B 4 ^^& 753 COAMEF^CIA :)GRAPHY ^- •" a^^ c J / -^ ^> U^-«^-'^^^ ''^ iRAPHY US A.D. .NY EEFEBENCE CHART OF THE WORLD'S RESOLBCES, PliODLXTIONS, AJIB TRADE. A COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR ACADEMIES, HIGH SCHOOLS AND BUSINESS COLLEGES JOHN N. TILDEN, M.A., M.D. AUTHOR OF " A GKAMMAR SCHOOL OEOCiRAPHY %El'-lSED AND ENLAKGED EDITION 1900 THOS. R. SHEWELL &. COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK , CHICAGO . A COMMERCIAL CEOGRAPHY FOR ACADEMIES, HIGH SCHOOLS AND BUSINESS COLLEGES BY JOHN N. TILDEN, M.A., M.D. AUlllnR OF " A GRAMMAK SCHOOL GEOCRAPHV " %EyiSED AND ENLARGED EDITION 1900 THOS. R. SHEWELL & COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO .. Copyright, l.sin. 1S92. IWlfl, lUiiO. by John N. Tildes. , NoriBooU ?i)rtBB 4 ^. CtlshiuK & C'). — BerwicV PREFACE A LARGK proportion of boys in schools expect to enter business life. Com- paratively few have opportunity for the extended training given by a college course, and must depend upon the academy, the high school, or the commercial school for their preparation. The problem is to give boys, having a limited time at their command, the training and knowledge that will be of the greatest practical value in a commercial life. A good knowledge of what are known as fundamental branches is necessary; but, beyond these, it has been difficult to decide what branches of instruction will prove of greatest practical service. Political economy, civics, physics, chemistry, history, and the modern languages are helpful toward training the mind ; but, if the languages be excepted, the branches named do not directly give the practical results that are so much needed. If some facts bearing upon the active commercial questions of the day could be brought within the scope of a text-book, it would seem to supply a want. Among these questions are, the routes and growth of commerce, — the production- centres and the markets of the world, — waterways and railways, and the increase of commerce as related to the growth of cities. The staple articles of commerce, their relative value and importance, would also deserve attention. With a view of partly, at least, fulfilling this object, I have prepared this text- book of Commercial Geography. The need of such a book has been felt in my own school work, and it is hoped that other teachers may find it useful in giving pupils some ideas of the magnitude of the wiuliTs i.roduction, in showing the interdei^'u- dence of nations for the necessities as well as the luxuries of life; and in presenting many facts of practical value relating to commerce. While Commercial Geography deals mainly with the interchange of commercial products, it is also essential that the student should know something about the countries and localities where the raw materials are found, liow the latter are obtained, what the processes of manufacture are, how interchange is effected, and what ratio home consumption bears to export. All these are important questions, that must be studied if practically useful knowledge is to be assimilated. 285385 A due sense of perspective has dictated that the staple commodities wliich direct the world's commerce should receive that greater share of attention which would be impossible were any exhaustive treatment of the countless products of many lands to be attempted. The salient and vital facts which concern man's activities are, after all, but few in number. The merely geographical order, which is necessary in treating of the physical and political aspects of the countries of the world, has here yielded place to a treatment of them in the order of the importance of their existing commerce ivith the United States. The industries and commerce of our own country receive, for obvious reasons, much fuller consideration than is given to those of any other country; and following this chapter, in their order, are the chapters on Great Britain, Germany, France, Brazil, etc. In each of these the colonies and the home country are appropriately brought together. To teachers using this book, I would recommend frequent reference to descrip- tive geography, and the bringing to the notice of classes, articles from the current press bearing upon commerce, the chief productions of the world, and allied topics. Brief, but comprehensive re'view chapters on mathematical, physical, and de- scriptive geography are given, so that the foundation-work for the study of Commer- cial Geography may be well laid. la connection with the text, and in smaller type, are presented interesting details, containing information, not so nuicli for memorizing, as to illustrate the current lesson. This feature, serving as it does to separate the essential from the non-essential, will at once commend itself to the class-teacher. Geography, both political and commercial, has been changing materially during the closing years of the century, so that it has seemed best to thoroughly revise this work to agree with the latest available statistics and conditions of trade. Attention is called to the fact that since the first edition of this work was issued the United States has taken the lead among nations in the production of coal, steel, and iron, in addition to her former and continued preeminence in the production of cotton and food products. JOHN N. TILDKN. Pekkskii.i,. N.Y., July, I'JOU. COXTEXTS INTRODUCTION. C'llAl'TKK C'HArTKR rnEXSED Rkviei XI) roLITIl AI, (! ):\niF.i;rK and Cummei Hk; CHAPTER III. CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER VI. I'm: Rkpublic of the Uxited States . 1. Raw Products .... 2. Manufactures .... 3. Commerce .... 4. Seven Principal Seaports . T). Minor Coast Cities . G. Nine Lake Ports .... 7. Ten River Ports . 8. Other Cities and Towns 9. Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, 1- -GltEAT BrITAIX ami IIi:it ('oLl)XIES 1. * England and ^Vak's 2. Scotland .'!. Ireland ..... 4. British Possessions in Asia . .">. P>ritish Possessions in Australasia (1. British Possessions in America . 7. British Possessions in Africa . The Gekmax Empire .... Tiii; IvixoDOM OF The Netherlaxos Colonial Possessions of The Nethei CHAPTER VII. — The REPrni.ic or Braz CHAPTER VIII.— The Kixoix.m ok 1!kl. CHAPTER IX. — The Kixgdom ok Italy CHAPTER X. — The Republic of Me-xki ,sc> .setroit, Mich., the variation is almost nothing ; midway between New York and Liverpool it is nearly thirty-five degrees west. The Chinese were familiar with the properties of the lodestone from very early times, but the magnetic needle was little known to Western nations till the fourteenth century. Before that time 12 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY CIRCLES OF THE EARTH. — Circles of the earth are imaginary lines passing around it. Un maps and globes they are real lines. The equator is a great circle passing east and west around the earth at a distance midway from tlie poles. It divides the earth into northern and southern hemi- spheres. The equator passes through Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra, Zanzibar, Soudan, and Lower Guinea. Parallels are small circles parallel to the equator. They mark distances north or south from the equator. Meridian circles are great circles passing through the poles of the earth and are perpendicular to the equator. They mark distances east or west of some meridian taken as a standard. A meridian is half a meridian circle, and terminates at the poles. The ecliptic is a great circle passing around the earth, making an angle of 23i-° with the equator. As the earth turns on its axis from west to east, one-half its surface is illumi- nated at one time by the sun. The boundary line of the illuminated portion is called the circle of illumination, or dai/ circle. It is therefore a great circle, and moves from east to west as the day advances. The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle, 23^° north of the equator. The Tropic of Capricorn is a small circle 2."^° south of the equator. The Arctic Circle is a small circle 23^° from the north pole. The Antarctic Circle is a small circle 23^° from the south pole. The distance of the Arctic circle from the equator is 4,60.") common miles. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. — The location of a place on the earth's surface is determined by its distance from two fixed lines perpendicular to each other. The equator is taken as one of the lines ; a standard meridian as the other. Latitude is distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. Places are in north or in south latitude according as they are north or south of the equator. Places on the equator have no latitude. The length of a degree of latitude is 60 geogi-aphical or nautical miles, and averages about 69 common or statute miles. The length of a degree of latitude varies. The flattening of the earth at the poles causes the length of a degree to increase as we go from the equator toward the poles. The length of a degree of latitude varies, therefore, from 68.7 to 69.4 statute miles. All places situated on the same parallel have the same length of day. . Longitude is the distance (in degrees, minutes, and seconds) east or west of an established meridian. The longitude of anj^ place on the prime meridian is 0. Longitude is measured 180° east or west of the prime meridian.' The prime the most extended voyages made by European sailors were those to the East Indies, around the Cape of Good Hope. To a great extent, these were coastwise voyages; but with the introduction of the mariner's compass navigators were able to make bolder ventures, and the great historic ocean voyages of discovery speedily followed. The improved chronometer now carried by all sea-going ships has also greatly contributed to the precision and safety of modern navig.^tion. ' For the convenience of navigators and astronomers, the custom of estimating longitude from 0° to 3(50° E., instead of 180° E. or \V., is becoming very common. COMMEIK 'IM. GKOaHM'II Y 13 mpi-idian — tliat of Greenwich — is the meridian ironi wliioh longitude is now almost universally reckoned. From the equator, where the length of a degree of longitude is 69.164 miles, the degree lessens in length to the poles, where the value becomes zero. It is seen that the spheroidal form of the earth causes the length of a degree of longitude to depend upon the latitude. A degree of longitude at tlie equator measures 69.164 miles. t lat. .35° . . 55.714 miles At lat 65° . . 29.319 miles " 40'= . . 53.053 " 70° . . 23.725 " " 45° . 48 982 " " 7.5° . . 17.957 " •' 50° . . 44 54) " •' 80° . . 12.049 " '• 55° . 30 760 " " 85° 6.048 " " 60° . . ,34 669 " 88° '. 1.211 " At lat. 90° U miles The tiopics and polar circles divide the earth's 68.901 miles 68.117 " 66.821 " 65.014 " 62.718 " 59.947 " . — A zone is a belt or gmlle surface into five zones The Torrid Zone lies between the tropics. It is 47° wide. The North Temperate Zone lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle. It is 4,3° wide. The South Temperate Zone lies between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. It is 43° wide The North Frigid Zone extends from the north pole to the Arctic Circle. It is 2^° wide. The South Frigid Zone extends from the south pole to the Antarctic Circle. It is 23i° wide. \^ b FEMPEBA SEASONS. — In each of Temperate zones there are four sons, — spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The change of seasons on the earth is caused by the revolution of the earth about the sun, the rotation on its axis, the inclination of the axis to the plane of tiie ecliptic, and the constant parallelism of the earth's axis to itself. If the eartli had motion in its orbit alone, there would In' Imi two seasons, — sninnier and winter. If the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, there would he. no change of seasons. If the earth's axis were in the plane of the ecliptic, there would be two summers and two winters in the equatorial regions, for each passage of the earth throughout its orbit. It will be seen that the two motions of the earth and the inclination of its axis to the plane of the ecliptic, together with the unchanging direction of the axis, are the causes of the four seasons of the Temperate zones. 14 COMMER CIA L OEUGRA PH Y The seasons of the Temperate zones are not all of the same length. This is due to the elliptical form of the earth's orbit. The earth is distant from the sun about 93,000,000 miles in summer, and about 90,000,000 miles in winter. In the North Temperate Zone, spring has ninety -three days; summer, ninety -three days; autumn, ninety days ; and winter, eighty -nine days. The summer days increase in lengtli as we go from the equator toward tlie poles. 'J'he following table exhibits the lengtli of the longest day in the different latitudes: — At the Equator Lat. 10° . . " 20° . . At the Tropics Lat. 30° . . 12 hours 12.7 " 13.3 " 13.5 " 14.0 " 14.5 " Lat. 40° ... . " 45° . . . . " 50° . . . . " 55° . . . . •' 60° . . . . At the polar circle . 15.0 hours 15.6 " 16.3 " 17.3 " 18.7 " 24.0 " Lat. 67i° .... 1 month " 6'JJ° .... 2 months " 73.3° .... 3 " " 78.3° .... 4 " "84° .... 5 " At the north pole .6 " The World on Mercator's Projection. GLOBES AND MAPS. — The earth's surface is usiuiUy represented by globes and muji.s. A terrestrial globe is a sn)all sphere, the surface of which represents the surface of the earth. A map is a representation of the whole or of a ixirt of the earth's surface on a plani>. A map projection is a method of rein-esenting the earth's surface on a plane. Mercator's projection is a method of map-drawing for the use of navigators, to whom the relative posit ion of points on the land and the sea is of greater importance than the contmir of the eoast-line. On Mercator's maps the meridians and parallels are represented as at riglit angles to one another. C0MMi:i:i -IM. GicoaiiA rii v 15 A scale of miles furnishes a unit of comparison for distances as shown on the map and for tlie corresponding actual distances on the earth's surface. A scale of miles cannot be used on either a Mercator's projection or an ordinary map of a hemisphere, inasmuch as such maps are distoited in all parts except along the equator. Most of the maps in atlases are drawn on a conic, polyconic, •or Bonne's projection. A scale of miles is fairly accurate on any one of these. The parallels of latitude are luunbcred on the side margins of inai)S. The meridians of longitude are numbered at the top and tlie bottom margins. The day conventionally begins at 180° longitude, and this meridian is the one from which every date is reckoned. The first day of the week, Sunday, is reckoned from this meridian. It is Sunday east of the meridian 180° ; it is Monday west of it. In sailing westward a day is lost, and in sailing eastward a day is gained. Navigators, tlierefore, make the necessary correction to avoid confusion in keeping their log-books. Formerly, an arbitrary line was used, called the Sunday line, or inter- national date line; but its use has been given up by navigators, and that of the exact meridian, the ISOth, has been adopted. QUESTIONS Define the term geography. What is physical geography ? — mathematical geography '? — po- litical geography ? Define the term commercial geography. Name the various parts of a circle, and de- scribe them severally. How many degrees in a half circle? — in a quadrant? How many de- grees in the arc extending from the horizon half way to the zenith ? Name the various parts of a sphere, and de- scribe them. Which circles of the earth are flattened, and therefore matliematlcally imper- fect? [Am. — All those whose direction is north and south.] Which circles of the earth are perfect circles? [^hs. — All those whose than half the land of the globe. The Western Continent includes the grand divisions of North America and South .Viiii'iira, Its length from north to south is nearly 10,000 miles. The Australian Continent includes Australia and Tasmania, the two being sepa- rated by a very shallow, island-dotted strait. Tlie two larger continents are bordered each by chains of islands situated at no great distance from their shores. These, because of the similarity of their struc- ture to the continents near which they lie, are generally regarded as parts of the continents themselves. ISLANDS. — -An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. Islands differ from continents not only in size, but in many instances they differ in strueture also. They are conveniently classified as continental and oceanic. Continental islands are so called because of their similarity of structure to the continents near which they lie. They are usually long and narrow in shajje,' and their surfaces are commonly mountainous or rugged. In many instances they lie parallel to the coast, or else extend in a long chain in line with a projecting peninsula. The Aleutian Islands, the West Indies, and the chain bordering the eastern coast of Asia, are examples. Continental islands are usually the higher crests of partly submerged mountain Oceanic islands are situated at a considerable distance from any large body of land. In a few instances tliey are isolated, and usually they are snuiU in size. Gen- erally they are rugged masses of volcanic rock rising precipitously above the surface of the water. St. Helena, Jan May en, the Bermudas, and Ascension Island are examples. By far the greater number of oceanic islands, however, are found in the Pacific Ocean. Here they are ranged in chains having a northwest and southeast trend, and in nearly every instance they are covered with growths of coral. These islands appear to be mountain-ranges rising from the surface of a submarine plateau. An archipelago is a cluster of islands. The group of islands in the /Egean Sea and tliat nortli of North America are examples. 1 Such chains of isl.inds should not. be confounded with the low spits that border coast plains, and that are situated at no great distance from the latter. Islands of this character are formed by the action of rivers which carry their sediment to the sea, and by the waves which push back tlie sediment shoreward. 18 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY FORMS OF COAST. — A coast is the laud bordering on the sea, or on any other large boily of water. A shore is the line where the land and water meet. A cape is a point of land extending into the sea. Small peninsulas are some- times called capes, as, for instance. Cape Ann and Cape May. A promontory is a high, rocky cape. Gibraltar, Point Conception, and Cape of Oood Hope are examples. Promontories furnish good locations for lighthouses. This is especially true when the promontory is at the angle of a sharp bend of the coast. The terms hook, bill, head, point, mull, naze, and nose, are also u.sed to desig- nate capes, as — Sandy Hook, Portland Bill, Dunnet Head, Point Barrow, ]Mull of Kintyre, the Naze, the Nose, etc. A peninsula is a body of land extending into the sea and nearly surrounded by Avater. Florida, Italj*, and Lower California are examples. An isthmus is a narrow neck connecting two larger bodies of land. The Isthmus of Panama is an example. The sand-bars formed along the coast by the combinea action of waves, currents, and tides are called spits. In form a spit may be a cape, a long and narrow island, a peninsula, or a " liooU." Sandy Hook, on the coast of Now .Jersey, is an example. RELIEF FORMS OF LAND. — The surface of the land is diversified by plateaus and plains, mountains and valleys, hills and dales. A plateau is any high surface of considerable extent. It may be level, or rugged, or mountainous. The region west of the Missouri River, called the Plains, is a plateau. Mexico is a plateau, and the vast area surmounted by the Himalaya and Kuen-Lun mountains is also an excellent example. Small, flat-topped plateaus are commonly called table-lands, or mesas. A plain is a level, or nearly level, tract of land at no great elevation above the sea. Siberia and Eussia form a vast plain. The central part of North America and ■of South America are also examples. Plains are variously named. In the central United States they still retain the name prairies given them by the early French explorers. Along the south Atlantic ■coast they were formerly called savannahs, a name still perpetuated in a city of Georgia. In South America the plains of the Orinoco are called llanos ; the forest- •covered basin of the Amazon, silvas ; and the grassy plains of La Plata (Plate) Biver, pampas. There is no dividing-line of elevation between plateaus and plains. In popular use the (jiiiilily of levelness is usually associated with plains, whether high or low. In physical geography ]il.iiiis are sometimes designated by such features as describe their origin or formation. Thu. i / / , J:;,i is one formed of the detritus brought down from the 5teep slopes of mountain ii > i i I lusited along the shores of the sea. Tlie Atlantic coast- plain is an example. A/;-.'. , ' III old sea-bed that has been elevated above sea-level. The upper part of the Mississi|'|ii v,iil.\ .- .m example. An uUnri^rl phiin i'^ one [h:\\ has lieeii formed by the deposition of silt frum ll.nviir^ w.iier. Alluvial plains. ..| whirl, ihr l..«vr Mi^Mv-iii].! valley is an example, are situated al,,n'.' ihr eoins,.s of rivers. A.//"-, /-;./,/;» i, ili.u i.,,ii ..| ;, 1 1\ . r-valley tliat is covered at times of very lii-h water. The bottora-lamls n( ilie .Mis^issipl>i are an I'xample. commehcial (ucoanAPiir 19 A mountain -range is a fold or wrinkle in tlie strata wliioh fonii the outer layers of the earth's crust. Soiiietinies the range consists of a single fold; in some instances, as in the Jura Mountains, there are several folds; in still others, as in the Alps, there is a complex crumpling of strata. In many instances the upper layers of the fold have been worn away, leaving a series of parallel upturned edges. The Appalachian Mountains are an example, the ranges of which, in nearly every case, are ridges formed by the unequal wearing of the upper strata. The highest part of a mountain-range is called its summit, or crest ; any part of the crest considerably higher than the average elevation of the range is s.2)eak ; the hilly country at the base of a range is called the foothill, or piedmont region. A mountain system embraces all the ranges and ridges belonging to the same elevation. Thus, tlie western highlands of North America form the Kocky-Mountain system. A valley is the depression between parallel ranges or ridges. The Shenandoah valley in Virginia, and the Sacramento-Sau-Joaquin valley of California, are exam- ples. A transverse valley — that is, a valley crossing a range — is called a pass, or fjap. Fremont Pass in the Eocky Mountains, and Delaware Water-gap, are examples. Passes and valleys having precipitous sides are usually called canons. Passes and gaps are of the greatest importance commercially, from the fact that they afford the only feasible locations for railways, canals, and other routes of transportation. The commercial supremacy of New York City is due in no small degree to the Mohawk Water-gap. Khyber Pass in Afghanistan is the key to the door between India and Europe. For want of another Brenner pass, several European railway companies have been compelled to tunnel tlie Alps in order to. reach Italy. A divide is a ridge of land that separates adjacent river basins. Thus, the Height of Land in Minnesota separates the Mississippi from rivers that have Arctic drainage. A divide is sometimes called a watershed.'^ There is a prevalent belief that mountain-ranges are always important divides. This is seldom the case. Tlie Appalachian, Kocky, and Himalaya mountains are each pierced by large rivers which flow through the entire mountain mass. The explanation lies in the fact that the rivers are older than the mountain-ranges, and wlille the latter were being elevated, the former deepened their channels just as rapidly. A basin is the territory drained by a river or by a lake, each with its tributaries. A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust, from which steam, various other gases, and molten rock are ejected. In most instances the ejected material forms a cone-shaped mountain, which is also called a volcano. At the top of the volcanic mountain there is usually a eup- shap^d depression called the" crater. ' In some instances the crater is a deep pit in 1 In engineering science a watershed is not a divide, but the area or basin drained by a river. 20 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY a high phiteau. With few exceptions volcanoes are situated near the sea or one of its arms. Volcanic ashes consist of lava so finely divided that it may be blown a long distance with the wind. Tlie alleged smoke of an eruption is merely a dense cloud of steam, while of fire or flames there are none. Nearly all the sulphur of commerce is obtained from tlie craters of volcanoes, and the greater part of the borax used in the arts is obtained from tlie hot mineral springs wliich are found in volcanic regions. Elevations of land are measured from mean tide sea-level. The highest peak of the United States is probably Mount St. Elias, 19,500 feet. The crests of the Rocky-Mountain system vary between 10,000 and 14,000 feet. Most of the Great Central Plain is less than 1,000 feet high. The greater extent of the Appalachian system is less than 2,000 feet high. The highest peak on the earth is probably Mount Everest, 29,000 feet in altitude. The crest of the Himalaya Mountains varies between 20,000 and 29,000 feet. The deepest known depression below sea-level is the Ghor in Asia Minor. Lake Tiberias is over 600 feet, and the surface of Dead Sea 1,300 feet, below sea-level. The Caspian Sea is the lowest part of the largest depression known. Its surface is 84 feet below the ocean. There are several small depressions in Africa, and a number in the United States. In the latter the princii^al ones are Death Vallej' and the sink of San Felipe, both of which are in California. Nearly one-third of The Netherlands has been reclaimed from the sea. A desert is a rainless region, or one in which the rainfall is insufficient to support more than a scanty vegetation. In nearly every desert there are small areas watered by springs, and therefore fertile. Such spots are called oases. A desert is barren for lack of water only. The surface may be level, or rugged, or mountainous. Vegetation is limited to a few species of plants, or it may be absent altogether. For want of it the surface soil is always more or less pulverized, and shifting dunes are commonly a marked feature of desert regions. For this reason there has arisen the prevalent belief that the soil of deserts is sandy. As a matter of fact, true sand is of rare occurrence in them. Because of the absence of water and vegetation, a desert region of considerable extent is a greater impedi- ment to commerce than a high and rugged mountain-range. THE WATER Water covers about 144,000,000 square miles of the earth's surface, — nearly three-fourths of the whole. A small portion of this consists of small bodies of fresh water resting in depressions of the land, or flowing in channels over the surface. The great body of salt water above the surface of which the continents rise is called the Sea. DIVISIONS OF THE SEA. — For convenience the sea is divided into five oceans. The arms of the latter are seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and sounds. An ocean is the largest natural division of the Sea. The five oceans are : the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic, and Arctic. commkhcia I. (iFjxniA i>ii v 21 A "sea" ' is a nearly laiul-locked arm of an ocean. Tlie Mediterranean, Black, and Ited seas are exaiiii)k's. A gulf or bay is an arm of an ocean extendinj,' into the land. Hudson I'ay and the Gulf of Mexico are examples. A small bay is called a birjhl. A very wide river-mouth formed by the action of tides is an estuary, as, for instance, Delaware Bay. An inlet nearly cut off from the sea by bars or spits is sometimes called a layoon. A deep bay formed in rocky shores by the action of ice is sometimes called a J'jonl. There is no particular distinction between the terms gulf and bui/. A strait is a narrow passage that connects two larger bodies of water, liering Strait and the Strait of Gibraltar are examples. This word is also commonly used in tlie plural number; both the Strait of Gibraltar and Florida Strait are frequently spoken of as " the Straits." A wide passage of no considerable length is usually called a channel. A body of water between a chain of islands and the mainland is often called a sound. A strait is also called a gut, as the gut of Canso, Hellgate (formerly horll-3a(, the " whirling " strait), Ca.ttegat, etc. The terms mincli and belt are also used. CIRCULATION OF OCEAN WATERS. — The waters of the Sea are in constant moti(.)n. Not only is the surface unceasingly tossed by waves, and blown hither and thither in drifts, but the whole mass of water is in constant circulation. The agents by which this circulation is effected are waves, currents, and tides. Waves are caused by the winds. They are irregular but constant. Tides are regular and periodical. Currents are regular and constant. A wave consists of the alternate rising and falling of a mass of water. Most of the alterations of the coast of a body of land are caused by waves. Waves forty or fifty feet high have been observed, but they are of unusual occurrence. Tides consist of the passage, twice a day, of a wave of water formed by the attraction of the sun and the moon. The advance of the wave is called the rising or food tide : the recession of the wave, the ebb tide. When sun, moon, and earth are in line the tides are unusually high, and are called spring tides. When their position forms a riglit angle the waves are less marked, and are then called 7iea2J tides. At such times there are theoretically four tides each day, — two caused by the moon, and two by the sun. The latter are not well marked, and are usually disregarded. The calculation to find the time of high tide at any place is called the estahUxhment of its port. High tide at any place occurs fifty minutes later each day. Ordinarily tlie difference between high and low tides varies from four to six feet, but when the wave enters a V-shaped estuary it may exceed fifty or sixty feet. OCEAN CURRENTS. —Currents are streams of water flowing through the ocean. They are caused mainly by the heating and consequent expansion of the mass of water in equatorial regions. Their direction is modified by the rotation of the earth, by the winds, and by the position of the continents. ' The use of this term to designate any except the great body of ocean water is unfortunate and confusing. It is also very loosely used. Thus, the Caspian and Aral seas are nothing mhhc than large salt lakes; the Haltic and Adriatic seas are more properly gulfs; while the North Sea can be called a sea only by an effort of imagination. 