have died for their country ; philosophers, who have opened 
 the book of nature, and explained the wonders of almighty power; 
 bards, who have sung the praises of virtue and of virtuous men, 
 whose strains carry them down to immortality, with a few excep- 
 tions, have been uniformly on the side of goodness, and have been as 
 distinguished in the temple of fame. It was one of the maxims which 
 governed their lives, that there is nothing in nature which can com- 
 pensate wickedness; that, although the rewards and punishments 
 which influence illiberal and ungenerous minds were set aside; that, 
 although the thunders of the Almighty were hushed, and the gates of 
 paradise were open no more, they would follow religion and virtue for 
 their own sake, and co-operate with eternal Providence in perpetual 
 endeavors to favor the good, to depress the bad, and to promote the 
 happiness of the whole creation. 
 
 JOHN LOOAN.
 
 APPENDIX.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. USES OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 THOUGH the subject of capital letters is but indirectly 
 allied to punctuation, it may be suitable here to lay down 
 a few principles, useful to all who are desirous of com- 
 bining taste and propriety in their compositions, espe- 
 cially to persons likely to become in any way connected 
 with the public press. It was formerly the custom to 
 use capitals with greater frequency and less discrimina- 
 tion than it is at the present day ; almost every noun, 
 nay, in some cases almost every word of the slightest 
 importance, having had its initial thus distinguished. 
 The following is a moderate specimen of the style 
 alluded to, taken from Clarendon's " History of the Re- 
 bellion," where he treats of Lord Strafford's death : 
 
 " Thus Fell the greatest Subject in power, and little inferior to 
 any in Fortune that was at that time in any of the three Kingdoms; 
 Who could well remember the time when he led those People who 
 then pursued him to his Grave. He was a man of great Parts, and 
 extraordinary Endowments of Nature; not unadorned with some 
 addition of Art and Learning, though that again was more improved 
 and illustrated by the other." 
 
 But as this practice was to a great extent arbitrary, 
 and did not possess the advantage of either ornament 
 or utility, the use of capital letters is now very properly 
 limited to the applications about to be mentioned. 
 17
 
 258 APPENDIX. 
 
 RULE I. 
 The First Word of a Book, Tract, &c. 
 
 The first word of every book, tract, essay, &c., and of 
 their great divisions, chapters, sections, paragraphs. 
 and notes, must commence with a capital letter. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Numerous exemplifications of the rule will be found in the 
 present or any other work. 
 
 b. Phrases or clauses, when separately numbered, begin each with 
 a capital letter ; as, " The reproach of barbarism may be incurred 
 in three different ways: 1. By the use of words entirely obsolete; 
 2. By the use of words entirely new; or, 3. By new formations and 
 compositions from simple and primitive words in present use." 
 
 RULE II. 
 The First Word after a FuU Point. 
 
 The first word after a period, and after a note of 
 interrogation or exclamation when grammatically equi- 
 valent to a period, should begin with a capital ; as, 
 
 1. Let the tone of your conversation be invariably benevolent. Differ 
 without asperity ; agree without dogmatism. Kind words cost no more than 
 unkind ones. 
 
 2. What \s it that keeps men in continual discontent and agitation ? It 
 Is. that they cannot make realities correspond with their conceptions. 
 
 3. Fair, fair, shall be the flowers that spring over thy tomb, dear, gentle 
 Ella! Sweet shall be the Sng sweet as thine own that shall lure the 
 wanderer to the spot where thy urn receives the tears of the stranger. 
 
 REMARKS, 
 
 a. Some writers and printers always commence with a capital 
 letter the word immediately following a colon ; but this should take 
 place only when required by other rules. 
 
 ft. When the period is a mark for an abbreviated word or phrase 
 which does not end a sentence, the following word is commenced, 
 not with a capital, but with a small letter; as, "Franklin had the
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 259 
 
 degree of LL.D. conferred on him by the University of St. Andrew's, 
 Scotland." Here it will be seen, that the initial of "conferred" is 
 small. The word " Andrew's," indeed, though coming after an 
 abbreviation, is put with a capital; but this, of course, arises from 
 the fact that " St. Andrew's " is a proper name. 
 
 c. When two or more sentences, of an exclamatory or interroga- 
 tive kind, are closely connected in sense and construction, all of 
 them, except the first, begin with a small letter; as, " How ugly 
 a person appears, upon whose reputation some awkward aspersion 
 hangs! and how suddenly his countenance clears up with his cha- 
 racter! " " What child is there, who, in a toyshop, does not prefer 
 the gaudiest toy, if all other circumstances of attraction be the 
 same? or, rather, to what child are not this very glare and glitter 
 the chief circumstances of attraction? and in what island of savages 
 have our circumnavigators found the barbarian to differ in this 
 respect from the child V " In the passages just cited, the words 
 " and," " or," which follow the note of exclamation and of inter- 
 rogation, are begun with small letters, because these marks are 
 equivalent, not to full points, but to semicolons. 
 
 RULE HI. 
 Appellations of God and Christ. 
 
 Names of the Deity and of Jesus Christ must com- 
 mence with a capital letter ; as, 
 
 1. Jehovah, Lord, God; Creator, Father, Preserver, Governor; the Eternal, 
 the Almighty, the All-wise; the Supreme Being; the Holy Spirit. 
 
 2. The Messiah, the Anointed; the Son, the Saviour, the Redeemer; the 
 Holy One ; Prophet, Teacher, Master ; Judge of the world. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. Some of these and similar words are begun, sometimes with a 
 capital, and sometimes with a small letter, according to the sense in 
 which they are taken. Thus, God, with a large initial, is the name 
 of the Supreme Being; god, with a small character, an appellation 
 used occasionally of men, angels, and false divinities ; as, " The 
 Lord is a great God above all gods." 
 
 b. With initial capitals, Lord and King are applied to God and 
 Christ; with a small I and k, the same words denote men having 
 authority and power. Thus, in the Apocalypse, our Saviour is
 
 260 APPENDIX. 
 
 called "Lord of lords, and King of kings; " and, in the Old Testa 
 ment, a great sovereign is styled a " king of kings." 
 
 c. From the vagueness of the ideas represented by the word 
 natt're, it is difficult to lay down any precise rule as to the mode of 
 writing or printing it. In general, it should begin with a small n; 
 as, " He looks through nature up to nature's God;" except when 
 strongly personified, or when clearly used of the intelligent Principle 
 of the universe. 
 
 d. Providence, with an initial capital, denotes the infinite!}' good 
 Being who provides for the wants of his creatures; but, when 
 beginning with a small p, it means either divine superintendence or 
 human foresight. So, Heaven, with a capital ff, signifies God, the 
 Sovereign of heaven, or of the celestial regions. 
 
 e. The adjectives divine, heavenly, eternal, universal, proriaential, 
 and others of a similar kind, when applied to God, his attributes, or 
 his agency, are sometimes written initially with capitals; but, unless 
 when particularly emphatic, small letters are preferable, because 
 the names of the Deity occurring in the connection sufficiently indi- 
 cate the Being referred to. 
 
 f. As exceptions to Remark e, the epithets occurring in First 
 Cause, Divine or Supreme lieiiiy. Almighty God, Infinite One, should 
 begin with large letters, because universal custom favors this mode 
 of writing. The adjective J/ogt IJiyh or Highest should also appear 
 with an initial capital, when the noun which it qualifies is not used. 
 
 g. \Vlren the attributes of the Deity or of the Saviour are ex- 
 pressed, not by adjectives, but, in the Hebrew style, by nouns, as, 
 Father of mercies, God of wisdom, Prince of peace, instead of the 
 merciful Father, the wise God, the peaceful Prince, they should 
 begin, like the adjectives, with small letters, as here exemplified. 
 
 h. The appellation Sim of man, when applied to Christ, whether 
 by way of eminence or of humility, is probably better printed, not 
 " Son of Man " or " son of man," but as it appears in the common 
 version of the Bible, and in the first line of this remark. 
 
 t. The word Spirit, and the phrases [July or Divine Spirit, IJ"ly 
 Ghost, Spirit of God, are usually capitalized, whether said of the 
 Deity or of his gifts and influences. Some writers, however, restrict 
 the capitals to these terms when they have a personal import, but 
 use small letters when they signify merely divine inspiration or 
 heavenly aid. As the mode of exhibiting these words i? as much a 
 matter of theology as of taste, authors should be particularly careful 
 to write the initials as they wish them to be printed.
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 261 
 
 j. Pronouns referring to God and Christ should not begin with 
 capitals, unless they are used emphatically without a noun. Hymns 
 and prayers are often disfigured by the unnecessary use cf these 
 letters, as in the following lines: 
 
 These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good, 
 
 Almighty ! Thine this universal frame, 
 
 Thus wondrous fair: Thyself how wondrous then! 
 
 which would lose none of their true grandeur, if more simply 
 printed : 
 
 These are thy glorious works, Parent of good, 
 
 Almighty ! thine tlii.s universal frame, 
 
 Thus wondrous fair : thyself how wondrous then! 
 
 KULE IV. 
 Titles of Honor and Respect. 
 
 Titles of honor and respect, either descriptive of pei- 
 sons in exalted stations or addressed to them, usually 
 begin with capital letters ; as, 
 
 1. Her Majesty, His Honor, Tour Royal Highness, Your Grace. 
 
 2. My Lord, tny Lady ; dear Sir, respected Madam or Friend. 
 
 3. The President of the United States. 
 
 4. His Excellency the Governor of Massachusetts. 
 
 R K M A It K S. 
 
 a. In the rules and reports of societies, institutions, &c., names 
 indicating office should begin with capitals; as, Chairman, President, 
 Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, Gmmiltee, Directors, Board of 
 Managers. So also, when used in a specific sense, the words 
 Rejtort, Society, Institution, Corporation, Constitution, Commonwealth, 
 Stale, University, College, Academy, School, Congress, Parliament, 
 Leyislature, &c. In the plural number, or when used in a general 
 sense, such words are properly put in small characters. 
 
 b. The pope ; his or her majesty ; king, queen ; duke, duchess ; lord, 
 lady; sir, madam; president, governor, and words of a similar kind, 
 should be written or printed with small initials, when they occur 
 very frequently, or without any particular expression of honor. 
 When prefixed to proper names, however, they are always begun
 
 2G2 APPENDIX. 
 
 with capitals; as, President Jefferson, Goternor WinQirop, Profissor 
 Longfellow, Lord Brougham, Cuuntess of Blessinyton, Queen Victoria 
 llie hujjeror Napoleon, Pope Pius IX. 
 
 c. So, also, father, mother; brother, sister; uncle, aunt, &c., com- 
 mence with capital letters when put before proper names; as, Aunt 
 Dt^rothy, Brother Gray. But the term father, when applied to any 
 of the early orthodox writers of the Christian Church, is begun with 
 a capital, whether it be or be not prefixed to a proper name; as, 
 " Even the soundest of the Fathers held some opinions inconsistent 
 with the doctrines of the gospel."' 
 
 RULE V. 
 Names of Persons, Places, l$c. 
 
 All proper names, whether of animate or inanimate 
 existences, begin with capitals ; as, 
 
 1. Jupiter, Juno; Pompey, Penelope; William, Sarah. 
 
 2. America, Europe; France, Spain, Great Britain. 
 
 3. New York, Philadelphia; London, Edinburgh, Broadway. 
 
 4. The Atlantic, the Ked Sa, Lake Erie, the Alps. 
 
 6. January, Monday, Christmas, Good Friday, Easter. 
 
 R E M A R K 8. 
 
 a. When the word devil is used of Satan, it may begin with a 
 capital ; as, the Devil and his angels. But when employed of demo- 
 niacal agents or of wicked men, whether in the singular or the 
 plural number, it commences with a small letter. 
 
 b. The words heaven, hell, paradise, the celestial and the infernal 
 regions, representing either states of mind or places of reward and 
 punishment, usually begin with small letters; but Elysium, Tartarus, 
 and Pandemonium, with capitals. 
 
 c. Appellatives, merely expletory, coming before proper names, 
 are begun with small letters ; but, when put immediately after them, 
 they are distinguished by capitals; as, the river Thames, the city of 
 London; L-yndon City, the Thames River. 
 
 d. When North, &-ntth, East, West, &c., denote certain countries 
 of which we are accustomed to spoak, or the people who reside in 
 certain parts of the globe or in districts of our own land, they are 
 written or printed with initial capitals; as, "This man's accent 
 shows that he belongs to the South." But, when they refer to
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 2G3 
 
 places or things as being more to the north, south, &c., than others, 
 these words are begun with small letters ; as, " London is situated 
 eatt of Windsor." 
 
 e. Sunday, as one of the days of the week, always has an initial 
 capital; while, on the contrary, sabbath, or sabbath-day, is perhaps 
 more frequently written and printed with a small than with a 
 large one. The initials in Lord's Day, New Fear's Day, &c., are 
 usually capitalized. 
 
 RULE VL 
 Nouns and Adjectives derived -from Proper Names. 
 
 Gentile nouns, adjectives derived from gentile nouns, 
 and nouns or adjectives formed from proper names, 
 begin with capitals ; as, 
 
 1. A Hebrew, a Greek, a Roman, a German, a Spaniard, a Frenchman 
 
 2. Hebrew, Grecian, Roman, Italian, French, Spanish, American. 
 8. A Christian, a Brahmin, a Mahometan ; Augustan, Elizabethan. 
 
 REM ARKS. 
 
 a. Names of sectaries, whether formed from proper nouns or other- 
 wise, should begin with capitals ; as, " Good men are found among 
 Christian denominations of the most opposite doctrines, among Ro- 
 man Catholics and Protestants, Athanasians and Arians, Trinitarians 
 and Unitarians, Lutherans, Calvinists, Arminians, and Universalists." 
 So, also, when used adjectively; as, the Wetleyan doctrines; Papal, 
 Protestant, and Episcopal ceremonies. 
 
 b. A few adjectives and common nouns, derived from proper 
 names, are usually printed with small initials ; as, godlike, stentorian, 
 hermetical, hymeneal, prussic ; epicure, epicurism ; philippic, simony, 
 jalap, damask, cashmere (shawl), china (ware), guinea (a coin), turkey 
 (a fowl), champagne (wine). These and similar words are so written, 
 because usually little or no reference is made to the proper names 
 from which they were derived. 
 
 c. For the same reason, the verbs to hector, to phiKppize, to romance, 
 to galvanize, to japan, should be written with small letters. But, on 
 account of their more obvious allusion to the proper names whence 
 they have been taken, Judaize and Christianize are better written or 
 printed with initial capitals. The compounds unchristian, antichria- 
 tian, &c., are, however, done with small characters.
 
 264 APPENDIX. 
 
 RULE VH. 
 Words of Primary Importance. 
 
 Words of primary importance, especially if they 
 indicate some great event, or remarkable change in 
 religion or government, are commenced with capital 
 letters ; as, 
 
 1. The Reformation, effected mainly by Luther, is one of the most won- 
 derful e Tents in modern times. 
 
 2. Glorious New England! around thy hills and mountains cling, like 
 gathering mists, the mighty memories of the Revolution. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The use of capitals in important words and phrases seems to 
 be, in some measure, a matter of mere taste or caprice. Channing 
 not unfreqnently represents the greatest of his great ideas by words 
 having initial capitals; Carlyle, and other imitators of German 
 thought and expression, employ them superabundantly, and with 
 little discrimination ; while others are particularly careful that the 
 uniformity which is so desirable in a printed page be marred as little 
 as possible by the practice referred to. 
 
 6. Every noun or leading word in the titles of books and other 
 publications must begin, wherever it occurs, with a capital letter; 
 as, " Gray's ' Elegy in a Country Churchyard ' is perhaps the finest 
 poem of the kind in the English or any other language." 
 
 c. Terms denoting the records of the Jewish and Christian reve- 
 lations are distinguished by initial capitals; as, the Scriptures, the 
 Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, the Old and the New Testament. But 
 the phrase u>ord of God, when employed in this sense, is begun with a 
 small letter; while the term Word, or " Logos," as ucd by St. John 
 hi the introduction to his Gospel, and so' much discussed by divines, 
 is generally written and printed with a capital. 
 
 d. The word gospel has a small letter for its initial when it means 
 the religion of Jesus, but a capital when it denotes one of the four 
 Gospels; as, the Gospel of Matthew. So, also, the term retelation 
 when denoting the divine instructions contained in the Bible, begins 
 with a small letter; but, used of the Apocalypse, or Revelation of St. 
 John, it must be distinguished with a capital.
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 265 
 
 e. The word church, when used by itself or in a general sense, 
 should begin with a small letter; but, when connected with an 
 adjective indicating a particular body of Christians, it should com- 
 mence with a capital ; as, the Protestant Church. 
 
 f. So, also, the term catholic, whether as a noun or an adjective, 
 should be written and printed with a small c, when it is used of all 
 Christians, or of men of liberal and tolerant principles ; but with a 
 capital when significant merely of the Romish community. 
 
 g. For the sake of uniformity, the names Gentile, Heathen, and 
 Pagan, so often occurring in connection with Jew, should, when 
 used as nouns, bogiu with capitals; but, when employed adjectively, 
 with small letters. The words orthodoxy, orthodox ; heterodoxy, hetero- 
 dox; heresy, heretic, heretical; mysticism, mystic, mystical; atheism, 
 atheist, atheistic; pantheism, pantheist, pantheistic; deism, deist, deistical; 
 rationalism, rationalist, rationalistic ; supematuraUsm, supernaturaKst ; 
 transcendentalism, transcendentalist, transcendental; spiritualism, spi- 
 ritualist, are usually put with small characters. The term Orthodox, 
 however, when used of any particular section of the orthodox body 
 of Christians, should begin with a capital letter; as, the Orthodox 
 Qmgreyalionafots. See p. 263, Remark a. 
 
 h. Designations of political parties should commence each with 
 a capital letter; as, Whig, Tory, Federalist, Democrat, Republican, 
 Conservative, Radical, Free Sailer. 
 
 i. In advertisements, handbills, and cards, the principal words 
 such as the names of the arts and sciences, and nouns occurring in 
 a list of articles are properly begun with capitals. 
 
 RULE VIIL 
 The Pronoun I, and the Interjection O. 
 
 The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should inva- 
 riably be written or printed in capitals ; as, 
 
 With three steps I compass thy grave, thou who wast BO great before ! 
 REMARKS. 
 
 o. The interjection oh should never, as is sometimes done, be put 
 with an initial capital, except at the beginning of a sentence, or of a 
 line in verse. 
 
 6. For the modes of using the two words and oh, see page 160, 
 Remark r
 
 266 APPENDIX. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 Commencement of Lines in Verse. 
 
 The first word of every line in poetry is begun with 
 a capital letter ; as, 
 
 No eye beheld when William plunged 
 
 Young Edmund in the stream ; 
 No human ear but William's heard 
 
 Young Edmund's drowning scream. 
 
 RE M A R K S. 
 
 a. The initial letter in the first word of a poetical quotation, 
 though not beginning a line, should be capitalized; as, " One of the 
 most illustrious names hi the literary annals of Europe is that of 
 Spenser, 
 
 ' That gentle bard, 
 Chosen by the Muses for then- page of state.' " 
 
 b. In humorous verse, when a portion of a word is put at the end 
 of one line, and the other portion at the beginning of the next, the 
 latter should be put with a small initial ; as, 
 
 Pagan ini, Paganini! 
 Never was there such a geni- 
 us before as Paganini. 
 
 RULE X. 
 Prosopopoeia, or Personification. 
 
 Nouns that represent inanimate beings as persons 
 should begin with capitals ; as, 
 
 Better to sit in Freedom's hall, 
 With a cold, damp floor, and a mouldering wall, 
 Than to bend the neck or to bow the knee 
 In the proudest palace of Slavery. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. According to this rule, all such words as the Muses, the Graces, 
 the Furies, the Fates, should be distinguished by capitals. When 
 " the graces " is used of certain moral affections, a common g is 
 properly used.
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 207 
 
 b. So, also, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter; the Sun, Hie Earth, 
 Ike Moon, and the Stars, should each begin with a capital when they 
 are personified, but with a small letter when they are used in ordi- 
 nary composition. In works on astronomy, it is better to capitalize 
 them. 
 
 c. The rule should be applied with some discrimination. It is 
 only when the figure prosojjopceia is uncommonly vivid that the noun 
 should have its initial with a capital letter; there being a tendency, 
 even in the most inanimate compositions, to impart a certain degree 
 of life and energy to the representatives of our thoughts. But, 
 though in numberless instances it would be improper to capitalize 
 such words, the more glowing personifications of the poet and the 
 orator ought unquestionably to be so distinguished. 
 
 RULE XL 
 
 Quotations, Examples, &c. 
 
 The first word of every quotation, example, precept, 
 or question, introduced in a direct form, must begin 
 with a capital letter ; as, 
 
 1. Bushnell well remarks, " Hitherto, the lore of passion has been the 
 central fire of the world's literature." 
 
 2. These two questions, " What are we? " and " Whither do we tend? " 
 will at times press painfully upon thoughtful minds. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. When a quotation is introduced by the conjunction tiiat, or is 
 brought in obliquely or indirectly, a small letter is preferable; as, 
 " It is well said by a celebrated writer, that, 'precious as thought is, 
 the love of truth is still more precious.' " " Happy those who, 
 1 dying, leave no line they wish to blot ' ! " " This great patriot 
 bequeathed to his heirs the sword which he had worn in the war for 
 liberty, and charged them ' never to take it from the scabbard but in 
 self-defence, or in defence of their country and her freedom.' " 
 
 b. Examples, consisting of mere words or phrases, may have 
 small letters for their initials, when they do not commence new lines, 
 or are not formally introduced with the words " as follows," or witli 
 a similar expression. Numerous illustrations of this remark ma}* be 
 seen in pages 211-20.
 
 2(>8 APPENDIX. 
 
 RULE XIL 
 
 Capitals used Mislead of Figures. 
 
 Numbers are sometimes written or printed wholly 
 in capitals, as representative characters. Thus, 
 
 I. is used instead of one, or first; IV. for four, or fourth; XI. for eleven, 
 or eleventh; XX. for twenty, or twentieth; XL. for forty, or fortieth; &c. 
 
 E E M A K K 8. 
 
 a. Some writers refer to passages in books by putting the num- 
 bers of the volume, part, chapter, &c., in capital letters, and also by 
 capitalizing the first letter in the name of the division specified; as, 
 " Campbell on the Four Gospels, Vol. I. Diss. V. -Part IV. Sect. IL 
 Page 218." But, when such references are numerous, small letters 
 are preferable, because they have a neater appearance ; as, " Camp- 
 bell on the Four Gospels, vol. i. diss. v. part iv. sect. ii. page [or p.] 
 218." 
 
 b. For the punctuation, see pp. 150-1, Rule V. and Remarks. 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 TUlepages, Inscriptions, S$c. 
 
 Titlepages of books, and heads of chapters, sections, 
 articles, &c., are, with some few exceptions, put entirely 
 in capitals. Unless very long, dedications of printed 
 works, and inscriptions on monuments, are commonly 
 distinguished in the same manner. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 a. The first word in a book or chapter is usually put in small 
 capitals, with the exception of the initial letter, which should have 
 a common-size capital. 
 
 6. Capitals or small capitals are also used, either singly or other- 
 wise, as abbreviations of titles and other words, and as representative 
 signs, particularly in works of art and science, such as chemistry, 
 mechanics, arithmetic, grammar, music, &c. Many of these will be 
 exhibited in the article beginning on page 272,
 
 ITALIC CHARACTERS. 269 
 
 In concluding these rules and remarks on the use 
 of capitals, we would suggest that authors either note 
 accurately and consistently the words which they mean 
 to be so distinguished, or allow the printer to exercise 
 his own taste and judgment. By this means, not only 
 would a great loss of time be saved to the workman, 
 but the work itself would have a neater and more 
 uniform appearance. 
 
 In manuscript, words or sentences meant to be 
 printed in CAPITALS are distinguished by having 
 three lines drawn under them ; in SMALL CAPITALS, 
 by two lines ; and in Italics, by one. * 
 
 II. ITALIC CHARACTERS. 
 
 Characters called Italics, and printed in this form, 
 are used chiefly to point out emphatical expressions, or 
 to distinguish foreign words and phrases. In the com- 
 mon version of the Scriptures, however, words are so 
 printed to show that they have nothing corresponding 
 to them in the original Hebrew or Greek, but were 
 inserted by the translators to complete or explain the 
 sense. 
 
 It is quite impracticable to lay down definite and 
 unvarying rules in respect to all the circumstances 
 under which it is proper to use Italic letters. Their 
 employment was at one time exceedingly common ; all 
 proper names, and almost all words of more than ordi- 
 nary significance, having been written or printed in this
 
 270 APPENDIX. 
 
 manner. A sparing use of Italics is, however, strongly 
 recommended to authors and typographers ; for it is 
 obvious, that, as there are in composition innumerable 
 shades and degrees of emphasis, a prodigal introduc- 
 tion of words of a sloping character would tend rather 
 to confound the sense and perplex the reader, than to 
 elucidate the meaning, or to assist in discriminating 
 the relative importance which should be attached to 
 different sentiments. 
 
 In all works, however, which treat of matters relat- 
 ing to science, art, or language, where it is necessary 
 to addrtce words and phrases in illustration of certain 
 principles, or to employ them in technical senses, the 
 use of Italic characters is indispensable. In the pre- 
 sent treatise, it will be seen that they are freely and 
 unavoidably used. 
 
 TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS. 
 
 CAPTIONS and SUBHEADS are words or expressions 
 that stand above chapters, sections, and paragraphs, 
 for the purpose of indicating their contents. SIDE- 
 HEADS are of a similar nature, but put in the first line 
 of the paragraph or paragraphs to which they refer. 
 RUNNING TITLES or, as they are sometimes called, 
 headlines are such words or phrases as are placed at 
 the top of the page. All these are printed usually in 
 capital or small-capital letters ; sometimes, especially 
 in magazines, in Italics.
 
 TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS. 271 
 
 SIGNATURES are the letters of the alphabet, used by 
 English printers in the foot-margin of certain pages, 
 as a guide to direct the bookbinder in arranging and 
 folding the sheets. The letter B is put at the bottom 
 of the first sheet or half-sheet which comes immediately 
 afler the titlepage, preface, and contents; C, at that 
 of the second ; and so on throughout the alphabet, with 
 the exception of J, V, and W. If the number of pages 
 require more signatures than the alphabet will indicate, 
 the letters are doubled or trebled, or a numeral if 
 prefixed to them ; as, A A, B B ; 2 A, 2 B ; 3 A, &c. 
 Figures, or numeral characters (1, 1* ; 2, 2* ; &c.), 
 being more convenient than letters, are used for the 
 same purpose by American printers. But in catalogues, 
 and other publications in which figures often occur, 
 capitals or small capitals are, for distinction's sake, 
 preferable. 
 
 NAMES OF VARIOUS SIZES OF BOOKS. Folio 
 denotes a sheet of paper folded into two leaves, making 
 four pages ; quarto, or, as abbreviated, 4to or 4, is a 
 sheet divided into four leaves, or eight pages ; octavo, 
 8vo or 8, a sheet into eight leaves, or sixteen pages ; 
 duodecimo, 12ino or 12, a sheet into twelve leaves, or 
 twenty-four pages. So, also, sixteens, 1 6mo or 16; 
 eighteens, 18mo or 18; twenty-fours, 24mo or 24; 
 thirty-twos, 32mo or 32 ; forty-eights, 48mo or 48 ; 
 sixty-fours, 64mo or 64, are the several designations 
 of sheets when folded into sixteen, eighteen, twenty- 
 four, thirty-two, forty-eight, and sixty-four leaves ; 
 making each twice the number of pages.
 
 272 APPENDIX. 
 
 TV.- ABBREVIATIONS AND REPRESENTATIVE 
 LETTERS. 
 
 The following is perhaps the largest list of miscella- 
 neous abbreviations that has yet been published ; but its 
 chief value consists in affording to writers and printers 
 an opportunity of selecting those modes of abbreviating 
 words which seem best fitted for the purposes they 
 may have in view. To further this object, the com- 
 piler has presented the various forms in which any 
 given word or phrase has been employed, where more 
 than one has been in use ; appending a dagger ( t ) to 
 such as appear unsuitable, either in consequence of 
 their being already employed for other words, because 
 they are less intelligible than they should be, or have 
 but slight authority for their adoption. But the mark 
 is not intended to imply, that these should never be 
 preferred ; for cases will arise, where, from the connec- 
 tion or the narrowness of the printed line, it may be 
 desirable to use them. To those abbreviations, how- 
 ever, which are regarded as unfit to appear under any 
 circumstances, but which are used by some writers, he 
 has put a double dagger ( J ). 
 
 It need scarcely be said, that only a few of the 
 abbreviations here exhibited should appear in ordinary 
 composition. But they are very serviceable in cata- 
 logues, directories, tabular lists of articles, and family 
 registers ; and in works on grammar, lexicography,
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 273 
 
 arithmetic, geography, &c. ; where certain terms often 
 occur, and their full spelling would impede the course 
 of a reader, or swell the size of a book. There are 
 also some words and phrases, which, wherever they 
 may occur, whether in works relating to science and 
 art or to general literature, are commonly written as 
 abbreviations. These are either mostly a few Latin 
 words, which, without being Anglicized, are found use- 
 ful in supplying the place of circumlocutions in the 
 language ; as, tyc., instead of " and other persons " or 
 " things : " or they are titles prefixed to proper names ; 
 as, " Mr. Richardson, Dr. Finlay, Capt. Jameson," &c. : 
 or are terms made use of in reference to passages in 
 books ; as, " See pp. 500, seq. ; and comp. sect. 6." 
 
 When referring, in notes or at the beginning or end 
 of extracts, to works that are well known, it is usual 
 to abbreviate the longer words in their titles 5 as, 
 " Gibbon's Hist, of the Dec. and Fall of the Rom. 
 Emp., vol. ii. p. 288." In the list will be found abbre- 
 viations of only some American and British periodicals ; 
 for it would be a vain attempt to give more than a few 
 specimens of the abbreviations adopted in the names 
 of such publications, and altogether impossible to ex- 
 hibit those used in the names of books in general. 
 Indeed, such abbreviations are quite too much in 
 vogue ; and it is recommended, that, in all cases where 
 the common reader is supposed to be unacquainted 
 with the works to which reference is made, the titles 
 be printed in full, or at least such portions as will 
 clearly indicate what the writer intends. In treatises, 
 however, addressed merely to the learned professions, 
 it may be sufficient generally to indicate authorities by 
 
 18
 
 274 APPENDIX. 
 
 the first letter or letters in each word. Copious lists 
 of those relating to botany, law, and organic remains, 
 will be found in Savage's " Dictionary of the Art of 
 Printing," pp. 59-81, 430-37, and 548. 
 
 When the names of the books of Scripture are spe- 
 cified with chapter and verse, they should, except those 
 of but one syllable, be given in their abbreviated forms ; 
 a 3, " Gen. xlix. 26. Matt. vii. 28." When spoken of 
 without reference to any particular passage, the names 
 should be spi-Iled out ; as, " The Gospel of Matthew is 
 the first book in the New Testament." 
 
 The more common baptismal names, if put in lists 
 where the saving of room is an object, should be printed 
 with such portions as will lead to a true knowledge of 
 them. They may all, indeed, be severally abbreviated 
 with only the initial letter, when the persons whom 
 they represent are so well known that no mistake can 
 readily take place, or when it is deemed of little 
 importance whether they be known or not. But in 
 books in which elegance of composition, intelligibility 
 of sense, or uniformity of printing, is desirable, the 
 names of persons, at least those by which they are 
 commonly designated, ought to appear in full. Names 
 of ladies should, if possible, be so given. 
 
 Titles of eminent men, when put immediately after 
 their names, are almost universally abbreviated ; as, 
 " Walter Kinderhook, D.D." But, when the titles are 
 predicated of persons, they are better written in full ; 
 as, " The Rev. Joshua Rankin is a Doctor of Divinity ; 
 and Matthew Finlayson, Bachelor of Arts." 
 
 To preclude mistakes, the names of cities, towns, and 
 other places, should not, if avoidable, be abbreviated.
 
 ABBREVIATION'S. 27f> 
 
 The names of states and kingdoms should also be 
 written or printed in full, unless they occur in tabular 
 matter or in geographical books where the abbrevia- 
 tions have been previously explained ; or unless they 
 are placed immediately after the names of cities, &c. ; 
 as. " There being a Boston in England as well as in 
 Massachusetts, besides several others in the United 
 States, be careful that, in addressing any letter to a 
 place bearing that name, you state its proper destina- 
 tion, and say either ' Boston, Eng. ; ' ( Boston, Mass. ; ' 
 1 Boston, N.Y.;' or ' Boston, 0. ; ' as the case may 
 require." 
 
 With the exception of May, June, and July, and per- 
 haps also March and April, the names of the months 
 should be abbreviated when they stand in connection 
 with the day of the month ; as, " Dec. 25, 1854." In 
 all other instances, they should, if possible, be spelled 
 out ; as, " Robert Burns was born in the month of 
 January, 1759." 
 
 All words which, when abbreviated, are shortened 
 only by one letter, should be written or printed in full. 
 Jb. for " Job," Jno. for " John," and dy. for " day," are, 
 obviously, improper and unnecessary. 
 
 The usual abbreviations made use of in works on 
 chemistry and in medical prescriptions, &c., will be 
 found inserted in the following table ; but a more com- 
 plete list appears in Savage's " Dictionary of Printing," 
 pp. 237-44, 481-84. 
 
 Some abbreviations are used only in the middle of 
 sentences, and begun with small characters ; others, as 
 the initials of titles, are always printed in capitals; 
 while others, again, appear sometimes with initial capi-
 
 276 APPENDIX. 
 
 tals, and sometimes with initial small letters. When 
 there are two modes of printing them, both will be 
 found exhibited in the table, that the eye may be accus- 
 tomed to both forms ; but the mode of using them will 
 depend on the principles laid down in the article on 
 capitals, pp. 257-68. 
 
 To an author who finds it necessary to adopt abbre- 
 viations not in common use, it is recommended that he 
 present, at the beginning of his treatise, a list of all 
 that may be required for his purpose, with the requi- 
 site explanations ; and that, if at all practicable, he 
 preserve the same forms throughout the work. 
 
 Contractions formed by the insertion of apostro- 
 phes as, Sup't for " Superintendent," or Veg'ta's for 
 " Vegetables " are altogether excluded from the fol- 
 lowing list, because deemed fit to be used only in cases 
 of extreme necessity. So, also, tho.se contractions which 
 sometimes appear at the foot of advertisements, but 
 which are not meant to be read by the public ; as, 
 "isF&Tu&osMWThSattf;" a direction which would 
 have a more common-sense-like appearance, if it stood 
 thus : " i.F.&Tu. & o.M.W.Th.S. t.f. ; " and be better 
 adapted to express the meaning, " To be inserted 
 inside on Friday and Tuesday, and outside on Monday, 
 Wednesday, Thursday, and .Saturday, till forbidden." 
 
 As the exhibiting of Latin abbreviations, unless used 
 in English composition, falls not within the scope of 
 the present work, it will be sufficient merely to refer 
 to the Latin dictionaries for those pertaining to the 
 classics ; and to Savage's book, already mentioned, 
 pp. 204 and 689-700, for such as are used in Domes- 
 day-Book and in the old Public Records.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 277 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS. 
 
 A. Five hundred (anc.). 
 
 A. Five thousand (anc.). 
 
 A. Augustus ; Aulus. 
 
 A. Accepted ; Answer. 
 
 A.f or a.t Adjective. 
 
 A. or a. Afternoon. 
 
 A.f a-t or ac. Acre, acres. 
 
 A. A. P. S. American Associa- 
 tion for the Promotion of Sci- 
 ence. 
 
 A. A. S. Academics Americana 
 Socius, Fellow of the American 
 Academy (of Arts and Sci- 
 ences). 
 
 A.A.S.S. Americana Antiqua- 
 riancs Societatis Socius, Member 
 of the American Antiquarian 
 Society. 
 
 A. B. Artium Baccalaureus, Ba- 
 chelor of Arts. 
 
 Ab. or ab. About. 
 
 Abbr. or abbr. Abbreviated. 
 
 A.B.C.F.M. American Board 
 of Commissioners for Foreign 
 Missions. 
 
 Abl. or abl. ; Ab.f or ab.f Ab- 
 lative (case). 
 
 Abp. or Archb.f Archbishop. 
 
 Absol. or absol. Absolute. 
 
 A. C. Ante Christum, before 
 Christ. 
 
 A.C. Archchancellor. 
 
 Ac. or ac. Acre, acres. 
 
 Ace. or ace. ; Ac.f or ac.f Ac- 
 cusative (case). 
 
 Acct. or acct. Account. 
 
 A.C.S. American Colonization 
 Society. 
 
 A.D. Anno Domini, in the year 
 
 of our Lord ; Archduke. 
 Ad lib. or ad lib. Ad libitum, 
 
 at pleasure. 
 
 Adj. or adj. Adjective. 
 Adjt. Adjutant. 
 Adjt.-Gen. Adjutant-General. 
 Adm. or Adml.t Admiral, Ad- 
 miralty. 
 
 Adm. Co. Admiralty Court. 
 Admr. Administrator. 
 Admx. Administratrix. 
 Ad v. or ad v. Ad valorem, at 
 
 the value. 
 
 Adv. Advent ; Advocate. 
 Adv. or adv. Adverb. 
 ALt. or set.; jE.t or ae.t jEtatis. 
 
 of age, aged. 
 A. & F. B. S. American and 
 
 Foreign Bible Society. 
 A.F.f or A. fir. Firkin of ale. 
 Af. Africa, 
 Ag. Argentum ( Silver). 
 Agric. Agriculture. 
 Agt. Agent. 
 A.H. Anno Hegira, in the year 
 
 of the Hegira. 
 A. H. M. S. American Home 
 
 Missionary Society. 
 Al. Aluminum. 
 Ala. or Al.t Alabama. 
 Aid. Alderman or Aldermen. 
 Alex. Alexander. 
 Alt. or alt. Altitude. 
 A.M. Anno mundi, in the year 
 
 of the world. 
 A.M. Artium Magister, Master 
 
 of Arts.
 
 278 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A.M., A.M. or a.m. Ante meri- 
 diem, before noon, morning. 
 
 Am.t or Araer. America. 
 
 Am. or Amer.f American. 
 
 Am. Alma. American Alma- 
 nac. 
 
 Am. Inst. of Instruc. American 
 Institute of Instruction. 
 
 Am. Quar. Obs. American 
 Quarterly Observer. 
 
 Am. Quar. Reg. American 
 Quarterly Register. 
 
 Am. Quar. Rev. American 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 Amb. Ambassador. [tion. 
 
 AMM. Amnlgama, arnalgama- 
 
 Amst. Amsterdam. 
 
 An. Anno, in the year. 
 
 An. A. C. Anno ante Christum, 
 tn the year before Christ. 
 
 Anal. Analysis. [zine. 
 
 Anal. Mag. Analectic Maga- 
 
 Anat. Anatomy. 
 
 Anc. or anc. Ancient, anciently. 
 
 And. Andrew. 
 
 Ang.-Sax. Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Ann. Reg. Annual Register. 
 
 Anom. or anom. Anomalous. 
 
 Anon, or An.t Anonymous. 
 
 Ans. Answer. 
 
 Ant. Antiquities. 
 
 Anth. Anthony. 
 
 Antw. Antwerp. 
 
 Aor. or aor. Aorist. 
 
 A.O.S.S. Americans Orienta- 
 Ks Societatis Socius, Member 
 of the American Oriental So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Ap. Apostle; Appius. 
 
 ap.f Ajnid, in the writings of; 
 as quoted by. 
 
 Ap.f Apr or Apl.f April. 
 
 A.P.G.or Ast. P. G.f Professor 
 of Astronomy in Gresham Col- 
 lege. 
 
 Apo. or apo. Apogee. 
 
 Apoc. Apocalypse. 
 
 A.R. Anna Regina, Queen 
 Anne. 
 
 A.R. Anno regni, in the year 
 of the reign. 
 
 Ar. or ar. ; Arr.t or arr.f Ar- 
 rived, arrivals. 
 
 Arab., Ara.t or Ar.f Arabic. 
 
 Arch. Archibald. 
 
 Arch. Architecture. 
 
 Archb.f Archbishop. 
 
 Arith. Arithmetic. 
 
 Ark. Arkansas. 
 
 Arm. Armoric ; Armenian. 
 
 A. R. R. Anno regni regis, in 
 the year of the reign of the 
 king. 
 
 Arrond. or arrond. Arrondisse- 
 ment. 
 
 A.R. S. S. Antiquariorum Regia 
 Societatis Sodus, Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 Art. or art. Article. 
 
 As. Arsenic. 
 
 As.t Asia. 
 
 A. S. A. American Statistical 
 Association. 
 
 A. S. S. U. American Sunday 
 School Union. 
 
 Ass.J Asst.f or Assist. Sec. As- 
 sistant Secretary. 
 
 Astrol. Astrology. 
 
 Astron. Astronomy. 
 
 A.T. Archtreasurer. 
 
 A.T.S. American Temperance 
 Society. 
 
 A. T. S; American Tract So- 
 ciety.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 279 
 
 AU. Attic. 
 
 Atty. or Att.t Attorney. 
 
 Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General. 
 
 Attys. Attorneys. 
 
 An. Aunes, French ells. 
 
 Au. Aurum (Gold). 
 
 A. U. A. American Unitarian 
 Association. 
 
 Aub. Theol. Sem. Auburn 
 Theological Seminary. 
 
 A.U.C. Anno vrbis conditte, in 
 the year after the building of 
 the city (Rome). 
 
 Aug. August ; Augustas. 
 
 Aust. or Austr.f Austria, Aus- 
 trian. 
 
 Austral. Australasia. 
 
 Auth. Ver. Authorized Ver- 
 sion (of the Bible). 
 
 Av. or av.f Average; avenue. 
 
 Avoir, or av.f Avoirdupois. 
 
 B. Three hundred (anc.). 
 B. Three thousand (anc.). 
 B. Basso, bass. 
 
 B. Boron. 
 
 B. or b. ; Bk.f or bk.f Book. 
 
 B. or b. Bay; born. 
 
 B. A. Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 B. A. British America. 
 
 Ba. Barium. 
 
 Bail, or bail. Bailiwick. 
 
 Bal. Balance. [zine. 
 
 Bank. Mag. Banker's Maga- 
 
 Bar. Barucli. 
 
 Bar. or bar. Barleycorn. 
 
 Bar.f bbl.J or bl. Barrel. 
 
 Bart, or Bt.t Baronet. 
 
 B.C. Before Christ. 
 
 B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 
 B. D. Baccalaureus Divinitatis, 
 
 Bachelor of Divinity. 
 Bd. or bd. Bound 
 
 Bds. orbds. Boards (bound in). 
 Benj. or Ben.f Benjamin. 
 Berks. Berkshire. 
 B. & L. D. Duke of Brunswick 
 
 and Luneburg. 
 
 B. F. or B. fir. Firkin of beer. 
 Bi. Bismuth. 
 
 Bib. Sac. Bibliotheca Sacra. 
 Bk. Bank. 
 Bk.f or bk.t Book. 
 B.LL. Baccalaureus ' Legum, 
 
 Bachelor of Laws. 
 Bl. or bl. Barrel. f reb. 
 
 Bis. or bis.; Bbl. or bbl. Bar- 
 Blackw. Mag. Blackwood's 
 
 Magazine. 
 B.M. Baccalaureus Mediciwe, 
 
 Bachelor of Medicine. 
 B.M. British Mail. 
 B.M. British Museum. 
 Bor. or bor. Borough. 
 Bos. Boston. 
 Bot Botany. 
 Bp. Bishop. 
 B.R. Bunco Regis, or Regina^ 
 
 the King's or Queen's Bench. 
 Br. Bromine. 
 Br. or br. Brig. 
 Br. Brother. Brs. Brothers. 
 Braz. Brazil. 
 Brig. Brigade ; Brigadier. 
 Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General, 
 Brit, or Br.f British. 
 Brit. Alma. British Almanac. 
 Brit. Grit. British Critic. 
 Brit. Mus. British Museum. 
 Brit. Qnar. Rev. British Quar. 
 
 terly Review. 
 Brit, and For. Rev. British and 
 
 Foreign Review. 
 Bro. Brother. Bros. Brothers. 
 Br. Univ. Brown University.
 
 280 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Bros. Brussels. 
 
 Brux. Bruxelles. 
 
 Bt.f Baronet 
 
 Bu. or bu. ; Bush.f or bush.f 
 Bushel, bushels. 
 
 Bucks. Buckinghamshire. 
 
 B.V. Beata Virgo, Blessed Vir- 
 gin. 
 
 B.V. Bene vale, farewell. 
 
 C. Caesar; Caius. 
 
 C. Carbon. 
 
 C. A hundred ; a century. 
 
 C. A hundred thousand (anc.). 
 
 CC. Two hundred. 
 
 CCC. Three hundred. 
 
 CCCC.t or CD. Four hundred. 
 
 C. or c. Cape. 
 
 C. or c. Centum, a hundred. 
 
 C. or c. Cent, cents. 
 
 C. or c. Centime, centimes. 
 
 C. or c. Coomb, coombs. 
 
 C.f or c.f; Ch.J or ch.t; Chap, 
 or chap. Chapter, chapters. 
 
 C.t or c.t ; Cor. or cor. Corner. 
 
 C.t or c.t ; Cub. or cub. Cubic. 
 
 c. Childless. 
 
 Ca. Calcium. 
 
 Cses. Aug. Caesar Augustus. 
 
 cset. par. Geteritpar8nts, other 
 things being equal. 
 
 Cal. Calendte, the Calends. 
 
 Cal. California. 
 
 Cam. Cambridge. 
 
 Can. Canada. 
 
 Can. or can. Canton (a portion 
 of territory). 
 
 Cant. Canticles. 
 
 Cap. or cap. Capital. 
 
 Caps. Capitals. 
 
 Cap. or cap. Caput, capitulvm, 
 chapter. 
 
 Capt. Captain. 
 
 Capt.-Gen. Captain-General 
 j Car. Carpentry. 
 ' Car. or car. Carat or carats 
 
 C.A.S. Conneclicuttensis Aca- 
 demics Socius, Fellow of the 
 Connecticut Academy. 
 
 Cash. Cashier. 
 
 Cath. Catherine ; Catholic. 
 
 C.B. Cape Breton. 
 
 C.B. Companion of the Bath. 
 
 C. C. Caius College; County 
 Commissioner; County Court. 
 
 C.C.J Account Current. 
 
 C.C.C. Corpus Christ! College. 
 
 CCIOO. Ten thousand. 
 
 CCCIOOO. A hundred thou- 
 sand. 
 
 C. C. P. Court of Common 
 Pleas. 
 
 CD. Four hundred. 
 
 Cd. Cadmium. 
 
 C.E. Canada East. 
 
 C.E. Civil Engineer. 
 
 Ce. Cerium. 
 
 Cel. or Celt.f Celtic. 
 
 Cen. Century. 
 
 Cent. Centum, a hundred. 
 
 Cf. or cf. Confer, compare. 
 
 C.H. Court-house. 
 
 Ch. China. 
 
 Ch. J or ch.f Chapter, chapters. 
 
 Ch. or ch. Chain, chains. 
 
 Ch. or ch- Child or children. 
 
 Ch. or C.t Church. 
 
 Ch. Ch.t or C. Ch. Christ 
 Church. 
 
 Ch.t or Chal. Chaldee. 
 
 Ch.t or ch.t; Chal. or chal. 
 Chaldron or chaldrons. 
 
 Chanc. Chancellor. [ters. 
 
 Chap, or chap. Chapter, chap- 
 
 Chas. Charles.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 281 
 
 Chem. -Chemistry. [ner. 
 
 Chris. Ex. Christian Exami- 
 Chris. Month. Spec. Christian 
 
 Monthly Spectator. 
 Chris. Quar. Spec. Christian 
 
 Quarterly Spectator. 
 Chris. Rev. Christian Review. 
 Chron. Chronicles. 
 Chron. Chronology. - 
 Chs. Churches. [sand. 
 
 CIO. (contracted, M.). A thou- 
 Cic. Cicero. 
 Circ. Circle or circles. 
 Cit. Citizen. 
 C.J. Chief Justice. 
 C J.C. Caius Julius Caesar. 
 Cl. Chlorine.. 
 Cl. Claudius ; Clergyman. 
 Cl.t or Clk. Clerk. 
 Cl. Dom. Com. Clerk of the 
 
 House of Commons. 
 Old. or eld. Cleared. 
 CM. Nine hundred. 
 Cn. Cnaeus. 
 Co. Company; Cobalt. 
 Co.orco. ; Cy.forcy.t County. 
 Coch. Cochleare, a spoonful. 
 Col. Colonel ; Colossians. 
 Col. Column. 
 Cold.f or cold.f Colored. 
 Coll. Collector. 
 Coll. Cuttega, Colleague. 
 Coll. Collegium, College. 
 Com. Commerce ; Committee ; 
 
 Commentary; Commissioner; 
 
 Commodore. 
 