22 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The Equatorial Current is about one tliousand miles broad, and flows west- ward with a velocity of from twelve to twenty miles a day. To tlie parting of this current at the eastern angle of South America are probably due the Gulf Stream and the Brazilian Current. It again divides near the eastern shores of the Old AVorld, forming the Kuro Siwo or Jajjan Current, and the Australian Current. The Gulf Stream is formed near Florida Strait. Some of the water comes from the Caribbean Sea through the Yucatan Channel; a part comes from the region north of the West Indies through the Santarem Channel ; a certain but inconsiderable amount comes from the Gulf of Mexico. No part of the stream, however, flows around the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Off Jupiter Inlet, Florida, it has a maximum velocity varying from 3 to 5^ miles per hour. North of tlie Grand Banks it ceases to be a definite current, aud its waters spread out into a fan-shaped drift whose motion and direction are governed by the winds. The Knro Siwo (black stream), or Japan Current, has neither so large a volume, so liigh a temperature, nor so great a velocity as the Gulf Stream. The drift of this stream is pushed against the western shores of North America. Contrary to common opinion, no part of this stream enters Bering Sea. The Arctic Current consists of two streams, which, emerging from the Arctic Ocean on opposite sides of Greenland, unite near Cape Farewell. These currents meet the Gulf Stream or its drift off the coast of Newfoundland, and, it is thought, cause the dense fogs prevalent in that region. A feeble current emerges from the Arctic Ocean through Bering Strait. The Sargasso Seas are somewhat uncertain areas situated in the regions of calms. Because of the freedom of their waters from disturbance by winds they contain an abundance of aquatic plants. In other shelteredTegions wliere tliese plants thrive, great quantities are frequently detached during storms or high winds, and cast ashore. The aslies of the dried plant are the kdp of com- merce, from which iodine is extracted. CONTINENTAL WATERS. — Enough water falls on the land yearly to cover it to a depth of nearly four feet. Some of tliis sinks into the porous soil, perhaps reappearing in the form of springs. Another part evaporates, and is carried away by the winds. Most of it, however, collects in channels and, filling depressions, forms lakes and ponds, or else flows back to the sea. A lake is a body of water resting in a depression in the land. The Casjuan Sea and Lake Superior are examples. Small lakes are called j/uuJs. Lakes without outlets are usually salt. Salt lakes derive their salt from the streams and inlets that feed them. The latter dissolve mineral salts from the soil, and tlie solution flows to the lake. The water evaporates, leaving the salt behind. The Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, and Great Salt Lake are notable examples of salt lakes. A lake basin is the territory drained by the tributaries of a lake. Thus, the COMMKltCIAL GEOGRAPIIY 23 basin of the Caspian Sea embraces all the territoiy drained by the Volga, the Ural, and several other rivers. A river is a large stream of water flowing through the land. It may flow into another river, into a lake, or directly into the sea. Small streams are called rills, rivulets, brooks, and creeks. A river whicli flows into another is called a tributary, affluent, or branch. The term creek was formerly used only of small tidal iidels and estuaries of the ocean. Il Is so used along the coast of Maine at the present time. The Dutch settlers of New York called such inlets kilh. Harlem Kill, Arthur (achtyr or "after") Kill, and Kill von KuU are examples. A river basin is the area or territory drained by a river. A river system embraces the main stream with all its tributaries. A gflacier is a river of ice. It is formed mainly of the snow which has fallen or blown into ravines situated in the region of perpetual snow. The ice-stream flows down the ravine at a rate varying from a few inches to a few feet a day. In polar regions, glaciers are usually vast sheets of ice slowly moving down the slopes on which they lie. Icebergs are formed when a glacier terminates at the sea. Sometimes they are detached masses of ice that fall from a protruding glacier; but in general the end of the glacier, pushed to some distance into the sea, is broken off and floated away. The icebergs of the north Atlantic come mainly from half a dozen glaciers on the west coast of Greenland. From May to July the larger ones drift about the Grand Banks, — a danger to transatlantic steamers. THE ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere, or air, is that portion of the earth which envelops the solid ]iart. It consists of a mi.xture of gases, — mainly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon-dioxide, and the vapor of water. The two last form not more than three or four parts in one thousand. At the sea-level the air rests upon the earth with an average pressure of 14.7 pounds on every square inch. Air is highly elastic. Moreover, it increases in bulk when heated. Warm air is, therefore, lighter than an equal bulk of cold air. The amount of water-vapor varies greatly, increasing when the temperature increases, and decreasing when the temperature falls. CONSTANT WINDS. — Wind is air in motion. It is caused by the unequal heating of the air in different localities. AVlien at any place the air is heated, it increases in bulk, and therefore becomes lighter. It is consequently pushed upward by the cold air which flows in to take its place. All general motions of the atmosphere are due to its heating and expansion in equatorial regions. This causes in upper regions a movement of air from the equator towards the poles, and at the surface, a counter motion from higher latitudes towards the equator. ^ CVMMEHriAL (iFAX : H.i I'll Y 25 In equatorial regions the rotation of the earth dvtiects these currents to the west, Miul in temperate latitudes to the east. The trade-winds prevail in equatorial latitudes. Tlie}' blow from the north- east and from the southeast, and are separated b}' the region of equatorial culms. The trade-wind belt, with the intervening ealni belt, oscillates north and south with tlie apparent niotion of the sun. The prevailing westerlies, or anti-trade winds, are found in temperate latitudes. riiey blow from tlie southwest in the North Temperate, and from the nortli- west in tlie South Temperate Zone. These winds are not so regular as the trade-winds. They are separated from the latter by the calms of Cancer and the calms of Capricorn. ' Their limits also shift with the position of the sun. Monsoons are winds which blow half tlie year in one direction, and the other lialf in an opposite direction. They usually prevail on the western and southern coasts of continents. EQU ATOR 1 Cyclono Paths INCONSTANT WINDS. — On the land the winds are inconstant and irregular; and it is along the imme- diate coast regions only, that the trade- winds, prevailing westerlies, and mon- soons are noticed. The land-and-sea breeze is occasion- ally observed near the shores of large bodies of water. This wind is a sea- breeze by day and a land-breeze at night. During the day the earth becomes heated to a higher temperature than the water. The air being w-arnied, rises, and the consequent up-draft over the land is accompanied by a stiff breeze from the sea. After sunset these conditions are reversed. The land parts with its heat so readily that the air resting upon it becomes colder and therefore heavier than f^at over the water, and a land-breeze results. A cyclone is a rotatory storm. Cyclones are caused by the overheating of the air next the surface of the earth. This, after a while, causes an up-draft, towards which the wind blows from all directions. The up-draft is the centre of the cyclone, or " storm-centre," towards which the wind blows in a spiral, or whirl. In the northern hemisphere the whirl is in a direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch. In the southern hemisphere it blows with the watch's hands. The path of the cj'clone is shown in the accompanying diagram. Cyclones of the sea follow pretty nearly the tracks of warm ocean currents. 26 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The path of the cyclone is usually two or three thousand miles in length; its breadth several hundred miles. The hurricanes of the West Indies and the typhoons of the China Sea are cyclones. A tornado is a rotatory storm which is prevalent mainly in great plains. The path of the tornado rarely exceeds forty or fifty miles in length, and the destructive part of the whirl may be only a few rods in diameter. A waterspout is formed when a tornado passes over a body of water. AVater- spouts are most prevalent on tlie ocean. ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. — Water exists in three forms. Below 32° F. it is ice, a solid ; between 32^ and 1!12° it is a liquid, its more common form ; above 212° it boils, and becomes a vapor. A small portion is always present in the air as vapor at all temperatures, however. This vapor is apart of the atmosphere. The amount of vapor is variable, and depends on the temperature. If the temperature be high, there may be as many as 22 grains of water in every cubic foot of air. At 100° it will contain ahout 20 grains; at 90°, about 15 grains; at 80°, about 11 grains; at SO^ only 4 grains; and at 32°, the freezing-point of water, scarcely 2 grains. If air at 80° be cooled to 50°, all the vapor in excess of four grains will be condensed. When all the moisture is present that can be held in the form of vapor, the air is said to be saturated, or at the dew-point. If the temperature fall ever so little, the excess will appear in the form of dew. frost, fog, cloud, rain, snow, or hail. CLIMATE. — Climate is the condition of a region with reference to heat and moisture. It is modified mainly by latitude, altitude, winds, and the position of high mountain-ranges. It is also modified by the inclination of the earth's axis, to which is due the change of seasons. Latitude modifies the temperature of a reghm. In the Torrid Zone, where the sun's rays are practically vertical all the year, the climate is warm. Here tlie only seasons are the rainy and the dry. In the Temperate zones, where the rays of the sun are more or less oblique, the average temperature is considerably lower. Here there are alternate periods of warm and cold weather, called summer and winter. On western and southern coasts lying in the Temperate zones the seasons are also divided into the rainy and the dry. In the Frigid zones, the cold is intense, and the seasons consist of a day (summer), and a night (winter), each six months in duration. Altitude modifies temperature mainly, but it also modifies the amount of rainfall. Tlie temperature falls, on an average, one degree for every 300 feet of altitude. In the North Temperate Zone, there is perpetual snow above the altitude of 12,000 feet. The limit of perpetual snow varies greatly. In the northern part of tho North T.-niporate Zone ft falls to less than 7,000 feet: in the southern part it is above 1-1,000 feet. It is luglier on the Pacilic Ihan on the Atlantic slope. COMMERCIAL GEOOllAPHY 27 The rainfall lessens also witli altitude. Comparative!}^ little rain or snow falls above an altitude of 12,000 feet. Winds affect both temperature and moisture. If the prevailing winds are ocean winds, the seasons are usually a rainy and a dry. In regions swept by ocean winds the temperature is usually ecjuable, there being comparatively little difference between summer and winter. The climate of the Pacific coast of the United States is an example. On the contrary, if the prevailing winds are land-winds, the rainfall is usually distributed throughout the year. There is also considerable difference between tlie temperature of winter and that of summer. High mountain-ranges materially affect the rainfall of a region, especially when they are situateil near a coast that is swept by ocean winds. Thus, the Chilian Andes wring nearly every drop of moisture from the rain- bearing winds. The western slope is deluged with rain, while the eastern receives none. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges condense the moisture of the west winds, giving the Pacific slope from 25 to 100 inches of rain, while the Great Basin receives hardly three inches. Australia has no high mountain-range, and for want of it the greater part of the continent will always be a desert. WEATHER PREDICTIONS. — Tlie Weather Bureau of the United States, now nnder tlie control of tlie Department of Agriculture, was organized for the purpose of furnishing warnings with reference to 1. the approach of storms, 2. the probabilities of killing frosts, 3. the probabilities of winds dangerous to navigation, 4. the approach of floods in rivers, and 5. the advent of cold-waves. The staff of the bureau consists of about eight hundred observers, regular and volunteer. Twice a day the reports are sent to the main office at Washington from each weather station. The observations are made at the same actual time (not meridian time) at all the stations, and embrace temperature, height of barometer, direction of wind, percentage of cloudiness, hnmidity, and amount of rainfall. The predictions for the succeeding twenty-four hours are based on the fact that a storm once formed travels in an eastwardly direction, at a rate that can be esti- mated with a fair degree of accuracy. Most of the storms of the United States may be reduced to one of two tracks. Those that originate at the base of, or beyond the Rocky Mountains move east- wardly across the continent. Those that originate in the Caribbean Sea or the Gulf of Mexico sweep along the Atlantic coast. The storni consists essentially of an area of low barometer, towards the centre of which the wind blows spirally from all directions. The area of low barometer 28 COMMERCIAL GEUGllAPIIY may, or may not, be accompanied by rain. Almost all the rain falls on the front edge of the area of low barometer. A storm originating in the west is commonly preceded by an easterly, and clears with a westerly wind. The Atlantic coast storms are preceded by a northeasterly, and clear with a southwesterly wind. A cold-wave occurs when the temperature falls 20° or more. Usually the cold- wave is not announced unless the temperature falls below 45°. For day signals four flags are used. A square white flag denotes clear or fair v/eather; a square blue flag, rain. Temperature is indicated by a triangular blue flag. This signal placed above the square flag indicates higher temperature ; placed below the square flag, lower_ temperature ; omitted, stationary temperature. A cold- wave is indicated by a white flag with a black square in the centre. QUESTIOXS What is said of tlie changes that have taken pl.ace on tlie face of the eartli ? What are tlie active agents that effect tliese changes ? What would be tlie result raised one hnmlrrd valley were drpir^siil do the laws ili:ii ui affect human jii.lii-ti the Atlantic coast feet? — if the Mississippi d ..n.' lliousand feet? How 11.1. rlic physical geography rits'.' What are the three divisions of physical geography ? What part of the earth's surface is land ? What part is water ? What does the Eastern continent comprise ? — the Western ? — the Australian ? llow are islands classified ? What is a continental island ? — an oceanic island? How do they differ in structure? What is said of the wave-formed islands, such as border the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts? — of coral islands? What is an archipelago ? How is the surface of the land diversified? What is a plateau ? — a table-land, or mesa ? — a plain ? What are the various names by which plains are designated? What is an alluvial plain? — a coast plain? What is said of the commercial importance of passes? Whal is said of the situation of volcanoes with respect to tlie sea? What cominercial products are obtained from volcanic regions ? From what base-level are elevations of land measured ? Name the highest peak of North America. Name several important depressions below sea-level. What depressions of this character in the United States? What is a desert? To what causes are desert regions due ? What are the largest divisions of the Sea called ? Name them in the order of their size. What three motions have ocean waters ? What are tides? By what are tliey caused ? What is meant by flood tide ? — ebb tide ? — neap tide ? — spring tide? What is the interval of time between successive high tides ? — [Ans. — About twelve hours and fifty minutes.] Name the prin- cipal causes of ocean currents. Describe the Equatorial current, — the Gulf stream, — the Kuro Siwo, or Japan current, — tlie principal Arctic current. What are Sargasso seas ? What commercial product is obtained from floating seaweed, and how ? Explain how continental waters are derived from the ocean. What becomes of the water that falls on the land ? Define a lake, — a lake basin. Under what circumstances may lakes become salt ? What is a river ? IJy what names are small streams called ? What is a river basin ? — a river-system ? What is a glacier ? Jfow does a glacier resemble a river? What is said of the origin of icebergs ? Whence do many of the ice- bergs of the north Atlantic originate ? What is the atmosphere ? Of what gases is it composed ? What is normally its weight on a square inch of surface? How does heat affect the atmosphere? What is said of tlie amount of water-vapor in the atmosphere ? How is the direction of the princijial aii-currenls modified ? Describe the 1 1 ad.' » iii.l<. Where are they preva- lent? Whal i- ilirir .liivi-tion? Where are the belts of picvailiii- wi'st.'ilios? What is their direction ? What is said of the oscillation of the various belts or zones of winds ? What and where are the various calm-belts? What are monsoons? In many instances, how are they coM.\ii:i:riM. . 1 1 ii-iiH , IS and otliers under the appointment of tlie President are now (1000), investiijat- in^ ilii li.,i rniiii'. It is entirely probable that the canal will eventually be coustnicted by our COMMERCIAL GEOGnAPIlY 37 would a route farther south, because it is in the region of the trade-winds, and can be approached at all seasons, while the Isthmus of Panama is iii a region where calms are prevalent on the Pacific coast. Lake Nicaragua is elevated 106 feet above moan tide. The lake affords 50 miles of navigation, and a canal 16 miles long would connect the lake with the Pacific, beginning at the Rio del Medio and terminating at Brito. The fir.st seven and a half miles require an excavation averaging 54 feet in depth and is the most expensive part of the whole work. Ten locks and one tide lock are required between the lake and the sea. It is estimated that the lake will supply thirty-eiglit times as much water as will be needed for the use of the lockage. This canal will connect our Atlantic and Gulf coast lines with the Pacific coast, and save a voyage of nearly 14,000 miles around Cape Horn. It must greatly increase the commerce between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. The Gulf states will reap as much benefit as those on the Pacific coast. The coal fields of Alabama can be drawn upon to furnish San Francisco and other cities with cheaper fuel than can be had elsewhere. It is probable too that Japan can bring cotton from the Gulf states as cheaply as she now gets her supply from India. By the present sailing route. New York and Liverpool are about equally distant from San Francisco. The canal will bring New York 2,700 miles nearer than Liverpool to all the American Pacific ports, and with this important advantage our Eastern merchants should be able to control most of the Pacific coast commerce. The route from New York to Yokohama is shortened some 6,000 miles by this passage across Nicaragua. The distance from New York to Yokoliama via the Nicaragua route is 2,000 miles less than that from Liverpool to Yokohama, by the Suez Canal. This shortened route should give New York a great advantage in trading with Japan. The canal systems of the United States have an aggregate length of about 4,000 miles. The most important of the canals are the Erie, St. Mary's Falls, Cham- plain, Earitan, Delaware and Hudson, Delaware and Chesapeake, Miami, Wabash, and Ohio. On the north, the waterway which consists of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, and which connects the grain-growing regions of the northwest with the Atlantic coast, requires at several points to be supplemented with canals. One of these, between lakes Superior and Huron, avoids the rapids of St. Mary's River ; the Welland canal connects lakes Erie and Ontario, and is made necessary by the rapids and falls of the Niagara River. There are several small canals in the St. Lawrence route, near Montreal, also occasioned by the necessity of avoiding the rapids of the river. It is proposed to construct a canal across Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, by which there will be not only a saving of time in transport, but an avoidance of the dangers of navigation around the cape. Steamboats now ply on nearly all the great rivers and lakes of the world. Water- transportation is slow compared to that of railways, yet owing to its COMMERCIAL GEoGllAl'lIY 39 comparative cheapness steam navigation is invaluable to the commercial supremacy of any country.' Highways. — The Romans, in their time, carried the art of roatl-niaking to great perfection, but the roads they built were comparatively few in number, and connected only the more important centres. It was not until within about a hundred years that anything like the roadway with which we are familiar was undertaken. Up to the present century highways connecting even the important towns of Great Britain, a country presenting peculiar advantages for the construction of such works, were very bad. The carriage road from town to town, and village to village, as we now know it, — graded, macadamized, and crowned, — is an improvement of very recent times. The Roman roads were used for military rather than commercial pur- poses. JNlodern highways are built mainly for the transportation of merchandise. In general the nations of Europe are well supplied with good roads ; the old Roman military roads in Italy are exceptionally good. In India the government has con- structed a road from Calcutta to the border of Afghanistan. In Peru aiul other South American countries, are fine highways built by the Incas long before the voyage of Columbus. Some of these roads are still in use. Tlie United States is behind other great nations in the quality of its roads. In 1800 only the larger cities were connected by roads, and these were very poor.- Several centuries ago a very great trade was carried on by caravans whose routes, added one to another, extended from Canton to Gibraltar. Now most of this trade has sought other channels of transportation, and the only important caravans remaining are from Russia to China and Corea; from Damascus eastward into Persia and adjoining regions ; from Damascus to Mecca; from Morocco to Timbuc- too; from Algiers and Tripoli to Timbuctoo ; from Tripoli to the Soudan ; and from Morocco to Mecca. The Railway. — The highroad of civilized nations of the present day is the railway. Railways were introduced at a time when trade was greatly impeded for lack of means of transport, and have been built, not only in every commercial 1 The steam engine was in 1777 a useful power, but not until Fulton in 1807 built the Clermont was a successful steam-vessel produced. Fulton travelling in Scotland in 1803 took drawings of the Charlotte Dundas. a steamboat built by Mr. Symington to tow vessels on the Forth and Clyde canal. He brought one of Boulton and Watt's 20 horse power engines to America, and built the Clermont, which made the voyage of 1 10 miles in 24 hours from New York to Albany. In 1811 Henry Bell of Gl.isgow started the Comet on the Clyde, and thus founded steam navi- gation in Great Britain. In 1815 a steamer went from Glasgow to London. In 1818 one made the trip from New York to New Orleans, and in 1819 the Sarannah crossed the Atlantic. Not until nineteen or twenty years later were regular lines established. On April 4th, 1838, the steamer Sirius sailed from Cork, and on the Sth, the Great Western sailed from Bristol. Both ships arrived in New York on April 23d, so that ocean steam navigation really dates from 1838. - In consequence of this, journeys by coach were very slow. That from Philadelphia to Baltimore consumed from three to five days. The transportation of merchandise from Philadelphia to the western part of Pennsylvania cost over $200 a ton, and was effected by pack-animals. At the eve of tlie introduction of railways the government built a military road from Baltimore, through Wheeling and Cincinnati, to St. Louis. 40 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY country, but in nearly every colony and petty nation in the world. In 18-4G there were only 3,000 miles of railway in use in the world ; in 1891 there were about 350,000 miles, nearly half of which are in the United States.' The cost of railways in the United States alone has been $9,000,000,000. The value of the railways of the world is estimated at over $28,000,000,000, or about one-tenth of the total wealth of civilized nations.- Where traffic has demanded it, various railway companies have combined to iperate continuous lines between distant commercial centres of importance, which are called trunk lines. The more important of these lines are : In the United States, the half dozen or more trans-continental lines which connect the Mississippi valley with the Pacific coast. In the East are the New York Central, the Erie, the Penn- sylvania, the Baltimore and Ohio, and several others which connect the Atlantic sea- board with the Mississippi valley. Connecting with these lines are others of great importance — the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Missouri-Pacific, the Rock Island, the Chicago and Northwestern, and others. These lines, witli their branches and connections, make a net-work of rail- ways that connects all the cities of importance throughout the country, affording an outlet for the products of every district. In Canada is the Canadian Pacific railway, which, with its supplementary lines, connects Halifax and Quebec with Vancouver. This makes the journe}' between Great Britain and China five or six days less than by the sea route. At the Isthmus of Panama is the Panama railway, 47 miles long, connecting Colon (or Aspinwall) on the east and Panama on the west. Colon is connected by steamship with the United States and Europe, while Panama is in steamship com- munication with the chief ports on the Pacific coast of both North and South America. The Tehuantepec railway, now under construction in Mexico, will be a compet- itor of the Panama road, as it will bring the Pacific Ocean three or four days nearer to New York. The completion of the Mexican Southern road will make it possible to go from New York to Tehuantepec, without change of cars, in seven or eight days. The near completion of the transcontinental railway between Buenos Ayres anil Valparaiso will save the dangerous voyage arotuul Cape Horn, and reduce the dis- 1 The total mileasjo of railways in the United States (January, 1899) was 185,370. Tlie largest mileage oiici:ii. ,1 h\ a siii.I. >\>irin is that of the Pennsylvania Railway — over 9,000 miles. The railways of ili. I niir.i sinr ^ aiind employment for about a million persons. The longest con- tinuous lini' !- 111. I aiihliiii I'ariiir, .•xtencling from Quebec to Vancouver, B.C., a distance of more than 3,000 iinl.-. 2 It is I ^liiiiaiid ihai all ihf money the world possesses would purchase only one-third of the railways, ur.ix h as i la laii. i atv valued at over §25,000,000,000, — or about one-tenth of the total monetary wialili ..1 ruilizi.l naiinns, and over one-quarter of their invested capital. The railway Iiusiiiess is one that is increasing at an almost incredible rate. In 1876 the world's railways aggre- gali-d 185.000 miles, while in 1893 there were over 406,000 miles, thus showing an increase of 221,000 miles in eighteen years, or an average of 12,000 miles a year. When it is considered that this means the laying each year of enough track to reach half around the earth, the magnitude of the increase can be better appreciated. From 1893 to 1808 the yearly average was 10,000 miles. COMMEIICIAL OEOORAJ'Jiy 41 tanee from the east coast of tlie United States, and from Europe to the west coast of South America, ten or fifteen days.' The greatest railway project now under way is the Siberian Pacific road, extend- ing across Eussia and Siberia, a distance of 4,000 miles. This road will n(jt only open a vast area of arable land to settlement, but it will give a great impetus to the trade of interior and western China.^ Another railway, the Trans-Caspian, built by the Russian government, extends from the shores of the Caspian Sea to the border of Afghanistan, and is a growing trade route from Europe to central Asia.* The Postal System. — With the increase of commerce between nations, there has been a corresponding increase in the interchange of thought and courtesies. This has led to the establishment of post-offices in every country. For the more rapid and safe communication between nations, an international postal union has been organized, so that letters and small packages can easily be sent from one country to another. Nearly every country is a member of this union, and it is of great benefit to commerce. It provides a cheap means of communication, and often- times delivers letters more quickly than merchandise is transported. It also fur- nishes means by which important events in voyages may be sent to ship agents. ' The completion of the railway systems in Mexico and the Argentine Republic opens the way for a line to connect the two systems. Such a railway does not seem among the impossibilities, when it is remembered that several sections of the line are already built or surveyed, particularly in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru. With the building of less than 3,000 miles additional it would be possible to go from New York to Buenos Ayres by rail. Such a line would not only develop the mineral deposits of the Andes, but it would also stimulate a great traffic in the agricultural products of Central and Soutli America. 2 The Siberian railway begins at Samara on the Volga, thence to Zlatousk in the Ural Mountains, whence it will run, by way of Omsk, to Irkutsk on Lake Baikal; and from there, by way of Srietensk on the Amoor river, to Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan. This port, which will be the Pacific terminus, is about 0,000 miles from St. Petersburg, and 4,000 miles from the starting-point of the road. The country to be traversed by this railway is not unlike the Canadian Northwest. From Omsk to Irkutsk, a distance of 1,000 miles, the proposed route is dotted with villages, and the country well suited to grain-growing. ■^ The interdependence of nations, and the growth of commerce, may be shown by many simple illustrations, such, for example, as would be afforded by the items of a course-dinner, by the contents of a furnislied house, by the merchandise exhibited in a grocer's window, or by the articles of a lady's wardrobe. Any of these would make clear how not only the various sections of our own country, but many remote lands, are laid under tribute, and minister, through the medium of com- merce, to our daily needs. A lady's wardrobe, for Instance, might include: the straw of her hat, braided in China, exported from Hong Kong, formed in Paris, coming to us by way of Havre; the hat-trimmings of silk and velvet, from cocoons of Italy, France, Japan, or China, manufactured at Lyons; the ostrich plumes from Capo Colony; the diamonds of her ear-rings from Brazil or South Africa, cut at Amsterdam, set perhaps in New York; the lace at her neck made in Belgium, exported from Antwerp; the sealskin sack from Alaska, cured and treated in London, and made up at home; the carael's-hair shawV from northern India; the wrap of Persian lamb's wool; in her hand the carved inwrought fan from Yokohama; gloves of dressed kid from Paris; her watch, perhaps, from Switzerland; her gowns of silk and wool from many possible sources; her garments of linen from Belfast, Brussels, or Amsterdam; her boots of kid from north African skins, manuf.ictured perhaps in France, covered in wet weather by over-shoes of India-rubber from Para, manufactured possibly in Connecticut. 42 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The Telegraph. — For the rapid interchange of thought, the telegraph has superseded the post-office in matters of importance. The first telegraph line, built in 1844, as an experiment, connected Washington and Baltimore. It proved its utility immediately, and now there is not a nation or a colony of consequence that is not connected with the rest of the world by ocean cables or by overland lines. After the great usefulness of the telegraph had been demonstrated, several attempts were made to lay a cable across the Atlantic Ocean, but it was not until 1858 that this was accomplished.^ The telegraph is used much more in the United States than in any other country. There are over two million miles of telegraph wires in the world, about a third of which are in the United States.^ The telegraph is of inestimable value to commerce. Goods can be ordered from any part of tlie world in a few hours by cable, and ship agents can know where their vessels are, almost as soon as they drop anchor. As a means of economy in sending cable messages, so-called cable " codes " ' 1 There are now several ocean cables, connecting the opposite shores of the Atlantic. The commercial advantages of the submarine telegraph have been so great that the system has been extended to all parts of the world — to .Japan and China; Suez and Singapore; Java, Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape of Good Hope. There have thu.s far been laid more than 150,000 miles of submarine telegraph cables, at a cost of about $1,000 a mile. There is no direct trans-I'acific line. A message from San Francisco to Hong Kong is sent by way of New York, Canso, Penzance, Aden, Bombay, Madras, Tenang, and Singapore, — the necessary transfers and repetitions of which could be made in about fifteen minutes. The most important telegraphic invention of recent years is that by which four or six messages can be transmitted over one wire at the same time, thus saving a vast expense in the stretching and maintenance of wires. 2 The mileage of wire for telephone use in the United States in 1899 is estimated at 772,000, connecting over a million telephones. Every important city has a telephone exchange, to the central office of which all local telephone wires run; and the " exchanges " of the large cities are connected one witli another, by " long-distance " telephone wires. This great invention puts into close com- munication the buyer and the seller, the office and the factory, the agent and the principal, who can thus mutually transact business almost instantly by word of mouth. 3 To illustrate this subject, and show how words may be used to represent sentences, a short extract is here given from a code in common use by one of the large banking-houses of New York. Arrived well; pleasant trip; was not sick Aberrance Arrived well; stormy trip; was very sick .^bettor Arrived well; stormy trip; was not sick; proceed to-nii)now .\bi5ail No cablegram received .\bjuror Y'our cablegram is unintelligible .\bnegator What is the cause of delay Abolislicr No information has been received Absorb Cannot leave in consequence of AbslimMit Have you received my letter .Mnisive Letter will contain further particulars .Vbutment How shall we direct your letters .•\ca,( )(!(). In IT'.H) the poimhitinii was less than t,(lOO,000, and was con- lined to the region along the Atlantic coast. Tlie centre of population was then near Baltimore ; it is now fifty miles southwest of Indianapolis. Three-fourths of the growth of population, apart from the natural increase, has come from tlie British Isles and Germany. Nearly half tlie population of the United States is dependent upon tillage of the soil, and about one-fifth of the agricultural products of the world are grown within the limits of our country.' One-fourth of our jjopulation is dependent for employment upon the factories and mines. QUESTIONS What is tlie general situation of the United States ? What is its area, exclusive of Alaska ? What can you say of the climate? What are the great physical regions ? Describe the Atlan- tic coast-plain, — the Appalachian highlands. Give some account of the Mississippi basin, — of the Western highlands. What is the most im- What is the leading industry of the Gulf states ? Give a general description of the (iieat Lakes and St. Lawrence system. For what great staple product does this system afford transportation ? What can you say of the region west of the Mississippi ? What is the general nature of the Pacific slope ? What are its chief products ? portant commercial characteristic of the Atlantic What is the population of the United States ? coast-plain? [Ans. — It contains most of our What has been its growth during the present great seaports.] What is noteworthy in respect century ? What proportion of the population is to the Appalachian mountain system? [-'I)!*. — It dependent upon agriculture ? — upon factories is the region of valuable mineral deposits.] and mines ? I. -RAW PRODUCTS Cotton. — The United States produces certain raw materials, such as cotton, iron, wheat, tobacco, and copper, in greater quantities than any other country in the world; though until recent years Great Britain held supremacy in the output of iron, and Russia closely approaches in the production of wheat. Of the raw products, cotton is commercially the most valuable. In 1899 the cotton export was nearly one-fifth in value of all exports. Cotton grows in nearly all countries where the climate is sufficiently warm, and from the earliest days of history it has been woven into fabrics. But not until the development of the American plant and the invention of the cotton-gin did cotton become of great 1 The United States produces about one-fourth of the wheat grown in the world. Until 1849. more than one-half our product was confined to the New England and other Atlantic states ; 43 per cent, were grown in the Middle states; and only 5 per cent, in the states and territories west of the Mississippi Kiver. Wheat-growing has moved westward at the rate of about nine miles a year. In the Eivstern states, less than 15 per cent, are oow grown ; in the Middle states about 40 per cent. ; in the Western states upwards of 45 per cent. 48 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY commercial importance. American cotton is superior to that of any other country. ]\Iany attempts have been made to ingraft its good qualities upon the cotton-plants of India and other regions, but without success. Sea-island cotton is raised on the islands off the coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and is the finest quality grown. This Sea-island plant loses in quality when transplanted to the mainland. The cotton-producing states, in the order of the amount grown, are: — Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Louisiana, North Carolina, Tennessee, Florida, and Oklahoma. This order may change in diffni'iit yrars. The states of Missouri, Indian Territory, Virginia, and Kentucky also |.r."lu,r cotton to a limited extent. The total value of the cotton exported in IS'.lli \va> .^I'.M .o(k 1,000. Cotton-seed and its Oil. — The seed of the cotton-plant was fur many years regarded as useless, and, to be disposed of, was generally burned. Later, it was returned to the soil as a fertilizer. Then it was ascertained to be nutritious food for animals, and that it contained a large proportion of oil. The cotton-plant is estimated to produce three hundred pounds of seed to one hundred pounds of fibre. A hundred pounds of seed averages a yield of two gallons of oil, forty-eight pounds of oil-cake or meal, and six pounds of refuse, which is an excellent material for soap-making. After the oil is extracted the meal is more valuable as a fertilizer and as food for cattle than before. The hull of the seed is an excellent fuel, and the ash of the hull is of commercial value for the manufacture of potash. The various products of cotton-seed are of comparatively recent development, having tirst come into notice in ISoi'.^ Breadstuff s. — Breadstuff s raw and manufactured exceed cotton in value among exports, and in 1899 formed slightly more than one-tifthof the total value of exports. Wheat and wheat-flour form slightly more than half of the breadstuff export. Wheat is raised in nearly every country in the world, and is the main article of food in most civilized nations. Only two of the great nations of Europe, Russia and Austria-Hungary, produce more wheat than the home market demands. The United States is the greatest wheat-producing nation in the world, and is the main source of suppljr to consuming nations. The states of the Mississippi system raise nearly all the wheat exported. Wheat is grown in every state and territory in the Union ; l)ut the largest .sources of supply are: — North and South Dakota, Indiana, Illinois, ;\Iiiniesota, Ohio, California, Iowa, Missouri, Michigan, Nebraska, Oregon, and Wiscinsiu. Corn is indigenous to America. It grows in nearly all parts of both North and South America, and is a leading article of diet in the Spanish-American nations, and in Spain, Portugal, and Ireland. Corn and corn-meal rank next to wheat and wheat- 1 Cotton-seed oil lias found many uses. When highly refined it is the equal of olive oil, and has very generally superseded it in use. The stearine, or fatty part, of the oil is used in the manu- facture of a compound called butterine, and also in the aiiulteratiun of lard. Most of the oil, oil- cake, and oil-meal of commerce comes from the United Slates. Tlie conunercial value of the cotton-seed exports in 1899 was over $16,000,000 for the cake and meal, and more than $12,000,000 for the oil, about twice what it was in 1894. coMMKHciAL <;i:()i;i;AP/iy 49 flour amoii.i; hreailstuffs as cxiKirts. I'.esidi's liciii.',' oxtonsivnly uspil for fond, and in feeding cattle and other animals, corn is also used for the manufacture of alcohol, whiskey, glucose, and starch. Corn is the most extensive food-crop grown in the United States. The chief sources of supply are in the states <<[ the Mississippi Valley, and particularly in those states that were foriuciiy thr Lading wheat-growing states. The bulk of the crop comes from Iowa, Illinois. Missouri, Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. Oats, rye, and other grains are of comparatively small value as exports. The total value of breadstutfs raw and manufactured exported in 1S99 was nearly $270,000,000.' Other Food Products. — ( )ther food-products exported include live animals, dressed meat, and dairy products. The animals and meat-products come chiefly from Texas, Wyoming, IMontana, Colorado, Iowa, Indian Territory, New Mexico, Kansas, and Nebraska. In these states and territories there are vast ranges where cattle are raised for beef and hides. The dairy products come chiefly from states farther east, where dairy -cattle are raised. New York, Ohio, Illinois, IMichigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa are the states most noteworthy for their dairy products. One of the recent inventions of science is tliat of extracting oil from lieef fat. Tlie oil. wlien churned with iiiillf, inaltes an artificial butter called oleomargarine. In many of tlie large cities tlie surplus milli is utilized in making this article. Its natural color is like that of lard, but the product is always colored so that only a scientific test can distinguish it from dairy butter. A cheap grade of cheese is made by a similar method. There is great demand for these articles, particularly among the poorer classes of Europe. Mineral Oil. — Mineral oil, or petroleum, is produced in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, California, and West Virginia.^ Most of the oil is transported to the seaboard through pipe-lines which extend from the oil-fields to the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia, where the oil is refined.^ The annual export now has a value of nearly $60,000,000. 1 The corn crop of the United States in 1S94 was more abundant and better in quality than any previous crop. More than 2,000,000,000 of bushels were raised on 75,000,000 acres of land. The crop was valued at neaily $700,000,000. 3,000,000 cars loaded with 662 bushels each would be required to move this immense yield to the seaboard. 2 The Eastern oil-region extends from Wellsville, N.Y., across Pennsylvania to Dunkard Creek, West Virginia, a distance of 204 miles, and so far as developed, the belt is about ten miles in width. The yield of the oil fii-lds to IX'X, was over 550,000.000 barrels. It is estimated that tlie Ohio field might be made to yield 100,000 barrels a day. This oil is worth about one-seventh as much as the Pennsylvania product, and its utility in the world's economy lies in the direction of fuel. The California oil is suporior as fuel, but inferior in illuminating qualities to that of Pennsylvania. Natural gas is the only fuel that can compete with it in clieapness, but natural gas caimot be trans- ported much over 100 miles. ' From the discovery of petroleum in 18.59 until 1866, the oil was transported in oaken barrels. The cost of transportation from TitusviUe to New York, and the return of the barrels, was $5.55 per barrel. In 1866, a barrel of oil in New York cost §10.40. Flat cars, upon which two wooden tanks were built, were introduced in that year, and the oil was transported in bulk. In 1871 iron tanks superseded those of wood. On the Ohio and Alleghany rivers, barges containing large tanks .50 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Tobacco. — Tobacco, like corn, is indigenous to America, but is now cultivated ■very extensively in other parts of the world. It is an important article of commerce, .and has been an export of our country from colonial times. The chief tobacco- raising states are Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Tobacco also forms an important crop in the valley of the Connecticut river. The value of the yearly crop of tobacco in the United States is about $40,000,000 ; about half of the product is exported in unmanufactured condition. Tliere are 8,000 establishments in the United States engaged in the manufacture of cliewing and smoking tobacco and cigars, from the domestic and imported article, and the value of the jnanufactured products is nearly 1130,000,000 yearly. Lumber. — Nearly every state in the Union has forest area, but lumbering to .any considerable extent is limited to a few states. Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, JPennsylvania, and Maine are seats of the lumbering interests east of the Eocky Mountains. Yellow pine is an important forest-product in Georgia and the Caro- ■Jinas. Half of the forest area of the country is in the Southern states. The lumber product of the Pacific slope comes mainly from Washington and Alaska, although ■Oregon and California contribute largely to it. The forest area of Washington is estimated to equal the aggregate area of New Hampshire, Vermont, IMassachusetts, and Connecticut. Alaska has vast areas of untouched forest. Heretofore the belt of timber extending from Maine to Minnesota has furnished the greater part of the supply of white pine consumed in the United States ; but so great has been the depletion of these forests that, in many localities, comparatively little merchantable timber is now standing. Few attempts to restock the forests have been made, and, in most instances, after the pine has been cleared from an area, scrub oak and not pine is the succeeding growth. On account of the growing scarcity of pine, other timber and other material that may be utilized in its place are now sought. Manufactures of Wood. -In 1899 the export of wood and wood-manufactures was of the value of $45,000,000, tlir pvinripal items of which were : [1] boards, dea^, and planks, [2] sawed timber, [3] staves au,l h.uain.s. [4] logs, [5] furniture, [6] shooks. Wood, however, forms an important element in Ihr nunularture of articles so numerous as to be beyond the reach of classification under this head. Ag.i.ultuval implements, machines, and musical mstruments are such articles. A considerable part of our exports to South America is manufactures of wood in this sense. The domestic consumption of the same manufactures is, of course, vastly more important. A glance about the class-room, with its chairs, desks, benclies, settees, and tables, or a similar survey of the furnishing of any house, will show that manufactures of wood arc among the prime necessities of civilized life. Iron.— Iron and its various products are rapidly becoming leading exports. Deposits of iron ores are found in nearly all parts of the United States, and the were used to carry the oil. The first pipe-line fr..n> .1,. ..il-fu Uls to the ^/^^f ;;d;;«^^'^°'"f '^"^J" 1881. Since then mnnerous other pipe-lines liav 1",,, Innli. ai a wwt of ^?15,000,000. Iho pipis are carried along the surface of the ground, and i,n,„iHu.-siati,nis are established at ii.torva s of about 28 miles. The total length of these pipe-liias appiuaclu.s L',000 miles. The primnpal lines are from Olean, N.Y., to Bayonne, N.J., and to Brooklyn; and from Colegro-^e Pa. , to Ihiladel- phia, with a branch to Baltimore. Another line runs from near Olean to Bufialo, and one from Colegrove to Cleveland. These lines reduce the cost of transportation to about 4o cents a barrel. COMMElirlM. CFJXiltM'IIY 51 iiiiniiii,' "f these is carried on in 21') states and territories. The largest amount of ore is mined in the Lake Superior region embraced in the states of Minnesota, Micliigan, and Wisconsin. The southern iields in the states of Alabama, Tennessee, Vir- ginia, and Georgia liold a second place, but will probably soon rise to first.' West- ern Pennsylvania is third, and the Lake Charaplain district in New York, fourth. The smelting of iron, and the manufacture of iron and steel, are most extensively carried on in western Pennsylvania, northern Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio. In the manufacture of steel the United States is now the leading nation in the world. There has been in recent years a great development of this industry in Ala- bama and Georgia.^ Iron and steel enter into the manufacture of innumer.able articles, both of domestic trade and export. Our export of these manufactures in 189!) was in value nearly $100,000,000, more than three times what it was in 1804. The principal items in the order of value being, machinery, agricultural implements, builders' hardware, metal-working machinery, pipes and fittings, locomotives, wire, sewing-machines, and electrical machinery. These exports consist largely of manufactures requiring the best mechanical skill, and many of them come from the workshops of Philadelphia and other portions of Pennsylvania. The ability of the iron manufacturers of Pennsylvania to compete successfully in the higher departments of industrial production is demonstrated by the amount of these exports which arc sold in the open of the world in competition with the best that Europe can produce. leather. — Within the last quarter of a century cattle-raising has greatly increased in the United States. The uses of leather have not kept pace with the 1 In 1899 the great demand and high prices of pig iron increased the total valuation of the year's output to over $245,000,000, a sum more than double the value of the output in the year From 1789 to 1842 the lowest quotation per ton for pig-iron was $28 in 1803, and again in 1841; while the highest was $5.5 in 1815. In 1850 the price fell to S20, rose to $:?S in 1S.J4, and fell to $18.75 in 1801. Then came inflation, and the price rose to .$73.02, in 1804, and did not get back to $20 again until 1877. Since the beginning of 1885, the price has been almost constantly below $20. In 1899 the price again rose to $26. About 75 miles southwest of St. Louis is a remarkable deposit of ore called Iron Mountain, which is about 250 feet high. At the summit is an enormous mass of solid ore. Near by is another iron mountain, called Pilot Knob. It is three times as high as Iron Mountain, and the diameter at the base is one mile. It is estimated that about one-tenth of these mountains is iron ore. Incomplete surveys indicate that Utah is richer in iron than any other section of our country. In Iron County alone there are ten iron mountains, estimated to contain 130,000,000 tons of iron ore of excellent quality. 2 The tendency now is to substitute steel for nearly all uses for which iron was formerly employed. The old methods of making steel were very uncertain and costly. Bessemer's invention greatly reduced tliis cost, but his process requireil iron ore almost free from phosphoius and sulphur compounils. The world's supply of such ore outside the United St.ates is now very limited, and comes mostly from Cuba, Elba, and Spain. In this coimtry the Lake Superior ore is Bessemer quality, and tliere is a great deal of Bessemer iron in the South. Most of the iron in the world has from one to five per cent, of phosphorus, and to utilize this iron the so-called basic process of making steel has been introduced. Only basic steel is now made in Germany and France, and the s.ame kind for the most part is produced in Great Britain. For many purposes this steel will supplant Bessemer, as it is equally serviceable and cheaper; but it will not drive Bessemer out of the market, since there are some uses for which Bessemer steel alone is suitable. 52 COMMERCIAL GEOCRAPUY increase in the demand for lieef, and leatlier lias, in consequence, liecome an article of considerable export. The raw hides come mainly from the plains of the west, where are situated the great grazing areas. The leather is tanned principally in those states where forests of hemlock and oak that furnish tanning material are most abundant, — namely, Pennsylvania, New York, ]\Iaine, Michigan, and New Hampshire. In 1899 the export of leather and of leather goods was more than $26,000,000 in value, the principal item being stock for boots and shoes. Furs and Fur Skins. — Of the fur skins exported from the United States, seal skins are the most valuable. Others are beaver, otter, and the pelts of similar animals, either from Alaska or the mountainous regions of the west. The most important rookeries of fur seals in the world are on the Prebiloff Islands in Bering Sea, the output of which is regulated by the United States government. The Bering-Sea rookeries furnish over three-quarters of the world's supply of seal skin. A few skins come from the region about the Shetland Islands. From the other seal fisheries of the world, particularly those of the north Atlantic Ocean, the skins procured are those of the hair seal, which are caught solely for making leather. Coal. — The United States is now in advance of Great Britain as a coal-producing nation.' The English coal is mainly bituminous, or soft coal ; about one-third of that produced in the United States is anthracite, or hard coal. Deposits of this mineral, as in the case of iron, exist in nearly every state in the Union, but the amount produced comes mostly from a few states. Pennsylvania supplies nearly all the anthracite coal of commerce. This state is also by far the largest producer of bituminous coal in the Union. Other leading coal-producing states are Illinois, West Virginia, Ohio, Alabama, Indiana, Maryland, Iowa, Colorado, Kansas, Kentuckj^, Tennessee, and Wyoming. Comparatively little coal is mined on the Pacific slope, and that chiefly in Washington. Copper. — Some of the most valuable deposits of copper in the world are found iu the United States. They are in Michigan, Montana, and Arizona.'^ I The total annual production of coal in the world is now estimated by high authority at over 500,000,000 tons. The United States produces nearly 200,000,000 ton.s, and the state of Pennsyl- vania more than half this quantity. Little coal is exported from the United States except to Canada, which took in 1899 over 4,000,000 tons. Recent authorities give the coMl-iirnduoin? area of (lie world at about 470,000 .square miles, of which nearly 200,000 are in tin- I'nitid St:it.s. ami :iii (.|nnl area in China and Japan. This e.stimate so far as China is conr, nir,l is s..iii.\vli:ii i irriiii:il, yet the area of the coal fields of China is known to be many times ilnii of all the Einoinaii .■ouniries combined. The most extensive coal-mining operations of our southern states are carried on by the Ten- nessee Coal, Iron, and Railway Company, which controls the mines of the Sequatchee valley, whose business centre is Tracy City. This company employs thousands of men, and its total coal output is about 8,000 tons per day. - Tlu^ output of these, as well as of most of the Kuroiican mine.s, is regulated by the Sodclf dcs MHniir, a French "trust" which, fur a number of years, has controlled most of the copper mines of the world. 54 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Numerous other deposits of this metal exist, but those named are so extensive that they practically regulate the price of copper for the world. The uses and applica- tions of copper have been greatly extended and stimulated by the active development of these mines. There are also great deposits of copper in Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. The raw products of the United States form 40 per cent, of the total export.s of the country. Raw cottdii and manufactured foodstuffs constitute about one-half of the total exports in value. Of our total exports one-half goes to the United Kingdom and her colonies and more than half of all our exports to European countries go to Great Britain and Ireland. Nearly all the minerals of commerce are produced in the United States. The more important in the order of their value are coal, iron, gold, copper, petroleum, silver, building-stone, lead, and zinc. Our country leads all others in the value of its mineral products. But some minerals are mined to so small an extent, or our manufactures of them require such a large supply, that importation is resorted to. These are tin, iron, sulphur, lead, and platinum. The mineral products exported are mostly petroleum, copper, and quicksilver.^ In iron, gold, silver, and copper, the United States is the greatest producer. Fisheries. — The iisheries of the United States are more valuable than those of any other nation, and give employment to nearly 150,0U0 men. Massachusetts and Maine carry on nearly one-half of the general fisheries, though New York, Maryland, and California have considerable fishing-fleets. These include both shore and deep-sea fisheries. The large fleet of vessels engaged in cod-fishing on the Grand Banks east of Nova Scotia is chiefly from Massachusetts.^ The salmon fisheries of Oregon are of great vahie, though in Alaska there are rajjidly developing the most extensive salmon fisheries ever known.^ Massachusetts vessels do most of the whale-fishing of the world, though California has recently engaged extensively in this industry. Nearly all the sperm oil of commerce, and most of the whale-bone and whale oil, is got by steam-whalers from these two states. The most valuable whale fislieries are off the northern and western coasts of Alaska. The most important and extensive oyster-beds in the world are in Chesapeake Bay, and along the coast of Virginia.* These are natural beds. In several places' 1 The development of the mineral resources of the United St-ates in 1S92 reached tlie highest mark it has ever attained. The total value of the non-metallic products that year was approxi- mately $379,000,000 ; of metallic products $307,000,000 ; and of unspecified metallic products $1,000,000, making an aggregate of $088,000,000. The greatest previous output was in 1S91, when it readied in round numbers $0,57,000,000, and fell away in 18113 to $609,000,000. Either total is greater than the aggregate value of the output from the mines of all Europe. 2 The United States Fish Commission has entered extensively into the hatching of codfish eggs, for restocking tlie coast of New England with in-shore cod. If the Commission succeed, cod- fish will eventually he more plentiful ou the coast of New England than they were years ago, and a lost industry worlh millions of dollars will be restored. 8 ImporlanI li-liiim'-lianks extend along the coasts of Washington and Vancouver Island, at points easily accrsMlil. ii,,in tlic jwrts of Puget Sound. These banks swarm with halibut and cod. * The oyslc r iinln-iiv i^ Maryland's greatest natural source of wealth. The beds cover about 120,000 acres, and llic cauh per year is 10,000,000 bushels, yielding about $2,000,000 to m,{m) people. COMMEIl CIA L GEOGRA I'lJY 55 along the coast, artificial beds have been planteJ, particularly on the shores of New- Jersey, Long Island, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, aiul these are now second in value to the Chesapeake Bay beds. Oysters have been planted on the coast of California with some success. QUESTIONS What natural product of the United States is commercially the most valuable ? Which are the more important cotton-growing states of the Union ? What uses is the seed of the cotton- plant put to ? What export of the United States is second in value to cotton ? What is the prin- cipal breadstuff that we export ? In what states is the great bulk of wheat produced ? What states are the chief sources of our supply of corn ? What other food products of the United States are important articles of e.xport ? What is oleomargarine ? In what states of the Union are the great petroleum fields ? How is the greater part of the petroleum product carried to the sea- board ? What is the value of our annual export of petroleum ? What are the chief tobacco-raising states ? What is the estimated value of the yearly crop ? What proportion of this crop is exported in tm- manuf.actureil condition ? What is the value of the manufactured products of tobacco of the United States ? [Ans. — About $130,000,000 per annum.] What are tlie leading lumber-producing states ? Where are tlie most important pine forests ? In what section lies half our forest area ? What can you say of the lumber regions of the Pacific coast ? What are the chief items of export in wood and wood manufactures ? W^hat can you say in gen- eral of the ways in which wood enters into manufacture ? What can you say of the deposits of iron ores in the United States ? Where are the largest of these deposits '? What can you say of the south- ern iron fields ? What state leads in the con- version of iron into steel ? Wliat was the value of exports of iron and steel manufactures in 1899 ? Name some of the principal items of this export. Whence do we derive our chief supply of hides? In what states is most of the tanning industry carried on ? Wliy ? What is the value of our export of leather ? — of the manufactures of leather ? What is our most valuable export in furs and fur skins ? Where are the greatest seal-fisheries ? Contrast our coal product with that of Great Britain. What is the source of the anthracite coal supply ? Which state produces tlie largest amount of bituminous coal ? Where are the most important deposits of copper ore ? Name the ten raw products of the United States which constitute the great bulk of our exportations. Name two staples that form two- thirds of our exports in value. Among foreign countries which is our greatest customer ? To what countries do seven-tenths of our exports go ? [^Ifis. — To the countries of Europe.] Name our most important mineral products. Which two of these are the most valuable ? What minerals do we import? Why? Name three mineral products which we export. What is the estimated number of men engaged in our fisheries ? Which two states carry on nearly one-half of the general fisheries ? By whom are the cod fisheries carried on ? Where are the salmon fisheries ? Which two states lead in the whale fisheries ? Where are the most valuable of these situated ? Where are the most important oyster-beds in the world ? 