 Com. or com. Commune. 
 Comdg. Commanding. 
 Com. Arr. Committee of Ar- 
 rangements. 
 Comp. or comp. Compare; 
 
 compound. 
 
 Compar. or compar. ; Comp.t or 
 comp.f Comparative. 
 
 Com. Ver. Common Version 
 (of the Bible). 
 
 Con.f or con.f ; Conj. or conj. 
 Conjunction. 
 
 Con. or con. Connective. 
 
 Con. Contra, against, in oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 Con. Cr. or C.C.f Contra cre- 
 dit. 
 
 Conch. Conchology. 
 
 Cong, or C. Congress. 
 
 Cong. Congius, a gallon. 
 
 Conj. or conj. Conjunction. 
 
 Conn, or Con.f Connecticut. 
 
 Const, or Cons.f Constable ; 
 Constitution. 
 
 Contr. or contr. Contraction. 
 
 Cop. Coptic. 
 
 Cor. Corinthians. 
 
 Cor. or cor. Corner. 
 
 Corn. Cornish. 
 
 Corol. Corollary. 
 
 Cor. Sec. or Secy.f Corre- 
 sponding Secretary. 
 
 C.P. Common Pleas. 
 
 C.P. Court of Probate. 
 
 C. P. S. Custos Privati SigiUi, 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal. 
 
 C. R. Cnrolus Rex, KingCharles. 
 
 C.R. Ctistos Rolulorum, Keeper 
 of the Rolls. 
 
 C. R. P. Calendarium Rotulo- 
 rum Patentium, Calendar of 
 the Patent Rolls. 
 
 Cr. Chromium. 
 
 Cr. Creditor; credit 
 
 Crim. Con. Criminal conver- 
 sation. 
 
 Crit. Criterion, criteria. 
 
 Crit. Rev. Critical Review.
 
 282 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 C.S. Court of Sessions. 
 C.S. Custos Siyiltt, Keeper of 
 
 the Seal. 
 Ct. Count. 
 
 Ct.f or Conn. Connecticut. 
 Ct. cr ct. Cent ; Court. 
 Cts. or cts. Cents. 
 Cu. Cuprum ( Copper). 
 Cub. or cub. Cubic, 
 curt, or cur.t Current. 
 
 C. W. Canada West. 
 
 Cwt. or cwt. Hundred-weight. 
 Cy t or cy.f County. 
 Cyclo. Cyclopedia. 
 
 D. Decius; Dutch. 
 D. Didymium. 
 
 D. Five hundred. 
 
 D. Five hundred thousand. 
 
 D. or d. Decime, decimes. 
 
 D. or d. Denarius, a penny. 
 
 D. or d. Denarii, pence. 
 
 D. or d. Denier, demers. 
 
 D. or d. Died. 
 
 D.t or d.t ; Di. or di. Dimes. 
 
 D.f or d.f ; Deg. or deg. De- 
 gree or degrees. 
 
 D.t or d.t; Diam. or diam. 
 Diameter. 
 
 D. or d.; da.t dy.J Day, days. 
 
 da.t or dr. Daughter. 
 
 Dan. Daniel ; Danish. 
 
 Dart. Dartmouth. 
 
 Dat., dat. or D. Dative (case). 
 
 D. B. or Domesd. B. Domes- 
 day-book. 
 
 D.C. Da Capo, again. 
 
 D.C. District of Columbia. 
 
 D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
 
 D.D. Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor 
 of Divinity. 
 
 Dea. Deacon. 
 
 Dec. December. 
 
 Dec. or dec. Declension. 
 Dec. or dec. Declination. 
 Deg. or deg. Degree, degrees. 
 Del. Delaware ; Delegate. 
 Del. or del. Delineadt, drew. 
 Dem. Democrat, Democratic. 
 Dem. or dem. Demonstrative 
 
 (pronoun). 
 Den. Denmark. 
 Dep. Deputy. 
 Dept. or dept. ; Dep.t or dep.t 
 
 Department. 
 Deut. Deuteronomy. 
 D.F. Dean of Faculty. 
 Dft. or Deft-t Defendant. 
 D.G. Dei yrati&, by the grace 
 
 of God. 
 D.G. Deo gratias, thanks to 
 
 God. 
 
 Diam. or diam. Diameter. 
 Diet. Dictator; Dictionary. 
 Dim. or dim. Diminutive. 
 Dis. or dis. Distance, distant 
 Disc, or disc. ; Disct.t or disct.jf 
 
 Dis.t or dis.t Discount. 
 Diss. or diss. Dissertation. 
 Dist. or dist. Disti-ict. 
 Dist.-Atty. District-Attorney. 
 Div. Division. " 
 Div. or div. Dividend. 
 D.M. Doctor of Music. 
 Do. or do. Ditto, the same. 
 Doct-t D.t or Dr. Doctor. 
 Dol., dol., or doll.t Dollar. 
 Dols. or dols. Dollars. 
 D.O.M. Deo op&no maximc 
 
 to God, the best, the greatest. 
 Dor. Doric. 
 
 Doz. or doz. Dozen, dozens. 
 D.P. Doctor of Philosophy. 
 Dpt. Deponent. 
 Dr.J Dear.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 283 
 
 Dr. Debtor; Doctor. 
 
 Dr. or dr. Dram, drams. 
 
 dr. daughter. 
 
 D.T. Doctor Theokiyice, Doc- 
 tor of Divinity. 
 
 Dub. Dublin. 
 
 Dub. Univ. Mag. Dublin Uni-*" 
 versity Magazine. 
 
 D. V. Deo vuknte, God willing. ' 
 Dwt. or dwt. Pennyweight. 
 Dy.J or d. Day, days. 
 
 E. Two hundred & fifty (anc.). 
 E.\ Earl. 
 
 E. (after titles). Edinburgh. 
 
 E. Erbium; East. 
 
 E. by S. East by south. 
 
 E. or e. Eagle, eagles. 
 
 E. or e. Ecu, ecus. 
 
 ea. Each. 
 
 East. Isl. Eastern Islands. 
 
 E.B. English Bible (common). 
 
 Eben. Ebenezer. 
 
 Ecc.t or Eccles. Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Eccl. Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus. 
 
 Eclec. Mag. Eclec. Magazine. 
 
 Eclec. Rev. Eclec. Review. 
 
 Ed. Editor. Eds. Editors. 
 
 Ed.t or ed.f Edition. 
 
 Edin. or Ed.t Edinburgh. 
 
 Edit, or edit. Edition. 
 
 Edm. Edmund. 
 
 Edw. Edward. 
 
 E.E. Errors excepted. 
 
 E.E. Ell or ells English. 
 
 E. Fl. Ell or ells Flemish. 
 
 E. Fr. EU or ells French. 
 
 E.G.} or E. g.; e.g. or ex. g.f 
 
 Exempli gralib, for example. 
 Eg.t- Egypt. 
 E.I. East Indies. 
 E.I.C. East-India Company. 
 
 E.I.M.Coll. East- India Mili- 
 tary College. 
 Elec. Electricity. 
 Eliz. Elizabeth. 
 E. Ion. East longitude. 
 E.N.E. East-north-east. 
 Ency. Encyclopedia, 
 Eng. England, English. 
 Engd. or engd. Engraved. 
 Ent. Entomology. 
 Ent. or ent. Entrance, [nary. 
 Euv. Ext. Envoy Extraordi- 
 Ep. or Epis.t Epistle. 
 Eph. Ephesiaus; Epliraim. 
 E.S. Ell or ells Scotch. 
 E.S.E. East-south-east. 
 Esq. Esquire. 
 Esqs. Esquires. 
 Esth. Esther. 
 E.T. English Translation 
 et al. Et alibi, and elsewhere, 
 et al. Et alii, and others, 
 et seq. Et seqvenlia, and what 
 
 follows, 
 etc.f or c. Et cceteri, et ciete- 
 
 rce, et ctetera, and others; and 
 
 so forth. 
 
 Eth. Ethiopic. 
 Evang. Evangelical. 
 Eve.t or eve. ;f Even, or even. - 
 
 Evening. 
 Ex. Example. 
 Exc. Excellency; Exception. 
 Exch. Exchequer. 
 Exclam. Exclamation. 
 Exec, or Exr.f Executor. 
 Exec. Com. Executive Com 
 
 mittee. 
 
 Execx. Executrix. 
 Exod. or Ex.t Exodus. 
 Exon. D. Exeter Domesday. 
 
 book.
 
 284 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Ez. 
 
 EzJ. Ezdra. 
 
 Ezek. Kzekiel. 
 
 F. Fluorine. 
 
 F. Forty (anc.). 
 
 F. Forty thousand (anc). 
 
 F. or f. Feminine (gender). 
 
 F. or f. Fiat, let it be made. 
 
 F. or f. Florin, florins. 
 
 F.| f-t Fr. or fr. Franc, francs. 
 
 F.t or f. ;t Ft. or ft. Foot, feet. 
 
 F., Fr.t Fri. or Frid.f Friday. 
 
 Fa.f Fl.f Fla.orFlor. Florida. 
 
 Fahr. Fahrenheit. 
 
 Far. or f. Farthing, farthings. 
 
 F.A.S. Fellow of the Antiqua- 
 rian Society. 
 
 Fath. or fath.; Fth.t or fth.t 
 
 Fathom or fathoms. 
 F.D. Fidei fitfensor, Defender 
 
 of the Faith. 
 
 F.t or Fl. E. Flemish ell or ells. 
 Fe. Ferrum (Iron). 
 Feb. February. 
 Fern, or fern. ; F. or f. Feminine, 
 ff. The Pandects. 
 F.E.S. Fellow of the Entomo- 
 logical Society. 
 
 F.G.S. Fellow of the Geologi- 
 cal Society. 
 F.H.S. Fellow of the Horti 
 
 cultural Society. 
 Fig. or fig. Figure, figures. 
 Fig. or fig. Figuratively. 
 Fin. Finland. 
 Finn. Finnish. 
 Fir. or fir. Firkin, firkins. 
 Fl. or fl. Flourished. 
 Fl. E. Flemish ell or ells. 
 Flor. or Fla. Florida. 
 F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean 
 Society. 
 
 F. or f. m. Fiat mixlura, let a 
 
 mixture be made. 
 Fol. or fol.; Fo.f or fo.f ; F.J or 
 
 f.J Folio, folios. 
 For. Foreign. 
 
 For. Quar. Rev. Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review. 
 Fort Fortification. 
 Fr. France, French. 
 Fr.f or Fran. Francis. 
 Fr. or fr. Franc, francs. 
 fr. or f.t From. 
 F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Astronomical Society. 
 Fras. Mag. Fraser's Magazine. 
 Fr. E. French ell or ells. 
 Fred. Frederic or Frederick. 
 Freq. or freq. Frequentative. 
 F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Geographical Society. 
 Fri. Friday. 
 F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society. 
 F.R.S. E. Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society, Edinburgh. 
 F.R.S. L. Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society, London. 
 F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society of Literature. 
 F.S.A. Fellow of the Society 
 
 of Arts. 
 
 F. or f. s. a. Fiat secunditm ar- 
 tem, make it according to art. 
 F.S.A. E. Fellow of the Socie- 
 ty of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. 
 Ft or ft. Foot, feet 
 Ft. or ft. Fort. 
 Fth.t fth.t Fathom, fathoms. 
 Fur. or fur. Furlong, furlongs. 
 Fut. or fut Future (tense). 
 F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoologi- 
 cal Society.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 285 
 
 G. Four hundred (one.). 
 
 G. Forty thousand ((inc.). 
 
 G. Gaius ; Gellius. 
 
 G. Glucinum; Genitive (case). 
 
 G. or g. Guinea, guineas. 
 
 G. or g. Gulf. 
 
 G.J Ger. or Germ.f Germany, 
 German. 
 
 Ga. or Geo. Georgia. 
 
 Gal. Galatians. 
 
 Gal. or gal. Gallon, gallons. 
 
 Giill.t or gall.f Gallon, gallons. 
 
 G.B. Great Britain. 
 
 G. C. B. Grand Cross of the 
 Bath. 
 
 G.C.H. Grand Cross of Hano 
 ver. 
 
 Gen. General ; Geneva. 
 
 Gen. Genesis (Book of). 
 
 Gen. or gen. Genitive (case). 
 
 Gent. Gentleman. 
 
 Gent. Mag. Gentleman's Ma- 
 gazine. 
 
 G. gr. or g. gr. Great gross. 
 
 Geo. George ; Georgia. 
 
 Geog. or Geo.t Geography. 
 
 Geol. Geology. 
 
 Geom. Geometry. 
 
 Ger. Germany, German. 
 
 Ger. or ger. Gerund. 
 
 Gi. or gi. Gill, gills. 
 
 Gib. Gibraltar. 
 
 Glas. Glasgow. 
 
 Goth, or Go.f Gothic. 
 
 Gott. Gottingen. 
 
 Gov. Governor. 
 
 Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. 
 
 G. R. Georgiut Rex, King 
 George. 
 
 Gr. Greek. 
 
 Gr. or gr. Grain, grams. 
 
 Gram. Grammar. 
 
 Griesb. Griesbach. 
 
 Gro. or gro. Gross. 
 
 Grot. Grotius. 
 
 Gtt. or gtt. Gutta, a drop. 
 
 Gtt. or gtt. Guttte, drops. 
 
 Guin. or guin. Guinea, guineas. 
 
 H. Two hundred (anc.). 
 
 H. Two hundred thousand. 
 
 H. Hydrogeu. 
 
 H. or h. Harbor, height. 
 
 H. or h. Hour, hours. 
 
 h. Husband. 
 
 Hab. Habakkuk. 
 
 Hag. Haggai. 
 
 Ham. Coll. Hamilton College. 
 
 Hants. Hampshire. 
 
 Harv. or Har.t Harvard. 
 
 H.B.C. Hudson'sBayCompany. 
 
 H.B.M. His or Her Britannic 
 
 Majesty. 
 
 Hdkf. or hdkf. Handkerchief, 
 h.e. Hoc est, that is, or this is. 
 Heb. Hebrew; Hebrews. 
 Hebr.t Hebrew; Hebrews. 
 H.E.I. C. Honorable East-India 
 
 Company. 
 
 Hep. sulph. Hepar sulphuris. 
 Her. Heraldry. 
 Hf.-bd. or hf.-bd. Half-bound. 
 Hg. Hydrargyrum (Mercury). 
 Hhd. or hhd.; Hd.f or hd.f 
 
 Hogshead, hogsheads. 
 HiL Hilary. 
 Hind. Hindostan. 
 Hist. History; Historical. 
 II.J.S. IJlcjnccl sepultus, Here 
 
 lies buried. 
 
 H.M. His or Her Majesty. 
 H.M.P. Hoc monumentum po- 
 
 suit, erected this monument. 
 H.M. S. His or Her Majesty's 
 
 Ship or Service.
 
 286 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Hon. Honorable. 
 
 Hond.t or hond.f Houoied. 
 
 Hort. Horticulture. 
 
 Hos. Hosea. 
 
 H.P. Half-pay. 
 
 H.R. House of Representatives. 
 
 H.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor. 
 
 H.R H. His Royal Highness. 
 
 H.R.I. P. Hie requltsi. it in pace, 
 Here rests in peace. 
 
 Hrs.f or hrs. ;f H. or h. Hours. 
 
 H.S. Hie situs, Here lies. 
 
 hum. or humb. Humble. 
 
 Hund. or bund.; Hun.t hun.t 
 Hundred, hundreds. 
 
 1. lod ne. 
 
 L One thousand (anc.). 
 
 I. II. III. One, two, three; or 
 first, second, third. 
 
 I.t Is.t or Isl. Island. 
 ' Ia.t In.J or Ind. Indiana. 
 
 Ib. or ib.; Ibid.f or ibid.1 Ibi- 
 dem, in the same place. 
 
 10. t (by contraction, D.). Five 
 hundred. 
 
 lOC.t or DC. Six hundred. 
 
 IDCC.t or DCC. Seven hun- 
 dred. 
 
 lOCCC.t or DCCC. Eight 
 hundred. 
 
 lOCCCC.t or DCCCC. Nine 
 hundred. 
 
 100. Five thousand. 
 
 1000. Fifty thousand. 
 
 Icel. or Ice.f Iceland, Icelandic. 
 
 Ich. Ichthyology. 
 
 Id. or id. Idem, eadem ; iidem, 
 eeedem, the same (author or 
 authors). 
 
 I. e. or i. e. Id est, that is. 
 
 I.H.S. Jesus hominum Salvator, 
 Jesus, the Saviour of men. 
 
 IHI.t or IV. Four; fourth, 
 ij. Two (med.). 
 111. Illinois. 
 Illus. Illustration. 
 Imp. or imp. Imperial. 
 Iiuper. or imper. Imperative 
 
 (mood). 
 Jmperf. or imperf. ; Impf.t or 
 
 impf.f Imperfect (tense). 
 Impers. or impers. ; Imp.t or 
 
 imp.f Impersonal (verb). 
 In. or in. Inch, inches. 
 Inch. Inchoative (verb), 
 incog. Incognito, unknown. 
 Incor. or incor. Incorporated. 
 Ind. India, Indian ; Indiana. 
 Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 
 Indef. or indef. Indefinite. 
 Indie, or indie.; Ind.t or ind.t 
 
 Indicative (mood). 
 
 Infin. or infin.; Inf.f or iuf.f 
 
 Infinitive (mood). 
 in lim. In Kmine, at the outset, 
 in loc.f in toco, in the place; 
 
 on the passage. 
 I. N.R.I. Jesus Nazarenus, Rex 
 
 Judceorum, Jesus of Nazareth, 
 
 King of the Jews. 
 Ins. Inspector. 
 Ins.-Gen. Inspector-General. 
 Insep. or insep. Inseparable, 
 inst. Instant, of this month. 
 Int. or int. Interest. 
 Interj. or interj.; Iiit.f or int.f 
 
 Interjection. 
 
 in trans. In transitu, on the 
 
 passage. 
 lo. Iowa. 
 Ion. Ionic. 
 I.O.O.F. Independent Order 
 
 of Odd Fellows. 
 Ipecac. Ipecacuanha.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 287 
 
 Ir. Indium. 
 
 Ir. Irish. 
 
 Ire. or Ir.f Ireland. 
 
 Irreg. or irreg. Irregular. 
 
 Jsa- Isaiah. 
 
 Isl. or isl.; Is.t is.f 1. 1 Island. 
 
 It. or Ital.f Italy. 
 
 Ital. or It.t Italian; Italic. 
 
 Itin. Itinerary. 
 
 IV. Four or fourth. 
 
 IX. Nine or ninth. 
 
 J. Judge; Julius. 
 
 j. One (med.). 
 
 J. A. Judge- Advocate. 
 
 Jac. Jacob. 
 
 Jam. Jamaica. 
 
 Jan. January. 
 
 Jap. Japan. 
 
 Jas. or Ja.t James. 
 
 J.C. Julius Caesar. 
 
 J. C. D. Juris Civllis Doctor, 
 
 Doctor of Civil Law. 
 J.D. Jurum Doctor, Doctor of 
 
 Laws. 
 
 Jer. Jeremiah. 
 J.H.S. Jesus kvmlnum Salvator, 
 
 Jesus, the Saviour of men. 
 Jno.J John. 
 Jona. Jonathan. 
 Jos. Joseph. 
 Josh. Joshua. 
 Jour. Journal. 
 J.P. Justice of the Peace. 
 J. Prob. Judge of Probate. 
 J.R. Jac.dnts Rex, King James. 
 Jr.f jr.f; Jun. orjun. Junior. 
 J.U.D. or J.V.D. Juris utrius- 
 
 que Doctor, Doctor of both 
 
 Laws (of the Canon and the 
 
 Civil Law). 
 Jud. Judith. 
 Jadg. Judges 
 
 Judge- Adv. Judge- Advocate. 
 
 Jul. Julius. 
 
 Jul.J July. 
 
 Jul. Per. Julian Period. 
 
 ,Iui i.} June. 
 
 Jun. Junius. 
 
 Jun. or jun. Junior. 
 
 Jus. or Just.t Justice. 
 
 Jus. P. Justice of the Peace. 
 
 Just. Justinian. 
 
 K. Kalium (Potassium). 
 
 K. King. 
 
 K. T wo hundred & fifty (anc. ). 
 
 K. Two hundred and fifty 
 
 thousand (anc.). 
 K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, 
 
 in Russia. 
 K.A.N. Knight of Alexander 
 
 Newski, in Russia. 
 Kan. Kansas. 
 K.B. King's Bench. 
 K.B. Knight of the Batn. 
 K.B.A. Knight of St. Beuto 
 
 d'Avis, in Portugal. 
 K.B.E. Knight of the Black 
 
 Eagle, in Prussia. 
 K.C. King's Council. 
 K.C. Knight of the Crescent, 
 
 in Turkey. 
 K. C. B. Knight Commander 
 
 of the Bath. 
 K. C. H. Knight Commander 
 
 of Hanover. 
 K.C.S. Knight of Charles J II. 
 
 of Spain. 
 K.E. Knight of the Elephant, 
 
 in Denmark. 
 
 Ken.f or Ky. Kentucky. 
 K.F. Knight of Ferdinand of 
 
 Spain. 
 
 K.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdi- 
 nand and Merit, in Sicily.
 
 288 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 K.G. Knight of the Garter. 
 K.G.C. Knight of the Grand 
 
 Cross. 
 K.G.C. B. Knight of the Grand 
 
 Cross of the Bath. 
 K.G.F. Knight of the Golden 
 
 Fleece, in Spain. 
 K.G.H. Knight of the Guelph 
 
 of Hanover. 
 K.G.V. Knight of Gnstavus 
 
 Vasa of Sweden. 
 K.H. Knight of Hanover. 
 Kil. or kil. Kilderkin, kilder 
 
 kins. 
 Kingd. or kingd. ; Km.f or km.f 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 K.J. Knight of St. Joachim. 
 K.L. or K.L.A. Knight of Leo- 
 pold of Austria. 
 K.L.H. Knight of the Legion 
 
 of Honor. 
 
 K.M. Knight of Malta. 
 Km.t or km.t Kingdom. 
 K. Mess. King's Messenger. 
 K.M.H. Knight of Merit, in 
 
 Holstein. 
 K.M.J. Knight of Maximilian 
 
 Joseph of Bavaria. 
 K.M.T. Knight of Maria The- 
 resa of Austria. 
 K.N. Know Nothing. 
 Knick. Knickerbocker. 
 K.N.S. Knight of the Royal 
 
 North Star, in Sweden. 
 Knt., Kt.f or K.t Knight 
 K.P. Knight of St. Patrick. 
 K.R.E. Knight of the Red Ea 
 
 gle, in Prussia. 
 K.S. Knight of the Sword, in 
 
 Sweden. 
 K.S. A. Knight of St. Anne of 
 
 Russia. 
 
 K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, 
 in France. 
 
 K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando 
 of Spain. 
 
 K.S.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdi- 
 nand and Merit, in Naples. 
 
 K.S.G. Knight of St. George 
 of Russia. 
 
 K.S.H. Knight of St. Hubert 
 of Bavaria. 
 
 K.S.J. Knight of St. Janua 
 rins of Naples. 
 
 K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and 
 Lion, in Persia. 
 
 K. S. M. & S. G. Knight of St 
 Michael and St. George of the 
 Ionian Islands. 
 
 K.S.P. Knight of St. Stanis- 
 laus of Poland. 
 
 K.S.S. Knight of the South- 
 ern Star of the Brazils. 
 
 K.S.S. Knight of the Sword, 
 in Sweden. 
 
 K.S. W. Knight of St. Wladi- 
 mir of Russia. 
 
 K.T. Knight of the Thistle. 
 
 Kt.t Knight. 
 
 K.T.S. Knight of the Tower 
 and Sword, in Portugal. 
 
 K.VV. Knight of William of 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 K.W.E. Knight of the White 
 Eagle, in Poland. 
 
 Ky. Kentucky. 
 