56 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY II- MANUFACTURES General View. — Manufacturing has developed marvellously in the United States in the past twenty-live years. At iirst, only the coarser grades of wares were made ; but by the substitution of machinery for hand labor, a degree of perfection has been reached in many industries that is not equalled in other parts of the world. ^ This is particularly true in the manufacture of sewing-machines, watches,'^ clocks, fire-arms, and like mechanisms, where an interchange of parts is made possible by the exactness of machine work. The mechanical and inventive genius of the people of the United States is particularly trained in and directed toward the practical application of new principles. Many of the most remarkable labor-saving machines in use in the world to-day are of American origin. Among these are the cotton-gin, the telegraph, the telephone, the applications of electricity for pur- poses of illumination and power, sewing-machines, agricultural implements, and wood-working and shoe-making machinery. Statistical Outline. — The United States does as large a part of the world's manufacturing, as it does of the world's agriculture. There are 320,000 manufactur- ing establishments, employing 4,700,000 hands, and having an annual product of the value of nine thousand millions of dollars. By far the greater part of the manufacturing of our country is at present done in the states north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, but manufactures of iron, steel, and textile fabrics have been recently developing extensively, in the South. The leading states in manufactures, in the order of their importance, are: 1, New York ; 2, Pennsylvania; 3, Massa- chusetts ; 4, Illinois; 5, Ohio; and 6, New Jersey. The working power" employed in our manufactures is about twice that of Great Britain, three times that of Germany, and more than three times that of France. Leading Manufactures by States. — JSI'ew York is the leading manufacturing state, as it is the most populous, besides having extraordinary natural advan- 1 The success obtained by iiiecbanical devices for labor-saving is well illustrated in the manu- facture of shoes. It is now possible to cut shoes from the leather, and carry them through the successive stages of manufacture so as to fit them for wear, in the space of one hour. ^ The American watch is on the whole a better, as well as a cheaper, watch than any other, and foreign-made watches are nuich less used to-day in the United States and Canada than formerly. The gii:il ]ni ril of Hie American watch is its uniform excellence. The machine which makes any portion ol ;i h:iI. Ii laiilllessly can make ten thousand similar portions just as faultlessly. By means of midninri i ir l.iiiu'. s, :iny deviation to the one ten-thousandth part of an inch can be detected in the mai liiau. lliuaaii hands cannot rival this exactness. It is the unfailing, unerring accuracy of exquisitely perfect machinery which gives uniform quality to the American watch. In 1860 the various American watch companies produced only 15,000 watches, but later they have made as many as 0,000 and upward in a .single day. ^ When steam-engines were first introduced, the amount of work they could do was compared with the amount of similar work that had previously been done by horses. Hence the expression, horse-power. A horse-power is estimated as the power required to raise a weight of 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 5T tagos for its varied iiulustrit's. The principal maiiufa(!turos are, elotliinj;, iron-aiul- steel products, sugar-refining, tanning-aud-leather products, and malt Iic(U(irs. Pennsylvania is the second state in the importance of manufactures, and the first in irou-and-steel products. Massachusetts is the great cotton manufacturing state. Boots and shoes are also an important product. I/linois possesses great iron-and-steel-mills, but is more particularly noted for the products of its meat-packing establishments. Ohio has large iron-and-steel and agricultural machinery works. New Jersey is the leading state in the manufacture of pottery and silk goods. It is also the seat of large linen, cotton, rubber, and leather industries. Indiana has numerous wood-working factories of various kinds, principally for the production of farm implements. Jf'iseonsi7i's chief manufactures are metal wares and malt liquors. 3Iissouri, like Illinois, is famous for its meat-packing establishments. Other important industries are iron-and-steel manufactures, and malt liquors. Michigan is the seat of great wood-working industries, the most important branch of which is that of making household furniture. Co?mecticHt is famous for its metal-working industries, which are in great variety. Among the leading products are brass goods, cutlery, and plated ware. Bhode Island, though the smallest state, is industrially the most important in proportion to its area and population. It has many great woollen and cotton factories. In the southern states, a great development of cotton-spinning has taken place in recent years. The increase in the number of spindles was from about half a million in 1880, to a million and a quarter in 1887. Steamers from Charleston, Wilmington, and Savannah now carry cotton goods where formerly they took only raw cotton; and southern mills export cotton fabrics in great quantity to China, thus competing actively with the mills of New England. The average j^early increase of the number of spindles since 1888 in the United States is over 300,000. QUESTIONS What can you say of the development of our in Great Britain, — iu Germany, — in France, manufactures ? Wliat is the number of estab- Wliat are the principal manufactured products lishments ? — of factory-hands employed ? What of New York ? — of Pennsylvania ? — of Massa- is the value of the annual product? In what chusetts? — of Illinois? — of Ohio? — of New section of the coimtry is the greater part of Jersey ? — of Indiana ? — of Wisconsin ? — of the manufacturing done? Name the leading Missouri? — of Michigan? — of Connecticut? manufacturing states in the order of their — of Rhode Island? What can you say of importance. Contrast the working power em- cotton-spinning and other industries in the ployed in our manufactures with that employed southern states ? COMMERCIAL GEOGnAPHY m.-COMIVIERCE OF THE UNITED STATES Historic Outline. — Long before the British colonies in America became the United States, a considerable commerce was carried on with the mother country. Whaling and fishing were also pursued with great energy. The hardy people of New England made the best of sailors. At the outbreak of the Revolution, in 1776, the merchant fleet of the colonies was of considerable size. These vessels were as stanch as oak and honest labor could make them, and at the beginning of hostilities most of them were converted into war vessels. Insignificant as their number was, in comparison with the British fleet, the skill and resolution of the crews made up for the lack of ships. With the declaration of peace commerce increased rapidly. The almost con- tinual wars which for thirty years had devastated Europe, had thrown much of the carrying-trade of the world into the hands of American sailors.' But the battle of Waterloo finally brought a general peace ; commerce revived ; and the various nations of the continent struggled for supremacy in it. The Americans proved themselves most skilful sailors, and their disposition for trade kept their vessels busy. Shipbuilders vied with each other in construct- ing vessels of great speed, and in 1860 the tonnage of the merchant marine of the United States was nearly equal to that of Great Britain. Many clipper ships belonged to this fleet. They were then the swiftest vessels ever built, and competed closely for the honors which for over a century had been held by the English. The civil war in America broke out at the critical time when steam was fast superseding the sail; and while our commercial development was interrupted by this war, the trading nations of Europe were adding to their merchant marine fleets of swift ocean steamships. During the last quarter of a century the energies of the people of the United States have been devoted to developing the resources of the countr}', somewhat at the expense of the merchant marine. European nations have fostered commerce by discriminating laws and by judicious subsidies, but our own government has done little to encourage ship-building or to promote our trade. In 1894 less than one- tenth of the carrying trade of the United States was done in American vessels, as against three-fourths of it in the year 1856. The chief natural products of our country have now been developed to such an extent that a large fleet of American ships is needed to distribute them to consuming nations.'-' 1 In September, 17S7, the ship Columbia, in company with the sloop Washinriton, .sailed from the United Slates for the northwest coast of America, and the following year they reached their destination. From there the Columbia sailed for Canton witli furs, made a successful voyage, and returned to Boston in August, 1788. These two vessels were the first to circumnavigate the globe on a trading-voyage. The Washington was of only ninety tons, and was the first sloop of any nation sent on so long a voyage. 2 In 1789 the exports from the United States amounted to $20,205,000. In 18SS the exports COMMERCIAL OKOGHAI'JIY 59 Manufactures, too, have reached a stage of development where certain of them more than supply the home demand, and new markets must be sought in order to dispose of the annual surplus. The principles of true commercial economy require that a nation like the United States, which is not only the most wealthy on the globe, but the possessor of the largest possibilities for future greatness, should have a merchant marine of a capacity in keei)ing with this greatness. No other country is so well situated, naturally, to carry on a large external commerce as is the United States. It has a coast-line nearly equal in e.\tent to that of Europe, and on this coast are some of the finest harbors in the world. The facilities for internal commerce, both natural and artificial, are greatly superior to those of Europe. Besides the 15,000 miles of navigation furnished by the Mississippi River and its tributaries, the Great Lakes afford 1,500 miles of navigable waters. Along the coast are numerous rivers that are navigable to a limited extent. The government has been lavish in its expenditures to remove obstructions in these rivers and otherwise improve them for navigation. Waterways. — The general government, and the various state governments, have ennouraged the building of canals. The most important of the.se is the Erie canal, which, with its connections, furnishes cheap transportation to market for the products of central and western New York, and for the grain and other products of the region tributary to the Great Lakes.' Other canals of importance are the Champlain, which connects Lake Champlain with the Hudson River; the Chesa- peake and Delaware Canal, connecting the head of Delaware Bay with the head of Chesapeake Bay ; the Delaware and Raritan, connecting the Delaware River with the lower harbor of New York ; the Miami Canal, from Toledo on Lake Erie to Cincin- nati; the Ohio Canal and its branches, from Cleveland on Lake Erie to Portsmouth on the Ohio River; the Wabash and Erie Canal, from Evansville on the Ohio River across Indiana, and connecting with the Miami Canal ; the St. Mary's Falls Canal, were $683,800,000, in 1894 §972,861,000, and- in 1899 tliey were $1,27.5,500,000. The leading items of export for 1789, as compared with the same items of 1888, 1894, and 1899, were : — 1789 1888 1894 1899 Flour $4, .591,000 $.50,224,000 $09,271,000 $70,082,000 Wheat 1,399,000 44,1.52,000 69,407.000 81,447,000 Corn 1,084,000 18,573,000 .30,211,000 82,728,000 Tobacco leaf 4,.349,000 20,045,000 24,085.000 29,985,000 Rice 1,754.000 25,000 not reported 46,000 Cotton 58,000 225,122,000 225,210,000 191,107,000 ' Constructed as a state work, the Erie canal was a few years a<;o made free. During the time it exacted tolls, it not only paid back to the state its cost of construction and all the expenses of its maintenance and improvement, but a handsome interest on the investment besides. It has as feeders the Oswego and Black Rivers, and the Cayuga and Seneca canals. The canal floats about 2,000 boats, each with a capacity of 8,000 bushels of grain, or a corresponding bulk of other prod- ucts ; and tlie round trip between Buffalo and New York consumes about a month. Improvements have been undertaken to increase the efficiency of the canal .service, by increasing the length of the locks and deepening the canal throughout, but it is to be remembered that the railway has become a formidable rival of the canal in the carrying of freight, and some canals that were once valuable highways for commerce have already been abandoned. 60 COMMERCIAL GEOGRM'IIY connecting lakes Superior and Huron; and the Illinois and Michigan ship-canal connecting Chicago with New Orleans and the Gulf. (See p. 38.) Commerce on the Great Lakes has been increased by the building of canals, and the removal of obstructions in the waterways connecting these inland seas. Lake Superior is twenty-two feet higher than Lake Huron, and in 1856 a lock canal was constructed between these two lakes to avoid the falls of the St. Mary's Eiver. Tin' St. Mary's Falls canal was originally twelve feet deep. In 1881 extensive iuiprove- ments were made, and the depth increased to seventeen feet. But the demands of increasing commerce were so great that the government lias constructed a new canal of greater depth and capacity. More commerce in tonnage passes through this waterway than through the Suez canal, — the number of ves.sels in 1899 being 20,255, carrying 49,000 passengers and freight to the value of over $230,000,000. It is now possible for vessels of moderate draught to make the voyage from Lake Superior to the ocean, a distance of 2000 miles, by way of the Great Lakes, the Canadian canals, and the St. Lawrence River. Railways. — The United States is pre-eminent among nations, not only in its natural and artiiicial waterways, but also in its railways. The railway mileage of the United States is greater than that of Europe. Railways have been built for commercial rather than military ends. Many trunk lines were extended into new and unsettled regions, in which towns and cities sprang up with great rapidity ; and new states were soon formed. The railway mileage of the whole country is about 200,000 miles, employing 37,000 locomotives, and a million and a quarter freight cars. In 1898 the railroads carried more than half a billion passengers, moved 912,000,000 tons of freight, and employed an army of 875,000 men. Street railways have been greatly extended, and by the application of electric power are rapidly making even the country districts of the more thickly settled states Of late years there has been a steady tendency in all kinds of business to drift to the large cities, and in all countries the large cities are growing at the expense of the small towns and villages. As it is in local industries, so it is in commerce. Ports that formerly carried on commerce with all parts of the globe have dwindled into insignificance by the rapidly increasing prosperity of others more favorably situated. Nantucket, Salem, Fairhaven, and Newport conducted most of the com- merce of the country a century ago. Now the trade that they formerly held goes either to New York or to Boston, and the commerce of these once flourishing ports is limited to a few small schooners engaged in the coasting-trade. QUESTIONS What can you say of the coniimn-ce of the Aiuferioan colonies before the RevohUionary war ? — of its subsequent growth ? How did the American merchant marine compare witli tlie Britisli ill Isi'iO? What wfiv the roa.sons for its decline ':' How sliciuld it a^ain be built up ? AVhat are tlie two great waterways for internal navigation in the United States? Name the < iiMMi:i;i'i.\L (iijKin.M'iiY 61 principal navigable rivers of New KiigUiiid, — What are the modern tendencies of industrial of the lower Atlantic coast, — of the (Jiilf a.tivitics and of population ? [/Ihs. — To con- slates, —of the I'acific slope. What is thr .■.hIimH' in c\\\r<:] What ;irc some of the rc- niost important Amfrican canal? Nan.r ntln , mUk nf il,,> ■ N;,„„. . i„„ \, u- Kngland ports, important canals. What .ship canal is prM|..,M'^l ,.iir, ,„ ivi;ill\ iinimi i:hii, l.iit now relatively to connect the Great Lakes witli the <;iili .^ iuiiiiii»iri:iiii, Drsnil.c ih.' railway system of Mexico? Describe the St. Mary's Falls canal. . tlic United States. Growth of Industries and Commerce. — The growth of the United States during the past humlrcd years has been more remarkable than that of any other nation in tlic worhl's history. At the time of tlie organization of the colonies under one government, the total population was less than four millions. From its foundation each colony had been independent of the other, and relied for manufactured goods on England. The New England colonies had turned their attention mostly to marine commerce and to iishing.^ The Middle Atlantic colonies had some commerce, but the industries were chietly connected with grain and dairy fartns, while in the Southern colonies tobacco, cotton, and sugar-growing were the main occupations. There was but little change in these conditions until after the second war with England in 1812, when the government gave great encouragement to manufactures. The New England jieople had acquired wealth by their commercial ventures, and now entered upon manufacturing as ener- getically as they had pursued commerce. Nearly every mountain stream with suffi- cient flow of water to turn a water-wheel was called into requisition, until now scarcely a one horse-power of water-fall remains undeveloped ; even large rivers were dammed to obtain ])ower for the multitude of factories.^ Thus Holyoke was built on the Connecticut River, Lowell and Manchester on the Jlerrimac, and Lewiston on the Androscoggin. iln 1789 the United States showed imports of •?23, 000,000, and exports of §20,000,000, wliich is less than the present montlily commerce of the port of New York alone. The tonniige entering the seaports of the United States for 1789-90 was 761,700 ; for 1898-99 it was 22,000,000. The following is a coin]iarison of the merchant marine of the United Stales on Dec. 31, 1789, and on June 30, 1899, in tons, divided according to employment : — YEAR FORKKiN COASTWISE FISHERIES 1789 124,000 09,000 9,000 1899 837,229 3,90.5,313 01,690 - "The industries, which the first act of our first administration sought to encourage, now give remunerative employment to more people than inliabited the republic at the beginning of Washing- ton's presidency. The i^iaml tiiinl ,,f il-.ir aniiuul ouiimi, .if livi' tli..us:iii(l niillinns of .hilhus in value, places the United Si, m^ liixi :iiii,.ii^ thi- uLiiiulai-iiiriiii:- c.Miiiiri.'s ui ilic rjiili, (iiic-li:ili' iln' total mileage of all the iM;!i-.nl-. ,iii-l ..i,c-i|u;iriri- ..| all ilir ii'lr-r;i]ili Inn s nf ih,. \\,,rM wiilniioiir borders, testify to thr \..;iMi.r, vanny aud valiu- of an ini.mil r.,ii,iuLTCL- that niakrs Uirse states, it need lir. indi |h ihlrm and >,lf-supporting. Tlnsr liinidiv,! \,ai-s of development un(u:.\i'iiy G3 ])rotitalil.', luanufactiin' fdllows slowly in its waUc In tlie longest sottlcd states a^irii-ulluro is limited mainly to vegetables that require earefid attention. The quality of manufactured goods improves, however, as the skill of the operatives increases. Tlius agricultural implements are made to greater advantage in the West than in the East; but watches, slcain-eiiginrs. and carefully adjusted electrical and other appliances are most e\li nsiii ly inaimlaitured in the East where the more skilled mechanics are. Coarse intlun cloth can be made cheaper in Augusta, Atlanta, and other centres near the cotton fields, than in New Bedford, Fall River, or Lowell ; and even in tlie liner grades of manufacture the skill of the operatives in Georgia is becoming equal to that of the operatives of Massachusetts. The several sections of the United States are now assuming distinctive commer- cial characteristics. The northeastern states are the oldest and most thickly settled. Their chief commercial products are therefore the better grades of manufactured goods. Industries Sectionally Considered. — The southeastern states are thinly inhabited, having large areas of farmiug-hnul only partly developed. Hence, these states pro- duce mainly raw nuiterials, and the rougher sort of manufactures, such as coarse cotton cloth, pig-iron, and lumber. In the central or Mississippi region food-prod- ucts are cultivated in the states lying to the west, while in the eastern section more manufacturing is carried on. In general, the Pacific slope is still a great producer of raw materials, minerals, lumber, and food-products ; but in the vicinity of San Fran- cisco, the longest settled region, there are extensive manufactures. The commercial spirit of the people iii the northern states of the country has led to a more complete development of the resources of these states than has been attempted in the South. Since 1880 Northern capital has been turned southward, and the most rapid industrial movement in any part of the country has followed in the development of coal and iron and cotton mills. From 1880 to 1899, the wages paid to mill oi^eratives in the South increased 4(10 per cent., the number of cotton spindles 750 per cent., the amount of iron produced over GOO per cent., the coal mined 650 per cent. Nor are these advances iu the coarser products alone. The South now is ambitious to produce the finer qualities of steel. Having succeeded iu the coarser grades of cotton, she is striving to make the finer varieties also. And in utilizing their abundant natural resources, the people of the South seem to be only at the beginning of their industrial growth. The demand for energy and capital within our own borders has been so great that there has been no necessity to seek outside markets. In this respect the con- trast between the United States and many of the European countries has been very marked, as the heavy American investments of English, German, and French syndi- cates show. Since 18G0 our exports and imports have greatly increased. The expan- sion of trade, moreover, has taken place in nearly every direction, but the exports are now much greater than the imports. Now, as always heretofore, the largest export is of agricultural products and raw materials ; but manufactures, especially of iron and steel, of machinery and cotton goods, have shown great advances. American G4 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY steel and iron bridges have been sold in Europe, Asia, and Africa in competition with British and German manufacturers. American bicycles, clocks, watches, type- writers, and sewing machines are popular everywhere. American locomotives are running on English, German, French, Russian, Chinese, and Japanese railways, and the electric railways of foreign cities have been largely equipped by American elec- trical engineers. The largest relative advances of American exports have been with China, which takes an ever-increasing amount of cotton goods ; with South Africa, which imports flour and machinery ; and with Mexico. The progress of trade with the other republics to the south has been relatively small.' Parallel with this commercial success, increasing foreign competition is not wanting in jnost classes of goods which we export. Russia, Roumania, Austria- Hungary, India, and other countries are exporting wheat in increasing quantities. They cannot compete with us closely enough to drive American wheat from the market, but they reduce the profits of wheat-growing. The Argentine Republic and other South American countries compete with us in meat and animal products. Egypt and India raise increasing quantities of cotton. Russian petroleum now vies in some markets with the Pennsylvania product, and, owing to its abundance, gives promise of being a keen competitor. Our Exports and Imports. — The United States stands first among nations in the value of its exports, Groat Britain being second, Germany third, and France fourth. The value of the exports of the United States during 1899 was $1,203,931,000; of the imports of the same year, $616,049,000. But in spite of this recent Ameri- can preponderance of exports. Great Britain is still the leader of the world's trade, exports and imports being both considered; followed by Germany, France, and the United States. In the order of value the bulk of the Import trade of the United States is carried on with Great Britain and her possessions, Germany, France, Brazil, iThe history of efforts to increase commercial relations with the Spanish and Portuguese- American countries goes back to 182-5, when efforts were made which resulted in the meeting of an International Congress at Panama in 1826. Owing to the death of several delegates, and especially to political complications among the countries of South America, this congress was barren of practical outcome. It adjourned to meet later at the City of Mexico, but its session.s were never resuincd. In the wiiitrr of 1 ss'.i^-Ol"), n siToiid IntPvnntiniiMl Aiiipriciin r.iiv.'ross mot in Washington, com- pi)Sf..l ..r ;irriv:lilrd ,lrl,-alrs fl' :ill 111,' IT, .111 .li( ■, ol llir Wr, Irili ( '. H ll i I in ll . ' MaUy UUltUally A prrinaiH'iil liailc^ cxi.nsii inn, wii h rsprfial rrlri-ni.-,. i .. [.in i in- A iiii-i'ir:iii manufacturers in touch witli consumers iu other countries lias been establishud iu riiiladelphia ; and the Pan-Ameri- can Exposition held in Buffalo iu 1900 was particularly intended to promote the commercial rehi- tions of the Anioricas. Aiii.iicaii DMo.ls raniL.t lie snlil in Sniiili Amcri.-a in r iM-liiion wiili Kun.]!!-, all miIi.t Ihin-s being cinal. whIimmi al l.^a-i as iiinrli aiiniiiMi, i,i ih.' .Inail, ..| ihr l,iiui- uvvu assists its uciau stfaiiit-is ; and (.■.>ipfrii'iiri- has iaui;lil that this is iIil- suivsl way to establish lines of foreign trade. American steamships will never be fairly paid lor transporting the mails until their compensation is reckoned by the length of the voyage, instead of by the number of letters carried. KEW YORK ClTl APPROACHES COM mi: IK lA L (:i:nt;i!.\ i-ii r 65 The Netherlmids, Japan, Cuba, Italy, Mexico, Cliiiia, Switzerlaiul, Belgium, and Austria^Hungary. In the order of value the bulk of the export trade of the United States is caFried on with Great Britain, Germany, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, Mexico, Italy,' Japan, Cuba, Denmark, China, and Brazil. One-half of our exports go to the rnitrd Kini^'dom and her colonies. More than half of all exports to Europe go to the United Kingdom. To the British po.s- sessions in North America alone we export to an amount larger than the sum of our exports to non-British Asia, Africa, South America, and the West Indies. QUESTIONS Give a general account of the growth of the United States and of the development of its natural resource.s. Mention an important early industry of XevV England. Inwiiat iliivciiim ;ne New England's energies andwcallli imw imui d :' AVhat can you say of immigraiinn ,uii,i(l, r.-,| by nationality ? Contrast the indu.stiie.s uf Uie western part of our country with tliose of the eastern part. Why does agriculture predomi- nate in the one, and manufacture in the other ? What section of our country has, in very recent years, made great advances in the direc- tion of manufactures ? To the development of what two raw products are these advances mainly due ? What can you say of the growth of our foreign trade ? What of our trade with the countries of South America and Asia ? What is the relative i...siii..n ..f iln' United States among the countrii ,, ..i iln wniM in respect to the value of its tonimi .mhiiiii ivc ■.' Name the first four commercial i ounuii.s ol the world in the order of their importance. About what is the value of our annual exports ? — of our imports ? Name, in the order of value, the eight countries from which our imports are mainly derived. Name those to which our ex- ports are mainly sent. What class of products constitutes nine-tenths of our exports ? IV. — SEVEN PRINCIPAL SEAPORTS New York City is the great commercial centre of the United States, and ranks among the half-dozen leading cities of the world, both in population and in wealth and enterprise. Its geographical position and its fine harbor combine to make it the commercial metropolis of the Western Continent. In amount of commerce, it is surpassed only by London and Liverpool. ISIanhattan Island, on which it is mainly situated, is long and narrow, and projects into a deep bay. This bay and the adjoin- ing waters furnish nearly one hundred square miles of anchorage ground ; while the shores of the island have twenty-five miles of water-front, all of which furnishes good wharfage area. The adjacent shores supply as mucli more. ' In 1809 the export trade of the United States w;is classified as follow.s : — Agricultural products .§784, 089,000 Maimfactures 338,675,000 Products of the forest 42,126,000 Minerals and mineral oils 28.832,000 Products of the ftsheries 6.025,000 Miscellaneous 0. 281.000 .Sl,2(l.!.!i:)1.000 More than ninety per cent, of the exports were aj;riiniltural products and manufactures. 66 COMMEllCIAL GEodRAPUY The building of the Erie canal and its branches brought New York into direct and cheap communication with the great producing country of the lake regions ; and, with the rapid development of agricultural interests in those regions, the commerce of the city increased. The subsequent introduction of railways supplemented the canal system, and poured a still greater amount of food-products into the city to be exported. Thus, New York gradually and steadily absorbed the bulk of our foreign commerce, both of exports and imports. Direct communication is now held with all the large commercial centres of the world by steamships and by sailing-vessels. New York City alone has nearly half of the foreign commerce of the country. Four trunk lines of railway connect the city with the great producing regions and commercial centres of the West. These lines are the New York Central, the New York, Lake Erie, and Western, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio. They bring the food and other products of the West to New York for export, and, in return, distribute tliroughout the West the manufactures of the Atlantic states, and the wares imported. Even the cotton of the South seeks New York; and eight per cent, of the amount exported passed through this port in 1899. New York is the centre from which most of the great financial transactions of the country emanate, and as a money-market it is second to London only. The manu- facturing interests in and around tlie city are much greater than in any equal area of the country. The more important industries are: the making of clothing, shoes, cigarettes and cigars, sugar-refining, printing and book-biuding, brewing, leather- working, and iron- and steel-working. Some of the best ships built in the country are launched here. Politically and commercially a part of New York, on the western end of Long Island, is Brooklyn. The two cities are connected by the finest suspension bridge in the world. A second bridge is building, and tunnels are planned to connect the two boroughs. The manufacturing interests of Brooklyn are very great, but it is also a city of homes. It has a great extent of wharfage, and carries on a considerable portion of the commerce of the port of New York. Jersey City, opposite New York on the west, is also a suburb of industries and homes. Its water-front is extensive; and as numerous western railways terminate at its piers, a considerable direct foreign commerce is carried on. Within a radius of twenty miles of the city of New York is a population of about 4,000,000, all dependent to a greater or less degree upon the city. Boston, the capital of ^Massaclmsclts, is the sn-diid American seaport in com- mercial iiiiportance. About ri-lii per cfiit. of ilir rduimerce of the country passes through this port. Much of I he fxpcirt and iuipdit trade of New England is carried on through Boston, and it also receives for export a large amount of food-products from the West. These products reach Boston largely vid the Boston and Albany, Fitchburg, and Boston and Maine railways. The harbor of Boston is one of the best in the country, but its anchorage area is little more tlian half as great as that of New York. Up to the time of the COM mi: lie I. \r. cEocnAi'iiY 6T Imililins of the Kii(> n\v.\\, r.ustcm was the most inipi.rtiuit i.ort, of tho pouiiti-v. ]iut the opuiiiug ol' that t'aiial gave to Now York a hirge truttie that Lustou uuuhl not reach, though the railways have now restored some of its trade. The Boston and Albany and Fitchburg railways connect Boston with the trunk lines of the- West, the New Haven with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New York, the Boston and Maine with Canada and Northern and Eastern New England. No other part of the country does as m\ich manufacturing as New England; and Boston is the city \ipon which nearly all these industries depend, both for Ixiuking facilities and a market. liostoii is a >;vi'at financial centre. Much of the money necessary to build up the West rLLiiie tidiii that city. It is one of the chief educational centres of the country in languages, professions, arts, and music. The industries of Boston are chiefly the- manufacture of boots and shoes, clothing, iron and steel goods, printing and book- binding, brewing, and sugar-refining. It is the first leather market and the second wool' market of the United States. Baltimore has a commerce somewhat larger than tliat of I'hiladelphia. Its exports are nuich greater than those of the latter city. In exports IJaltimore ranks third. New \''ork being first, Boston second, and New Orleans fourth. Its imports are but a fraction of the exports, and much less, in value than those of New Orleans. The city is situated near the head of Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty miles from the Atlantic. It owes much of its growth, however, to favorable railway con- nections with the West rather than to its maritime position. The harbor is naturally a fine one, but it has not the depth and capacity found at other leading ports. Baltimore is the greatest oyster-market in the world; and one of the most impor- tant industries of the city is that of gathering, canning, and shipping oysters to all parts of the world. The city is also a considerable tobacco-market. Among the leading industries are iron- and steel-working, and brick-making. Philadelphia is fourth among the seaports of the country. The city is situated on the Delaware Iviver, one hundred miles from the Atlantic Ocean. The depth of the river at low tide is sufficient to admit large ocean steamships. In the early part of the century, Philadelphia, with Boston, possessed most of the ocean commerce of the country; but since the introduction of railways, and the development of the resources of the West, other ports have grown into importance at the expense of both, but particularly of I'hiladelphia. The principal exports are, food-products, coal, cotton, iron and steel, woollen goods, and petroleum. The petroleum export of the United States is mostly from Philadelphia and New York. The proximity of coal and iron mines largely accounts for the great industrial development of Philadelphia and its vicinity, where manufacturing interests greatly exceed shipping interests in value. Iron- and steel-working is very extensively fol- lowed, but it is for its woollen industries that the city is especially noted. It is the greatest carpet-manufacturing centre in the world; and in making velvet, Brussels. and other fine grades of carpets, the city is not excelled. Woollen cloth, worsted, yarn, and other wool materials are also extensively manufactured. The manufacture 68 COMMERCIAL flEnnnAPIIY of pressed and ornamental bricks and terra-eotta ware is a great industry, and one for wliicli Philadelphia is famous. Among otlier leading manufactures are tiiose of drugs and chemicals, sugar, hats, and cotton goods. Philadelphia's population is a million and a half. The city is well provided with railway facilities, and its prosperity has been largely due to a system of canals which connect it with the coal and iron regions, and with New York and Baltimore. In the vicinity of Philadeljihia, along the shores of the Delaware River, are the largest and most important ship-building yards in the United States. Among the vessels built in these yards are swift steamships plying between New York and England, and San Francisco and Australia. The vessels for the new navy of the United States, constructed here, have no superiors in the navies of other nations. New Orleans is advantageously situated on the Mississippi Eiver, one hundred miles from its mouth. Before the introduction of railways. New Orleans gave every evidence of becoming the greatest commercial city of the continent, as, by the Mississippi Eiver and its branches, it was the natural outlet through which the food- products of the states lying along the shores of the vast Mississippi Eiver system sought the markets of Europe. But the development of navigation on the Great Lakes, and the building of railways to connect the Northwest with the Atlantic seaboard, diverted much of this traffic eastward. The channel at the mouth of the Mississippi Eiver, difficult to navigate, and frequently changing by the deposit of silt from the river, was another hinderance to the development of New Orleans. This has been deepened to thirty feet by means of jetties, so that ocean vessels of greatest draught may now reach the city. These improvements have greatly increased the commercial importance of the port. About a third of the cotton crop and nearly all of the cotton-seed oil are shipped from New Orleans. An important commerce is being developed between New Orleans and Mexico and Central America. By the completion of the Nicaragua interoeeanic canal, the commerce of the port will be greatly increased. The railway connections of the city have been improved during recent years, and have done much to aid its commercial development. Most of the sugar-cane raised in the United States is grown in Louisiana, and the raw sugar is sent to market through the port of New Orleans. Eice, another leading crop, finds its way to market by the same means, and it exports much corn and wheat, brought by the railways from the North and West. The situation of the city is such that its commercial interests are naturally more important than its manufactures ; but in recent years the latter have assumed great and increasing consequence. It is estimated that there are now in New Orleans 2000 factories of various kinds, the leading products of which are tin- ware, clothing, boots and shoes, manufactures of wood, and railway cars. Galveston is now the sixth seaport of the Union in the total amount of its commerce. It is the chief shipping point for Texan products, and although its harbor is not naturally good,, yet Galveston is the leading port in the amount of cotton shipped, and has an important trade in wool and hides. ccnrMEKCiM f/KormAi'/iy 69 San Francisco is the seventli seajioi-t in t'ommercial iiiiijortaiice in the United States, and is destined to become a groat comniercial centre. San Francisco and San Pablo bays, on which the city is situated, form one of the finest harbors in tlie world, and furnish anchorage area several times greater than that of New York harbor. The harbor and the Golden Gate (the strait connecting it with the ocean) admit vessels of the greatest draught regardless of tides. Most of the foreign commerce of the Pacific slope passes through San Francisco. Exports and imports more nearly balance each other than in any other of the great ports except New York. The amount of wheat and wheat flour exported varies from year to year with the demands of the foreign trade and the yield of the California season. Fruits, lumber, wine, and meat products are other exports.' Nearly all the quick- silver exported goes through this port. Lines of steamships connect the city with New York, the Pacific coast ports of South America, Yokohama, Honolulu, Auck- land, and Australia. San Francisco is the great distributing centre of the coast, and all parts of the Pacific slope pay tribute to it. It is connected by steamship lines with all the important coast to^vns, and by rail with the more important places of the interior. The building of transcontinental railways has greatly increased travel and trade between the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards. Much of the coal used in California is imported from Washington, British Columbia, and Australia. But in spite of the high cost of fuel, manufactures are extensive, especially those of furniture, leather goods, clothing, cigars, iron and steel, and refined sugar. Considerable fishing is carried on from this port, and, with New Bedford and Provincetown, Mass., it does most of the whaling of the world. The completion of the Nicaragua canal will be a great stimulus to the commerce of San Francisco : closer communication with New Orleans and New York being a necessary result of the construction of that work. These seven ports. New York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Galveston, and San Francisco, do about ninety per cent, of our importing and eighty per cent, of our exporting ; that is, eighty-four per cent, of our total foreign commerce. The remaining sixteen per cent, is divided among a large number of minor ports,. Seattle and Tacoma having the largest share, and others being well known in par- ticular kinds of trade or manufacture. QUESTIOJ^S Give a general account of tlie situation, size, and comniercial impurlance of New York City. What cau.ses have made it the metropolis of America? What great trunk lines of railway connect it with the West ? What are its most important industries? What cities situated on the harbor of New York form with the me- tropolis the "Port" of New York? [Ans.~ Brooklyn and Jersey City.] What is the com- bined population of the three cities ? [^Ans. — nearly three millions.] Locate and describe the chief city of New England. What can you say of the commerce of Boston ? Wliat lines of railway have Bos- ton for their eastern terminus ? What can you say of the importance of Boston in banking, trade, and education ? Wliat are the principal local industries ? ' American occupation of the Philippines and large railway concessions to Americans a must srreatlv increase the trans-Parifin t.rarlp of San Fr.incisst^n nnil nihpr nnrt« nf thn ^^n>^t China must greatly increase the trans-Pacific trade of San F and other parts of the coast. 70 COMMEnCIAL GEOGRAPHY What natural advantages for commerce has New Orleans ? How have these been improved ? With what countries is New Orleans Ijuilding up trade ? AVhat would be the effect of the Nicaragua canal upon the commerce of the city ? How do the exports of New Orleans compare with its imports ? What are the principal local manufactures ? Name the leading items of export. Describe Galveston, its rank and trade. Describe the situation of San Francisco. What are its chief exports ? What are the sources of thff-coal supply of Califoniia ? What are the leading manufaotiires of San Francisco ? Li.fMt.. :iim1 a.srrilir niila.l.lplii;,. What are itsc-hiri .■xjn.rK;' Wli;.i li:i^ c.ii^r.l ihc extraor- dinary i|r\,hi|,ii,,ni iif lis iii;niiii:irnir,.s :' Name the priiiuip.il itL-uis of Uiusu. Wli.it, ciui you say of its ship-building '? What is the commercial rank of Baltimoi'e as compared with other lead- ing seaports ? Describe the oyster industry of Baltimore. What are the leading local indus- tries ? What proportion of our export and im- port trade is carried on by the seven great cities considered in this chapter ? v.- MINOR COAST CITIES In Maine :— Eastport, the easternmost town of the United States, carries on a small traffic with the province of New Brunswick. Considerable fishing is done, and the seat of the sardine catching and canning of the United States is in this and other towns near by. The towns on the Penobscot and Kennebec rivers are devoted chiefly to ice-cutting in winter, and logging and wood- w^orking in summer. Bath, near the mouth of the Kennebec, has long been famous for the building of wooden ships, and also builds many fine steel vessels. Portland sends out a fine fleet of cod and mackerel fishing vessels. A limited traffic, chiefly in the products of the wood working shops, is carried on with the countries of South America. During the winter, owing to the closing of the St. Lawrence by ice, much of the commerce of Canada is carried on through Portland, as this port In Massachusetts : — ^;/')H(.-(N/(/' is thu chk-i lishing port of the United States. It has a great fleul of vessels engaged in the cud, mackerel, halibut, and other sea-fisheries. Provinretoirn and other towns on Cape Cod are also engaged extensively in the fisheries. Next to New Bedford, Provincetown is the greatest sperm whaling port in the world. Many of the best shipmasters of the merchant marine of the United States were born and bred on Cape Cod. For the past fifty years N'eio Bedford has done half the world's whaling, and most of the world's supjily of whalebone, whale oil, and sperm oil comes from this port. A number of the finest ships in the merchant service of the United States hail from this harbor. Since the decline of whaling, which is chiefly owing to the production of petroleum, cotton iiKiiiufartniv has been extensively entered upon, and New Bedford now ranks high among the cdt in iiiaiiiifniiiiing cities of the country. In this city are the Wamsutta Mills, one of the largest CMitou-iiianulaituring establishments in the world. Fall Biver carries on a coast trade in cotton, coal, and other merchandise, as well as an important passenger traffic between New Voile and liiston. But it is chiefly known as the greatest cotton manufacturing centre of the Tniinl Siai.-. A few nnles above Fall River is Taunton, where are great iron and steel workini; cstalilisluiu iits. Taunton is also engaged in coiisting- trade. Some of the largest schooners on the coast hail from this port. In Rhode Island: — Providence, at the head of Narragansett Bay, is the second city of New Kngland. It is the .seat of extensive jewelry manufacture, and is an important cotton and wool market, being in the heart of the great textile manufacturing region. Providence has a considerable coast trade. In Connecticut : — Stonington has some traffic between New York and the manufacturing centres of southern New England. New London possesses a commerce similar to that of Stonington. This port is also engaged to a limited extent in whaling and sealing. By way of New Ilnven there is steamboat traffic between New York and the manufacturing towns in the Connecticut River valley. In Virginia : — Norfolk exports cotton, coal, breadstuffs, and lumber, and is an important tob.acco market. Newport News has immense ship-building yards where ocean steamers and war of the United States Navy are built, and ships a large amount of cotton and tobacco. COM.MKRCIM. (ilKiCllM'IIY 71 In North Carolina: — WUmimitnn is the only port whose waters are deep enough to admit larj;e vessels. It expurts naval stores, cotton, and lumber, and ranks next to Savannah in the exportation of turpentine. In South Carolina : — Charleston harbor has been much improved, and the port is gaining in coMimercial importance. The chief exports are cotton, both tlie common and the Sea Island ; pliosphate roolj, naval stores, turpentine, and lumber. BeaufoH is an important phosphate marliet. In Georgia: — In tlio amount of cotton it exports. Savnnnah stands next to New York amom; tlie imrts of the .\tlantic coast. In the shipment of turpentine it stauc's first. Other exports are rosin and lumber, liriinsmck is the most important lumber port on the South Atlantic coast. In Florida : — Fcrnanduia, on the Atlantic coast, is a lumber market of some importance. li'eij West has sponge fislieries and cigar factories. Appalarhicola, on the Gulf coast, at the mouth of the river of the same name, is also a lumber market. Pensacola is the chief lumber port on the Gulf coast. Tampa is a shipping-port for Cuban traffic. Phospliate rock is an important export of tlie norllieni Florida ports. ' In Alabama : — Mobile, the only .seaport in the state, has some traflie in lumlier and cotton. In Mississippi : — Most of the products of this state are exported through New Orleans, but some lumber is shipped from Bay St. Loins, the outlet of the Pearl Kiver region. In Texas : — Galveston is the leading port of the state, and leads all others in the country for the export of cotton. New Orleans is second and New York third (see page 68). Other exports are oil cake and meal, animals and animal products. Srihirin and Corpus Christi carry on some trade in animals, animal products, and lumber. On the Pacific Coast : — S.'.ilth' ami 7".'r,,„i,.. ,,ii I'li-ct Suniul, ^Vashill^fon, export lumber ■extensively and iniiii>rl Um.^iIU. ami mhrr (irirninl _ i,. llir l'ii-,'i Suini.l cities are growing rapidly, and tlirir eniiiiih-ivnil iiniiMriiu.r i, y,:iiiy ii;,ir:i,iii-. W'li.ai. Iiimi1.it. and wool are the principal exports of 7'm;W«/i<;. Ore-ou, and al.su i.f Sua Umju. Calil.iriiia. Sm I'idro, the port of Los Angeles, whose harbor has been much improved of late, is an important lumber market, receiv- ing nearly all the lumber used in Southern California. Name the coast cities of Maine, and give some account of the industries and trade of each, — of Massachusetts. — of Rhode Island, — of Con necticut, — of Virginia, — of North Carolina,— QUESTlOyS of South Carolina, — of Georgia, — of Florida, — of Alabama, —of Mississippi. — of Texas,— of the Pacific states. From what cities are forest products exported. VI. -NINE LAKE PORTS Commerce on the Great Lakes has always found very active competition from the railways, owing to the fact that the lake system is closed to navigation from December to May, while the railways have no such interruption. Within the past few years, steamers of great speed and carrying capacity have been built for lake navigation, and now do much of the carrying of certain products. Owing to the many obstacles to navigation, the draught of these vessels is limited to si.xteen feet. They average fourteen round trips each season between Buffalo and Duluth. The cargoes consist mainly of coal and manufactured goods going west, and of iron and copper ore, grain, and lumber returning east. Chicago and Cleveland are important 72 COMMERCIAL GEOGIIAPHY centres from wliicli a very large percentage of the shipping is directed. Coal is sent from Buffalo and Erie to Chicago, Milwaukee, Duluth, Superior, and Toledo. Ore is shipped from Superior and Marquette to Cleveland and Chicago, grain and flour from Chicago and Duluth to Buffalo, and lumber from Michigan to Cleveland and Buffalo. The commerce of the lake ports has wonderfully increased in the last twenty years. Nearly one-third of the whole tonnage of vessels carrying the United States flag is engaged in commerce on the Great Lakes.' Oswego, the most important city of the I'nited States on Lake Ontario, carries on a considerable trade with Canada. The largest starch-factory in the world is situated here. Buffalo, at the foot of Lake Erie, is an important railway centre. Coal and tlie manufactured products of the East are shipped from this port to the West and into Canada. Grain, sent through the lakes toward the seaboard, is trans-shipped here to the boats of the Erie canal and to the trunk railway lines. Buffalo is an important industrial centre, jiarticularly in metal and wood working, and in the manufacture of glucose. Cleveland, situated on the southern shore of Lake Erie, has a valualili' shipping- trade in urain. iron ore, and manufactured products. Its maiiui'.ictiiii's are very important, and include iron and steel wares, furniture, and farming implements. There are also a number of large petroleum refineries. The Ohio canal affords an outlet to the Ohio River, and thence to the Mississippi ; and trunk lines of railway connect the city with the business centres of the East and the West. Toledo, at the western extremity of Lake Erie, is a great railway centre. It has water communication with the Ohio Eiver by the Miami canal, and is also connected with the AV^abash canal. The city is an important grain-market. The manufacture of furniture and farm machinery is extensively carried on. Detroit, on the Detroit Eiver, between lakes Huron and Erie, is the most impor- tant port between Buffalo and Chicago. More tonnage is said to pass Detroit than any other point in the world. Bay City and vicinity is the centre of a vast huuher trade. Some of the richest salt deposits in the country are near this city. Chicago, situated at the southern extremity of Lake jMicliigan, is the most important city on the Great Lakes and the second in popidation on the American continent. The harbor, naturally poor, has been greatly improved, so that now a greater number of vessels clear yearly from this port than from New York and Phila- ^ The aggregate value of American vessels engaged in the lake service is over $50,000,000. Of this amount Cleveland owns more than 810,000,000. Many vessels are yearly launched and a large number of vessels without ratings are engaged in lumber transportation. Hero as elsewhere in the carrying trade, steam is superseding in tonnage the sailing vessel. The iron ore of the mines in Minnesota affords a continually increasing amount of freight. coMMKH'/Af. (n:i)(:i;.\i>iiv 73 delphia together. There are open waterways to the Great Lakes, to all points on the Mississippi River, to New York (by way of the Erie canal), and, by way of the St. Lawrence River, to European ports. Chicago is the greatest railway centre in the world. It is the meeting-point between systems reaching to the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, Canada, and the racilic. It is the greatest food centre in the world, and a large proportion of the products of the states west of this point find their way to market through this city. It not only handles much the largest proportion of the grain, but also fixes the prices of wheat and corn for the markets of the world. The meat-packing and meat-dressing establishments are the largest in the world. In manufactures of steel it competes with Pittsburg and eastern Pennsylvania. The manufacture of clothing, furniture, and leather goods are important industries; and in the printing and i)ublishing of books, this city is second to New York only. Chicago is the financial centre of the North and Central AVesteru states. Milwaukee is eighty-five miles north of Chicago. The railway facilities of the city are excellent. The greatest industries are iron and steel working, and the brew- ing of malt liquors. Some grain is handled, and a small lake traffic is carried on. The cream colored bricks made in the vicinity of the city are a leading export. Duluth, at the western extremity of Lake Superior, is a rapidly growing city. It is at the head of navigation of the Great Lakes, and is the eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific Railway. The chief export is the grain harvested from the vast fields of northern Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Manitoba. QUESTIONS Give a general account of tlie commerce upon Name and characterize the trade and industries the Great Lalces. What are the principal items of each of the nine cities described, — Oswego, of merchandise in this trade ? How does this — Buffalo, — Cleveland, — Toledo, — Detroit, — trade compare in value with our coast-trade? Bay City, — Chicago, — Milwaukee, — Duluth. VII. -TEN RIVER PORTS Owing to the facilities of transportation furnished by the river, and to the rail- way connections with the other great centres of trade, numerous large cities have grown up along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Vicksburg, on the lower Mississippi, is the centre for the output of many cotton- seed oil mills, and a large shipping point for cotton. Memphis is one of the most important cotton markets of the interior. It has many factories, and is a great distributing-point for the inauufacturod goods of the North Central states. St. Louis, on the Mississippi River, just below the junction of the IVIissouri, is the great commercial centre of the Mississippi valley. The population of the city is more than 000,000. From its situation St. Louis commands an enormous traffic 74 COMMERCIAL GKOCRAPIIY both by water and by rail. It is a great market for grain, flour, animals and animal- products, tobacco, cotton, cottou seed oil, and sugar. St. Louis has numerous local indus- tries, the more important being metal and glass working, beer brewing, car building, flouring, and brick making. The wholesale grocery business is more important than in almost any other interior city. St. Paul is situated at the head of navigation on tlie ^Mississippi Kiver, and is an important railway centre. This city has a great flour milling business and mis- cellaneous trade. During the decade ending 1890 its growth was extraordinary, the population increasing from 41,000 to 133,000, and in 1899 reached 200,000. Minneapolis, adjoining St. Paul on the west, is the greatest flour producing centre in the world, the mills having a capacity of about 40,000 barrels a day. Wood work- ing is also an important industry in both Minneapolis and St. I'aul, particularly that •of cooperage in connection with the flour-making. Minneapolis has likewise had a phenomenal growth. In 1880 it had a population of 47,000 ; in 1890, 165,000 ; and in January, 1899, it was estimated at 225,000. Kansas City, Missouri, is on the Missouri Eiver. Its river trade is unimportant, and its development is mainly due to great railway facilities. In the importance of its railway connections, it ranks next to Chicago among western cities. The growth of this city has been very remarkable. It had no such natural advantages as the neighboring cities of Topeka and St. Joseph, but had, on the contrary, a great many disadvantages such as usually prevent the growth of cities. Yet Kansas City has become one of the leading business centres. Owing to its nearness to the cattle ranges, there is an enormous traflic in dressed beef, and in meat packing it ranks next to Chicago. There is a constantly growing trade with Mexico. Kansas City, Kansas, forms one business centre with the Missouri city of the same name. Omaha has a considerable river trafiic, and is a railway centre of much impor- tance. In the city are large manufactures of railway supplies. In dressed meats and packing house products it ranks next to Chicago and Kansas City. Smelting and metal working are a leading industry. Louisville, on the Ohio Eiver, is the greatest tobacco-market in the world. By reason of its extensive railway connections, it is active in the exchange of food- products of the North for the raw materials of tin' South. I'ork jiacking, and the manufacture of whiskey and metal goods, are leailin- iiulustrios. Cincinnati ■ is the largest and most important city in the Ohio Valley. An extensive traffic is carried on by the river; by the ]\riami canal, which gives water connection with Lake Erie; and by the great trunk lines which connect the city with all the leading commercial points. Pork-packing was formerly the chief industry of the city, and is still active, though not to the degree that it is farther west. Other industries of great value have sprung up. Iron and steel goods, beer, clothing, boots and shoes, soap, fine pottery, printing, tobacco nuinulacturing. and wood carving, are the most important. COMMF.IKIAI. aEoailAl'IIY 75 Pittsburg and Allegheny City :ir.. situated on the Allcj^liany ami Moiion-ahehi rivers where they unite to foiiu the Olno. Tlie first growtli of I'ittsl.urg was due to its favorable position for traffic by water ; but the later development of the coal and iron mines of Pennsylvania has made the city tlie principal iron and steel producing centre of the country. The natural waterway at hand has been of inestimable value in the develo})ment of the city. Coal is loaded in barges at the mines up the rivers, and towed to the various cities along the Ohio and Mississippi. Glass making is the second industry, and in this product Pittsburg stands first in the country. .\ disrovcrj' whii-h h;is proatly benefited Pittsburg and other manufacturing towns in Peniisy!- v;uii,i, I ihi... aipl Iii(li;iii;i, i^ iliiU of natural gas. and the means by which it can be used as fuel. N.iiiii.il -1^ li ;> - . MiiM I . I, I ihr use of coal in Pittsburg that much of the smokiness for which tlie ( riidr |ii iii.'ii iiiii i> .un.ilirr fuel that, owing tn its rhpnpnf>5;s, has come into extensive u.se in si-vcial kinds of nianularturi'. ])articularly in nu'l:il ;iimI lj1:is< wurking. Great petroleum fields Iiavf recenily lu'eii ik-vrluprd in Ohio. The prcdiin^ >ii ih. ,.- m'W fields possess only a small degree of illuminating, but the usual amount of Inat uiviuu, .|uality. QUESTIONS 1 Where is Vicksburg ? What manufactured 1 and trade of these cities ? What are the chief product of cotton is extensively shipped from features in the trade of Kansas City ? What is tliis iii.jnt " T.n.atr M(Miiilii>. What can ynu its rank as a railway centre ? Name tlie leading ,s:i\ ni itsiiad.;' Wliai unai 'i'v iirar tlir r, m- man n laclures of Omaha, — of Louisville. Of llii. ii.r ,ii 111, Mi>H-~iii]ii aiiil Mi-sniiii v\\rv~-: «liai a -ricultural staple is Louisville the world's ^'anii' and chana I'.rizc the linal indusliJLS and ,L;rratr.>t market? Give some account of the the principal items of trade of .St. Louis. Wliere commerce and manufactures of Cincinnati, — is St. Paul ? What otlier city of Minnesota is of Pittsburg. What natural advantages for near it ? What can you say of the industries 1 trade have these cities ? Vm. -OTHER CITIES AND TOWNS In nddition to the foregoing cities that owe their prosperity in a greater or less desree to their facilities for water transportation, there are many other cities throughout the country tliat ow ' tlieir development to other causes, such as nearness to coal mines, abundance of water power, or to rail- way facilities. Among them the following are mentioned, with their chief industries. In Maine : — Bam/or, lumber trade ; Aiib'trn and Lewiston on the Androscoggin, Bidilejord and Smo on the Saco, cotton and woollen goods ; Calais, ship-building ; Bocklaiid, making of lime and ship-building ; Enmfurd Falls, paper pulp and paper. In New Hampshire: — Manchester ranks fourth among the cities of the country in the manufacture of cotton goods ; Nashua and Doiht also have important cotton and woollen factories ; 'This gas is found by sinking wells from six hundred to two thousand feet. It has been extensively used as fuel in factories, and for lighting and heating purposes in houses. It is the cheapest fuel used. New fields are continually opened. Unfortunately, evidences of diminishing supply lead to the belief that it may soon be exhausted. The mains from tlio gas-fields, composing the high-pressure system of one company alone, have been able to deliver into the cities of Pittsburg and Allegheny nearly 200,000,000 cubic feet of gas every twenty-four hours. 