 L. Fifty or fiftieth. 
 
 L. Fifty thousand (anc.). 
 
 L. Latin; Lucius; Lithium. 
 
 L. (after titles). London. 
 
 L. or 1. Lake ; lane. 
 
 L. or 1. Line, lines ; link, links. 
 
 L.f or 1. ;f Lea. or lea. ; Leag.f or 
 leag.t League, leagues.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 289 
 
 L. or 1. ; Lib. or lib. Liber, 
 
 book. 
 L.} or 1. ;J Lib.t or lib. ;} Lb., Ib. 
 
 or a. Libra or Kbrce, pound 
 
 or pounds in weight. 
 L.f , or l.f Libra or librae, 
 
 pound or pounds sterling. 
 La. Lantanum. 
 La. or Lou.t Louisiana. 
 Ladp. Ladyship. 
 Lam. Lamentations. 
 Lat. Latin. 
 Lat. or lat. Latitude. 
 Lb., Ib. or 8> Pound or pounds 
 
 weight. 
 
 L.C. Lord Chancellor. 
 L.C. Lower Canada. 
 1. c. Loco citato, in the place 
 
 cited. 
 
 I.e. Lowercase. 
 L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. 
 L.D. Lady-Day. 
 Ld. or L.f Lord. 
 Ldp. or Lp.f Lordship. 
 Lea. or lea. League, leagues. 
 Leg. Legate. 
 
 Legis. or Leg.f Legislature. 
 Leip. Leipzig or Leipsic. 
 Lev. Leviticus ( Book of). 
 Leyd. Leyden. 
 L.I. Long Island. 
 Li. or L. Lithium. 
 Lib. Librarian. 
 Lib. or lib. Liber, book. 
 Lieut, or Lt.f Lieutenant. 
 Lieut, Col. Lieutenant-Colonel. 
 Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-Gene- 
 
 ral. 
 Lieut.-Gov. Lieutenant-Go 
 
 vernor. 
 
 Lit. Literary. 
 Lit. Literary Magazine. 
 
 Lit. or lit. Literally. 
 
 Liv. or Liverp.; Lpool.f or Lpl.| 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Liv. or liv. Livre, livres. 
 
 LL.B. Legum Baccalaureus 
 Bachelor of Laws. 
 
 LL.D. Legum Doctor, Doctor 
 of Laws. 
 
 1. 1. Loco laudato, in the place 
 quoted. 
 
 L.N.E.S. Ladies' Negro Edu- 
 cation Society. 
 
 Lon. or Ion. ; Long.f or long.f 
 Longitude. 
 
 Lond. or Lon.f London. 
 
 Lou.f Louisiana. 
 
 L.P. Large paper. 
 
 L.S. Locus sigilli, place of the 
 seal. 
 
 L.S. Leftside. 
 
 L. s. d. Livres, sous, deniers. 
 
 L.f or , s. d. Pounds, shil- 
 lings, pence. 
 
 Lt.f Lieutenant. 
 
 Lt. Inf. Light Infantry. 
 
 LX. Sixty or sixtieth. 
 
 LXL. Ninety (anc.). 
 
 LXX. Seventy or seventieth. 
 
 LXX. The Septuagint( Version 
 of the Old Testament). 
 
 LXXX. Eighty or eightieth. 
 
 M. Mille, a thousand. 
 
 M. Million. 
 
 M. Manlius; Marcus. 
 
 M. Martius ; Mutius. 
 
 M. or Mon. Monday. 
 
 M. or Mons. Monsieur. 
 
 M.f or Marq. Marquis. 
 
 M. or m. Manipulus, handful. 
 
 M. or m. Mensurd, by measure. 
 
 M. or m. Mlxtura, a mixture. 
 
 M. or m. Mix. 
 
 19
 
 290 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 M. or m. Mile, miles. 
 
 M. f M. or m. Meridies, noon. 
 
 M. orm.; Mas.t or mas. ;t Masc. 
 or masc. Masculine (gender). 
 
 M.t or m.;t Mi. or Mi. Mill, 
 mills. 
 
 M. or m. ; Min. or min. Mi- 
 nute, minutes. 
 
 M.f m.;t Mo. or mo. Month, 
 months. 
 
 m. Married. 
 
 M.A. Master of Arts. 
 
 M.A. Military Academy. 
 
 Ma. Minnesota. 
 
 Ma. or Mg. Magnesium. 
 
 Mace, or Mac.t Maccabees. 
 
 Mad. Madam. 
 
 Mad. Madrid. [sity. 
 
 Mad. Univ. Madison Univer- 
 
 Mag. Magazine. 
 
 Maj. Major. 
 
 Mn j. Gen. Major-General. 
 
 Mai. Malachi. 
 
 M.A.L.A. Mechanic Appren- 
 tices' Library Association. 
 
 Mam. Mamercus. 
 
 Man. Manasses (Book of). 
 
 Manch. Manchester. 
 
 Mar.t March. 
 
 March. Marchioness. 
 
 Marg. Tran. Marginal Trans- 
 lation. 
 
 Marq. Marquis. 
 
 Masc. or masc. Masculine. 
 
 Mass, or Ms.t Massachusetts. 
 
 Math. Mathematics; Mathe- 
 matician. 
 
 Matt, or Mat.f Matthew. 
 
 M.B. Medicines Baccalauretu, 
 Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 M.B. Musica Baccalaureus, 
 Bachelor of Music. 
 
 M.C. Master-Commandant. 
 
 M.C. Member of Congress. 
 
 M.D. MediciruE Doctor, Doctoj 
 of Medicine. 
 
 Md. Maryland. 
 
 Mdlle. or Mlle.t Mademoiselle. 
 
 Me. Maine. 
 
 Meas. Measure. 
 
 Mech. Mechanics. 
 
 Med. Medicine. 
 
 Med. or med. Medical. 
 
 Mem. Memento, remember. 
 
 Mem. Memorandum, Memo- 
 randa. 
 
 Merc. Mercury. 
 
 Messrs, or MM.f Messieurs, 
 Gentlemen. 
 
 Met. Metaphysics. 
 
 Metaph. Metaphor, [rically. 
 
 Metaph. or metaph. Metapho- 
 
 Meteor. Meteorology. 
 
 Meth. Methodist 
 
 Mex. Mexico or Mexican. 
 
 Mg. Magnesium. 
 
 M.-Goth. Moeso-Gothic. 
 
 M.H.S. Massachusetts Histo- 
 rical Society. 
 
 M.H.S. Member of the Histo- 
 rical Society. 
 
 Mi. or mi. Mill, mills. 
 
 Mic. Micah. 
 
 Mich. Michael; Michaelmas. 
 
 Mich. Michigan. 
 
 Mid. Midshipman. 
 
 Mid. or mid. Middle (voice). 
 
 Mil. Military. 
 
 Min. Mineralogy. 
 
 Min. or min. Minute, minutes. 
 
 Min. Plen. Minister Plenipo- 
 tentiary. 
 
 Miss, or Mi.f Mississippi. 
 
 Miss. Sta>. Missionary Station.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 291 
 
 M. L. A. Mercantile -Library 
 
 Association. 
 Mls.f or mls.t Mills. 
 MM.f Messieurs, Gentlemen. 
 MM. Two thousand. 
 Mme. Madame. 
 M.M.S. Moravian Missionary 
 
 Society. 
 M. M. S. S. Massacliusettensis 
 
 MeJkina Societatis Socius, 
 
 Fellow of the Massachusetts 
 
 Medical Society. 
 Mn. Manganese. 
 Mo. Missouri. 
 Mo. Molybdenum. 
 Mo. or mo. Month, months. 
 Mob. Mobile. 
 Mod. Modern. 
 Mon. Monday. 
 Mons. Monsieur, Sir. 
 Morn, or mom. Morning. 
 M.P. Member of Parliament. 
 M.P. Member of Police. 
 Mr. Mister. 
 M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal 
 
 Asiatic Society. 
 M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal 
 
 College of Surgeons. 
 M. R. I. Member of the Royal 
 
 Institution. 
 M.R.I. A. Member of the Royal 
 
 Irish Academy. 
 Mrs. Mistress. 
 M.R.S.L. Member of the Royal 
 
 Society of Literature. 
 M.S. Memoria sacrum. Sacred 
 
 to the memory. 
 M.S. Mood-stem. 
 MS. Afnwiscriptum, Manu- 
 script. M SS. Manuscripts. 
 Ms.t Massachusetts. 
 Mt. --Mount or mountain. 
 
 M.T.C. or M. lull. Cic. Mar- 
 cus Tullius Cicero. 
 
 Mus. Museum ; Music. 
 
 Mus. D. Doctor of Music. 
 
 M.W. Most Worthy. 
 
 M.W.S. Member of the Wer- 
 uerian Society. 
 
 Myth. Mythology. 
 
 N. Nine hundred (anc.). 
 
 N. Nine thousand (anc.). 
 
 N. Nitrogen ; North. 
 
 N., Nom. or nom. Nominative. 
 
 N. or n. Name, noun. 
 
 N. or n. ; Neut. or nent. Neuter. 
 
 N. or n. Note, notes. 
 
 N.t n. ;t Na. or na, Nail, nails. 
 
 N. J or n. ;t No. Number. 
 
 n. Near. 
 
 N.A. or N.Am.t North Ame- 
 rica, North American. 
 
 Na. Natrium (Sodium). 
 
 Na. or na. Nail, nails. 
 
 Nah. Nahnm. 
 
 Nat. National ; Natural. 
 
 Nath. Nathanael or Nathaniel. 
 
 Naut. Nautical. 
 
 N.B. New Brunswick. 
 
 N.B. North Britain. 
 
 N.B. Nota bene, mark 'well. 
 
 N. Brit. Rev. North -British 
 Review. 
 
 N.C.t New Church. 
 
 N.C. North Carolina. 
 
 N.E. New England. 
 
 N.E. North-east. 
 
 Neb. Nebraska. 
 
 N. Eng. New-Englander(/wA.). 
 
 Neh. Nehemiah. 
 
 nem. con. or nem. diss. ffe- 
 mine contraeKcente, or nemint 
 dissentiente ; no one opposing 
 unanimously.
 
 292 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Neth. Netherlands. 
 
 Neut. or neut Neuter (gender). 
 
 New Test, or N. T. New Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 N.F. Newfoundland. 
 
 N.H. New Hampshire. 
 
 N H. U.S. New -Hampshire 
 Historical Society. 
 
 Ni. or Nk. Nickle. 
 
 N.J. New Jersey. 
 
 N.L. or N. lat. North latitude. 
 
 N. 1. or n. 1. Non liquet, it does 
 not appear. 
 
 Nl.tornl.t Nail. 
 
 Nls.t or nls.f Nails. 
 
 N.M. New Mexico. 
 
 N.N.E. North-north-east. 
 
 N.N.W. North-north-west. 
 
 N.O. New Orleans. 
 
 No. or no.| Nume.ro or nombre, 
 number. Nos. Numbers. 
 
 Nom. or nom. Nominative. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N.P. New Providence. 
 
 N.P. Notary Public. 
 
 N.S. New Style (after 1752). 
 
 N.S. Nova Scotia. 
 
 N.T. New Testament. 
 
 n.u. Name or names unknown. 
 
 Num. Numeral. 
 
 Num. or Numb.f Numbers 
 Book of). 
 
 Numer. Numerator. 
 
 Nux vom. Nux vomica. 
 
 N. V.M. Nativity of the Virgin 
 Mary. 
 
 N.W. North-west. 
 
 N.Y. Nsw York. 
 
 N. Y.H.S. - New- York Historical 
 Society. 
 
 N.Y. Rev. New- York Review. 
 
 N. Zeal. New Zealand. 
 
 0. Ohio. 
 
 0. Eleven (anc.). 
 
 0. Eleven thousand (anc.). 
 
 0. Oxygen. 
 
 3 , 30t, or OOOf. Three 
 atoms of oxygen. 
 
 Ob. or ob. Obiit, he or she died. 
 
 Obad. Obadiah. 
 
 Obj. or ob.f Objection. 
 
 Obj. or ob.f Objective (case). 
 
 Obs. Observation. 
 
 Obs. Observatory. 
 
 Obs. or obs. Obsolete. 
 
 Obt.f or obedt. Obedient. 
 
 Oct. October. 
 
 O.F. Odd Fellow, or Odd Fel- 
 lows. 
 
 Old Test, or O.T. Old Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 Olym. Olympiad. 
 
 Op. or op. Opposite. 
 
 Opt. Optics. 
 
 Opt. or opt.; Optat.f or optat.f 
 Optative (mood). 
 
 Or. Oregon. 
 
 Ord. Ordinary. 
 
 Ornith. Ornithology. 
 
 O.S. Old Style (before 1752). 
 
 Os. Osmium. 
 
 O.T. Oregon Territory. 
 
 O.T. Old Testament. 
 
 O.U.A. Order of United Ame- 
 ricans. 
 
 Oxf. Oxford. 
 
 Oxon. Oxonia, Ozonii, Oxford. 
 
 Oz. or oz. Ounce, ounces. 
 
 P. or G. Four hundred (anc.). 
 
 P. Four hundred thousand. 
 
 P. Phosphorus. 
 
 P. Publius. 
 
 P.t or p. Page. 
 
 P. or p. Pint, pints ; pole, poles.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 293 
 
 P. or p. Particufa or pugiUus, 
 what is taken between the 
 fingers. 
 
 P.t or p.;t Part, or part. Par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 P.f p. ;t Pi* or pi- P'P e pipes. 
 
 P.f Pop. or pop. Population. 
 
 P.A. or p.a. Participial adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 Pa.f or Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 P.jE. or p. seq. Paries (equates, 
 equal parts. 
 
 Pal. Palestine. 
 
 Pamph. Pamphleteer. 
 
 Par. Paragraph. 
 
 Par. or par. Parish. 
 
 Par. Pas. Parallel passage or 
 
 Parl. Parliament. 
 
 Parl. or parl. Parliamentary. 
 
 Part, or part. Participle. 
 
 Partic. or partic. Particle. 
 
 Pash. or push. Pashalic. 
 
 Pass. Passive (voice). 
 
 Payt. Payment. 
 
 Pb. Plumbum (Lead). 
 
 P. C. Patres Omscripti, Con- 
 script Fathers ; Senators. 
 
 P.O. Privy Counsellor. 
 
 Pd. Palladium. 
 
 Pd. or pd. Paid. 
 
 P.E.I. Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Pen. or pen. Peninsula. 
 
 Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pent. Pentecost. 
 
 Per. Persia or Persian. 
 
 per an. Per annum, by the year. 
 
 per ct.f or per cent. Per cen- 
 tum, by the hundred. 
 
 Perf. or perf.; Pf.f or pf.f 
 Perfect (tense). 
 
 Peri. Perigee. 
 
 Pers. or pers. Person. 
 
 Pers. or pers. pron. Personal 
 pronoun. 
 
 Persp. Perspective. 
 
 Pet Peter. 
 
 Pf.t or pf.f Perfect (tense). 
 
 Ph. D. or P. D.f Philosophice 
 Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Phil. Philip; Philippians. 
 
 Phil. Philosophy. 
 
 Phil, or phil. Philosophically. 
 
 Phila. or Phil.f Philadelphia. 
 
 Philem. Philemon. 
 
 Phil. Mag. Philosophical Ma- 
 gazine. 
 
 Philom. Philomathes, a lover 
 of learning. 
 
 Philomath. Philomathematicus, 
 a lover of mathematics. 
 
 Phil. Trans. Philosophical 
 Transactions. 
 
 Phosph. Phosphorus. 
 
 Phren. Phrenology. 
 
 P.H.S. Pennsylvania Histori 
 cal Society. 
 
 Pi. or pi. Pipe, pipes. 
 
 Pinx. or pxt.t Pinxit, painted. 
 
 Pk. or pk. Peck. 
 
 Pks. or pks. Pecks. 
 
 PI. or pi. Place. 
 
 PI. or pi. Plate or plates. 
 
 PI. or pi. ; 1'lur. or plur. Plural. 
 
 PI. or Pt.f Platinum. 
 
 Plup. or plup. ; Plupf.f or plupf. f 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Plff. Plaintiff. 
 
 Plur. or piur. Plural. 
 
 P.M. Postmaster. 
 
 P.M. Passed Midshipman. 
 
 P.M.t P.M. or p.m. Post meri- 
 diem, afternoon, evening. 
 
 P.M.G. Postraaster-GeneraL
 
 294 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 P.M.G. Professor of Music in 
 Gresham College. 
 
 P.O. Post-Office. 
 
 Poet, or poet. Poetically. 
 
 Pop. or pop. Population. 
 
 Port. Portugal or Portuguese. 
 
 Posit, or posit, Positive. 
 
 Pot. or pot. Pottle, pottles. 
 
 P.P. Pulris patrum, the Je- 
 snits'-bark in powder. 
 
 P.P.C. Pour premlre conge, 
 to take leave. 
 
 Pp. or pp. Pages. 
 
 P. p. or p. p. Past participle. 
 
 P. pr. or p. pr. Participle pre- 
 sent. 
 
 Ppt. or ppt. Prceparatuf, pre- 
 pared. 
 
 P. R. Populus Romania, the 
 Roman people. 
 
 P.R. Porto Rico. 
 
 pr.} Per, by the. 
 
 Pr. or pr. Pronounce. 
 
 Pr.f or pr.t Province. 
 
 Pr.f or pr.f ; Pron. or pron. 
 Pronoun. 
 
 Pr.f or pr. ;t Pret. or pret. 
 Preterite (tense). 
 
 Pr. p. or pr. p. Present parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 P.R. A. President of the Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 Pref. Preface. 
 
 Prep, or prep. Preposition. 
 
 Pres. or pres. Present (tense). 
 
 Pres. President. 
 
 Presid. Presidency. 
 
 Pret. Preterite (tense). 
 
 Prim, or prim. Primary. 
 
 Prob. Problem. 
 
 Prof. Professor. 
 
 Pron. or pron. Pronoun 
 
 j Pron. or pron. aJj. Pronomi- 
 nal adjective. 
 
 Prop. Proposition. 
 
 Prot Protestant. 
 
 Pro tern. Pro tempr/re, for the 
 time being. 
 
 Prov. Proverbs ; Provost. 
 
 Prov. or prov. Province. 
 
 prox. Proximo, next (month ). 
 
 Prp.t or prp.f Preposition. 
 
 P.R.S. President of the Royal 
 Society. 
 
 Prus. Prussia or Prussian. 
 
 P.S. Participle-stem. 
 
 P.S. Post scriptum, Postscript 
 
 P.S. Privy Seal. 
 
 Ps. Psalm or Psalms. 
 
 P.T. or p. t. Post-town. 
 
 Pt.t Platinum. 
 
 Pt. or pt. Part ; port ; point. 
 
 Pt. or pt. Pint 
 
 Pts. or pts. Pints. 
 
 P. Th. G. - Professor of Theo- 
 logy in Gresham College. 
 
 P. V. or p.v. Post- village. 
 
 Pub. Publisher; Publication; 
 published. 
 
 Pub. Doc. Public Documents. 
 
 Puls. Pulsatilla. 
 
 Pun. or pun. Puncheon pun- 
 cheons. 
 
 Pwt. or pwt. Pennyweight, 
 pennyweights. 
 
 Q. Five hundred (anc.). 
 
 Q. Five hundred thousand. 
 
 Q. Quintus ; Quintius. 
 
 Q. Queen. 
 
 Q., Ques. or Quest, t Question. 
 
 Q. or q. Quadrans, a farthing; 
 quadranles, farthings. 
 
 Q.} or q-t Qu.t or qu. ;t Qy. or 
 qy. Quaere, inquire; query.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 205 
 
 q. Quasi, as it were. 
 
 Q.B. Queen's Bench. 
 
 Q.C. Queen's College. 
 
 Q.C. Queen's Counsel. 
 
 Q, d. or q. d. Quasi dical, as if 
 he should say ; quasi dictum, as 
 if said ; quasi dixisset, as if he 
 had said. 
 
 Q.E. or q.e. Quod est, which is. 
 
 Q.E.D. Quod erat demonstran- 
 dum, which was to be proved. 
 
 Q.E.F. Quod erat faciendum, 
 which was to be done. 
 
 q. 1. Quantum tibet, as much as 
 you please. 
 
 Q. Mess. Queen's Messenger. 
 
 Qm. or qm. Quomodo, how, by 
 what means. 
 
 q. p. or q. pi. Quantum placet, 
 as much as you please. 
 
 Qr. or qr. Quarter. 
 
 Qrs. or qrs. Quarters. 
 
 Q.S. Quarter Sessions. 
 
 q. s. Quantum sujficit, a suffi- 
 cient quantity. 
 
 Qt. or qt. Quart. 
 
 Qts. or qts. Quarts. 
 
 Quar. or Qn.t Quarterly. 
 
 Ques. Question. 
 
 Quint. Quintilius. 
 
 q. v. Quantum vis, as much as 
 you will. 
 
 q. v. Quod vide, which see. 
 
 Qy. or qy. Query. 
 
 R. Eighty (anc.). 
 
 R. Eighty thousand (anc.). 
 
 R. Recipe, take. 
 
 R. Regina, Queen. 
 
 R. Rex, King. 
 
 R. Rhodium. 
 
 R.} or Rem. Remark, Remarks. 
 
 R.f or Puss. Russia, Russian. 
 
 R. or r. River. 
 
 R. or r. Rod, rods. 
 
 R. or r. Rood, roods. 
 
 R.f or r.J Rule. 
 
 r. Resides ; retired ; rises. 
 
 R.A. Royal Academy. 
 
 R.A. Royal Academician. 
 
 R.A. Royal Arch. 
 
 R.A. Royal Artillery. 
 
 R.A. Russian America. 
 
 Rad. Radical. 
 
 Rd.f or rd.f Rod ; rood. 
 
 R.E. Royal Engineers. 
 
 Re. or re. Removed. 
 
 Rec. Recipe. 
 
 Reed. Received. 
 
 Recpt.{ Receipt. 
 
 Rec. Sec. or Secy.f Recording 
 Secretary. 
 
 Rect. Rector. 
 
 Ref. Reformation ; Reformed. 
 
 Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. 
 
 Ref. or ref. Reference. 
 
 Reg. Register, Registry. 
 
 Reg. Prof. Regius Professor 
 
 Regr. Registrar. 
 
 Regt. Regiment. 
 
 Rel. or rel. pron. ; Rel. or rel. pr.T 
 Relative pronoun. 
 
 Rem. Remark or remarks. 
 
 Rep. Reporter. 
 
 Rep. Representative. 
 
 Repub. or Rep.f Republic 
 
 Rev. Reverend ; Revelation. 
 
 Rev. Review. 
 
 Rhet. Rhetoric. 
 
 R.I. Rhode Island. 
 
 R.I.H.S. Rhode-Island Histo- 
 rical Society. 
 
 Richd. Richard. 
 
 R.M. Royal Marines. 
 
 R.N Royal Navy.
 
 296 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 R.X.O. Riddare af Nordstjerne, 
 
 Knight of tlie Order of the 
 
 Polar Star. 
 
 Ro. Recto, right-hand page. 
 Robt. Robert. 
 Rom. Romans (Book of). 
 Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. 
 R.P. Regius Professor, the 
 
 King's Professor. 
 R.P. Respublica, Republic. 
 R.R. Railroad. 
 R.S. Right side. 
 R.S.S. Regies Societatis Socius, 
 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 
 Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 
 Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. 
 Ru. Runic. 
 
 Russ. Russia or Russian. 
 R.W. Right Worthy. 
 R.W.O. Riddare af Wasa Or- 
 
 den t Knight of the Order of 
 
 Wasa. 
 
 S. Sextus; seven (one.). 
 S. Solo (m Italian music). 
 S. Stem (of a word). 
 S. Sulphur; Sunday. 
 S. or So.t South. 
 S.J or s.J See. 
 S. or s. Set, sets; sign, signs. 
 S. or s. Solidus, a shilling. 
 S. or s. Solidi, shillings. 
 S. or s. Sou, sous. 
 S. or s. ; Sec. or sec. Second, 
 
 seconds. 
 S. or s. ; Sec.f or sec.;t Sect or 
 
 sect. Section. 
 SS. or ss.; Sects, or sects. 
 
 Sections. 
 
 S.J or s. ;J Ser. or ser. Series. 
 S.f or s. ;t Sing, or sing. Sin- 
 gular (number^ 
 
 S.f or s. ;t Subst or subst A 
 substantive (noun). 
 
 S.f s.;t SS. or ss. Semis, half. 
 
 s.J ss.f sc. or scil. Scilicet, to 
 wit, namely. 
 
 s.a. Secundum artem, according 
 to art. 
 
 S.A. or S.Am.t South America. 
 
 Sam. Samaritan ; Samuel. 
 
 Sansc. or Sans.t Sanscrit 
 
 S. A.S. Societatis Antiquariorum 
 Socius, Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquarians. 
 
 Sat or Sa.f Saturday. 
 