76 COMMERCIAL dEOGRAPHY Concord, well known for making coaches and wagons ; Berlin, printing paper and paper pulp ; Laconia; car-shops and cotton-mills. In Vermont : — Burlington, one of the largest lumber markets in the United States, has a large variety of manufactures ; Rutland and Middlebury supply white and variegated marbles. In Massachusetts: — Lowell, second among the cities of the country in the amount of cotton manufactured ; Lawrence, cotton and woollen goods ; Worcester, numerous machine-shops, and the must extensive wire-factory in the world , AUleboro, one of the largest jewelry manufactur- ing towns in the world ; Sprinijfiehl, seat of the United States armory where the Springfield rifles are made, and the largest envelope manufacturing city in the world ; Holyoke, the greatest paper manufacturing city, whence comes half the paper used in the United States, also extensive cotton factories ; Waltham, the largest watch-factory in the world ; Lynn, boots and shoes and electrical appliances ; Salem, coasting trade in ice and coal, and manufactures of leather and cotton goods ; Brockton, boots and shoes. In Connecticut; — There is a greater variety of manufactures than in any other stnte. Willimaiitlr has large thread works; Hartford, firearms, bicycles, and envilnii, s ; W.in r'.iir;/ nianufacturfs about three-fifths of all the bracj made in the United States, using vraily aliMui :;jhio tons of raw copper ; Meriden, tin, britannia, and silver-plated ware ; Norwich, cotton -.lo.ls. paprr, and machinery ; Neic Haven has abotit 800 manufacturing establishments ; Bridgeport, cairiages, :-machines, hardware, machinery, arms and ; In Rhode Island : — Woonsocket, the most extensive woollen-mills in the country, the greatest rubber-shoe factory in tlie world ; Pawtiicket, extensive calico-printing and cloth-bleacliing establishments. In New York : — Troy, engineering-works, collar and cufl factories ; Tonkers. carpets and elevating machinery ; Rochester, flour, boots and slioes, clothing, and the most extensive nurs- eries of fruit and ornamental trees in the world ; Syracuse, salt-works, iron and steel manufai'- tures ; Utira and Little Falls, grrat phrpsc-markcts. knitfins-rnills ; Aiilnirii. asricultural implement.s, woollen and cotton fabrics; Kh,ii,;i. iron aii.l -tprl inauufa.tiuvs ; Cm/,.,,.., rotton goods, and the centre where a third of the lio>i, i y of tlir .ountiy is iiiadr ; '.. ,/.<■.<, pMi nsivp nurseries of fruit- trees and other trees and shrubs ; UluCL-rsdllu and .hdiiisOnrn, lipad'nuuipis of the leather glove and mitten manufacture of the country ; Schenectady, locomotives, machinery, and electric works. In New Jersey : — Trenton, extensive pottery works ; Newark, manufactures in great vari- ety, jewelry, steel, celluloid, thread, and clothing ; Paterson, centre of the silk industry of the coun- try, also of linen thread ; i Jersey City, watches, glass-works, crucibles and lead-pencils, steel works, and extensive abattoirs; Elizabeth, sewing-machines, pottery, oil cloth, hats, machinery, and hard- ware. In Pennsylvania : — Allentoion, Bethlehem, Easlon, and Reading, iron and steel ; Wilkes- barre and Srraiiton. coal-mines ; Williamsport, a great lumber-market ; Puttsville, coal and iron ; Altuona, large car and locomotive works and repair-shops ; Oil City, centre of the Pennsylvania petroleum fields; Erie, oil refineries, leather foundries ; Lancaster, cotton goods, leather, potteries, machinery, and implements. In Delaware: — Wilmington, extensive locomotive and car-building works, also iron steam- ship yarils. and Hour mills ; gunpowder and carriages. In Virginia : — Richmond, a leading tobacco-market and tobacco-manufacturing centre; Lynchburg, iron, tobacco, and flour. iThe silk manufacturos of Paterson have a:\lnion inthe spring iliiii ill tli.-Cnluiiiliia Kivcr. The canning nt i Iik ii,li i> imw ;iiiiihiustry of great value, lutht-rn part uuly inv ilii- resources of Al:isk:i (lrvcl..i..(l. Tlir gn- at cost of supplies and the difficulty of transport ai inn liiudcr the prosecution of industrial euterprises. Gold and silver are the only minerals yet niin.Ml, f.xiinsive placer mines have been developed in the valleys of tributaries of the Yukon, near ihr lasurii border line. The famous Klondike mines are in Brit- ish territory. Rich deposits have been found more recently on the beach at Cape Nome, where a city of several thousand people sprang up in 1899. Successful quartz mines have been worked for years on islands of the southern coast. At the Treadwell mines on Douglas Island is the largest milling plant in the world. Coal, copper, iron, marble, and other minerals are known to exist. The unworked deposits of coal, all of which is bituminous, are estimated to be sufficient to supply the United States for centuries. The forests of Southern Alaska, the area of which is many times that of Pennsylvania, contain valuable woods, such as sprucr, lii . Ininlmk. rypress, and yellow cedar. Each year since its puirhaM liv ilir luited States the commercial value of this territory has been demonstrated. The reveiiur paid iv. mi it, to the general government is already severalmillions a year, and as the rich fisheries, mineral deposits, and forests are developed, this sum nuist i (jVESTIOXS What is the area of Alaska? What is its geographical situation V What is the climate west of the coast mountains? What great ocean-current has served to moderate the cli- mate of his section ? In what does the principal commercial impor- tance of Alask;i consist? What are the chief items iif 111! ii>li. lies catch? What is the estimaii.l aniiiial \ahie of the whale fisheries? What i.M iiih 1 |.aal to tlie general government by thcsral luol^iiKS? What is the leading product of the river fisheries? What local industi-y has grown up as a result of tlie salmon catch ? What can you say of the mineral resources of Alaska? What are the three centres of gold-mining? Why are they not yet more fully developed ? Wliat mineral deposits are known to exist? Wliat is known of the forest area? AVheiv are the Klondike mines? Uow did Alaska liecome I'liitcd Slates territory ? {Aus. Hy purchase fiom Russia in 1807.) coMMEiiciAi. cr.oiniAi'iiy 79 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, a group of eight inhabited and four unin- habited islands, are situated about one-third the distance between San Francisco and Syilney. They are the most important of the Pacific islands, and American whale- men were tlu^ lirst to open them to the world. With the decline of whaling, and the inc'rease of general cinnnrerce, they became recruiting ports to the merchant marine. Heretofore an independent government, the islands are now a territory of the United States.' Nearly all the fertile area is owned by Americans, and the bulk of commerce is with our own country. The staple product and export is sugar. The natives of the.se islands, called Kanakas, are fast dying off, and a new popu- lation is taking their places. Chinese coolies at one time threatened to overrun the islands, but they are now excluded. Portuguese, Americans, and Japanese are emi- grating thither, and it is their industry that has increased the productiveness of the islands. In the year following annexation the exports from the United States to Hawaii nearly doubled. In the year ending June .30, 1900, the trade with the islands amounted to $o6,000,0()0, nearly two-thirds of which was sugar imported from the island ports. Other products of the islands are rice, fruits and nuts, coffee, hides and skins, and copra, or dried cocoanut. The goods sent to the islands are inanu- factures of all kinds and wheat flour. Honolulu is the capital and most important city. It is connected by steamship with the United States, Australia, and ('liina. QUESTIONS What is the situation of tbe Hawaiian Islands ? With what country is ino.st of tlie commerce of these islands carried on ? IIow were they opened to commerce ? When and how were they acquired by the United States ? By whom is most of the fertile area owned ? Wliat is the leading commercial product of the Hawaiian Islands ? What are the chief exports of the United States to these islands ? What is the largest export and its annual value ? The Philippine Islands. — The northernmost grouj) of the Kast Indies comprises about fourteen hundred islands, of wliieh Luzon is largest anil of most eommercial importance.- The chief products of the islands are tobacco, sugar, hemp, and coffee. 1 In answer to a petition from the islands, the United States Congress passed an act on July 7, 1898, to annex them. The formal ceremony of raising the United States flag took place August 12, 1808. 2 The Philippines came into the possession of the United States by the Treaty of Paris in 1899. Upon their pacification mu.st follow the development of their large agricultural possibilities, as well as the unexplored resources in timber and mineral wealth. Gold, coal, iron, and copper are kuuwu to exist, and mines have been worked by the natives and Spaniards to a limited extent. 80 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Tobacco has been grown on the islands for more than a century, and cigar-making is an important interest, the export of cigars being about one hundred millions a year, mostly to Europe. Hemp, produced from the fibre of a species of banana, is till' best-known product, however, and much of the cordage of the world is made from the variety known as Manila hemp. This is also used as paper stock. Manila, the capital, is on a deep bay of the eastern coast of Luzon. Iloilo, the second city and port, is on the southern coast of the island of Panay. The exports of the United States to the Philippines rose from .5127,000, in 1898, to $2,500,000 in 1900, and the imports from $3,830,000 to $5,800,000. Samoa and Guam. — By the Treaty of Paris, Guam, the largest of the Ladrone Islands, was ceiled liy Spain to the United States. It is a small island, of importance only as a telegraph and coaling station on the voyage from Hawaii to the Philippines. The island and harbor of the Samoan Island of Tutuila passed by treaty of Great Britain and Germany into the possession of the United States in 1899. It has one of the best harbors of the Pacific, but the island has only a few thousand inhabitants, and is of little commercial importance except as a coaling station on tlie route from San Francisco to Australia. Porto Rico. — P>y the treaty of Paris, Porto Eico became an American possession. It is fourth in size of the West Indies, about thirty-five miles from north to south, and ninety-five from east to west, with nearly one million inhabitants, being one of the most thickly settled regions of the world. Its capital is San Juan on the northern coast. Ponce is the largest port on the south. It exports coffee, sugar, and tobacco, and imports flour, fish, and manufactured goods. So thickly peopled and long settled a country cannot hope for much larger commercial development. Porto Eico exported to the United States in 1900 goods to the amoimt of $1,350,000; and imported to the amount of $3,600,000. QUESTIONS Where are the Philippine I.sland.s ? What city is tlie capital ? On what island situated ? What are the chief exports ? — the undeveloped resources ? (If what importance is the island of Guam ? — Tutuila '.' Upon what route of commerce are Guam and Samoa situated ? Where is Porto Hico ? What is the relative size amonn; the West Indian islands ? — its chief towns '.' Wliat does it export to the United States ? What are its imports '.' CUMMEUCIAL OEoallAl'UY CHAPTER TIL GREAT BRITAIN AND HER COLONIES Situation. — Thr> Unitod Kiii;4(loiii is composed of Great Britain and Ireland, and inclndes England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and the adjoining islands ; the British Empire comprises Great Britain and all her colonial possessions. The former is situated northwest of Continental Europe, and is separated from it by the North Sea and the English Channel. The coast is irregular. The south coast of England, and the coast of Wales, have numerous fine harbors. The east and west coasts are not so well favored by nature, and shallows and bars obstruct the ports of the east of Ireland. The larger part of England is a plain of considerable fertility ; Scotland and Wales are in the main mountainous ; Ireland, except upon portions of the coast, is nearly level, about one-twelfth of its surface being bog and marsh land. Among the great natural advantages of Great Britain for commerce and the industries dependent upon it are : an equable climate ; abundance and convenient situation of deposits of coal and iron ; convenience of access of all points to the coast, on one side or the other; central position of the British Isles among the nations that carry on a great commerce; and the number of its navigable estuaries, rivers, and good harbors. Engineering skill has greatly improved these natural facilities by supplementing them with canals, breakwaters, lighthouses, railways, and bridges. Commercial Importance. — The British Empire is the greatest commercial nation in the world. About half its export trade is with our own countrj', and its com- mercial activities are, therefore, of the greatest importance to the United States. The principal products that Great Britain takes from us are: Cotton, wheat, corn, and flour, beef and pork, cattle, dairy products, tobacco, copper and copper goods, books and maps, leather and leather goods, petroleum, oil cake and meal, lumber, furs and skins, etc., to the amount of between six and seven hundred millions of dollars annually. The principal products that we take from Great Britain in exrhange for those are : Manufactures of cotton, iron and steel and their products, woollen goods, silk fabrics, chemicals and drugs, tin, hides and skins, china and porcelain, jewels and jewelry, leather and leather products, dressed furs, linen goods, and many other articles, to the amount of between one hundred and two hundred millions annually.' > The exports of the United Kinciloiii to all oduntries in 18!)8 were : Cotton s;ooils. .SL'7'.>.SS7,OOtl ; iron and steel, §111,830,000; wonll. n l; |,. v|iio,:i.-,.iin(i ; ,n:ils. .ir., s'.iu.tjt.iiuii ; lin, n- :mhI I n yarns, 826,3,01,000 ; copper, brn^,. :iim1 1.,ii1. s-ji;. l |.',.iiuii ; rl,.iliii,u. si'.;, 1 7^.000 -1. mi- luiin-. $18,138,000; chemicals and dniL;s. sis. 11117.111111 ; 1h,i-, aW. ami .-.[.ints, .si7.s7.-,. ; l.:,il„ 1 ,ii,.| ii.s 82 COMMERCIAL CEOGRArHY Great Britain is a great "jobbing" and distributing nation ; and it is estimated that one-fiftli of the total value of British exports represents articles that have been collected from various parts of the globe, to be as widely distributed again in other parts. This is especially true of such materials as cotton, wool, and silk, imported in the raw state, and exported to all parts of the world as manufactured goods. British ships have also a large share of the carrying-trade of other nations. It is claimed that Great Britain not only carries three-fourths of her own immense commerce, but over one-half that of the United States, Portugal, and The Nether- lands, nearly half that of Italy and Russia, and more than one-third that of France and Germany.' I. ENGLAND AND WALES. —The area of the United Kingdom is a little over ll'O.dOO scpiare miles, or nearly three times that of the state of Ohio. Eng- land is the largest division, and, with Wales, embraces half the kingdom. About one-third of the area is cultivated; but, owing to the close competition of imported grain, agriculture is largely directed to small crops and garden vegetables. The grazing area is large, and is mainly devoted to the raising of thoroughbred horses, sheep, and cattle. These animals are reared with great care, and are unexcelled. Agriculture is of little value commercially. The food supply of the products, $10,121,000; wool, sheep, and lambs, $14,014,000; herring and other fish, $12,942,000; arms, ammunition, etc., $12,.S88,000 ; jute manufacture and yam, $11,618,000 ; hardware and cut- lery, $9,943,000; earthen and china ware, $9,099,000; §ilk goods, $9,301,000; india-rubber manu- factures, $6,643,000 ; togetlier with railway carriages, truclis, books, paper and stationery, pickles, vinegar, confectionery, paiiitcis' snj^pliis. oilsecil. iinplniients and tools, hats, men's furnishings, coal oil products, etc., to tlic tni;il \;ilur .ii .si. l To. lit ii mm in. The imports of the Liiiir,! I^iimilm,, Irom all rountiifs in 1898 were: Breadstuff.s $317,546,000; cotton, $192, -545,000 ; metals, §126,;i4U,U0U ; wool, $123,940,000 ; wno.l aii.l limhrr, sll 7.417, (iiiii ; silk, $89,809,000; butter, .$79,808,000; woollen maimfactures, .s. Mi.. Mis, ; l,;n..M au.l li:nii>,' $71,082,000; live stock, $57,655,000; tea, $51,678,000; leatli.r. .s:;,s,..i| l.ooo ; in.lia iuM„r, $34,371,000; wine, $32,878,000; beef, $29,575,000; jute, $2(!.'.i7o.ooo ; mnitoii. )524,r,lu,(H»ll j cheese, .$23,851,000; eggs, $22,283,000; coffee, $17,949,000; togellin- «itli iniii. hides, petroleum,' tobacco, flax, hemp and tow, cotton and flax seed, rice, drugs and rli. mirals. and other goods, to the total amount of $1,854,723,000. The excess of imports over e.\]K.ii.s in this year amounted to $384,654,000. Of the total commerce of the United Kingdom over ninety percent, belongs to England and Wales, ovpr seven per cent, to Scotland, and less than two per cent, to Ireland. The principal export, of hvlaiid i^ liiii-ii. and linen i; Is. Moiv ihiii rijiiom ]i. 1 r, Ml "I I lic total commerce of the Uuitcd Klngdom lu 1 898 was wlth theUnih'l M.iii-. a , I i .ni]i:ii. il \Mili l,ss than four per cent, with British North America and about twent.v-l.iur |icrr,nl. «illi all I'.iiliMi .■olonins nntside of (Irnat P.ritaiii. ' Coal is not only Iho si \aliiahlr produrl ,,r iln^ rnitrd Kinudoin. but is the only important article ol ,.|vo ihai i. nm iini.oiti.l In U iii|iiii oi ,o;,| 1,1, ai Britain has led all nations until 18!i!i, wlii-ii ilio 1 iiitoil siatos look [uaaa'di iirc as the j;iiaiesi cikU producing Country in the world. Of the 200,000,000 tons uf coal ammally produced in Great Britain, England supplies seventy-one per cent., Scotland fifteen per cent., and Wales fourteen per cent., while only a fraction is produced in Ireland. Only about one-sixth of the coal mined is exported, the large domestic consuniplion being necessary to carry on the extensive furnaces where iron ores are reduced, as well as lu furnish power for engineering works and factories. COMMEnclAL (iEncllM-IIY 83 kin.v'ddiii i-oiiies chiefly from other i-ounlries. In IS',1'.) focid-proilucts were iiniKnlcil to the value of about |8r)0,000,000. The inuiil.rr of proiih' of Hnghuiil and Wales classified as agricultural is about five per cent of the whole pojjulation.^ These countries abound in minerals. In the matter of coal-production Great Britain long held the lead. During the last decade, however, the United States has taken first place among coal-producing nations. The British coal-mines are situated in the northern and northwestern part of England, and in AVales. Iron, the mineral next in value, is frequently found in clo.se proximity to the coal. Great Britain ranks second in production of j)ig-iron ; but the product of the home mines does not supply the home demand, and a large part of the ore used is imported. In the production of steel, Great Britain ranks next to the United States. - Clay is high in value among mineral products, and is used in brick and terra-cotta work, while the finer grades are extensively manufactured into porcelain and chinaware. The clays are found mainly in the southern part of England. The china and porcelain ware are made chiefly in the vicinity of London. The earthenware export is almost wholly to the United States and the various British dependencies. Tin, an important mineral product, occurs exclusively in the ancient and still productive mines of Cornwall, but Great Britain imports more tin than she produces. Salt, lead, and slate are among the lesser economic minerals. The fisheries of Great Britain give employment to an army of more than 100,000 men. The English fisheries are of great variety, while in Scotland the chief catch is composed of herring, haddock, and cod. Owing to the dangerous location of the prin- cipal fishing-banks, and to the inaccessibility of the chief markets for fresh fish, the value of the fish caught in Irish waters is relatively small. Great Britain is probably the greatest manufacturing country in the world. In England and Wales over twenty-five per cent, of the population are dependent upon the factories. Cotton-manufacture is the most important, and the product forms nearly a third of the total value of the manufactures exported. This industry is situated mainly in the northwest of England. More than a quarter of the total cotton crop of the world is consumed in the factories of Great Britain, which have almost half the total number of spindles of the world, and nearly three times as many as the United States. Iron and steel manufactures are next in value for export. This industry is centred in the neighborhood of the coal-mines. Some pig-iron is shipped, but nearly all the product is manufactured before it is exported. Great Britain produces nearly one-fourth of the pig-iron made in the world, and less than twenty per cent, of the steel. Woollen manufactures stand third in value as 'An English journal recently said : "Landlords desire no improvements to be made on their lands if they have to pay for them. The result is that tenant farmers make no improvements, and are, in consequence, deficient in intelligence and energy. American, Canadian, and Australian farmers have every inducement to improve their holdings, because they work on their own land. British farmers are thus prevented from helping themselves, while foreign competition is en- couraged." •-In 1899 the United States made 10,639,000 tons of steel, this being twice as much as was made in Great Britain and thirty-nine per cent, of the entire output of the world. The pig-iron output of Great Britain in 1899 was 9,300,000 tons, wliile the United States produced 13,G20,Ooio tons the same year. Si COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY exports. This industry, like other leading ones, has its principal seats in the northern part of England. It is estimated that more than half the world's wool supply is here converted into fabrics. Flax manufacture is confined chiefly to Ireland, and jute manufacture to Scotland. Silk is made in and about London, but the product is small when compared with that of other textile fabrics. England is provided with the best roadways in the world.* In connection with them the natural waterways have been improved for navigation. As many as fifty rivers are said to be more or less navigable, but only four are of great commercial value. These are the Thames, the Humber, the Mersey, and the Severn ; and except for boats of very light draft, engaged in passenger traific, only the estuaries are navigable. Nearly 2,500 miles of canal, in connection with the rivers, form auxiliary highways of great value. The roads, canals, and navigable rivers serve as feeders to the railways, the great highways of internal commerce. A network of lines covers the mining-districts, connecting them with the industrial and commercial centres. Trunk lines penetrate the less populous districts, joining the large centres in the various parts of the kingdom. LEADING COMMERCIAL CITIES London, the capital of the United Kingdom, is situated on the Thames, sixty miles from the sea. The river here is thirty feet deep at high tide. As a port, London includes the whole of the river as far as Gravesend. Its situation at the head of ocean navigation, on a river which allows ocean vessels to ascend far into the interior of the kingdom, gives it a commanding position for continental trade, and for all trade carried on by eastern and southern routes. It accordingly holds a leading place among the seaports of the world, as it is the world's financial centre. It is also the largest city, the population being over five millions. Before the discovery of the -New World, England had no very extensive commerce, but the little that existed was carried on from London. With the development of the wealth ■ of the Americas came many voyages of discovery. But while the voyages of the Spanish, Portuguese, and others were chiefly of adventure, the voyages of the English were for commercial ends. Then followed the change in the trade between eastern Asia and western Europe from caravans to the sea-route around the Cape of Good Hope. The centre of the commercial world was thus changed from Italy to Great Britain. London is the centre from which this trade has been mainly carried on. For years this city practically controlled commerce with the West Indies and China; but the opening of the Suez canal has reduced this traffic relatively, and increased the commercial importance of some other ports. Another cause that has cost London some of her commercial importance is the great increase of manufacturing in the northern part of England, and the consequent direction of traffic to adjacent 1 The Romans introduced the art and the science of road-making into England, and evidences .of their work arc still to be seim. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 85 ports, especially to Liverpool. Neurly all the cliief railway lines of Great llritaiu radiate from London, ami these are an important factor in the commercial supremacy of the city. A great variety of industries is carried on in London, but in no one industry is the city pre-eminent. Liverpool, at the mouth of the river Mersey, has a population about one-ninth that of London, yet its commerce is but little inferior to that of the former city. A large proportion of the traffic between England and the United States, both passenger and freight, goes through Liverpool. Liverpool is also the shipping port for industrial England, most of the raw materials being imported and most of the manufactured goods being exported at this port. The importance of London's shipping is largely due to its control of nearly all the coasting-trade. Early in the last century Liver- pool was but a small place. Its importance grew with tlie development of cotton and woollen manufactures in the region lying behind it. The river Mersey, as a harbor, is capacious ; but the building of docks and quays has been necessary for commerce, and the six or seven miles of continuous docks on the Liverpool side of the INIersey is unparalleled elsewhere. The port of Liverpool also includes the docks on the opposite side of the river at Birkenhead, which is a commercial "annex," the two •cities being connected by a railway under the Mersey. The aggregate water space of the Birkenhead docks is more than 600 acres, and the length of the quays upwards •of thirty-four miles. Liverpool possesses the finest facilities in the world for the handling of merchandise. Newcastle, near the mouth of the Tyne, on the extreme northeastern coast, is the third port in tlie amount of tonnage. Its exports are almost entirely coal, iron, ami iron and steel products manufactured in the vicinity. Cardiff, the chief harbor of Wales, exports coal and iron, and the iron and steel goods manu- Portsmouth .and Plymouth, on the F,ii<;li,sh Channel, arc headquarters of the British navy. Southampton, on the Solcni, is \\w tcniiiims of steainshiii lines from the United States, and to Mediterranean, South African, and South Amerieau ports. ( ithcr ports are : Bristol, at the mouth of the Severn ; Sunderland, on the coa-st near Newiastli- : Hull, about one hundred miles south of •Sunderland ; Cowes, on the Isle of Wight ; and Swansea, near Cardiff, in the south of Wales. A larjre amount of shii>building is done at Newcastle, Sunderlaml, and iieigld)oriiig ports. Hull is the i>rniripal port of the English fisheries. Manchester is the most important of the inland industrial cities of Great Britain. It is the greatest cotton-manufacturing centre in the world, and in all the neighboring towns the manufacture of cotton textile goods, and of the machinery for making them, is the chief industry. For more than three hundred years Man- chester has been famous for its woven fabrics, and there is scarcely a part of the civilized world in which the products of its factories have not been used. For one hundred and fifty years INLanchester has been connected with the port of Liverpool by a canal, but the capacity of the latter has long been insufficient for the great increase of trade, and a new ship canal was opened for traffic in 1893. This canal, •one of the most notable efforts of modern engineering, inchides a system of wharves and docks which now makes it as valuable commercially as the mouth of the Mer- isey. This work aiot only gives Manchester direct open traffic to the sea, but, by 86 VUMMEKCIAL UEUGliAl'lIY avoiding the necessity of lightenige, it also effects a great saving to both import and export trade. Birmingham has long held the first place in the industrial world as a hardware nianufaeturing centre. There are abundant deposits of iron ore in its vicinity. The citj' is celebrated for its manufactures of brass goods, jewelry, screws, steel pens, and other small hardware, as well as for iron goods, and machinery of every description. Coventry has large bicycle, sewing-macliine, and other factories. Sheffield lias extensive cutlery worlis. Leeds is the great woollen-manufacturing centre of Great Britain. It is situated in the coal ami iron region, and the manufacture of machinery and other iron and steel articles is also inijioriant. Bradford is another large woollen-manufacturing centre. At Burton on Trent more beer-brewing is done than in any other town in the world. Northampton and vicinity is the seat of much of the shoe-manufacture of the kingdom. n. SCOTLAND. — Scotland has an area half as great as that of England and Wales, and about one-seventh their population. It includes 186 islands adjoining the coast. More than three-fourths of the area of Scotland is sterile, consisting of mountain, moor, and other waste lands. One-fifth of the area susceptible of cultiva, tiou is covered by forests. The northern part is high and rough, crossed by many deep valleys, and penetrated by long arras of the sea. It is sparsely inhabited. In the south the land is rolling, and better fitted for tilling. Agriculture is carried on with much skill and energy. Cereals are more extensively raised thatt in England ; yet the main supply of food is imported. The population engaged in agriculture is about one-quarter that employed in the factories. Coal and iron abound in the south, and have promoted the industrial growth of Scotland. Iron is extensively wrought. Coal enough is mined to form an export. The quarrying of granite forms a considerable industry. The chief industries of Scotland are concerned with the manufacture of vege- table fibres. The manufacture of flax, hemp, and jute receives especial attention ; that of woollen fabrics is nearly as important, and in the quality of the product, Scottish goods are unequalled. The value of the cotton-maufactures is about one- half that of all the textile products. The making of liquors, spirituous and malt, is largely carried on. In ship-building, the Scots stand pre-eminent, not only in the amount of tonnage, but in the quality of the vessels. The majority of the iron and steel steam- ships sailing under all flags, except the American, are built in Scotland. A law of the United States, intended to protect American ship-builders, requires that all vessels flying the American flag must be Ameriean-built. Scotland, considering the mountainous nature of the (■(>\intry, is well provided with roads, and the industrial, mining, and commercial centres are connected by railways. Waterways exclusive of harbor improvements are of little moment. A canal from Moray Firth on the east, to Loch Linnhe on the west, crosses the CUMMEIICIM. (IKOCHAI'IIY 87 northern part of the country, and saves the boisterous voyage around tlic north to vessels of light draught. Edinburgh and Glasgow are connected by canal. The industrial growth of Scotland is comparatively recent, and most of the commercial development dates from the introduction of steamships. Glasgow, situatcil on the liiver Clyde, twenty miles from the Firth of Clyde, is the second city of Great Britain. The river has been greatly improved for navi- gation by the removal of bars and ledges, and its depth has been increased to over twenty-two feet. Within the last few years commerce has increased with astonish- ing rapidity. On the banks of this river are a succession of shipyards, where most of the great transatlantic and other ocean steamships have been built. Owing to the proximity of coal and iron mines, Glasgow is a great industrial centre. The American civil war benefited the city greatly by stimulating ship-building. Fabrics of all kinds are made in the city and outlying districts. A great deal of bleaching, printing, and dyeing is done, and in dyeing certain colors, and printing ginghams, calico, and other goods, the city has a world-wide reputation. There are many chemical-manufacturing and metal-workiug establishments, the latter being connected principally with the ship-building industry. Most of the commerce ■ between Scotland and the United States passes through Glasgow. It is the only port of much importance on the west coast. Dundee, on the Frith of Tay, twelve miles from the sea, is the second port in commercial importance. It is the seat of the British whale and hair-seal fisheries. The city also carries on a considerable commerce, particularly in vegetable fibres. More linen is made here than in any other city in England or Scotland. There are also extensive manufactures of jute and hemp, and the greater part of the people are dependent upon these industries. Ship-building is next in importance. The harbor of Dundee is the best in Scotland. Aberdeen is the chief seaport of the north of Scotland. It has a considerable fishing-fieet. The commerce is nearly all coastwise. Ship-building is one of the most important industries of the city. Woollen, linen, cotton, and paper are manu- factured, and the largest comb-works in the world are in Aberdeen. Edinburgh, the ancient capital of Scotland, is situated on the Firth of Forth on the east coast. It is one of the chief educational centres of Great Britain. Printing and kindred arts are the most important industries. Among others of consequence is wood-working. Woollen manufacture was first carried on in the valley of the Rivei" Tweed, near the southern border of Scotland. The quality of the goods was distinctive, and the product, to this day called " tweeds," has taken its name from the region. The goods are now made in other parts of Scotland, and in otlier countries, tliough Hawick and Galashiels, in the Tweed Valley, still manufacture large quantities. Paisley, a thread and woollen manufacturing centre near Glasgow, was once famous for its shawls, which were an excellent imitation of the Persian. 88 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY III. IHELAND. — Ireland lies west of England and Scotland, and is separated from them b}' St. George's Channel, the Irish Sea, and the North Channel. It has an area a little greater than that of Scotland. The surface of the island is generally level, and, the rugged western coast excepted, low. The interior plain is so level that in many places the water does not drain off sufficiently to admit of cultivation. Thus large areas of bog-land and marsh are formed, and these cover one-twelfth of the island. Agriculture is more generally followed in Ireland than in either England or Scotland, and a third more people are dependent upon the soil than upon manu- facturing. The climate is equable, the soil very fertile, the various food-products abundant, and the people remarkable for physical and intellectual vigor. The soil is mainly owned by English proprietors, by whom the Irish people have been greatly oppressed. So large a proportion of the products of Irish industry are annually drained off to England to pay rents for the land of Ireland, that what remains is hardly enough, even in the best of seasons, to supply the simplest necessaries of life. These rents are paid by the Irish "tenant-farmers," whose condition it is the object of the present parliamentary agitation to ameliorate, by reduction in rents, and by conceding to the Irish people some share in the manage- ment of their domestic concerns. It is difficult, however, to see how any of the proposed reforms can benefit the farm laboring-class, who are much more numerous than the tenant-farmers, and whose condition is far more pitiable. The system of land tenure, commonly known as rack-renting, is one that is rapidly depopu- lating the island and reducing its productiveness to the lowest degree. Almost the whole area is owned by a few English proprietors, and they let and sublet their estates in small holdings to their various tenants. No improvements are made by the landlords themselves, and when any are made by the tenant, his rent is promptly and arbitrarily raised. During the past fifty years the struggle of the people has been not so much for the comforts of life as to ward off actual starvation. More than once, famine and its attending horrors have swept away thousands, and the popul.ation which, according to the law of increase, should have doubled in twenty-five years, has actually decreased. In fifty years it has fallen from 8,000,000 to less that 5,000,000, though much of this decrease is due to emigration. The principal crops are oats and potatoes, though in the north ilax is more extensively cultivated than anywhere else in the United Kingdom. Grazing brings considerable returns ; and butter, cheese, and meat are exported, chiefly to England. Two-thirds of the arable area is devoted to pasturage. The fisheries of Ireland, chiefly cod, mackerel, and lierriug, give em])loyment to about 25,000 men. Several varieties of minerals are found in Ireland, but they are little developed. Fifteen times as much coal is imported as is mined. Peat, dug from the bogs, is the fuel used by many of the people. Several rich deposits of iron ore exist, but the lack of coal prevents their development. What little iron is produced is ex- ported. Gold, sulphur, silver, lead, and copper are found, but in small quantities. In proportion to the population manufactures are not so active now as two centuries ago. The lack of coal is compensated to a considerable extent bj'' the amount of water-power at hand. Burdensome laws, enacted a century ago to COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 8& Imild up English at the cxponse of Irish industries, so crippled the manufac- tures of Ireland that they have never fully revived. Four or five centuries ago Ireland exported woollen goods to Italy, France, and Spain. Now much of the ivoollen cloth u.sed in the island is imported. The linen industry did not suffer so much as the woollen industry, and of late years this has greatly revived. As a linen-producing country, Ireland now leads all others. The only other products of commercial importance are whiskey and malt liquors. Irish whiskey has for cen- turies rivalled the Scotch product. The Shannon is the largest river in Ireland, and drains the central portion of the island. It is navigable a considerable distance. Canals are more used in Ireland than in other parts of the kingdom. The chief canals are those connecting Dublin, on the east coast, with the Shannon valley. The Grand canal runs east and west, while the Eoyal canal runs from northwest to southeast. The island is provided ■with a good railway system. Belfast, on the northeast coast, is the most prosperous city of Ireland, and Belfast linen is known in nearly all the shops of the world. It carries on a con- siderable commerce, but linen spinning and weaving absorb most of its energy. So extensive has this industry become that of late years quantities of flax are imported from Eussia, Germany, and elsewhere. Linen cloth, thread, and yarn are the staple exports of the city. Dublin, the capital, is situated on the east coast. It has a good harbor, but does not compare in the amount of its coraineroe with Belfast. Its industries are chiefly the manufacture of whiskey and porter, and these products are also the principal exports. Cork, on the southern coast, exports dairy products, chiefly butter, from the sur- rounding country. It also exports some liquors manufactured in the city. ftueenstown is the port through which the commerce of Cork is carried on. It is the first stopping-place for vessels plying between New York and Liverpool. Limerick, on the estuary at the mouth of the Shannon, is the chief port on the west coast. Some linen is manufactured here. Balbriggan, on the coast, about twenty-five miles north of Dublin, has given its name to fine qualities of hosiery and knit goods. QT'ESTIOXS Wliat roiiiitries compose the United Kiiitjiloin of (ireat Britain anil Ireland? What is tlie nature of tlie coast of England and Wales? Wliat is the cliaracter of the surface of England ? — of Wales? — of Scotland?- of Ireland? Enumerate some of the great natural com- mercial advantages of this kingdom. AVIiat is its comparative standing in the world's com- merce? With what country is its export trade greatest ? What are the leading imports of Great Britajn from the United States? What are its principal exports to the United States? What proportion of British imports are re- exported ? In what respect do these imports differ from the same exports? What character of merchandise chielly makes up tlie re-exporta- COMMERCIAL GEOanAPHY tions ? Is the carrying-trade of Great Britain confined to British niercliandise ? For what other countries is Great Britain a transporter of merchandise ? What is tlie area of the kingdom ? What proportion of this do England and Wales, taken together, represent ? What proportion of the area of these countries is cultivated land ? Whence does the food-supply mainly come ? What two minerals are of gieat importance to the industries and commerce of the kingdom? What is the relative position of Great Britain and the United Slates in the output of coal ? — of iron and steel? What mineral product of Great Britain is next in value ? What other mineral products can you name ? Give some account of the fisheries of Eng- land, — of Scotland, — of Ireland. Why are the fisheries of Ireland of comparatively little value ? What is the rank of Great Britain as a manu- facturing country ? What proportion of the in- habitants of England and Wales are dependent on manufacturing industries ? What is the lead- ing item among manufactures ? What propor- tion of the world's cotton crop is consumed in British manufactures ? What item, among manufactures, stands next in importance, in the value of the proiliicl ? What item third ? What can you say of English internal trade-routes ? What is an estuary ? Give some account of London, its situation, population, rank in com- merce and finance, and importance as a seaport. AVhat gave rise to the first great conmiercial importance of this city? How has its trade been affected by the opening of the Suez canal ? — by the growth of other ports in the north of England ? Describe the situation of Liverpool. Why has its commerce become of such great impor- tance ? What is the extent of the Liverpool and Birkenhead docks and quays ? Desciibe the situation and commercial character of New- castle, — Cardiff, — Portsmouth, — Plymouth, — Southampton, — Bristol, — Sunderland, — Hull, — Cowes, — Swansea. AVhat inland city of Kiil-! m ! t:i1:- tirst rank asamanufacturingcpiiii' ' \\].r..,. ilieprin- cipal factory products oi Mi;,.: l!y what great public work is Maiir:i.-, I ■,, ..mw: ship- communication with Liverpool ? Fur what in- dustries is Birmingham chiefly celebrated? — Coventry ? — Sheffield ? — Leeds ?— Bradford ? — Burton-on-Trent ?— Northampton ? What is the area of Scotland as compared with England and Wales? What is the nature of its surface ? What can you say of its agricul- tural interests ? What are its principal mineral products? Name its chief industries. In what industry are the Scotch pre-eminent ? What city and its vicinity form the principal seat of the ship-building interests ? AVhat are the leading maimfactures of Glasgow ? Describe the situ- ation of Dundee, and give some account of its industrial and commercial activities, — of Aber- deen, — of Edinburgh, — of the Tweed valley, — of Hawick, Galashiels, and Paisley. What can you say of the internal trade facilities of Scot- land ? Pcirrnii^ thi^ situntion. companitive area, and Mllfarr rli r;,rI,.,lMir. ,,f Inlaml. WllUt iS the ii:iini.M,i ii.~,,il;nnlrliiii,Hr-.' \V 1 1 v a IV ilie Irish lir,i[.li-. lliMir^h inlial>iling a fcilil.' country, so poor? What is said concerning the present tenantry system ? Name the principal products of Ireland. What ijroportion of Irish land is devoted to grazing ? What are the mineral deposits of Ireland ? What is their state of development ? Why are Irish manufactures in a backward condition ? In what industry is Ireland the le.ading country ? AVhat other industry is of considerable impor- tance ? Give some account of the commercial interests of Belfast, — of Dublin, — of Cork, — of Limerick, — of Balbriggan. What is the largest river in Ireland? What can you say of Irish canals and railways ? rV. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. — The possessions of Great Britain in Asia consist of India. Ceylon, Hon^' Kong, the Straits Settlements, and Aden. The Indian Empire. — The peninsula between the Arabian Sea ou the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the province of Bnnnah wliich extends west and north from the Bay of Bengal, constitutes British India. It comprises several prov- inces and many native states, with a total area about one-quarter that of the United States and a population four times as great. The Himalaya Mountains on the north are COMMi:nciAL CIIDCIIAI'IIY 91 impassable except throu;,'li a fi-w narrow dciiles. Td the westward is tlio Indus Kiver, wliich, for 1,800 miles, tlows through a valley of great fertility. Owing to bars and other obstructions, the river is not navigable. At the east are the Ganges and the Bramaputra rivers, which unite, their mouths forming the "great delta of the Ganges." These rivers flow southeastwardly through very fertile valleys. The Ganges is 1,500 miles long, and navigable for two-thirds of the distance. The Bramaputra is an important highway of commerce. In the latter part of its course it is several miles wide. The Irawaddy River in Burmah is navigable for 700 miles from the sea. Back from the rivers and their valleys the highlands are generally sterile, and a tenth part of the cultivated area is said to depend upon irrigation. Under English influence India has developed wonderfully, and become of great importance to the commercial world, both as a producer and consumer. Since 1840 the imports have increased nine-fold, and the exports seven-fold ; but commerce is under English control, and the country has not the trade value to the United States, either present or prospective, that China, Japan, and other countries have. By a good railway system the producing centres of India have been brought into close com- munication, and many sections, distant from the coast, can thus dispose of their products to advantage. The climate is tropical, and a great variety of crops is raised. These are chiefly millet, rice, indigo, wheat, tea, poppies, cotton, jute, linseed and various other oil-seeds, sugar-cane, and tobacco. Fruits, spices, perfumes, drugs, and dyes are other products. Valuable minerals abound, although the country is essentially agricultural. Rice, which is raised chiefly in the plains of the Ganges, is the food of a third of the population. Wheat and cotton are grown in the central and northwestern parts; tea in the northeast ; tobacco, a rapidly increasing crop, in the rich bottom lands; and the opium poppy in the Ganges valley. The sale of opium is a government monopoly. Much of the hillside country, nearly one-twelfth of the whole area, is covered with forest and jungle, and the cutting of timber is regulated by the government. Teak, a wood highly valued in ship-building, is most in demand. Cashmere, one of the most northern provinces, is famous for its shawls, made from the wool of the Thibet goat. But the French and other manufactures have so closely imitated these shawls that the industry is declining, and silk-manufacture is taking its place. In 1899 the commerce of India was valued at about $600,000,000, two-thirds of it being exports. About one-third of the exports and more than half of the imports were with Great Britain, by way of the Suez canal.' Of India's total trade the United States furnished less than two per cent, of the imports (almost solely 1 The chief exports from India in 1890 were rior, wliral, and s.fil-; to the v.iluo nf SI 1-.>.1 li'.nno ; cotton and cotton goods, §56.031,000; opium, 8-M, 'J ii«„rih,r unh lc,i. hiilr. ,ui.l -kins. jute, indigo, coffee, wool, lac, wood, and .silk. In tlir laininr m n, is'.i'.i, iln' i\|h,ii ^i i | ii.,m India larL'i'ly inorcascrl. Imports were, cotton gooil.s to tla vaiih ^il smi.ooo.ooo; maiiiii i^ im. - ^i iron ami si.rl, -nvar, i.ils, railway material and cars, liii""'-. \v""ll' ii '^ I-. ih^mmmh-. \Mariiiu' apparel, an. I rlhaiihals. in the order of value. There is also a lai-r ir,iiiiirr iia.lr li\ rai.nan and otherwisr. I'liriras nf nortlieasterii India and Ceylon have almost Liitinly siiinisukil ili.i>,. nf China and Jaiiaii in the British maiket. 92 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY kerosene), and purchased only about four per cent, of the exports. Of great interest to the United States is the rapid increase in the export of wheat from India. She is already near to us in the quantity of her crop, and her competition is closely felt.' Her manufactures in the coarser grades of cotton cloth are also competing in the Chinese, East African, and other markets. India has many large cities, but only a few of them are of commercial impor- tance, and with 9,000 miles of seacoast there are very few good harbors. Calcutta, the capital, has a large fraction of the trade of the empire. It is on the Hiu);_;ly River, a branch of the Ganges, eighty -six miles from its mouth. The population is nearly one million. The harbor extends up and down the river for ten miles, and is an expensive one to maintain, owing to the shifting sands. Calcutta carries on a large export-trade in cotton and cotton fabrics, grain, hides, indigo, jute, opium, tobacco, tea, and cinchona. Patna, farther up the Ganges, is the centre of opium-raising, but most of the exporting is through Calcutta. Amritsar, in the extreme northwestern part, among the mountains, is the centre of the Cashmere- shawl manufacturing and trade. Bombay, on the western coast, has the finest harbor of India, and is the nearest port to Europe. Its jiopulation is somewhat larger than that of Calcutta, and it has quite outstripped the capital as a commercial centre since the building of railroad connections with the interior. Considerable ship-building is done, and it is the centre of the manufacture of cotton cloth. Its growth began at the time of our own short cotton ciop, during the civil war, and its prosperity has been based chiefly on cotton and the manufacture of cotton fabrics. It is also the outlet for the rich Punjab and other wheat-producing sections. Calicut, a small city on the coast, south of Bombay, is said to be the city where calico was tirst made, — hence the name of the fabric. Madras, on the east coast, is the third commercial town of India, and has a good harbor, recently constructed. Rangoon, on the delta of the Irawaddy, is the chief harbor of British Burmah : ^ it exports rice and teak. Ceylon. — The island of Ceylon, situated just off the south-eastern extremity of the Indian peninsula, has an area about half that of Alabama, and a population equal to that of Switzerland. Since a very remote period the island has been in a high state of cultivation, and the system of irrigation upon which its crops have depended is still being improved and extended, so that each year makes the island more fruitful. The products are very numerous, but coffee is the most important. Cinchona bark, cocoa, tea, spices, copperas, plumbago, and tobacco are other exports. Of these the United States takes three-fourths of the plum- 1 India raises nearly one busliel of wlieat per head of tlie population, the United States seven bushels per liead. The people of India require by far the larger proportion of their wheat product for food and seed. Their home consumption of wheat is said to increase every year, while the people of the United States, after appropriating five bushels per capita, have a surplus for export equal to one-half the entire crop of India. 2 The finest ruby-mines in the world are in Burmah, and amber is found in large quantities. Crude petroleum is also produced. Cotton, hides, tea, and spices are important exports. The fisheries are the most valuable in southern Asia. COMMEHrlAl. (,i:o(;/!AJ-jn' 93 bago and coroa. In iiianufactures the people ai-c skilful, especially in working gold, silver, ivory, and tortoise-shell, and in wood-carving. The pearl-iisheries of the island are at times of considerable value. TvincomaU, on the east coast, has one of the finest harbors in the world, and is the depot of the British navy in the East Indie.s; but Colombo is the capital and chief commercial town. Hong Kong. — Hong Kong is the fourth port in the world in the amount of sliijiping that passes through its waters. It is situated on Victoria Island, lying off the mouth of the Canton River. It has a fine harbor, and is an impor- tant coaling-station. Direct steamship communication is carried on with India, Australia, the United States, and the principal commercial centres of Europe. It is the seat of the banking-interests of the East, and practically controls the sea- going trade of China — the exports of tea and silks, and the imports of textile fabrics, iron manufactures, opium, and other articles. Its growth is chiefly due to the fact that a commercial centre was needed where goods could be safely stored; and, prior to the cession of Hong Kong to Great Britain, China had never furnished such a port. The city has grown into commercial importance, and its steamship trade has been greatly enhanced by the opening of the Suez canal. Hong Kong is a coal centre at which 50,000 tons are distributed monthly, and if the coal of Ton- quin can be sold cheaply in Hong Kong the latter will become a manufacturing centre. The introduction of railways into China, which is on the eve of accomplish- nu'ut. will greatly increase the trade of this port. The Straits Settlements. — The Straits Settlements compri.se a number of trading stations in the Straits of Malacca, on the ocean trade-route to China. The important port of Singapore, the small territory of Malacca, the island of Penang, and a small part of the mainland of the Malay peninsula, are the commercially important parts of this colony. Singapore is situated on a small island at the southern extremity of the Malay peninsula. From its position it commands the straits, and it is an important coaling- station. The products of the neighboring islands are collected and distributed ' from Singapore; and the great commercial importance of this port may be seen in the fact that its total commerce aggregates an annual value of $200,000,000.'' The chief items of this commerce are tin (exported), rice (imported), spices, opium, cotton goods, gambler, fish, gums, tapioca, rattans, and tobacco. Aden, on the south coast of Arabia, near the Strait of l!:ib-el-]\Iandeb, possesses an admirable natural harbor, and has at different periods been of great importance in the trade between Asia, Africa, and Europe. Since the opening of the Suez canal 1 The trade of ports like Singapore is of llnee kinds, — panxing, transit, actual ; passing, com- prising goods in vessels going through Singapore for China or elsewhere; tiansit trade, goods that are landed and re-shipped for other points; actual trade, goods brought for sale into Singapore, and either consumed there, or sold to other places wliitlKT they are said to be exported. 2 In 1898 England exported to the Straits Sitil. nx iii< - .u.N to the value of nearly $.32,000,000, principally cotton goods, iron, and machinery. Hi i in] 1 1 il -nneyear were over S2H, 000.000, of ■which amount tin made one-half, the other importam in m^ 1" mi; spices, gambler, and India rubber, in the order of their value. 94 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY its importance has greatly increased, especially as a coaling-station. Except for its commanding position as a station upon a great trade-route, Aden is of no commercial consequence. QUESTIONS Of what do tlie British possessions in Asia consist? How does the area of the Indian Empire compare with that of tlie United States ? How does its population compare with our own ? Give some account of the physical features of India. What are its three great rivers ? Give a description of each. Wliat can you say of tlie growth of Indian commerce ? What of the importance of our own trade with India? What is the climate, and what are the prin- cipal products of India ? What cereal is the chief article of diet of the people ? What prod- uct is a government monopoly ? What is the annual value of the commerce ? With what country is the greater part of tlie commerce carried on ? What is our own share of Indian trade? What Indian product is of special interest to us as a food-producing nation ? Locate and describe Calcutta and its exports, — Patna, — Amritsar, — Hombay, — Calicut, — Madias, — Rangoon. What is the situation of Ceylon? — its comparative area? — its popu- lation ? What product is most important ? What other products are largely exported ? What other products are mainly taken by our own importers ? What can you say of Trin- coniali ? — of Colombo ? AVliat British colony is a Chinese port ? Describe its situation. To what is its increas- ing commercial importance due ? What are the Straits Settlements? What is the chief city? What are the principal items of the trade of Singapore, and whence are they derived ? Describe tlie three kinds of trade of ports like Singapore. Locate Aden. What gives it com- mercial importance? v.- BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN AUSTRALASIA The Kritish possessions in Australasia consist of the five confederated colonies of Australia, together with Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Feejee Islands.' AUSTRALIA. — Australia is the smallest of the six great Continents, having an area three-fourths that of Europe. The surface is for the most part a level plateau about 1,000 feet high with an abrupt descent near the coast. Much of the interior of the continent is arid and unproductive. A coast plain from forty to three hundred miles wide surrounds almost the entire continent. The Murray, the most important river, is 1600 miles long, but is too shallow for navigation, except by small vessels. 1 The United States is connected with Australasia by steamsliip lines, and a considerable commerce is carried on both by these lines and by sailing-vessels. The largest trade of Australasia belongs to >'.\v Smitli Wnlrs. nmnuntiii- in 1898 to alxiut $260,000,000, Victoria is next, with more than §ir,tuiiiii.(iiiii. :,ii,| N,« Z. :il;iiiil ilurd with more than $03,000,000. The total exports of the Australiisi;iii ml m l^:ls xNrir -:;'.il, 1135,000 ; and of nnports. ; ■Cl.r were s:;.:. ucts lit ii ments, (I and m:\\'- tine. Wi tin. .f tl. 1-1,1 ill \^'X< wnv $19,777,000. Its imports i\ imiiiiriMi-. iiM IihIiml: machinery and other prod- [>i wiHid, tiiliinin, kiriiseiie oil, agricultural imple- cars, leather and its products, breadstuffs, books and stationery, fruit, liquors, organs, and turpen- is, wool, textile grasses, hides and skins, coal, and co.MMEnciM. <;i:o<;iiAi'iiy 95 Tilt' Darlin;; ami tlio .Murruml)i(li;eo, tributarios of the Murray, arp tlio only other (.■oiisiilerable rivers, ami these also are of little value to iiavij^'alioii. The seacoast is (juite regular, and there are few harbors. In proportion to their population the Australian colonies are better provided with railways than any other country of the world except the United States. Victoria, the smallest, and most prosperous, of these colonies, is situated at the southeastern extremity. It is mainly mountainous, and is the chief gold-mining region of the continent. The northern boundary is formed by Murray River. In other parts of the colony agriculture is, to a considerable extent, dependent upon irrigation. The colony owes its prosperity to the gold-mines, which were discovered in 18.51, and which have yielded gold to the amount of $1,250,000,000. For many years past the (mtput has been slowly increasing, and greater attention has been devoted til auririilture, grazing, and manufacturing. Mi'lhiiiinif. tlie capital and chief seaport, has a population of 470,000. Vessels of medium draught can lie alongside the city wharves. It is the shipping-point of the products of the colony, of which wool is the most important.' Melbourne and other cities are fast becoming industrial centres, chiefly in the manufacture of woollen goods, but the exporting point of manufactures has not yet been reached. !^^elbourne is connected by railway with various parts of the colony, and also with the adjoining colonies of New South Wales and South Australia. New South Wales, on the east coast of the continent, north of 'N'ictoria, is next to the latter in importance. It is the oldest of the colonies, having been established a century ago as a penal colony. Sheei>raising was attempted early in its history, and has become the most important industry. The mineral resources of the colony, mainly gold and coal, were developed at the same time that the gold-fields in Metoria were opened. More recently tin has been found, and the mining product is now next in . value to that of wool. The surface of the country includes fertile plains, grazing-lands, forest area, and mountain-regions, — hence the products are varied. Fruits, sugar-cane, and the cereals are largely cultivated. Sheep, horses, and other domestic animals are reared, and minerals in great variety are mined.* Sydney, the capital and commercial centre of New South Wales, has a popula- tion of 3/50,000. The harbor is deep and capacious, and is the chief naval station in Australasia for the British fleet. With an abundance of coal, Sydney is fast becoming an important industrial centre. From its geographical situation it controls the commerce of the South Pacific, and it is connected by steamship lines with Europe, Asia, and the United States. 1 The export of wool for 1898 was valued at over $20,000,000, most of it from A'ictoria, and the rest transsliipped from adjoining colonies. The estimated value of the gold mined in Victoria in 1899 is $17,000,000. 2 In 1898 wool to the value of nearly $50,000,000 was exported. The richest coal-mines of the continent are here ; employing in 1808 ten tliousand men. The silver and silver- lead ore product is increasing ; the output during 1898 being nearly equal in value to that of the gold product, wliich had a value of §9,G»0,000. 