 Sax. Saxon. 
 
 Sax. Chron. Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Sb. Stibium (Antimony). 
 
 S.C. Senatus Gmsulium, a de- 
 cree of the Senate. 
 
 S.C. South Carolina. 
 
 Sc. or sc. ; Scr.t or scr.f Scru- 
 ple, scruples. 
 
 Sc. or sc. Sculpsit, engraved. 
 
 sc. or scil. Scilicet, namely. 
 
 S. caps. Small capitals. 
 
 Sch. or sch.; Schr.f or schr.J 
 Schooner. 
 
 Schs. or schs. Schooners. 
 
 Sci. Science. 
 
 Scip. Scipio. 
 
 Sclav. Sclavonic. 
 
 Scot. Scotland. 
 
 Scot. Scotch or Scottish. 
 
 Sc. Pen. Scandinavian Penin- 
 sula. 
 
 Sculp, or sculp. Sculpsit, Che 
 or she) engraved. 
 
 S.E. South-east 
 
 Se. Selenium. 
 
 Schol. Scholium, a note. 
 
 Schol. Scholia, notes. 
 
 Sec. or sec. Second, seconds
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 297 
 
 Sec.f Section. 
 
 Sec. or Secy.t Secretary. 
 
 Sec. Leg. Secretary of Lega- 
 tion. 
 
 Sect, or sect Section. 
 
 Sects, or sects. Sections. 
 
 Select. Selection or selections. 
 
 Sen. Senate ; Senator. 
 
 Sen. or sen. Senior. 
 
 Sept. or Sep.f September. 
 
 Sept. Septuagint. 
 
 seq. or sq.t Sequente, and in 
 what follows. 
 
 seqq. or sqq.f Sequentibus, and 
 in the following (places). 
 
 Ser. or ser. Series. 
 
 Serg. Sergeant. 
 
 Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major. 
 
 Serj. Serjeant. 
 
 Serv. Servius. 
 
 Servt. Servant. 
 
 Sex. Sextos. 
 
 S.G. South Georgia. 
 
 Shak. Shakspeare. 
 
 S.H.S. Societatis Histories So- 
 ciwa, Fellow of the Historical 
 Society. 
 
 Si. Silicinm or Silicon. 
 
 Sic. Sicily or Sicilian. 
 
 Sim. or sim. Similarly. 
 
 Sing, or sing. Singular. 
 
 S. Isl. Sandwich Islands. 
 
 S.J.C Supreme Judicial Court. 
 
 S.L. Solicitor at Law (Scot.). 
 
 S.L. or S. lat. South latitude. 
 
 Sid. or ski. Sailed. 
 
 8. L. P.q. Preston. Soc. Hon. 
 Societatis Literarice Philosophi- 
 ceeque Presionensis Sociut ffo- 
 norarius, Honorary Member of 
 the Literary and Philosophical 
 Society of Preston. 
 
 S.M. Lond. Soc. Cor. Societatu 
 Medicce Londrmensis Sociug Cor. 
 Corresponding Member of the 
 London Medical Society. 
 Sn. Stannum (Tin). 
 
 s. n. Secundum naturam, ac- 
 cording to nature. 
 
 So.f South. 
 
 Soc. Isl. Society Islands. 
 
 Sol. Solomon. 
 
 Sol. Solicitor; Solution. 
 
 Sol.-Gen. Solicitor-General. 
 
 S. of Sol. Song of Solomon. 
 
 South. Lit. Mess. Southern 
 Literary Messenger. 
 
 South. Quar. Rev. Southern 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 S.P. or s. p. Seaport. 
 
 S.P. or s. p. Sine prole, without 
 issue. 
 
 Sp. Spain or Spanish. 
 
 S.P. A.S. Societatis Pkilosophicce 
 Americana Socius, Member of 
 the American Philosophical 
 Society. 
 
 S.P.G. Society for the Propa- 
 gation of the Gospel. 
 
 Sp. or sp. gr. Specific gravity. 
 
 S>P.Q.R. Senatus Populusque 
 Romanus, the Senate and Ro- 
 man people. 
 
 Sq. or sq. ft. Square foot, feet. 
 
 Sq. or sq. in. Square inch or 
 inches. 
 
 Sq. or sq. m. Square mile or 
 miles. 
 
 Sq. or sq. r. Square rood or 
 roods. 
 
 Sq. or sq. yd. Square yard. 
 
 Sq. or sq. yds. Square yards 
 
 sq.f In what follows. 
 
 sqq.f In the following (places).
 
 298 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sr. Strontium. Sr.J Sir. 
 
 S.R.I. Sacrum Romanum Jmpe- 
 rium, the holy Roman empire. 
 
 S.R.S. Societatis Reyias Socius, 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 S.S. Sunday School. 
 
 SS. or ss. Sections. 
 
 SS. or ss. Semis, half. 
 
 SS.f or ss.t Scilicet, to wit. 
 
 S. S. C. Solicitor before the 
 Supreme Courts (Scotland). 
 
 S.S.E. South-south-east. 
 
 S.S. W. South-south- west 
 
 St. Saint. 
 
 St or st. Street; Strait. 
 
 Stat. Statute or statutes. 
 
 S.T.D. Sanctce Theoloyia Doc- 
 tor, Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 Ster. or ster. ; Stg.f or stg.f 
 Sterling. 
 
 S.T.P. Sancta Theologies Pro- 
 fessor, Professor of Divinity. 
 
 Sts. or sts. Streets. 
 
 Subj. or subj.; Subjunctf or 
 subjunct.t Subjunctive. 
 
 Subst. or subst. Substantive. 
 
 Suff. or suff. Suffix. 
 
 Su.-Goth. Suio-Gothi'c. 
 
 Sulph. Sulphur or sulphurous. 
 
 Sup. Supplement. 
 
 Super, or super. Superfine. 
 
 Superl. or superl. Superlative. 
 
 Supt. Superintendent. 
 
 Surg. Surgeon ; Surgery. 
 
 Surg.-Gen. Surgeon-General. 
 
 Surv. Surveyor. 
 
 Surv.-Gen. Surveyor-General. 
 
 Sus. Susannah. 
 
 S.W. South-west. 
 
 Sw. Sweden or Swedish. 
 
 Switz. Switzerland. 
 
 Syr. Syria or Syriac. 
 
 T. A hundred and sixty (anc.,. 
 
 T. A hundred and sixty thou- 
 sand (anc.). 
 
 T. Technical (term). 
 
 T. Tenor (in jnusic). 
 
 T. Titus; Titius; Tullius. 
 
 T.f or Tur. Turkey or Turkish. 
 
 T. Tutti, the whole band after 
 a solo. 
 
 T. or t. ; Tn.t or tn.f Town, 
 township. 
 
 T. or t. ; Tom.t or tom.f Tome, 
 tomes. 
 
 T. or t. Ton, tons ; tun, tuns. 
 
 T. or tr. TrUlo, a shake. 
 
 Ta. Tantalum (Columbium). 
 
 Te. Tellurium. 
 
 Tenn. or Ten.t Tennessee 
 
 Ter. Territory. 
 
 Term. Termination. 
 
 Tex. Texas. 
 
 Text. Rec. TextusReceplus,\he 
 Received Text. 
 
 Th. Thorium. 
 
 Th.f Thu.f Thurs. Thursday. 
 
 Theo. Theodore. 
 
 Theol. Theology, Theological. 
 
 Theoph. Theophilus. 
 
 Theor. Theorem* 
 
 Thess. Thessalonians. 
 
 Thos. Thomas. 
 
 Thurs. Thursday. 
 
 Ti. Titanium. 
 
 Tier, or tier. Tierce, tierces. 
 
 Tim. Timothy. 
 
 Tit. Titus. 
 
 T.O. Turnover. 
 
 Tob. Tobit. 
 
 Tom.f or tom.t Tome, tomes 
 
 Tonn. or tonn. Tonnage. 
 
 Tr. Terbium. 
 
 Tr. or tr. Transpose.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 299 
 
 Tr. -Trustee. Trs. Trustees. 
 Tr. Brit. Mus. Trustee of the 
 
 British Museum. 
 Traus. or Tr.f Translator. 
 Trans, or Tr.f Translation. 
 Trans, or trans. Translated. 
 Treas. or Tr.f Treasurer. 
 Trin. Trinity. 
 T.S. Tense-stem, or stem of 
 
 the perfect tense. 
 Tues. or Tu.t Tuesday. 
 Tur. Turkey or Turkish. 
 Turnp. Turnpike. 
 Tut. Tutor. 
 Typ. Typographer. 
 U. Uranium. 
 U.C. Upper Canada, 
 U. E. I. C. United East- India 
 
 Company. 
 U.J.C. Ulriusfjue Juris Doctor ', 
 
 Doctor of both Laws, 
 ult. Ultimo, last ; of the last 
 
 month. 
 
 U.K. United Kingdom. 
 am. Unmarried. 
 Univ. University. 
 U.S. United States. 
 U.S.A. United States-Army. 
 U.S.A. United States of Ame- 
 rica. 
 U. S. Lit. Gaz. United- States 
 
 Literary Gazette. 
 U.S.M. United-States MaiL 
 U.S.M. United-States Marines. 
 U.S.N. United-States Navy. 
 U.S.S. United-States Ship. 
 u. s. OZ supra, as above. 
 V. Five or fifth. 
 V. Five thousand (one.). 
 V. Vanadium. 
 V. Victoria. 
 V. Violin. V V. Violins. 
 
 V. or v. Verb. 
 
 V.Jorv. ;J Ver. orver. Verse, 
 verses, vv.f Verses. 
 
 V. or v.; Vi.t or vi.jf Vid.J or 
 vid.J Fide, see. 
 
 V.f or v. ;t Vil. or vil. Village. 
 
 V., Voc. or voc. Vocative. 
 
 V.f or v. ;t Vol. or vol. Vo- 
 lume. 
 
 v., vs. or vers. Versus, against 
 
 Va. Virginia. 
 
 Vat. Vatican. 
 
 v. a. Verb active. 
 
 v. aux. Verb auxiliary. 
 
 v. def. Verb defective. 
 
 v. dep. Verb deponent. 
 
 V.C. Vice-Chancellor. 
 
 V. D.M. Verbi Dei Minister, 
 Minister of God's Word. 
 
 Ven. Venerable. 
 
 Ver. or ver. Verse, verses. 
 
 vers. Versus, against. 
 
 V. g. or v. g. Verbi gratia, for 
 example. 
 
 VI. Six or sixth. 
 
 VII. Seven or seventh. 
 
 VIII. Eight or eighth. 
 VHII.t or IX. Nine or ninth. 
 Vice-Pres. or V.P.f Vice-Pre- 
 
 sident. 
 
 v. imp. Verb impersonal. 
 v. in. or v. i.f Verb intransitive. 
 v. irr. Verb irregular. 
 Vil. or vil. Village. 
 Vise.. Vis. or V.f Viscount. 
 viz. or vl.J Videlicet, to wit 
 
 namely. 
 
 v. n. Verb neuter. 
 Vo. Verso, left-hand page. 
 Voc. or voo. Vocative (case) 
 Vol. or vol. Volume. 
 Vols. or vols. Volumes.
 
 300 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 V. R. Victoria Regina, Queen 
 Victoria. 
 
 v. r. Verb reflective. 
 
 v. tr. Verb transitive. 
 
 Vt. Vermont. 
 
 Vul. Vulgate (Version). 
 
 Vulg. or vulg. Vulgar (expres- 
 sion). 
 
 W. Welsh; West. 
 
 W. Wolfram (Tungsten). 
 
 w. Wife. 
 
 W. or Wed. Wednesday. 
 
 W.forw.;t Wk. orwk. Week. 
 
 Wash. Washington. 
 
 West. Res. Coll. Western Re- 
 serve College. 
 
 Westm. Rev. Westminster Re- 
 view. 
 
 w.f. Wrong font. 
 
 Whf. or whf.; Wf.f or wf.f 
 Wharf. 
 
 W.I. or W. Ind.f West Indies 
 or West India. 
 
 Wis. or Wise. Wisconsin. 
 
 Wisd. Wisdom (Book of). 
 
 Wks. or wks. Weeks. 
 
 W. Ion. West longitude. 
 
 Wm. or Will-t William. 
 
 W.M.S. Wesleyan Missionary 
 Society. 
 
 W.N. W. West-north-west. 
 
 Wp. Worship. 
 
 Wpful. Worshipftd. 
 
 W.S. Writer to the Signet. 
 
 W.S.W. West -south-west. 
 
 W.T. Washington Territory. 
 
 Wt. or wt. Weight. 
 
 X. Ten or tenth. 
 
 M . A thousand (anc.). 
 
 X. Ten thousand (anc.). 
 
 XL, XII. Eleven, twelve. 
 
 XIII. Thirteen. 
 
 XIIILt or XIV. Fourteen. 
 XV., XVI. Fifteen, sixteen. 
 
 XVII. Seventeen. 
 
 XVIII. or XIIX.J Eighteen. 
 XVIIILt or XIX. Nineteen. 
 
 XX. Twenty. 
 
 XXI. Twenty-one. 
 
 XXII. Twenty-two. 
 XXX. Thirty. 
 XXXX.t or XL. Forty. 
 XC. or LXL.t Ninety. 
 X.f or Xt.f Christ. 
 Xmas.f or Xrn.t Christmas. 
 Xn.t or Xtian.f Christian. 
 Xiity.f or Xty.f Christianity. 
 Xper.f Christopher. 
 
 Y. A hundred and fifty (anc.). 
 
 Y. A hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand (anc.). 
 
 Y. Yttrium. 
 
 Y.f y.t or yr. Year. 
 
 Y.B. or Yr.-Bk. Year Book. 
 
 Yd. or yd. Yard. 
 
 Yds. or yds. Yards. 
 
 y.1 or yc-f The. 
 
 ym.f Them. 
 
 yD.f Then. 
 
 y r -t Their ; your. 
 
 ys-f This. 
 
 yt-f _ That. 
 
 Yrs. or yrs. Years. 
 
 Yrs.t Yours. 
 
 Z. Two thousand (anc.). 
 
 Z. Two millions (ac.). 
 
 Z. or Zr. Zirconium. 
 
 Zech. Zechariah. 
 
 Zeph. Zephaniah. 
 
 Zn. Zinc. 
 
 Zool. Zoology. 
 
 &. And. 
 
 &c. or etc. Et cceteri, el eastern, 
 et ctetera, and the rest.
 
 SIGNS. 
 
 V. MEDICAL, ARITHMETICAL, ALGEBRAIC, AND 
 GEOMETRICAL SIGNS. 
 
 * . . . 
 
 Jlecipe, take of. 
 
 A ... Triangle. 
 
 fi . . . 
 
 Semis, half. 
 
 Z. - Angle. 
 
 a or aa . 
 
 .4a, equal parts of 
 
 L . . . Right angle. 
 
 
 each. 
 
 j. . . . Perpendicular. 
 
 fi> . . . 
 
 Pound. 
 
 a ... Rectangle. 
 
 5 ... 
 
 Ounce. 
 
 > . . . Greater than. 
 
 3 ... 
 
 Dram. 
 
 cr . . . Greater than. 
 
 3 ... 
 
 Scruple. 
 
 < . . . Less than. 
 
 V . . . 
 
 .Per, each. 
 
 ~3 . . . Less than. 
 
 @ . . . 
 
 At or to. 
 
 : . . . The difference, ox 
 
 $ . . . 
 
 Dollar or dollars. 
 
 excess. 
 
 . . . 
 
 Pound or pounds 
 
 ~ . . . The difference, 01 
 
 
 sterling. 
 
 excess. 
 
 / . . . 
 
 Shilling or shillings. 
 
 .11 . . . Parallelism. 
 
 -1- . . . 
 
 Plus, more, in ad- 
 
 V ... Equiangular. 
 
 
 dition. 
 
 K- . . . Geometrical propor- 
 
 . . 
 
 Minus, less, hi sub- 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 traction. 
 
 -c^ . . . Equivalent. 
 
 X ... 
 
 Into, in multiplica- 
 
 y . . . Sum or integral. 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 . . . Residual. 
 
 -t- ... 
 
 By, in division 
 
 .... . . Whence. 
 
 = . . . 
 
 Equal to. 
 Si^ns in proportion. 
 
 . . . Positive or negative 
 oo . . . Infinitely large. 
 
 Vv 
 
 The radical sign in 
 
 ... Proportional to. 
 
 
 evolution. 
 
 O . . . Circle, or 360. 
 
 in- . . . 
 
 Sign in evolution. 
 
 ... Degree. 
 
 03 . . . 
 
 Unknown diiFer- 
 
 ' ... Minute of arc. 
 
 a ... 
 
 eiice; similitude. 
 Regular quadran- 
 gle. 
 
 "... Second of arc. 
 TT . . Katio between diam 
 and circumference 
 e . . . Napier's base.
 
 302 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 VI. ASTRONOMICAL CHARACTERS. 
 
 I. TUB TWELVE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. 
 
 Aries, the Ram. 
 Taurus, the Bull. 
 Gemini, the Twins. 
 Cancer, the Crab. 
 Leo, the Lion. 
 
 Virgo, the Virgin. 
 
 ** . . Libra, the Balance, 
 
 ni . . Scorpio, the Scorpion. 
 
 f . . Sagittarius, the Archer. 
 
 V3 . . Capricornus, the Goat- 
 
 iS . . Aquarius, the Waterman 
 
 X . . Pisces, the Fishes. 
 
 
 II. THE PLANETABT SIGNS. 
 
 
 5 
 
 . . . . Mercury. 
 
 G\ . . . . 
 
 Iris. 
 
 9 
 
 .... Venus. 
 
 & 
 
 Flora.* 
 
 
 
 .... Earth. 
 
 <z .... 
 
 Metis.* 
 
 
 
 .... Moon. 
 
 8 .... 
 
 Parthenope.* 
 
 $ 
 
 .... Mars. 
 
 "a .... 
 
 Clio. 
 
 9 
 
 . . . . Ceres.* 
 
 &,. . . . 
 
 Irene.* 
 
 $ 
 
 .... Pallas.* 
 
 . . . . 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 
 
 . . . . Juno.* 
 
 > . . . . 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 B 
 
 .... Vesta.* 
 
 JJI . . . . 
 
 Uranus. 
 
 iH 
 
 . . . . Aetrsea.* 
 
 V .... 
 
 Neptune. 
 
 s 
 
 .... Hebe.* 
 
 O . . . 
 
 Sun. 
 
 
 in. THE LUNAB SIGNS. 
 
 
 o 
 
 ... .New Moon. 
 
 .... 
 
 Full Moon. 
 
 6) 
 
 . . . . First Quarter. 
 
 O . . . . 
 
 Last Quarter. 
 
 
 IV. ASPECTS OF THE PLANETS. 
 
 
 d 
 
 . . . . Conjunction. 
 
 * .... 
 
 Sextile. 
 
 1 
 
 . . . . Opposition. 
 
 Q . . . . 
 
 Ascending Node. 
 
 A 
 
 .... Trine. 
 
 . . . . 
 
 DescendingNode, 
 
 c 
 
 . . . . Quartile. 
 
 .... 
 
 Part of Fortune. 
 
 * These and the other asteroids are now more commonly designated by 
 a O inclosing the number indicating the order of their discovery.
 
 HINTS ON PREPABING COPY. 303 
 
 HINTS 
 
 PROOF-EEADING. 
 
 In preparing and bringing out a book for publication, 
 a great number of persons are employed ; each of them 
 having to use more or less the brain, the hand, and the 
 eye ; to call into action the principles of mind, me- 
 chanism, and taste ; to occupy, in short, his special 
 department of duty and toil. For our present purpose, 
 however, we will mention only three agents who play 
 a prominent though an unequal part in the production 
 of a book, and who have particularly to do with the 
 mode in which it is executed. These are the author, 
 the compositor, and the proof-reader ; the producer 
 of the ideas, the arranger of the types, and the cor- 
 rector of the typographic errors. 
 
 Let us suppose, then, that the writer of a work, 
 instead of transcribing it as many times as would be 
 requisite for the perusal of his friends or his fellow- 
 men, is desirous of saving himself this trouble, and of 
 having a large number of copies put into their hands 
 by means infinitely more rapid ; namely, through the 
 agency of the printing-press. Before, however, taking 
 this step, he will ascertain whether his manuscript 
 or, as it is technically called, " the copy " be in
 
 304 APPENDIX. 
 
 a suitable condition for being made out by the com- 
 positor and the proof-reader. If it consists of orations, 
 discourses, lectures, or poems, certain portions of which 
 have, for his own accommodation in delivery, been 
 underlined, but which are not to be printed in Italics 
 or small capitals, he will carefully expunge all such 
 marks. He will examine if proper names and foreign 
 or technical expressions, supposing them to occur, have 
 been correctly spelled and clearly written; rectifying 
 the inaccuracies, and making the obscure perfectly 
 plain and legible. He will dot the t's, and cross the 
 t's, which, in the haste of composition, may have been 
 left imperfect ; change such capital /'s and J's as may 
 be confounded with each other ; and re-form whatever 
 letters may be blurred or ill-shapen, particularly the 
 s's in the terminations of plural nouns. He will see 
 whether the interlineations, if there be any, have been 
 introduced with sufficient distinctness. Should he make 
 additions in the margin, or on the opposite or a separate 
 leaf, he will mark with a caret the place of insertion, 
 and say whether they are designed as text for the body 
 of the matter, or as notes for the foot of the page; 
 putting such or any other direction within a circle, that 
 it may be readily noticed. If points have been omitted, 
 he will supply them ; if erroneously made, correct 
 them. All words and phrases, which, for his own ease, 
 he has abbreviated, he will write in full ; and at the 
 commencement of any sentence meant to begin a new 
 paragraph, but not distinctly exhibited as such, he will 
 put the mark (^[) appropriated for that purpose. 
 
 If, however, after all this care, an author find, on 
 re-inspection, that the manuscript cannot without diffi-
 
 HINTS ON PREPARING COPY. 305 
 
 culty be deciphered, he will either fairly transcribe it 
 himself, or cause it to be transcribed by a good penman. 
 He, or his amanuensis, will write on only one side 
 of the paper, and mark the number of each page, 
 that the copy may admit of being cut into portions ; 
 put, if necessary, into the hands of several composi- 
 tors; and, after having been set up, be re-arranged in 
 its proper order. He will see that the orthography, 
 the capitals, and the points, which were perhaps imper- 
 fectly attended to in the original manuscript, be all 
 conformed to the best usages of the present day. He 
 will distinguish the paragraphs by commencing each in 
 a new line, and putting its first word at a greater dis- 
 tance from the edge of the paper, at the left hand, than 
 the other lines, to prevent sentences which should be 
 separated from being brought together, or those which 
 should be joined from being separated. On no account 
 should the paragraphing be left to the compositor ; it 
 being unreasonable to expect him to perform a species 
 of work for which no remuneration is given, and which 
 peculiarly devolves on the writer himself. 
 
 In the observations just made, we have assumed 
 that an author takes all possible care to make hia 
 manuscript clear and legible ; and, no doubt, many 
 literary gentlemen are not ashamed to do their own 
 work, instead of leaving it to be done, at the imminent 
 hazard of mistakes, by the compositor and the proof- 
 reader. But it is a well-known fact, at least to those 
 conversant with subjects relating to the press, that 
 manuscripts designed for publication are often found 
 written so carelessly, or with so little regard to any 
 system of capitalizing and punctuation, as to render 
 20
 
 306 APPENDIX. 
 
 the labor of printing them vexatious, unsatisfactory, 
 and unproductive, first to the compositor, who, after 
 coming to many a dead halt, and troubling ad nauseam 
 .h ; s fellow-workmen, in attempting to decipher the copy, 
 is obliged to creep his " slow length along," with all 
 the patience that may be supplied by the prospect of 
 miserable earnings ; then to the corrector of the press, 
 who, whatever may be his literary qualifications, is 
 certainly not familiar with the unexpressed thoughts 
 of authors, and cannot find an explanation of their 
 flourishes, their half-written words, 01 their peculiar 
 hieroglyphics, in any of the dictionaries at his com- 
 mand ; and lastly to the master-printer, whose material 
 is blocked up by the slow progress of the work in 
 question, and whose pockets sometimes suffer from 
 the cancelling of pages, which is not unfrequently as 
 much attributable to scratches of the pen as to " errors 
 of the press," as much owing to the carelessness of 
 the author or his amanuensis, as to the incompetency 
 of the printer or his workmen. We do not mean to 
 apologize for the blunders of compositors, or to excuse 
 the negligence and ignorance of proof-readers, but 
 merely to express our sense of the injustice done to 
 the profession of typography, when authors who have 
 written illegibly, or who have themselves examined 
 the proof-sheets without detecting mistakes, throw the 
 whole responsibility on the shoulders of others. 
 
 As a justification of our hardihood in thus laying 
 down to authors instructions so minute and yet so 
 obvious, we quote a paragraph, which has recently 
 appeared in an English newspaper, showing the gross 
 carelessness and utter want of thought manifested, on
 
 HINTS ON PREPARING COPT. 807 
 
 
 
 the part of some writers, in preparing their works for 
 publication. The case referred to is, indeed, an ex- 
 treme one ; but its main feature the illegibility of 
 the copy unhappily characterizes the manuscripts 
 of many other distinguished men. 
 
 " The late Sharon Turner, author of the ' History of the Anglo- 
 Saxons,' who received three hundred a year from Government as a 
 literary pension, wrote the third volume of his ' Sacred History of 
 the World ' upon paper which did not cost him a farthing. The 
 copy consisted of torn and angular fragments of letters and notes; 
 of covers of periodicals, gray, drab, or green, written in thick, 
 round hand over a small print; of shreds of curling paper, unctuous 
 with pomatum or bear's grease ; and of the white wrappers in which 
 his proofs were sent from the printers. The paper, sometimes as 
 thin as a bank-note, was written on both sides; and was so sodden 
 with ink, plastered on with a pen worn to a stump, that hours were 
 frequently wasted in discovering on which side of it certain sen- 
 tences were written. Men condemned to work on it saw their 
 dinner vanishing in illimitable perspective, and first-rate hands 
 groaned over it a whole day for tenpence. One poor fellow assured 
 the writer of this paper, that he could not earn enough upon it to 
 pay his rent, and that he had seven mouths to fill besides his own 
 In the hope of mending matters in some degree, slips of stout white 
 paper were sent frequently with the proofs; but the good gentleman 
 conld not afford to use them, and they never came back as copy." 
 
 Satisfied that the manuscript is in a fit state to be 
 read, the 'author employs a letterpress printer, giving 
 him such directions as he thinks are necessary. The 
 copy is then delivered to the compositor, whose pro- 
 vince it is to put in type what the author has written. 
 As soon as the workman has finished the setting-up of 
 some eight, twelve, or more pages, according to the 
 size of the paper to be used, and has arranged them 
 in such a way that they may all be printed together. 
 he obtains a " proof," or impression in ink, of the
 
 308 APPENDIX. 
 
 matter he has set up ; and then lays it, along with 
 the copy, on the corrector's desk. 
 
 The obtaining of this proof-sheet implies, that the 
 work of " composition," or the arrangement of the types, 
 is to some extent imperfect or erroneous ; that the 
 matter set up is not a true counterpart of the original ; 
 that blunders have been made, as even by the best of 
 compositors they will be made, in a variety of particu- 
 lars which need not here be enumerated. 
 
 Unless, from instructions previously received, or 
 from an inspection of the manuscript, he has reason 
 to believe that the author has a peculiar and unaltera- 
 ble taste in regard to certain minutiae, such as the 
 style of type in titles and heads of chapters, the ortho- 
 graphy, punctuation, use of capitals, &c., the proof- 
 reader, if faithful to his duty, proceeds to the labor of 
 correction on the principle of endeavoring to render 
 the work of the compositor, where changes are neces- 
 sary, as neat, accurate, and consistent in its parts, as 
 possible. He begins by writing the phrase " First 
 Proof" on the upper margin of the first page. He 
 then examines the folios and the signatures, the cap- 
 tions and the subheads ; notices whether the pages are 
 of equal or proper lengths, and if the lines are straight 
 or crooked ; inspects the spacing, or blank, between the 
 words and sentences, that they may have regularity of 
 appearance ; and peruses the whole sheet more or less 
 rapidly, putting his corrections in the margin, as 
 exemplified at the end of the present work. All this 
 should be the first thing done in proof-reading ; but, 
 from carelessness or from a supposed want of time, 
 it is commonly left undone, except so far as the duty
 
 HINTS ON PROOF-READING. 309 
 
 can be performed in the next process, about to be 
 described. 
 
 The manuscript is now put into the hands of an 
 intelligent boy, one who is able to read it aloud clearly 
 and accurately. The corrector of the press has thy 
 proof-sheet before him, and, if he have gone through 
 the process just mentioned, has no occasion, when 
 making fresh marks, to stop the reader of the copy, 
 unless there be some peculiar difficulty. His chief aim 
 is to make the print an accurate representation of the 
 author's writing, or mode of expression : but his atten- 
 tion is also devoted to the spelling of the words in 
 accordance with some authorized standard ; and to the 
 punctuation, that it may develop the construction of 
 the sentences, and the meaning intended. He is not 
 usually expected, nor indeed is it his province, to 
 change the ideas, to improve the style, or, except 
 merely in a lapse of the pen, to correct grammatical 
 blunders. But should there occur any obscurities in 
 the writing, or any errors or inelegances in the lan- 
 guage, he may put a Qy. (" query ") in the margin, 
 and leave the suggestions to be made in the next 
 proof. 
 
 In reading the manuscript, the boy should pronounce 
 with an additional syllable such proper names as have 
 a final e, to distinguish them from those which want this 
 letter; reading, for instance, Browne, Deane, Greene, 
 each as two syllables, and sounding the e so as to be 
 plainly heard. He should lay the accent on the last 
 syllable of proper names having two consonants of the 
 same kind, to distinguish them from those which have 
 only one ; as, Bennett. But all uncommon or difficult
 
 310 APPENDIX. 
 
 words, whose constituent letters cannot be known by 
 any mode of pronunciation, he should spell through- 
 out ; as, Samson, Sampson ; Taylor, Tayler ; Thomson, 
 Thompson. When viz. is written for " namely," and 
 Sfc. for " and so forth," he should give each word such 
 a pronunciation as will exhibit the mode in which it is 
 to be printed ; as viz, in conformity with its spelling, 
 for the former, and et cetera for the latter. At the 
 beginning of every paragraph, except the first, he 
 should say " Paragraph." At the commencement of 
 each quotation that has quotation-marks, he should 
 say " Turn," and, at the end of it, " Close ; " meaning 
 by the former expression that a quotation in the manu- 
 script is preceded by turned or inverted commas, and 
 by the latter that it is closed or finished by apostrophes. 
 In reading words which have a single line drawn under 
 them, he should, instead of saying "Italics," which 
 would mar the sense, gently strike the desk, making 
 one tap simultaneously with the pronunciation of each 
 word ; unless a long sentence is Italicized, when the 
 naming of " Italics " before the passage, and " Roman " 
 after it, will be a sufficient token where it begins and 
 ends. To indicate such words as are meant to be 
 printed on capitals or small capitals, he should say 
 " Caps." or " Small caps.," as the case requires. That 
 the corrector may conveniently inspect the manuscript 
 when it is hard to make out, the boy should sit at his 
 left hand. 
 
 When the proof-sheet has been carefully read in the 
 manner spoken of, the corrector inserts in the manu- 
 script a bracket between the last word of the printed 
 sheet and the first of the next ; and, over these, the
 
 HINTS ON PROOF-READING. 311 
 
 paging, the signature, and, if requisite, the number of 
 volume ; as, " [Page 9, Sig. 2, vol. i. ; " or " [Page 9, 
 Sig. C ; " so that no mistake may be committed in 
 beginning to set or make up the pages that immediately 
 follow. He then cuts off the portion of the manuscript 
 which is marked as above, and returns it at once with 
 the proof-sheet to the compositor, whose business it is 
 to make his work correspond accurately with the cor- 
 rections marked. Having performed this duty, the 
 compositor has another impression taken of his pages, 
 which he delivers, along with the former one, to the 
 proof-reader. 
 
 And now begins another process on the part of the 
 corrector of the press, by his writing on the newly 
 printed sheet the words " Second Proof." After placing 
 the two proofs in juxtaposition, he minutely compares 
 them, in order to ascertain whether all the errors that 
 had been marked have been corrected in the type ; 
 re-marking those which may have been neglected, 
 transcribing the queries from the first proof, and making 
 such suggestions as he thinks proper. Should the 
 establishment have another proof-reader, he transfers 
 to him the second proof, with the manuscript, to be 
 examined again, and, if necessary, recorrected. If, 
 however, there is only one reader, he should with 
 unwearied eye peruse it afresh ; mark in the margin 
 whatever errors may have escaped his notice in the 
 previous reading, or been made by the compositor in 
 the transference of the corrections ; and send the proof- 
 sheet immediately to the writer of the work, unless the 
 errors are so numerous as to require additional labor 
 and a third proof.
 
 312 APPENDIX. 
 
 If the author be a thoughtful man, lie will take care 
 that no unnecessary delay occur in the performance of 
 his duty; for, though it may possibly be a matter 
 of little importance to the public or himself when his 
 book will make it? appearance, it is of the utmost 
 moment to the printer and his workmen that their 
 material be not blocked up, or their time frittered 
 away. He therefore proceeds at once to the inspection 
 of his proof-sheet ; to the task of examining every 
 page, line, word, letter, point, with a keen and scruti- 
 nizing eye. In this he has in view one at least of 
 two objects, to ascertain whether the compositor and 
 the proof-reader have left any errors unconnected, or 
 whether he himself, in the preparation of his manu- 
 script, has been sufficiently careful to express his ideas 
 in the clearest ana most accurate manner. Indeed, to 
 ensure the highest degree of correctness, he should 
 have both objects in view ; for even if the writer have 
 genius or great learning, and the printer be a man of 
 talent and taste, it is not to be supposed, that these 
 qualities, so desirable in authorship and typography, 
 will have made either of them immaculate. It is 
 therefore probable that both parties have more or 
 less erred. The spelling or the punctuation may be 
 sometimes erroneous ; the capitalizing and Italicizing 
 m.iy be susceptible of improvement ; inelegances may 
 be noticed, improprieties perceived, or grammatical 
 inaccuracies detected, which, either in the warmth of 
 composition or in a premature haste for going to press, 
 were before concealed. Suggestions, too, may appear in 
 the margin, which, though made by the office-corrector 
 in the modest form of queries, are worthy, at least for
 
 HINTS ON PROOF-READING. 313 
 
 courtesy's sake, of being attended to by the author ; 
 who should either adopt them, and expunge, in every 
 case, the word " Qy. ; " make, if thought preferable, a 
 different change ; or erase both the query and the 
 suggestion, instead of leaving them, as is sometimes 
 done, in the margin, to try the printer's patience, and 
 to baffle his skill and ingenuity in ascertaining what is 
 meant. 
 
 But an author may be capable of rectifying all these 
 mistakes, and yet, from his inexperience or his heed- 
 lessness, he may note them down in the proof-sheet in 
 such a way as to render them either invisible or illegi- 
 ble, and thus defeat his own purposes. To prevent 
 this result, he should mark his corrections, not with a 
 pencil, but with a pen ; and place them, not between 
 the printed lines, but in the margin, exactly opposite 
 where the changes required are to be made. In short, 
 to preclude the probability of additional or different 
 mistakes, it should be his aim to use the very marks 
 which the printer employs, and in a similar way. To 
 facilitate an object so essential, we present two pages 
 (see pp. 320-21) ; the one exhibiting a proof, when 
 read and marked, of work such as may proceed from 
 the hands of a compositor ; the other, as it would 
 appear after the corrections have been duly made in 
 type. The former is called a " foul proof," because it 
 contains a far greater number of mistakes than could 
 be made by a skilful and attentive workman ; but it is 
 purposely thus presented, in order that an author may 
 see at once the whole of the marks which are adopted, 
 and be enabled to write in the same manner those 
 required in his own proof.
 
 314 APPENDIX. 
 
 We may add, for the information of young writers, 
 and to deter them from making changes out of mere 
 caprice, that the transferring of these to type is a 
 matter of considerable labor ; and that alterations, 
 when numerous, will form a rather heavy item in the 
 printer's bill. To save, however, as much of this 
 expense as possible, an author may, by a little ma- 
 noeuvring, often substitute, hi room of what he erases, 
 just as much as would fill up the space, or expunge as 
 great an amount of matter as he wishes to introduce. 
 
 Having finished the reading and correcting of his 
 proof-sheet, the author should write on the lower 
 margin of the last page, either the words " Revise 
 wanted," indicating that he must have another proof, 
 in order to compare it with the former, and to see 
 whether all the pages are correct, before being printed ; 
 or the term " Press," showing that, after the alterations 
 have been made in the metal, and read again by the 
 office proof-reader from another impression, there will 
 be no occasion for himself to see a revise, but that the 
 form of pages may be put to press. This impression is 
 usually termed a " Press-proof," and so marked at the 
 top of the first page.. 
 
 When the form has gone to press, the first fair- 
 printed sheet, called a " Revise," is shown to the 
 proof-reader, who compares it with the press-proof, 
 and cursorily examines the folios, the foot-lines, and 
 the sides of the pages, to ascertain whether any types 
 have fallen out or been broken, or any " bites " have 
 been made, in the last processes. 
 
 All the operations described may be regarded as 
 only one of the stages made in the progress of a work
 
 HINTS ON PliOOF-READING. 315 
 
 through the press. The same course has to be per- 
 formed with the remainder of the book, before it meets 
 the approving smile, the condemnatory voice, or the 
 silent indifference, of the mighty Public, before it 
 shine as a beautiful and benignant sun in the firmament 
 of literature, or glimmer like a taper through its little 
 night, shedding for a moment its delusive rays on the 
 step of the benighted traveller, but soon to be extin- 
 guished and forgotten amid the effulgence of meridian 
 day. 
 
 In these suggestions we have said nothing of the 
 processes adopted in correcting a proof taken from 
 reprinted, magazine, or newspaper matter. But it 
 will be easy for the printer to modify these in accord 
 ance with the nature of the work, with the views of 
 parties having over it literary control, or with the 
 amount of time given foi bringing out the publication 
 This much, however, may be said, in justice to authors 
 who have no opportunity of superintending the press, 
 that the same degree of accuracy should be ensured in 
 the second and following editions of their books as> 
 in the first ; and, in relation to journals, that if an 
 article, poem, or advertisement is worth the perusal of 
 the public, it surely deserves to be exhibited in a form 
 not altogether disgraceful to taste and letters.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 VIII. EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS. 
 
 To enable the young author to write his corrections 
 in the proof-sheet, so as to be readily seen and under- 
 stood by the compositor, we now enter on an explana- 
 tion of the marks used in pages 320-21, and to which 
 some allusions were made in the preceding article : 
 
 In page 269, it is said that capital letters are indicated by three 
 horizontal lines drawn beneath a word meant to be so printed ; small 
 capitals, by two lines; and Italics, by one. This is illustrated in 
 page 320, in the title of the piece, the printed lines numbered 1, 
 23. and the last line ; where the abbreviated words, Caj>s., S. Caps., 
 and /tot, are written in the margin, exactly opposite where the 
 corrections aie to be made in type. 
 
 If a word or phrase has been erroneously put in capitals or small 
 capitals, instead of common letters, the change is indicated by 
 writing in the margin, as in No. 2, the abbreviation /. c. (for " lower- 
 case letters "). 
 
 To correct a wrong letter, point, or other character, a line is 
 drawn slopingly through it; to correct a wrong word or phrase or 
 two wrong letters, across them; and the right letter, point, word, 
 or phrase, or the appropriate mark, is written in the margin, oppo- 
 site the error. See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 911, 14, 1619, 27, 29. 
 
 When letters, words, points, characters, or spaces have been 
 omitted, a caret is put where they are to be introduced ; the correc- 
 tions, as before, being written in the margin. See Nos, 3, 4, 7, 13, 
 16, 17, 24, 27. 
 
 A line drawn in a sloping direction from right to left is put after 
 all the points written in the margin; with the exception of the 
 period, which is placed within a circle, and of the apostrophe,
 
 EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS. 317 
 
 reference-marks, and superiors, which are inserted in a figure resem- 
 bling a capital V. The lines are used to separate one mark from 
 another with which it is unconnected, or to attract the eye to cor- 
 rections, which, from their smallness, are liable to be overlooked. 
 See Nos. 2, 9, 13, 1617, 29. 
 
 If a space is wanting between two words, a mark like that oppo- 
 site Nos. 3 and 27 is put in the margin. But, if letters that should 
 join are separated, the mark ^, must be used, both under them and 
 in the margin opposite, agreeably to No. 28. 
 
 A little line is written uader letters or other printed charactsrs 
 that are inverted, broken, or dirty, and also under those which are 
 too large or too small, as in Nos. 5 and 24. To draw attention to an 
 inverted letter, a mark resembling the figure 9, but sloped, is written 
 in the margin, No. 6 ; to a bad or foul type, a small cross, like an 
 Italic x, No. 24 ; and to a character of an improper size, the abbre- 
 viation w.f., denoting a wrong font, No. 25. 
 
 When a word, character, or point is erased, a d, written with a 
 line through it from the top, similar to that opposite Nos. 6, 11, 17, 
 22, 29, and appropriately called a dele i" strike out"), is placed in 
 the margin. 
 
 If a space sticks up between two words, a mark like a double 
 dagger should be put opposite, as in No. 19. 
 
 Should two words be transposed, note the mistake by drawing a 
 line over the first word, and continuing it under the second ; and by 
 placing the abbreviation tr. ("transpose") in the margin, as in 
 No. 21. If the misplaced word belongs to a different line of print, 
 encircle the word, and draw a line from it to the place where it 
 should be inserted. When several words are to be transposed, indi- 
 cate the order by placing the figures 1, 2, 3, &c., over them, and by 
 drawing a line under them; tr. being, as in the other modes of 
 transposition, written in the margin. 
 
 Should a character, word, or phrase be struck out that is after- 
 wards approved of, dots are placed under it, and the Latin direction 
 Stet (" let it stand or remain") placed in the margin, as in No. 23. 
 
 When lines of print are close that should be separate, write in 
 the margin the tcr.n Lead or Leads, according to Nos. 13, 14; and, 
 when lines are apart that should be close, say, Dtle lead, using,
 
 318 APPENDIX. 
 
 however, the peculiar mark for the first of these words, in accord- 
 ance with Nos. 23, 24. 
 
 When several words or lines have been left out, they should be 
 written at the side, top, or bottom of the page, as is most convenient, 
 and a line drawn from the place where they are to be introduced, to 
 the first word of the written phrase or passage, as exemplified in 
 No. 24. But, if more matter is to be inserted than can be contained 
 in the margin, the direction See Copy and the folio of the manuscript 
 should be written within a circle, opposite the line where the omis- 
 sion has been made. 
 
 In the left-hand margin of Nos. 8 and 9 occurs the direction, No 
 break ; and, in that of No. 12, the mark ^f . The former denotes that 
 the sentences between which a line is drawn are to be put in one 
 and the same paragraph ; and the latter, that the passage preceded 
 by the crotchet [ is to begin a new paragraph. The last mark is 
 also used for a different purpose, as in No. 1, where the first word 
 is to be brought to the commencement of the line, without being 
 indented. 
 
 If a line is irregularly spaced, as in No. 26, that is, if some 
 of the words are too close, and others too wide apart, let the 
 direction Space better be written opposite, in the margin. 
 
 When the reader of the proof-sheet is doubtful as to the spelling 
 of any word, or the correctness of any expression, he writes on the 
 opposite margin the abbreviation Qy. (for query), with his sugges- 
 tion ; as exemplified in No. 26, where the e in the first syllable of 
 Shakspeare's name is queried, and the suggestion made, by the 
 appropriate mark, that the letter be deled, or struck out 
 
 Crooked letters or words are noticed, as in Nos. 28 30, by means 
 of horizontal lines [ HI^Z ] drawn above and below them, and also 
 In the margin. 
 
 Corrections are usually placed in the margin to the right, as being 
 more convenient to the hand of the proof-reader and the eye of the 
 compositor; the left-hand margin being appropriated to directions 
 and marks for which there is little room in the opposite margin. AH 
 the corrections or emendations should be put in the order in which 
 they occur, as marked in Nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 11. 17, 19, 23, 24, 26, 
 27. 29.
 
 SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET.
 
 320 
 
 TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS EXEMPLIFIED. 
 
 WORTH OF HUMAN NATURE. 
 
 No 
 
 1. r | Where, unreasonable complaiuer ! dost tliou stand, and what S. ~6aAf. 
 
 .&. 
 
 10. 
 ID. 
 
 n. 
 
 11 
 
 8. 
 8t 
 
 ?5 
 
 W" 
 
 * 
 
 a 
 /n 
 
 <9 
 
 P 
 
 me/ 
 , 
 
 is around thee^K The world spreads before -TUJ:D its sublime 
 mysteries, where the thoughts ofsages lose themselves in won- 
 der ; the ocean lifts up its etrnal anthems to thine ear ; the 
 golden eun lights thy path ; the wide Ileavens stretch them- 
 selves above thee, and worlds rise upon worlds, and systems/ ty 
 beyond systems, to infinity ; and dost thou stand in. centre of " 
 all this, to complain of thy lot and place?* 
 Clfupil of that infinite teaching^ minister at Nature's great 
 alt.ir ! child of Keaven's favor ! ennobled being ! redeemed 
 creature ! -+ must thou pine in moping and envious melancholy, 
 amidst the plenitude of the whole creation : [^But thy neigh- 
 bor is above thee-^thou sayest. What then? What is that to x v^_ 
 <iW / What though the shout of millions rose around him ? "~~ 
 What is that to the million A-oiced nature that God h.ts given =/ 
 thee? That shout dies away into the vacant air; it is not his,?' ' J 
 but thy nature/ 'thy favored, sacred, and glorious nature/Js 
 thine i-it- is the reality, to which praise is but a fleeting breath. 
 Thou~canst meditate the things which ppplouoc but cele- 
 brates. ^ ^_ 
 
 In that thou art a man, thou ar t [exalted\innnitely)above what 
 any man can be, in that -tktrt- he is praised. 1 would rather be 
 the humblest -gartn in the world, than barely be thought greater 
 
 than the greatest.^ Not one of the crowds that listened to ~*~ 
 the eloquence /of Demosthenes and Cicero, not one who has 
 bent with admiration over the pages of Homer and Shake^ 
 27. 1 spearey-oiot/one who followed in the train of Caesar or of 
 
 ~ ) I th 
 
 would part with the humblest power of thought, 
 that is echoing over the worloVand through 
 
 Dewey. 
 
 n, f 
 
 ,- 
 rCmq,.
 
 321 
 PRECEDING PAGE AFTER CORRECTION. 
 
 WORTH OF HUMAN NATURE. 
 
 WHEUE, unreasonable complainer ! dost thou stand, and what 
 is around thee ? The world spreads before thee its sublime 
 mysteries, where the thoughts of sages lose themselves in won- 
 der ; the ocean lifts up its eternal anthems to thine ear ; the 
 golden sun lights thy path ; the wide heavens stretch them- 
 selves above thee, and worlds rise upon worlds, and systems 
 beyond systems, to infinity ; and dost thou stand in the centre 
 of all this, to complain of thy lot and place? Pupil of that 
 infinite teaching ! minister at Nature's great altar ! child of 
 Heaven's favor ! ennobled being ! redeemed creature ! must 
 thou pine in sullen and envious melancholy, amidst the pleni- 
 tude of t'ue whole creation ? 
 
 " But thy neighbor is above thee," thou sayest. What then ? 
 What is that to thee ? What though the shout of millions rose 
 around him ? What is that to the million-voiced nature that 
 God has given theet That shout dies away into the vacant 
 air ; it is not his : but thy nature thy favored, sacred, and 
 glorious nature is thine. It is the reality, to which praise is 
 but a fleeting breath. Thou canst meditate the things which 
 applause but celebrates. 
 
 In that thou art a man, thou art infinitely exalted above what 
 any man can be, in that he is praised. I would rather be 
 the humblest man in the world, than barely be thought greater 
 than the greatest. The beggar is greater as a man, than is the 
 man merely as a king. Not one of the crowds that listened to 
 the eloquence of Demosthenes and Cicero, not one who has 
 bent with admiration over the pages of Homer and Shak- 
 speare, not one who followed in the train of Caesar or of 
 Napoleon, would part with the humblest power of thought, 
 for all the fame that is echoing over the world and through 
 the ages. 
 
 DBWXT. 
 
 31
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abbreviations require periods after 
 them, 148, 149. Remarks on the 
 Tarious modes of forming, 272-276. 
 List of, 277-300. Words in copy, 
 not meant to be printed aa abbre- 
 viations, should be written in full, 
 304. 
 
 " Above all," as an adverbial phrase, 
 pointed with a comma, 72, a. 
 
 Absolute phrases, 69, 70. 
 
 Accents, 239, X. 
 
 " Accordingly," 72, a. 
 
 Adjectives, two, without a conjunc- 
 tion between them, 33, 34, d g. 
 
 Adjectives in a series, 38, e, f. Con- 
 solidated with nouns, 215. 
 
 Adjectival phrases, 22, VI. ; 59, 60, 
 jm ; 69, 70. 
 
 Adverbs, 29, d ; 30, j ; 83, d ; 34, , j ; 
 88, e, f; 52, g 1 ; 59, j 72-74 ; 217, 
 2 i and j. 
 
 Adverbial phrases, 22, VI. ; 72-74. 
 
 Affirmative words quoted in an in- 
 terrogative form, 156, /. Quoted 
 in an exclamatory form, 161, e. 
 
 " Ajtain," with or without a comma, 
 in accordance with the connection, 
 72, a, b. Followed by a colon, 
 when referring to several sentences, 
 131, e. 
 
 Algebraic signs, list of, 301. 
 
 " Also," 73, e. 
 
 u And," between two words of the 
 same part of speech, 28-30. Oc- 
 curring in a series of words, 37, 38. 
 Between phrases or clauses in the 
 same construction, 98, 99. Be- 
 
 tween two short clauses, a verb 
 understood in the last, 104, c. 
 Between two clauses, the last be- 
 ing added as an explanation, 113, 
 114. Beginning sentences, 143, e, 
 
 Antithetic or contrasted words and 
 expressions, 45-47 ; 79, /; 104,105; 
 113, 114. 
 
 Apostrophe, rules and remarks on 
 the, with exercises, 198-207. Im- 
 properly used in certain abbrevia- 
 tions, 149, e ,- 103, 199, cf; 276. 
 Marks the possessive case, 204, 205 ; 
 216. 
 
 Appellations of God and Christ, ini- 
 tial letters in the, 259, 260. 
 
 Appellatives before and after proper 
 names, initials of, 262, e. 
 
 Apposition, 23, X.; 41-43; 213. 
 
 Apprentices to the printing-businesi 
 counselled, 11. 
 
 Arabic figures, how pointed, 112; 
 149, e ; 150, IV Dash supplying 
 the place of, 195. Plurals of, how 
 formed, 198. b. Small, or superi- 
 ors, for references, 240. 
 
 Arithmetic, the points to be used in 
 books of, 141, a. 
 
 Arithmetical signs, 301. 
 
 " As," signifying in the manner 
 which, 89, c ; 105, d. 
 
 " As as," " as so," the correla- 
 tives, 93, a ; 04, e. 
 
 " As well as," between two words 
 mutually related, 45, e. Between 
 a word and a phrase, or between 
 two phrases, 46, e. 
 
 " As yet," and similar phrases, 72, a
 
 324 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 - AB," " namely," &c., 128; 138, d. 
 
 Asterisk, the uses of the, 240. The 
 three asterisks, 237, V. 
 
 Astronomical characters, list of, 302. 
 
 "At present,'' 72, a. 
 
 Authors, the duty of, to point their 
 manuscripts well, 7, 8; 304, 305. 
 Are assisted iu composition by an 
 acquaintance with the art of punc- 
 tuation, 7, 8. If considerate, they 
 prepare " copy " so as to be per- 
 fectly legible, 304-306. And cor- 
 rect the proof-sheets with all pos- 
 sible care, adopting the precise 
 marks used by printers, 312. 313. 
 
 B. 
 
 ' Because," the comma sometimes 
 omitted before, 89, e. 
 
 " Besides," used as a preposition or 
 a conjunction, 74, j. 
 
 Rible references, how pointed, 100, j ; 
 150, V., 1; 151, ft, e. Chapters of 
 . the Bible referred to by numeral 
 letters, 151, ft. 
 
 Blank at the beginning of a poetical 
 quotation, when the first portion 
 is omitted, 195, ft. 
 
 Blunders in sense caused by a habit 
 of careless punctuation, 3-5, 18. 
 In printing, often caused by ille- 
 gible writing, 306. 
 
 Books, terms relating to, 270, 271. 
 Captions, subheads, sideheads, and 
 running titles, 270. Signatures, 
 and names of sizes of volumes. 271. 
 
 " Boro'," better spelled out, 199, d. 
 
 " Both and," the correlatives, 29, 
 g ; 94, A. 
 
 Brace, for what purpose used, 231 
 
 Brackets, the manner of applying 
 them, 170, j; 235. 
 
 Broken sentences, 175. 
 
 " Brothers " in a firm, 41, c. 
 
 ' But," between two words con- 
 trasted or mutually related, 4- r >. c. 
 
 Between a word and a phrase, ot 
 between two phrases. i6, e. Be- 
 tween two short clauses, in the 
 last of which a verb is understood, 
 104, c. Between two clauses, the 
 latter being added by way of con- 
 trast, 113. 114. Commencing sen- 
 tences, 142, 143. In the sense cf 
 etcept, 79, if. 
 
 " But also," 35, 1. 
 
 " But has," meaning as not to hate, 
 93,6. 
 
 C. 
 
 Capitals, their uses and applications, 
 257-269. Used as reference-siirna 
 and dominical letters, 149, /. The 
 points put alter representative or 
 numeral capitals, 149, /; 151, a. 
 Capitals used instead of Arabic 
 figures, 150, V , 2; 26-3, XII. In 
 titlepages, inscriptions, &c., 268, 
 XIII. Words wholly in capitals 
 and final! capitals, how distin- 
 guished in manuscript, 269. 
 
 Captions, or headings, 147, 270. 
 
 Caret, its form and use, 237, VI. : 304. 
 
 Catalogues, words or phrases in. of- 
 ten followed by a period, 147. 
 Names omitted in. sometimes sup- 
 plied by two commas or by long 
 dashes, 236, III., and 238, VIII. 
 Leaders in, 238, IX. Abbrevia- 
 tions serviceable in, 272. 
 
 " Catholic," the initial letter of, 
 265, /. 
 
 Cedilla, the, 239, XH. 
 
 Change of subject, abrupt, preceded 
 by a dash, 175. 
 
 Chanting service in the Liturgy, s 
 colon inserted in each verse of, 141. 
 
 " Chapter," a dash commonly put 
 after the word and its numeral, 
 194, d. 
 
 Chapters of the Bible referred to by 
 numeral letters. 150, V., 1; 151, 6 
 
 " Church," initial of, 265. e.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 325 
 
 Clauses, definition of, 21, V. Rela- 
 tive, 67-60. Parenthetical or in- 
 termediate, 64. Vocative, 68. One 
 clause depending on another, 89, 
 90 Correlative, 93, 94. In the 
 same construction, 98; 100, k, I. 
 One having a verb understood, 
 104, 105. Clauses preceding quo- 
 tations or remarks, 108, 109 ; 138. 
 United by conjunctions, 113, 114. 
 Divisible into simpler portions, 
 100, 1 ; 116, 117. Series of, having 
 a common dependence, 120, 121. 
 Complete, but followed by a re- 
 mark, inference, or illustration, 
 130, 131. Constituting members, 
 134, 135. Interrogative, 155, 156. 
 Exclamatory, 159-161. In paren- 
 theses, 168, 169. Concluding, on 
 which other expressions depend, 
 178. 
 Colon, rules and remarks on the, 
 
 with exercises, 129-141. 
 Comma, rules and remarks on the, 
 with exercises, 27-112. An in- 
 verted, sometimes used instead of 
 a small c, 236, II. 
 
 Commas, two, used under names to 
 avoid repetition, 236, III. In- 
 verted, double or single, as quo- 
 tation-marks, 228, 230. 
 Commencement of a broken quota- 
 tion in verse, blank at the, 195, b. 
 Complete sentences, 142, 143. 
 Compositors, a knowledge of punc- 
 tuation necessary to, in their 
 business, 8, 9. Their skill in the 
 art conducive to mental vigor, 
 9-11. 
 Compound sentences, what they are, 
 
 21, III. 
 
 Compound and derivative words, 
 distinction between, 23, XII. ; 
 208, b. 
 
 Compound words, rule and remarks 
 on, 209-218. Exceptions to the 
 
 rule, 211, 212. Compound adjec- 
 tives and compound nouns, 212. 
 Nouns and pronouns in apposi- 
 tion, 213. Nouns used adjectively, 
 
 213, 214. Numeral adjectives, 
 
 214. Adjectives consolidated with 
 nouns, 215. Names of places, 215, 
 216. The possessive case, 216, 21 7 . 
 Compound and other phrases, 217, 
 218. Exercises on, 221-223. 
 
 Conjoined members of sentences, 
 
 134, 135. 
 
 Conjunctions to be pointed, when 
 separated by other words from the 
 parts to which they belong, 65, d. 
 Joining words of the same part 
 of speech, 28-30; 37,38. Between 
 contrasted or related words and 
 phrases, 45, 46, c, e, f, g, j. Used 
 as adverbs, 73, A, i. As correla- 
 tives, 93, 94. Joining phrases and 
 words, 98, 99. Joining clauses, 
 89, 90, e, /; 104, c ; 108, 109, d, e ; 
 113,114. Joining sentences, 126, c. 
 Beginning sentences, 134, b : 143. 
 " Consequently," how punctuated, 
 
 72, a. 
 Construction of a sentence, what it 
 
 is, 23, XIII. Illustrated, 98, a. 
 Contents of books, chapters, or sec- 
 tions, how pointed, 148, b. 
 Contractions and abbreviations, re- 
 marks on, 272-276. Table of, 
 277-300. 
 Contrasted words and expressions, 
 
 45-47; 79, /; 104, 105; 113, 114. 
 Co-ordinate or consecutive clauses, 
 
 22, V. ; 100, k. 
 Cop;, hints on the preparation of, 
 
 303-307. 
 Corrector of the press, duties of a, 
 
 11, 12; 308-815. 
 
 Correlative clauses and words ex- 
 plained, 21-23, V. and IX. Then 
 punctuation, 93, 94. 
 Crotchets, or brackets, 170, j ; 235
 
 826 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dagger, the uses of the, 240. 
 
 Dash, rules and remarks on the, with 
 exercises. 174-191). What points, 
 if any, are used with dashes, 175, 
 a, *; 178, a; 182, a c; 186, 187; 
 191, c. 
 
 Djtes 79, j ; 80, fc ; 100, j ; 112 ; 149, e ; 
 150,151; 195; 275. 
 
 Decimals, pounds and shillings, how 
 pointed, 150, IV. 
 
 Definition of the art of punctuation, 
 2, 19. 
 
 Definitions of terms used in the pre- 
 sent work, 20-23. 
 
 Dependent clauses, 21. 22, V. ; 89, 90 ; 
 120, 121. 
 
 Derivative words, how distinguished 
 from compounds. 23, XII.; 208, A. 
 Prefixes in, 219, 220. Exercises on 
 derivatives and compounds, 221- 
 223. 
 
 Designations of religious and politi- 
 cal parties, initial letters of the, 
 263, a; 265, e A. 
 
 " Devil " and " devils," the initials 
 of, 262. a. 
 
 Diaeresis, use of the, 200, g ; 219, a ; 
 239, XI. 
 
 " Divine," " Divine Being," &c., 
 the initial letters of, 260, ,/. 
 
 Division of words into syllables, ac- ' 
 cording to their pronunciation, 
 224. According to their form, ; 
 derivation, or meaning, 225. At 
 ends of lines, 226. Exercises on 
 the, 226, 227. 
 
 Dominical letters, pointed not as ab- 
 breviations, but signs, 149, /. 
 ' Doubtless," 72, a, 6. 
 
 E. 
 
 Echo, or rhetorical repetition, 182, 
 183. What points are used with 
 the dash after it, 182, ac. Echo 
 of the thought, 183, e. 
 
 "Ed," "ed,"' &c., the terminations 
 of participles in verse, 199-201. 
 
 ''Either," "even," beginning a final 
 phrase. 79, c. 
 
 "Either or," the correlatives, 9- 
 g ; 94, A. 
 
 Elision of letters in poetry and dia- 
 logue, 198, 199. 
 
 Ellipsis of " namely,'' " that is," 
 &c., 191. Of letters, figures, or 
 words, 195; 238, Till. Of words 
 at the beginning of poetical quo- 
 tations, 195. b. Marks of, how 
 formed, 195: 238, VIII. 
 
 Epigrammatic sentences, 175. 
 
 " Eternal," the initial letter of, as an 
 adjective applied to God, 260, e. 
 
 " Ev'ry," the apostrophe in, 199,/. 
 
 Example, the punctuation of words 
 introducing an, 128, 138, 191. 
 A poetical, marked with inverted 
 commas. 229. g. The initial lettei 
 of the first word in an, 267, XI. 
 
 Exclamation, the note of, rule and 
 remarks on, with exercises. 159- 
 163. Sometimes improperly used, 
 159, a ; 161, d. 
 
 Exercises on the definitions. 24, 25. 
 On the comma, 31, 32; 35, 36; 39, 
 40; 43,44; 47-19; 54-56; 61-63; 
 66,67; 68; 70,71; 74-77; 80-82; 
 86-83: 90-92: 95-97; 100-103; lOa 
 -107; 109-111; 112. On the semi- 
 colon, 114, 115 ; 117,118; 122; 126, 
 127 ; 128. On the comma and the 
 semicolon, 119; 123, 124. On the 
 colon, 131-133; 136; 139,140. On 
 the semicolon and the colon, 137. 
 On the period, 143-146: 151, 152. 
 On the notes of interrogation and 
 p.xclamation. 157, 158; 162, 163; 
 164-166. On the marks of paren- 
 thesis. 171-173. On the dash, 176, 
 177; 179, 180; 183-185; 188, 189; 
 192; 195, 196. On the semicolon
 
 INDEX. 
 
 327 
 
 and dash, 181. On the dash and 
 its accompanying point, 189, 190 j 
 193. On the apostrophe, 201-203; 
 205-207. On the hyphen, 221- 
 223 : 226, 227. On marks of quota- 
 tion, 233, 234. General, 241-264. 
 
 explanation of proof-marks, 316-318. 
 
 " Expression," meaning of the word, 
 22, VII. 
 
 Expressions, inverted, 83-85. Cor- 
 relative, 93, 94. Divided into sim- 
 pler parts, 116, 117. Having a 
 common dependence, 120, 121 ; 178. 
 In the form of questions, 155, 156. 
 Indicating passion or emotion, 159 
 -161. 
 
 Extracts, consisting of words or 
 expressions, 228-231. Composed 
 of successive paragraphs, 232. 
 
 ' F. 
 ' Father," " Fathers," distinctions 
 
 made in the initials of, 260, ffi 
 
 262. c. 
 Figures, Arabic, how punctuated, 
 
 112 ; 150, IV. Not abbreviations, 
 
 149, e; 150, IV. 
 Final phrases, 70, g ; 78-80. Clauses, 
 
 89,90. 
 41 First," " finally," " for the most 
 
 part," often pointed with commas, 
 
 72. a. 
 " First Cause, Father of mercies," 
 
 the initials of, 260, f,g. 
 First word in a book, tract, &c., 
 
 258, I. In phrases or clauses 
 separately numbered, 258, I., b. 
 After a period, or note of interro- 
 gation or exclamation, 258, II. 4 ; 
 
 259, e. 
 
 " For," between two clauses, the 
 latter being explanatory, 118, 114. 
 Beginning sentences, 134, b ; 143, e. 
 
 Foreign words that have been Ang- 
 licized by contraction, 149, d. 
 
 ' Formerly," often unpointed, 72, c. 
 
 G. 
 
 General exercises, 241-254. 
 Genitive case, rule and remarks ou 
 
 the sign of the, with exercises, 
 
 204-207. 
 Geographical and geometrical signs, 
 
 301. 
 " God," when used with a capital, 
 
 and when with a small initial, 
 
 259, a. 
 
 " Gospel," initial of, varied in ac- 
 cordance with its meaning, 264, d. 
 
 Governing words, the last of two or 
 more, 33, d; 34, ; 38, g. 
 
 Grammar, some acquaintance with, 
 necessary to a knowledge of punc- 
 tuation, 20. 
 
 Grammatical punctuation different 
 from rhetorical, 15-17 ; 27, 28. 
 
 Grammatical points, rules and re- * 
 marks on the, with exercises, 26- 
 152. 
 
 Grammatical and rhetorical points, 
 rules and remarks on the, with 
 exercises, 153-196. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hand, or index, 237, IV. 
 Headings and subheads, 147, 270. 
 Heads of chapters, sections, articles, 
 
 put entirely on capitals or small 
 
 capitals, 268, XIII. 
 " Heaven," not to be printed Aeac'n, 
 
 199, /. The initial letter of, 260, rf: 
 
 262, b. 
 " Heavenly " should have a small 
 
 initial, 260, . 
 
 " Hence," " here," 73, ,/. 
 " However," the pointing of, as a 
 
 conjunction and an adverb, 73, A 
 Hints on the preparation of copy, 
 
 and on proof-reading, 303-815. 
 " Holy Spirit," " Holy Ghost," the 
 
 initials of, usually put in capitals. 
 
 260, t. 
 
 " How," 109, g; 160,6
 
 328 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hyphen, rules and remarks on the, 
 with exercises, 208-227. As used 
 in compound words, 209-218. In 
 derivatives, 219, 220. In syllabi- 
 cation, 224-226. 
 
 I. 
 
 " I.e.," " that is," 128; 138, d. 
 "If," 89, a, e; 109, g. 
 Imperative absolute, 09, b. 
 Importance of punctuation, 1-18. 
 ' In conclusion," when put at the 
 
 beginning of a paragraph, 131, e. 
 ' In fine," " in short," " in truth," 
 
 " in general," &c., usually pointed 
 
 with commas, 72, a. 
 " In order that," 90, g, h. 
 u In order to," 79, i. 
 " Indeed," as an adverb and as a 
 
 conjunction, 73, It. 
 Independent phrases, 69, 70. 
 Independent sentences, 142. 
 Index, or hand, use of the, 237, IV. 
 Indirect quotations, questions, &c., 
 
 108, e; 109, s\ 155, 6; 229, 4. 
 " Indisputably," 72, a. 
 " Infinite One," begun with capital 
 
 letters, 260, /. 
 Initial letters of words, when to be 
 
 capitalized, 257-207. 
 Inscriptions, capitals and small ca- 
 pitals used in, 268, XIII. 
 Institutions, principal words in the 
 
 rules and reports of, 261, a. 
 Interlineations to be made in copy 
 
 with great distinctness, 304. 
 Interlocutors, names of. 194, c. 
 Intermediate words, phrases, and 
 
 clauses, 22, VIII.; 46, j; 60, c; 
 
 67, 6; 58, e; 64, 65; 69, d f; 72, 
 
 XI., d; 73, ff i; 186, 187. 
 Interrogation-point, rules and re- 
 marks on the, with exercises, 
 
 164-158. 
 Inverted expressions, 83-85. When 
 
 the comma should be omitted in, 
 
 84, d ; 85, /. When insert e d , 84 , e 
 
 85, g. 
 
 Italics, how distinguished in manu- 
 script, 269. To be sparingly used. 
 22^, d f; 269, 270. 
 
 K and L. 
 
 " King," sometimes put with a capi- 
 tal AT, and sometimes with a small 
 one, 259, b; 2G1, 4. 
 
 Language, oral, rendered more ex- 
 pressive by variation of tones, 
 inflections, and pauses, 1, 2. Writ- 
 ten or printed, elucidated by 
 points, 2. 
 
 Larger portions of sentences, 116, 
 117. 
 
 Leaders, or dots, 238, IX. 
 
 Letter-writers cause trouble by their 
 loose style of pointing, 5. 
 
 Letter, syllabic,and quotation points, 
 rules and remarks on the, with 
 exercises, 197-234. 
 
 Letters of the alphabet, sometimes 
 signs, not abbreviations, 149, /. 
 Used instead of Arabic figures or 
 numeral words, 150, 151. 
 
 u Lord," " lady," initials of, 259, t>; 
 261, IV., ft. 
 
 Lunar signs, 302. 
 
 M. 
 
 " Madam," the initial of, 261, IV., 6. 
 
 Marks, not pointed as abbreviations, 
 150, IV. 
 
 Marks, miscellaneous, explanation 
 of, 235-240. Arithmetical and 
 other, 301. 
 
 Marks of parenthesis, rule and re- 
 marks on the, with exercises, 167- 
 174. 
 
 Marks of quotation, rules and obser- 
 vations on the, with exercises, 
 228-234. 
 
 Marks, typographical, explained an/1 
 exemplified, 316-321.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 Mathematical signs, 301. 
 
 Medical signs, 301. 
 
 Members of sentences, explanation 
 of, 21, IV. Conjoined, 134, 135. 
 
 Miscellaneous abbreviations, list of, 
 277-300. 
 
 Miscellaneous marks, 235-240. 
 
 ' More, greater, &c., than," the 
 correllatives, 93, a ; 94, rf, e. 
 
 " More, the, the better," the cor- 
 relatives, 93, a. 
 
 " Most High," " Highest," applied 
 to God, begin with capitals, 260, /. 
 
 N, the Spanish, 239, XIII. 
 
 " Namely," 128; 138, d; 191. 
 
 Names of the grammatical points, 
 and whence borrowed, 26. Of in- 
 terlocutors, the dash unnecessary 
 after, 194, c. Of persons and places 
 begun with capital letters, 262. 
 Compound, of places, 215. Names 
 of sizes of books, 271. 
 
 " Nature,-' 1 with a capital or a small 
 n, 260, <-. 
 
 "Neither nor," the correlatives, 
 29, if; 93, a; 94, A. 
 
 " No," when equivalent to a sen- 
 tence, 130, d. 
 
 Nominative and verb, 50-54. Abso- 
 lute or independent, 69, a, c. 
 
 Nominative clause, what it is, 21, V. ; 
 50, a. Phrase, 22, VI. ; 60, . 
 
 " Nor," between two words of the 
 game part of speech, 28, 29. In a 
 series of words, 37, 38. As a cor- 
 relative, 93, a; 94, A. Between 
 phrases and words in the same 
 construction, 98, 6; 99, g. Be- 
 tween two short clauses, a verb 
 being understood hi the latter, 
 104, c. 
 
 "Not," between two words con- 
 trasted or mutually related, 46, d. 
 Preceding the first of two con- 
 
 trasted words or phrases, 46, /, A. 
 and >'. 
 
 Notes of interrogation and exclama- 
 tion, difference between the, 154. 
 Kules and remarks on the, with 
 exercises, 155-166. 
 
 " Notwithstanding," 74, j. 
 
 Nouns in apposition, 41, 42; 213. 
 In the possessive case, 204, 205; 
 216. Compound, 212. Used ad- 
 jectively, 213. Gentile, initial* 
 of, 263, 
 
 " Now," as an adverb and a con- 
 junction, 73, A. 
 
 " Now and then," 72, o. 
 
 Number of a house or shop and the 
 name of street, 100, j. 
 
 Numeral adjectives, with respect to 
 the hyphen, 214. 
 
 Numeral figures and words, how 
 pointed, 112. 
 
 0. 
 
 " " and " oh," in what they differ, 
 and how pointed, 160, c. 
 
 Obelisk, or dagger, 240. 
 
 Objections to the study of punctua- 
 tion answered, 12-14. 
 
 Objective absolute or independent, 
 69, /. 
 
 " Of," having before it a verb under- 
 stood, 105, e. 
 
 " Of late," "of course," &c., 72, a. 
 
 " Of which," " of whom," 59, A. 
 
 Omission of " namely " or " that 
 is," 191. Of letters, figures, or 
 word* 195; 238, VIII. Of words 
 in the first line of a poetical quo- 
 tation, 195, b. 
 
 " On the one hand," " on the con- 
 trary," &c., 72, a. 
 
 " Once more," put at the beginning 
 of several sentences, 131, e. 
 
 " Or," 28-30; 87, 38; 94, A; 98-100, 
 6, g, i; 104, c. 
 
 " Orthodox," initial of. 266, g.
 
 330 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " Pagan," initial of, 265, g. 
 
 Pairs, words in, united by conjunc- 
 tions, 38, i, j; 99, i. Contrasted 
 by prepositions, 46, g. 
 
 Paragraph-mark, 240, 304. 
 
 Paragraphs sometimes connected by 
 a dash, 194, b. To be distinctly 
 marked in manuscript, 304, 305. 
 
 Parallel lines, 240, 301. 
 
 Parentheses and parenthetical ex- 
 pressions, difference between, 64, 
 a, 4. 
 
 Parenthesis, marks of, rules and ob- 
 servations on the, with exercises, 
 167-173. How points are to be 
 used with, 168, 169. 
 
 Parenthetical words and expressions, 
 22, VIII.; 46, j; 50, e; 57, *; 64, 
 65; 69, d f- 186, 187. The com- 
 mas often omitted before and after 
 short, 65, e. 
 
 Participles used relatively, 60, _; m. 
 
 Participial phrases, 22, VI. ; 69, 70. 
 
 Particulars of a series, 23, XI. ; 37, 
 38; 58, d; 98, 99; 120, 121; 125, 
 126. 
 
 Pauses marked and unmarked, 15, 
 16; 51,52. 
 
 " Perhaps," 72, e, d. 
 
 Period, rules and -remarks on the, 
 with exercises, 142-152. 
 
 Persons and places, initial letters of 
 the names of, 262. 
 
 Phrase, definition of a, 22, VI. 
 Phrases in apposition, 41-43. In 
 contrast, 45-47. Adjectival, par- 
 ticipial, and absolute, 69, 70. Ad- 
 verbial, 72. Final, 78-80; 70, g. 
 Inverted, 83-85. Having the im- 
 port of conditional clauses, 85, g; 
 89, b. In the same construction, 
 98-100. In titlepages, catalogues, 
 &c., 147. Distinguished by Ita- 
 lics or by inverted commas, 229. 
 Planetary signs and aspects, 302. 
 
 Plurals of letters of t'ue alphabet and 
 of Arabic figures, 198. b. Of nouns 
 and pronouns in the possessive 
 case, 205. All plural nouns to be 
 clearly written in copy, 304. 
 
 Poetical quotations beginning with 
 a broken line, 195. b. 
 
 Poetry requires more semicolons and 
 colons than prose, 125, b. Wlien 
 to be marked with inverted com- 
 mas, 229, g. 
 
 Points, enumeration of the, 26, 153, 
 197. 
 
 Political parties, initials of the names 
 of, 265, h. 
 
 Possessive case, 42, A; 204, 205; 216, 
 217. 
 
 " Power " not to be written puicV, 
 199, /. 
 
 Prefixes in derivative words, 219, 
 220. 
 
 Prepositions, two, joined by " and," 
 " or," " nor," 29, b. 
 
 Primitive word, what it is, 23, XII. 
 
 Pronoun A, and interjection O, 265. 
 
 Pronouns in appositional phrases, 
 41, 42. In the possessive case, 
 205, e. Referring to God and 
 Christ, 261, j. 
 
 Pronouns, relative, 57-59. 
 
 Proof-readers, a knowledge of punc- 
 tuation indispensable-to. 11, 12. 
 
 Proof-reading, hints on, 308-315. 
 
 Proof-marks explained. 316-318. Ex- 
 emplified, 320. Corrected, 321. 
 
 Proper names in apposition, 41, 42. 
 In an address, 68. In signatures 
 to documents, 147, 148. When 
 pronounced in accordance with 
 their abbreviated forms, 149, g. 
 In the possessive case, 204, 216. 
 The simples of, when to be con- 
 solidated, and when to be hy- 
 phened, 215. 216. To be correctly 
 spelled and clearly written in co- 
 py, 302.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 331 
 
 Prosopopoeia, or personification, 266, 
 2B7. 
 
 " Providence " and " proyidential," 
 the initials of, 260, d, e. 
 
 Punctuation, its importance, 1-17. 
 What it is, and what its aim, 2, 19. 
 Useful to all, but much neglected, 
 8-5. Even by authors and print- 
 ers, 5, 6. Means of acquiring a 
 knowledge of its principles, 6, 7. 
 Appeal, on its behalf, to authors, 
 journeymen compositors, appren- 
 tices, and proof-readers, 7-12. Ob- 
 jections to the study of it stated 
 and answered, 12-14. Its essen- 
 tial principles fixed, 14. Imper- 
 fectly treated by grammarians, 14. 
 Regarded by speakers in a false 
 light, 15. Confounded with rhe- 
 torical, 15, 16. Determined chiefly 
 by grammatical principles, 16, 17. 
 Illustrated, 4, 18. Exemplified in 
 general exercises, 241-254. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Qualifying words, two, without a con- 
 junction, 33, d; 34, eg. Three, 
 88, e, /. 
 
 Quantity, marks of, 239, XI. 
 
 Questions, 154-156. Indirect, 155, b. 
 Assertive in form, 156, e. Con- 
 taining an affirmative quotation, 
 156, /. Introducing quotations, 
 156,^. 
 
 Question and answer in the same 
 paragraph, 194, a. 
 
 Quotations, clauses preceding, 108; 
 138; 191, . 
 
 Quotations, read as interrogatory, 
 which were originally affirmative, 
 156, /. Indirect, 229, b ; 267, a. 
 Quotations within, 230, 231. The 
 Initial in the first word of, 267, XI. 
 
 Quotation, the marks of, rules and 
 observations on, with exercises, 
 228-234. 
 
 R. 
 
 Reader of proof-sheets, matters to b 
 attended to by the, 11, 12; SOS- 
 Sid. 
 
 Reading-boy, directions to the, In 
 reading copy aloud, 309, 310. 
 
 Reference-marks, 240. 
 
 References to books, chapters, and 
 verses in the Bible, 100, j ; 151, ft, c ; 
 274. To other works, 268, XII., a; 
 273. 
 
 Relative clause, definition of a, 21, V. 
 Explaining the antecedent, 57, 1., 
 and a, b. Restricting the ante- 
 cedent, 57, $ II., and a; 58, c. 
 Whose*antecedent consists of par- 
 ticulars, 58, d. 
 
 Relative pronoun followed by an ex- 
 pression enclosed by commas, 58, e. 
 Separated by several words from 
 its grammatical antecedent, 58, /; 
 59, jf. " Of whicb," " of whom," 
 69, h. Adverb put for a preposi- 
 tion and relative, 59, i. Relative 
 and verb understood, 59, j\ 60, 
 I, m. Present participle used for 
 a relative and verb, 60. k. The 
 relative only understood, 60, n. 
 " Such as," denoting titat which, 
 60,o. 
 
 Remarks, short, 108, 109. 
 
 Remarks formally introduced, 138. 
 
 Repetition of nominative in a differ- 
 ent form, 53, g 8, A. Of words or 
 phrases, 34, i,j; 182,183. 
 
 Representative letters, and abbrevia- 
 tions, 272-300. 
 
 " Revelation," initial of the word, 
 264, d. 
 
 Rhetorical punctuation contrasted 
 with grammatical, 15-17. 
 
 Rules and reports of societies, initial 
 letters of the principal words in, 
 261, a. 
 
 Running titles, or headlines, expl* 
 nation of, 270, III.
 
 832 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 8. 
 
 " Scriptures " and " Sacred Writ- 
 Ings," initials of, 264. c. 
 
 " Section," the dash put after the 
 number of, in a headline, 194, d. 
 
 Section-mark, 240. 
 
 Semicolon, rules and remarks on the, 
 with exercises, 113-128. 
 
 Sentences defined, 20, I. and II. ; 
 21, III. Consisting each of two 
 clauses joined by " for," " but," 
 or "and," 113. Short, slightly 
 connected in sense or in construc- 
 tion, 125, 126. Complete and in- 
 dependent, 142. Interrogative and 
 exclamatory, 154-161. * Used as 
 parentheses, 169, fh. Broken 
 and epigrammatic, 175. 
 
 Series, the term, defined, 23, XI. 
 
 Series of words of the same part of 
 speech, 37, 38. Of phrases and 
 clauses, 98, 99. Of expressions 
 haying a common dependence, 
 120,121; 178. 
 
 Short quotations or remarks, 108, 
 109; 228,229; 267, XI., a, 6. 
 
 Short sentences, slightly connected, 
 125, 126. 
 
 Sideheads and subheads, 194, 270. 
 
 Signatures to documents, how punc- 
 tuated, 147, 148. 
 
 Signatures, letters of the alphabet or 
 Arabic figures for the accommo- 
 dation of the bookbinder, 271. 
 
 Significant pauses, 175 ; 191, a. 
 
 Signs, medical, arithmetical, alge- 
 braic, and geometrical, 301. As- 
 tronomical, 302. 
 
 Simple word, what it is, 23. XII. 
 
 Simpler parts into which expressions 
 are sometimes divisible, 116, 117. 
 
 Sizes of books, names of various, 271. 
 
 " So as," " so that," the correla- ' 
 tives, 93, a; 94, e,/, g. 
 
 Societies, principal words in the rules 
 and reports of, 261, a. 
 
 " Son of man," when used of Christ 
 how to be written and printed, 
 260, A. 
 
 Songs, ballads, and hymns, often 
 pointed with semicolons and co- 
 lons, 125, b. 
 
 Specification of subjects, or names 
 of things, 128; 138, rf, e. 
 
 Specimen of proof-sheet, 320, 321. 
 
 " Spirit," " Holy Spirit," and " Spi- 
 rit of God," usually begun with 
 capital letters. 260, i. 
 
 Star, or asterisk, 240. 
 
 Stars, the three, or N.B., 237, V. 
 
 Subject and predicate, 50- 54. With 
 separable or inseparable adjuncts, 
 50, 51. Exceptions to the rule on 
 the, 52, 53. Subject repeated, 53, 
 g 8, h. The copula, or a verb in 
 the infinitive mood, 54, j. Abrupt 
 change of subject, 175. 
 
 " Such as," denoting that which, 
 60,o. 
 
 " Such as " and " such that," the 
 correlatives, 93, a; 94, /. 
 
 " Sunday " and " sabbath," the ini- 
 tials of, 263, e. 
 
 Superior figures and letters, used as 
 references, 240. 
 
 Suspension of sense, 175, 191. 
 
 Syllabication, rules and remarks on, 
 224-226. Exercises OH, 226,. 227. 
 
 T. 
 Table of abbreviations, 277-300. Of 
 
 signs and characters, 301, 302. 
 Technical expressions to be correctly 
 
 spelled and clearly written in copy, 
 
 804. 
 " Terms " and " expressions," how 
 
 used in the present work, 22, VII. 
 Terms relating to books, their sizes, 
 
 &c., 270, 271. 
 Terminations " ed," " ed," " M," 
 
 and " t," the participial, occurring 
 
 in poetry, 199, ; 200, 201.
 
 333 
 
 ' Th'," and " t'," the elision of the 
 e and o in, unnecessary, 199, /. 
 
 " That,'' denoting purpose or de- 
 sign, 90, /. Introducing a quota- 
 tion or a remark, 108, 109, a e; 
 267, a. 
 
 " That is," " to wit," &c., 72, a; 
 128; 138, d; 191. 
 
 " The more the better," 93, a. 
 
 " Then," " now," " too," " there- 
 fore," 73, A, i. 
 
 " There" and " here," 73,/. 
 
 " Though," between two words con- 
 trasted or mutually related, 45, c. 
 Preceding the first of two con- 
 trasted words or phrases, 46, /. 
 
 " Though yet," the correlatives, 
 93, a. 
 
 " Though " and " through," impro- 
 perly contracted tho\ thro 1 , 198, c. 
 
 Three stars, how used, 237. 
 
 " Till," not preceded by an apos- 
 trophe, 199, e. 
 
 Titles of eminent men, abbreviated, 
 148, a; 274. 
 
 Titles of honor and respect, initial 
 letters in, 261, 262. 
 
 Titles of books, names of ships, &c., 
 to be quoted, 229, e. 
 
 Titles of books, initials of the leading 
 words in, 264, A. 
 
 Titlepages, authors' names in, how 
 pointed, 147. Words in, displayed 
 entirely with capitals and small 
 capitals, 268, XIII. 
 
 '' To," signifying in order to, 79, h. 
 
 " To-day " and " to-morrow," com- 
 monly used without points, 74, 1. 
 
 " To proceed," " to conclude," " to 
 gum up all," introducing a para- 
 graph, 70, t; 131, . 
 
 "To wit," 128; 138, d. 
 
 Transposed or inverted expressions, 
 83-85. 
 
 Two words, of the same part of 
 speech, connected by the conjunc- 
 
 tion* " and," " or," " nor," 28-80. 
 Not connected by a conjunction, 
 33-35. 
 
 Two brief phrases, united by " and," 
 "or," "nor,"'98, ft; 99, c. 
 
 Two clauses, one depending on the 
 other, 89, 90. Joined by " and," 
 " or," " nor," " but;" a verb be- 
 ing understood. 104, c. United by 
 "for," "but," or "and," 113, 
 114. Related, but not joined by 
 a conjunction, 130, 131. 
 
 Two conjoined members of sen- 
 tences, 134, 135. 
 
 Typographical marks explained, 316 
 -318. Exemplified, 320. Correct- 
 ed, 321. 
 
 U and V. 
 
 Uses of capital letters, 257-269. 01 
 Italics, 269, 270. 
 
 Verb and its nominative, 50-64. 
 Understood, 104. 105. 
 
 " Viz." or " namely," preceding an 
 example or a specification of par- 
 ticulars, 128 ; 138, d. Understood, 
 101. 
 
 Vocative words and expressions, usu- 
 ally pointed with commas, 68, IX. 
 When denoting strong emotion, 
 with notes of exclamation, 68, a; 
 160, c. The personal pronoun in 
 vocative expressions, 42, j. 
 
 W. 
 
 " What," " when," " where," indi- 
 cating indirect questions or re- 
 marks, 109, g. 
 
 " What," used in an exclamatory 
 
 ' sense, 160, ft. 
 
 " When," " where," " wherever," 
 &c., in the latter of two clauses, 
 89, e, d. 
 
 " Whether or," the correlative!, 
 94, A. 
 
 " Without doubt," 72. o.
 
 334 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " Word,'' the initial of, when de- 
 noting either the Logos or the 
 Bible, 264, c. 
 
 Words in a series, 37, 33. In appo- 
 sition, 41-43. In contrast, or 
 having a mutual relation to others, 
 45-47. Correlative, 93, 94. Omit- 
 ted, 79, 80, j, A ; 104, 105 ; 191 ; 195. 
 Numeral, when they are to be pre- 
 ferred to Arabic figures. 112, c; 
 149, e. Specification of words, 128. 
 Words thrown obliquely into the 
 body of a sentence, 168-170. Re- 
 peated rhetorically, 182,183. Com- 
 pourd. 209-218 Derivative, 219, 
 
 220. Borrowed from a speaker or 
 an author, 228-231. Words of pri- 
 mary importance, initial letters in, 
 264,265. 
 
 Y and Z. 
 
 " Yes," " no," when equivalent to 
 sentences, how pointed, 130, it. 
 
 " Yesterday," not separated by a 
 comma, 74, /. 
 
 " Yet," between two words con- 
 trasted or mutually related, 45, e. 
 Between two contrasted words, the 
 first preceded by though, 46, / 
 
 Zodiac, signs of the, 302 
 
 THE END.
 
 25TH EDITION, PAGES xn. AND 334, 16.MO. 
 
 on Cnglisjj 
 
 DESIGNED FOR 
 
 LETTER-WRITERS, AUTHORS, PRINTERS, AND CORRECTORS OF THE 
 
 PRESS; AND FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS 
 
 AND ACADEMIES. 
 
 \VITH AN APPENDIX, 
 
 MBUOOM 
 
 Rules on the The of Capitals, a List of Abbreviations, Hints on Preparing 
 Copy and on Proof-reading, Specimen of Proof- Sheet, <fc. 
 
 BY JOHN WILSOX. 
 
 NOTICES OF PRECEDING EDITIONS. 
 
 This Is undoubtedly the most complete work yet published on the subject, 
 both as regards the amount of instruction convey 1. and the lucid arrange- 
 ment adopted ; and we cannot commend it too highly for general use, the 
 more especially as the typographical execution of the work ifi so superior. 
 Norton's Literary Gaiettc for March 15, 1855. 
 
 Rarely hare we seen a book so attractive to the eye. Its rules of punctua- 
 tion are, in the main, accurate and perspicuous, far superior to any other 
 system of directions which we have read on this theme. The volume contains 
 much information on the minutia of literature, with which every scholar 
 ought to be familiar, but of which many eminent authors are lamentably 
 ignorant. We know not where so many particulars relating to the Jiiuah of 
 copy for the press can be learned. A study of this volume would save youth- 
 ful scholars from many careless and uncouth habits of writing. The spirit 
 and genius of the English language are intimately connected with some of the 
 questions involved in an accurate punctuation. lie who can punctuate accu- 
 rately can write perspicuously. Bibliuttieca Sacra. April, 1855. 
 
 A treatise that proposes to familiarize the principles of Punctuation, easily 
 accessible in price and readily intelligible in its composition, cannot be other 
 than welcome to all who write or print; and Mr. Wilson's is certainly the 
 most comprehensive and the most instructive that has come umler our 
 observation. ... It is prepared with great care and good judgment, and no 
 printing-office ought to be without it; as, from its simple arrangement, the 
 compositor and reader will be enabled in an iustant to solve any doubt tlias 
 may arise in the course of their labors. In schools and families, it cannot 
 fail to be useful, equally to teacher and pupil ; and even the accomplished 
 author may read it with advantage. Mr. Wilson has done good service to 
 literature by this little volume ; and we thank him for it. London Critic
 
 2 NOTICES OF 
 
 Tt is an excellent work for schools and academies, and for those who would 
 become self-taught. Christian Freeman. 
 
 \Ve have never before met with any work on Punctuation which gave us 
 so great satisfaction as this. The Student. 
 
 The best book [on Punctuation] to be recommended is this by Mr. WiUon : 
 thsre is no other so elaborate and trustworthy. Ladies' 1 Repository. 
 
 This is a valuable manual. . . . The work of Mr. Wilson is well calculated 
 to supply the want, which has long been felt to exist, of a suitable text-bock 
 upon Punctuation. Bogtun Daily Journal. 
 
 We advise any one, who wishes to understand thoroughly the whole art 
 and mystery of Punctuation and Proof-reading, to get this volume. Ciira- 
 tian Rririater. 
 
 A more elegantly printed book than this little volume it would be difficult 
 to find. Mr. AVilson has evidently bestowed upon it the best workmanship 
 of his hand, as well as of his mind. Boston Post. 
 
 This treatise of Mr. Wilson, a thorough practical printer, is the but we 
 have ever seen, and in fact the only one we have ever seen worth having. 
 C/i rtinotype. 
 
 \Ve invite attention to this truly admirable work. It is one which no 
 printer can afford to want, while to ordinary English scholars its importance 
 is incalculable. Belfast (Ire. ) News- Letter . 
 
 A work which should be in the possession of every student who aspires 
 even, to write a letter. ... It is a perfect guide in all matters covered by the 
 title. Water-ciLre Journal. 
 
 This is a useful and valuable work on English Punctuation, and every one 
 can read it with profit and pleasure. . . . The subject is treated in an agreeable, 
 Instructive, and entertaining manner. Boston Daily Atlas. 
 
 A very useful and carefully executed treatise on a subject justly claiming 
 attention, and commonly too mnch neglected. . . . The classes are so large 
 who feel their want of this kind of instruction, that we must anticipate for 
 our author the success which its merits deserve. London Inquirer. 
 
 This work seems to us worthy of being in the hands of every letter-writer, 
 author, printer, editor, and teacher. . . . The work of Mr. Wilson shows much 
 familiarity with the principles of language, and the examples with which he 
 Illustrates his text are well chosen. Springfield Daily Republican . 
 
 This is a very neatly printed volume, on a subject much neglected, anil 
 very imperfectly understood, even by accomplished scholars. . . . This treatise 
 appears to have been prepared with great care and accuracy, and deserves a 
 circulation as wide as the country. Liberator. 
 
 From a lareful examination of the work, we hesitate not to pronounce it 
 one of the most valuable treatises in the English language. We trust it will 
 be adopted as a text-book in all the institutions in the country. Prisoner*' 
 Friend.
 
 TREATISE ON PUNCTUATION 3 
 
 If every author and letter-writer could bo put In possession of this perfect 
 little work, printers and correctors of the press would canonize Mr. Wilson 
 forthwith; for it would create a new era in their profession. Monthly Reli- 
 gious Jllagaiine. 
 
 The whole system is so simply and thoroughly explained in this book of 
 Mr. Wilson's, that any one may clearly comprehend the whole system of 
 Punctuation by a careful perusal and study of this book. We warmly recom- 
 mend it to all persons. Newport Daily .Veics. 
 
 This very excellent work should be in the hands of every aspirant to a 
 true and correct method of English Punctuation. . . . The Appendix and 
 Hints on Proof-reading, with an exemplification of typographical marks, are 
 alone worth the price of the book. Jfew- York Day-book, 
 
 My dear Sir, I have carefully read your volume on English Punctuation, 
 and consider it a most excellent treatise. It places the whole subject upon 
 which you write on a surer basis than any work I have ever before seen. 
 Extract of a Letter from tlie Rev. R. C. H'atcrston. 
 
 Dear Sir, Many thanks for your excellent "Treatise on English Punc- 
 tuation." We have long needed a work which could show the philosophy 
 and common sense of this department of letters. Your book meets the want 
 fully. It is a most scholar-like production, and I hope eveiy writer will be 
 familiar with it. Extract of a Letter from the Rev. Charles Brooks. 
 
 We remember purchasing an English edition of this work some years 
 since, aud prizing it so highly that we tried several times, without success, 
 to replace it, after it had disappeared from our collection. . . . Not only to 
 professional authors, teachers, and letter-writers, but to the intelligent pub 
 lie at large, this work especially commends itself. Boston Transcript. 
 
 . . . Such was the experience, also, of a graduate from our excellent Uui- 
 Territy, who said that he had acquired more useful hints on Punctuation from 
 a few moments given to the perusal of this book in the intervals of leisure, 
 than he had from all the attention, voluntary or acquired, of an entire course 
 of collegiate study. Evening Traveller. 
 
 It contains all the necessary directions for self-taught writers mid editors, 
 a very large class in this country, and is a book of a kind absolutely necessary 
 to be read by every type-setter and proof-reader who intends to be master of 
 his art. . . . Every person, who intends publishing his own productions or 
 those of others, should have Mr. Wilson's book upon his writing-desk. 
 American Whig Review. 
 
 It is the best book on the subject with which we are acquainted. The 
 rules are deduced from the best usage, and uuiiiincud themselves to the 
 judgment of practical men, and men of taste. The directions for Proof- 
 reading and Correcting, appended to the main work, are concise and clear. 
 . . . We would recommend to every person, who in public or private writes 
 the English language, to procuro a copy of this treatise. Qui/tcy Patriot
 
 4 NOTICES. 
 
 Dear Sir, We have used your " Treatise on Punctuation " in my school 
 for more than two years, as the text-book on that subject. I feel it due to 
 you to say, that it has given me great satisfaction. In its arrangement, its 
 fulness, in the great number of exercises, and the demand which they make 
 on the learner for study, and in its completeness, your work seems to me to 
 be all that could be desired in such a treatise. Frvm JV. Tilling/last, Eaq., 
 Principal of the Normal School at Bridvewatcr, Jan. 18, 1851. 
 
 Our educational library has lately been enriched by a copy of Wilson 's 
 " Treatise on English Punctuation." We have read it through with great 
 pleasure, and find little or nothing in it opposed to our own notions, but 
 much that will be useful to us and to every teacher and author. . . . The 
 definitions are generally clear and simple, and the exercises such :is are appro- 
 priate and sufficient: any one of ordinary intelligence can understand them. 
 Besides valuable instruction in regard to Punctuation, there is much 
 other matter, which none but a practised proof-reader could give. Cuminon- 
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 llr. Wilson has just issued another volume, to be very earnestly recom- 
 mended to all. . . . The Appendix, among other useful matter, contains capital 
 and much-needed remarks and directions on Proof-reading. We have heard 
 good judges speak of this manual as an " authority ; " and such is our own 
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 would follow in all manner of manuscripts! what songs of joy would resound 
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 from the press. . . . All necessary information upon this important subject 
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 " Treatise on Punctuation." It is an exceedingly valuable book : and a copy 
 of it should be at the service of every one who is directly or indirectly inte- 
 rested in the large subject of which it treats. all who have to write imporDint 
 letters, records, and documents, as well as those who write for the press . . . 
 Its title is a very full exposition oi its contents ; and a reader of it will b 
 equally surprised and instructed by the amount of knowledge which its peru- 
 sal will impart. We heartily commend it to the masters and pupils of all our 
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