96 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Newcastle lias come into commercial importance from its coal, which is shipped, not only to all parts of Australia, but to San Francisco, Soutli America, the Hawaiian Islands, and other parts of the Pacilic. A railway system connects the various pro- ducing centres of the colony. Queensland, situated north of New South Wales, occupies the northeastern part of Australia. It has a dry tropical climate, but agriculture is carried on to a considerable extent. Fine, hard building-timber is abundant, though little has yet been done to develop it. The grazing interests are considerable, and large areas are devoted to sheep and cattle raising.^ Coffee, rice, grain, and fruits are products which are rapidly coming into greater prominence. Brisbane, the capital, exports large quantities of wool. Railways connect the important centres with one another and with the system of New South Wales. South Australia adjoins the western boundaries of Victoria and New South Wales. It comprises much of the arid region of the continent, and the only portion inhabited is along the coast. It is essentially an agricultural and pastoral colony. Wheat is the chief crop, though only six or eight bushels are raised upon an acre of land. Other grains are grown, and flax and hops are receiving special attention. Fruit and vine culture are becoming very thriving industries. Most of the crops are dependent upon irrigation. Copper is the only metal mined to any extent. As in the other colonies, wool-growing is the most profitable business.'^ Adelaide, with a population of 130,000, is the capital, and the only city of commercial importance. It is connected by rail with Victoria. North Australia lies west of Queensland, and borders the north coast of the continent. It is an arid region, apparently incapable, without irrigation, of sup- porting any considerable population. It is attached politically to South Australia. Western Australia comprises one-third of the area of the continent. Only the southwestern corner of it is inhabited, though the northwest contains iine grazing- lands. Much of the interior is sandy. Gold-mining and wool-growing are important industries. Gold was produced in 1898 to the value of nearly $20,000,000, and wool exported to the value of nearly $1,500,000. The forest area is large and the timber valuable. Sandalwood and jarrah, a wood similar to the California red-wood, are exported. Jarrah is very durable, and particularly adapted for harbor, railway, and bridge work. The mineral deposits that have been found include large gold-fields, iron, lead, copper, and zinc. Silk-cuiture has been recently undertaken with success. Perth is the capital, and Albany is the principal shipping-port. 1 Tlie wool export for 1898 was over $15,000,000, followed in much less value by sugar, frozen meats, tin, .silver, tallow, anil pearl shell. JMiuing is a most important industry, the gold product in the same year reaching $14,000,000. 2 The export of wool was nearly $.",000,000 in ISOS, but is decreasing. Wheat flour and copper are important exports. COMMEnciAL aEOdllAl'lIY 97 TASMANIA, formerly called Van Dieiuen's Land, is an island about the size of the state uf West Virginia, lying oi^' the southeast coast of Australia. To a consider- able extent the surface is mountainous and forest-covered, but the island is agricultur- ally rich and yields large quantities of hops and fruits. The climate is equable and healthful. Grazing is a leading industry, and Tasmaniau wool is of the finest quality.' The forest areas afford fine woods in variety ; there are extensive deposits of coal, tin, and building-stone ; and gold is mined in several places. Silk-culture promises to become an important industry. Apart from its trade with neighboring colonies, nearly all the commerce of Tasmania is with Great Britain. Launceston, an impor- tant northern port, is connected by rail with Hobart, the capital and commercial centre. The latter city is the chief seaport, and has a fine harbor on the south coast. Both cities have steamship connection with Melbourne and Sydney, and maintain considiTable local industries, especially in the manufacture of woollen fabrics. NEW ZEALAND is the name given to three islands 1,200 miles southeast of Australia. Their area is about equal to that of Oregon. The surface is generally mountainous, but two-thirds of the country is adapted to agriculture and grazing. The climate of New Zealand is very salubrious, and a variety of crops and fruits are raised. The forests are extensive, and contain many valuable kinds of woods, particularly the Kauri pine, much valued for shipbuilding.^ The pastoral interests are the most important, though mining is quite extensively pursued. Auckland, the chief industrial and commercial town, lias a fine harbor. Steamers connect with Melbourne, Sydney, and San Francisco. Russell is a whaling-station. Wellington, the capital, contains woollen mills, and extensive meat-preserving establishments. All these places are situated on North Island. On South Island, Dunedin, the largest commercial town of the colony, has manufactories of woollen goods and machinery. Lyttleton and Greymouth are the other considerable towns.' THE FEEJEE ISLANDS, situated about 1,200 miles east of Australia, comprise several hundred islands of which eighty are inhabited. Viti Levu and Vanua Levu are the largest and most important. The larger islands are rugged and volcanic, and are susceptible of cultivation only along the narrow coast ]ilains. Sugar, cotton, and tropical fruits are the chief exports, and these go mainly to British markets. Suva is the capital and only important port. ' 111 1898 the most important exports were : wool, $1,274,000 ; gold, .$8.38,000 ; together with silver and silver ore, tin, timber and bark, hop.s and fruit, to a total value of $9,015,000. 2 The gum of this tree, Kauri gum, is extensively used in making varnish. Sometimes very large pieces, a hundred-weight or more, of transparent and almost colorless gum, are found near the decayed roots of a tree. Tliis brings a high price, and is used for making ornaments. It is easily worked with a knife into any shape, and is polished with a soft rag and kero.sene oil. Large masses of gum are sometimes found exuding from the living tree, but this is less valuable than the fossil gum. Three or four thousand men are engaged in digging the latter, wliich is found on North Island only. A fossil gum of dark color is also found in considerable quantities in the coal deposits. This fact shows the antiquity of the kauri forests. s In 1898 New Zealand exported wool to the value of S2.<5,0OO,OO0 ; frozen meat. §8.000,000 ; gold, 5.">,400,000 ; Kauri gum. §-2,900,000 ; butter and cheese, §2,000,000 ; together with hides, tallow, grain, and New Zealand hemp or phurmium, to the total amount of §02,UOO,UUO. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY QUESTIONS What British colonies compose the geographi- cal division of Australasia ? Describe Australia. Wliat are its chief rivers ? What can you say of their commercial importance ? What is the condition of Australian railways ? What can you say of the surface of the colony of Victoria? To what did Victoria owe its first prosperity ? What industry is now increasing in relative importance ? Describe Melbourne and its industries. Give the situation of New South Wales. What can you say of its in- dustries ? — mineral resources ? — agriculture ? Locate and describe Sydney, — Newcastle. Where is Queensland ? What are its chief industrial interests ? What is the principal ex- port of Brisbane ? Where is South Australia 1 What is its chief agricultural product ? What business is most profitable ? Locate Western Australia. What is the leading industry ? What are the mineral products ? Describe Tasmania and its situation. What is the leading industry? What are the chief mineral products ? Describe Launceston, — Ho- bart. Where is New Zealand ? Give an account of its area, climate, and productions. Describe the Kauri gum, its origin and use. What can you say of Auckland? — of Russell, — of Well- ington ? — of Dunedin ? — of Lyttleton and Greymouth ? Which of these towns are ou North Island? — on South Island? VI. -BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA The British American possessions include nearly one-half the area of North America and a small part of South America. They comprise the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland, a large number of the West Indies, a part of Guiana, and a few islands south of South America. THE DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. — The Dominion of Canada iin-linlfs thi- jirovinces of Ontario. Qut-brc, New lirunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, Nortlieast and Nortliwest Territories, British Columbia, and the districts of Keewatin and Athabasca. The island of Newfound- land is a geographical, but not a political, part of the Dominion. The total area of the British possessions in North America is about equal to that of the United States, including Alaska, but the population is only one-fifteenth as large. The products are those of a rigorous climate. The lumber regions of the Dominion are in widely separated sections of the country, one in the vicinity of Hudson Bay, in the east; the other in British Columbia, on the west. The Canadian export of lumber is about equal to that of the United States. Coal is abundant on both coasts, and the fisheries are among the most important in the world. The Canadian trade in agricultural products is con- stantly increasing. The registered sliipping includes 6500 vessels, and there are 17,000 miles of railway, chiefly in the eastern provinces. Jlanufactures have been fostered by protective tariffs; and there is now a vast number of establishments engaged in making machinery and other products of iron, leather goods, and wooden-ware. The Dominion is becoming more and more important as a factor in the commerce of the world.' ' The commerce of Canada is chiefly with the United States and Great Britain, export and import trade is with the United States. The export statistics for 1S!>8 pla Half the 1' animals ( oMMi:i;(iA/. (nuiuiiM'iiY oa Stroiii^ indaopinputs are offered to immigrants by the government of Panada; yet in spite of the fact that hirge numbers have been led to settle upon public lands, there is a strong tendency to move across our border. Manitoba has suffered much in this way. The native population is imbued with the spirit of emigration, and it is estimated tliat at least a million Canadians, chiefly of French descent, have moved into states adjoining the border. Land along the Canadian line often brings about half the price of adjoining land within the limits of the United States.' British Columbia, in the extreme west, is mountainous. The products are chiefly lumber and minerals. Some of the best coal-mines on the I'acific coast are on Vancouver Island. The fisheries of the Pacific are growing in value yearly, and are chiefly of cod and salmon. Victoria, the capital, is situated on Vancouver Islan^l. It is connected by rail with Xanaimo, the great coal-producing centre. Coal and lumber are sent chiefly to South America, Asia, and Australia. Victoria is a British naval station and the headquarters of the Canadian fishing interests in the Pacific. By the increase of traffic over the Canadian Pacific Railway it is attain- ing considerable commercial importance. Vancouver, the terminus of the (Canadian Pacific Railway, is a port on the Georgia Straits, having direct steamship coniiictidu with China and Japan, and the coast cities of British Columbia, the lniiiil Stuii's, and Alaska; and is the shipping port for the product of the mines and Imcsts nf the interior of British Columbia. Manitoba, in the great central plain, contains most excellent wheat-lands, and wheat is its staple crop. It is north of Minnesota and Dakota, and is connected with the railway system of the United States. The Red River of the North, the chief waterway of the province, communicates, through Lake Winnipeg and other large lakes, with the Saskatchewan River and Hudson Bay. Together they furnish and animal products first in point of value, a^icultural products second, manufactures third, products of the mines fourth, and fishery products fifth. In 1898 the total exports c.f Canada were over ai04, 0(10,000, of which nearly $105,000,000 went to the I'liiti.l Kiimd :iu.l ..v,r .'j4.".,i«ii).(iiio t.. ilii- liiit.-.l States. In the same year the total imports Ml (;,,,;, .|:i ».,, ,l^,| .s|:;u. i.uihi, ,.i ^^\•u^ iv il,:,„ s78,000,00O came from the United States a in 1 s:;_'..'.iiii.(iiiii ii>.iii iiir I'liiicil l\iim.|Miii. 'llir inul ,-niiiinerce of Canada with the United Kingdom is .■si;;i,UUll.ooo and uilh tlie I niti ,1 Miir,. si 17. Duo, ). The United States buys from Cana^la . lniMl.n ;,im1 iis manufacture.s, breadstuffs, cattle and horses, coal, hay, beans, pease, and iK.iai.., rla^^d as vr;,'i'tables, fruits, flax, tobacco, etc. Canada buys from the United States : cual, linail.stulTs, iron and steel, coUon goods, wood and its manufactures, provisions, dairy products, chemicals, drugs, india-rubber goods, mineral oils, various manufactures. 1 These facts are largely due to the anomalous political status of the Dominion, which, though a British possession, is not so closely affiliated with the mother country as she should be for the full development of her resources. The stimulus to commercial activities that independence of Great Britain would give are lacking, Canada is yearly becoming more American, and a-s imperial inter- ference in colonial affairs is even now looked upon with resentment, this feeling may eventually grow till nothing short of independence will be accepted by the Canadian people. 100 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY more tliaii 2,000 miles of inland navigation through one of the most fertile sections of the continent. Winnipeg, the capital, is the most important city. It commands the traffic of the great wlieat regions of the central plain, and ships wheat by rail, both eastward for trans-shipment at Montreal, and southward over the border into the United States. Northwest Territory and Athabasca are situated between ]\Ianitoba and British Columbia. The former is largely unexplored, but is known to contain vast areas of arable laud. It is estimated that the land in these divisions suited to wheat-growing aggregates an area five times that of the state of New York, and that other areas suitable to the cultivation of root-crops are nearly as extensive. Except upon the line of the Canadian Pacific railway, the growth of pojiulation, however, is extremely slow, owing mainly to the great distance from markets for products. The forest tracts embrace one of the greatest fur-producing districts in the world, and supply three-fourths of the furs sold in London and Leipsic. The mineral regions of this territory contain coal, gold, iron, and petroleum. The coal deposits found near some of the railway lines are being fast developed to supply the interior towns, particu- larly of Manitoba. The other mineral districts are remote from the railways. Ontario has an irregular surface. In the northern part are forests and mines ; while in the southern part, particularly in the peninsula between lakes Erie and Ontario, are rich farming-lands. The latter region is called the "Garden of Canada." Much attention is given to dairy products ; and butter, cheese, and eggs are extensively exported to the United States and Great Britain. Ontario carries on much of the manufactures of the Dominion. Ottawa is the seat of the Dominion government. It is more an educational than an industrial centre, though in the immediate vicinity considerable manufacturing of wood is done. The more impor- tant commercial and industrial centres are HamUtoii and Toronto on Lake Ontario, and Kingston at the junction of this lake with the St. Lawrence River. A great part of the trade between the Dominion and the United States is conducted through these ports. Quebec has a hilly surface and a thin soil. Oats, potatoes, and hay are the principal crops, and maple-sugar is made in large quantities. The principal minerals are copper and iron. Ship-building and the fisheries are important, but lumbering is the leading pursuit. The great water route is the St. Lawrence River. The Grand Trunk Railway, with a branch to Portland, Maine, passes through the chief cities. In winter, owing to the closing of the St. Lawrence by ice, communication with the ocean is mainly through the United States. Montreal, the largest city in the Dominion, is situated on the St. Lawrence River at the head of ocean navigation ; and though a thousand miles distant from the Atlantic, it controls much of the foreign commerce of the Dominion. It is connected bj"^ waterway or railwaj' with the great producing centres. The chief exports are wheat, flour, lumber, and dairy products. Much of the flour for export is milled in the city. Other considerable industries are cloth-making and sugar-refiniiig. It is the third city iu importance COMMEllCIAL GKOGUAl'HY lOl in the St. Lawrence valley, Cliicajjo beiujj; first and lUiffalo second. The city of Quebec, 150 wiles nearer the sea than Montreal, has a large export traile in lumber, but its import trade is small. New Brunswick has an undulating surface. Its fisheries of cod, mackerel, herring, salmon, and haddock are extensive, and, in value, rank next to those of Nova Scotia. But commercially its great wealth is in its forests, which furnish a large supply of lumber. The building of small wooden vessels for river and coast trade is a prominent industry. A considerable commerce is carried on with the United States and South America. The St. John Kiver furnishes navigation for two hundred miles. St. John, the largest city, has a spacious harbor, and is the seat of a small foreign commerce. It is the centre of a growing cotton-manufacture. Frederictoii, the capital, has an active trade with the interior. Nova Scotia has many good harbors and a large commerce. The most important natural products are coal and iron. Great deposits of these minerals exist, but they are not fully developed. The fisheries provide the most valuable export. Of the sixty thousand men employed in the Dominion fisheries, one-third live in Nova Scotia. The fish, named in the order of their value, are cod, lobsters, herring, and mackerel. On the adjoining island of Cape Breton are rich deposits of coal, but fishing is the main industry of the people. Halifax, on one of the finest harbors in North America, has a considerable commerce. The chief export is fish. Other exports are lumber, agricultural and dairy products, and coal. The city has numer- ous industries, but it imports manufactured goods from the United States and England. Halifax is the only port of the Dominion open to commerce in winter. The completion of the railway connecting it with Quebec and Montreal has increased its trade. Prince Edward Island is the smallest province of the Dominion. Fishing and lumbering are, next to agriculture, the leading occupations. The exports are cereals and dairy-products. Charlottetown, situated on a fine harbor, is the capital. Newfoundland, to which the eastern part of Labrador is colonially attached, lies off the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Its fixed population is very small, and its industries are practically limited to the off-shore fisheries, fish-curing, and the manufacture of cod-liver oil. The food-supply is almost wholly imported." Copper deposits exist, but the mining product is small. St. Jo/ui's, on the east coast, is a great fishing centre, and the headquarters of the Scotch Arctic whaling and sealing fiert. THE BRITISH WEST INDIES. — The British AYest Indies comprise all the insular possessions of Great Britain situated between North America and South America. Old Providence, an island in the Gulf of Mexico, near the terminus of the Nicaragua canal, and British Honduras, are included among these possessions. 1 The total e.xports of Newfoundland in 1808 were about $5,000,000, of which not quite one- tenth, consi-sting mainly of fish and copper ore, went to the United States. The imports were about the same, of whicli nearly one-tliird came from the United States. 102 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The Bahamas are a group of 600 islands southeast from Florida and northeast from Cuba. Many of these islands are mere rocky peaks and uninhabitable, and only twenty of them are of any consequence commercially. These are generally level, of coral limestone formation, with sandy soil, ^"assau, on the island of New Providence, is the capital. Other important islands of this group are San Salvador, Graud Bahama, Long Island, Harbor Island, Great Inagua, and the Andros Islands. The Bahamas profited by the American Revolution, many loyalists settling there after the colonies gained their independence. During the civil war in America, Nassau was the headquarters for blockade-runners, and was for a time a place of considerable importance. The products of these islands, irom the soil, consist of oranges, pineapples, tomatoes, mahogany, ebony, satinwood, and preserved fruits ; from the sea, sponges, turtle-shells, and salt. Under the encouragement of the government the cultivation of sisal hemp, a fibre native to Yucatan, is increasing. Hitherto the exportation of sponges has been the leading source of income for the islands. A considerable profit is derived from American tourists, for many of whom these islands are a winter resort. There is direct steamship communication with New York. The population of about 50,000 is two-thirds black. San Salvador has borne the reputation of being the land first sighted by Columbus on his voyage of discovery in 1492. Grenada, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia are the most important islands of the "Windward group. Their combined population is 150,000, mostly negroes and coolies. Cocoa is the distinctive export ; though sugar, rum, molasses, cotton, and coffee are also raised in larger quantities than home consumption demands. Port Castries, on St. Lucia, has one of the best harbors in the West Indies, and is fast growing in importance. Trinidad, ten miles from the coast of Venezuela, at the mouth of the Orinoco River, is the most southerly of the islands of the West Indies. From the fortunate situation, the fertility of the soil, the varied products, and the evenness of the climate, the island has won the title of " the Pearl of the Antilles." Fort of Spaiit is the capital and chief centre of commerce. The principal products are sugar, cocoa, molasses, rum, cocoanuts, timber, fruits, and asphalt, or mineral pitch. On the island is a remarkable asphalt lake, containing a vast supply of this material. The Bermudas, a group of 360 islands, are situated six hundred miles due east of North Carolina. Only fifteen of them are habitable, and on these the soil is thin. The more important are Bermuda, St. Georges. Ireland, Somerset, and St. David's. There are no fresh-water streams, and the wells being poor, the water supply is dependent upon the fall of rain. Hamilton, the seat of government, is on Bermuda Island. St. Georr/e, on the island of the same name, has a fine harbor. The trade of the Bermudas consists almost wholly of the export of garden vegetables to the United States. The cnief income of the people is derived from the onion and potato crops. Owing to the mild and equable climate, the Bermuda Islands are a favorite winter resort for people living in the colder parts of the Atlantic -states. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPIIY 103 Barbadoes, tlio most easterly ishuul of the West Indies, is about 2oO miles iiortheast I'roiu Venezuela, and is said to be the most densely populated island in the -world. The surface is irregular, but the soil is very productive. The forests have been cut away so that all the available land may be devoted to the one staple crop, — sugar. Even tropical fruits have disappeared to make room for sugar-planting, and the island is now dependent upon neighboring islands for its fruit supply. The consequence of this one-crop system has been ruin to the planters, and efforts are being made to vary the products by including tobacco, indigo, and arrowroot. Most of tlu! sugar is exported to the United States. An adjunct of sugar-raising is the manufacture of rum and molasses. Bridgetoivn, the seat of government, has a population of 20,000, and is a very important commercial port. It is a station of the West Indies and Panama Telegraph Company, the headquarters of steamship lines to Europe and to the United States, and a port of call for merchant ships in general. It is also the headquarters of the British forces in the West Indies. The population of Barbadoes Island is 175,000, about one-tenth of whom are whites. Jamaica, the largest and perhaps the most valuable British possession in the West Indies, is in the Caribbean Sea, 100 miles south of Cuba. The centre of the island is high and mountainous, so that many streams descend to the coast. The soil is rich and very productive. Most of the staple tropical products are raised. Among the exports are sugar, molasses, rum, fruits, coffee, and dyestuffs. The population of the island is over half a million, of which three-fourths are negroes. Many Chinese and coolies are employed on the plantations. Though situated five hundred miles from Jamaica, Turk's Island and the neighboring island •of Caicos are eolonially attached to the former. The only export worthy of mention from these small islands is salt. Kingston is the capital. The Caribbean Sea is separated on the east from the Atlantic Ocean by many ■small islands called the Lesser Antilles. The northern group is called the Lee- ward, while the southern is known as the Windward Islands. Antigua is the most important of the Leeward Islands. St. Jolm's. the chief town of Antigua, has a population of about 10,000. The products of these islands are principally sugar, molasses, rum, and cotton. British Honduras, or Balize, is situated on the shores of the Caribbean Sea, between Yucatan and Guatemala. The country is not developed, and the population is sparse. The chief occupation of the people is cutting and exporting timber, — chiefly cedar, mahogany, and rosewood. Tropical fruits are also exported.^ 1 The total commerce of the British \\v-.\ \w\w^ in isjiS «:!> ii.:nl\ s'liijiiiii.iiiiii. alnmst equally divided between exports and imports. NimiIv ..h. -IliIi .ii ihr . \p.iiK, roii^i^im.; ,,\ ,im,,i. Iiaiianas, coSee, cocoa, spices, dyewoods, fruit.s ami iiui>. :i~]ili;ili, :iiitulls, imal (jrodiuis, lumber, dairy products, kerosene and other oils, oil cake and meal, leather goods, live animals, together with a jgreat variety of manufactured goods, comes from the United States. 104 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY BRITISH SOUTH AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. — The South American posses- sions of Ciri'ut Ih-itaiu e'ousist of British Guiana, and a few islands in the South Atlantic. British Guiana includes the three settlements of Denierara, Essequibo, and Berbice, named from the principal rivers. The boundary between the colony and Venezuela has recently been settled. The area is about equal to that of Colorado, the population sparse, and the climate unhealthful. The cultivated part of the country is situated along the seacoast and a short distance up the rivers. The chief product is sugar, of which the variety known as Demerara crystal is the iinest in the world. Cotton of excellent quality, but in small quantity, is grown. Cocoanuts, coffee, rum, molasses, and butter are also produced and exported. Georgetown is the capital and port. About 2.")0 miles east of the southern extremity of South America are the Falkland Islands. The colony is a grazing settlement, and whaling and sealing station. Stanley, the only harbor, is often visited for repairs and supplies by vessels that have made the passage of the Straits of Magellan. The only important exports are wool, mutton, and beef. QUESTIONS What provinces compose tlie Dominion of Canada ? What British colony forms a geo- grapliical, though not a political, part of the Dominion ? Compare Canada with the United States in area and in population. How does Canadian export of lumber compare with that of the United States ? What can you say of the Canadian coal deposits? — of its fisheries? — agriculture ? — trade routes ? — manufactures ? What great movement of population is taking place ? What can you say of the surface of British Columbia ? — of its products ? Name the cap- ital. What great trade route has its western terminus at Vancouver? Name the leading exports of Victoria. Where is Manitoba ? What is its chief prod- uct ? What can you say of its waterways ? — of its railways ? What is the capital ? What is Its principal shipment ? What is the situation of Northwest Territory ? Give some account of its natural advantages for production. Why are not these more fully developed? What is the leading commercial product at the present time ? Compare the northern part of the province of Ontario with the southern. What products does Ontario extensively export? What can you say of its manufactures ? What city of Ontario is the capital of the Dominion ? What manufactures are most important in or near Ottawa ? Name other industrial and commer- cial centres of tliis province. Name the chief agricultural products of the province of Quebec, — the mineral products. What is the leading pursuit ? What great trunk line of railway connects the leading cities of this province ? What American city is a winter terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway ? Locate and describe Montreal. Wliat are its main exports ? — its industries ? Where is Que- bec ? What can you say of its trade ? Give some account of the fisheries of New Brunswick. In wliat does the commercial wealth of this province consist ? Name and locate the principal city. — the capital. What are the most important natural products of Nova Scotia ? What is the leading export ? What mineral deposits exist on Cape Breton ? What is the exports of Halifax ? What are the exports of Prince Edward Island ? What occupations other than agricul- ture are considerably followed ? What can you say of the population of Newfoundland ? What important place on the east coast ? Describe the Bahama Islands. What and where is the capital ? What are the principal products of the soil?— of the surrounding CUMMKUCIA L UEuaUAfll Y 105 waters ? What has been the leading export ? What communication is tliere with New Yoik ? Wliere are llie Bermudas ? Which are the more important islands of this group? Name tlie Icadiii!; towns. With what country is nearly all the export trade of the Bermudas carried on ? Of what does this trade consist ? Locate and describe the island of Barbadoes. What is the staple crop ? What has been the result of the exclusive cultivation of sugar-cane ? What country receives most of the export of sugar ? What other industries are followed ? Name and describe the colonial capital. Where is the island of Jamaica ? What can you say of its soil ? — of its productions ? — of itscNports? Of what nationalities is the labor- ing class ? What islands are colonially attached to Jamaica? Wlial is the leading export of Turk's Island? Which is the most important of the Leeward Islands ? What are the chief products of this group ? What are the principal Windward Islands ? What is the main export ? What growing port >ipon St. Lucia Island ? What is the situation of Trinidad ? Name some of its natural advantai;es for production and trade. What is the capital ? What are the more important products ? What is said of the island of Antigua? Where is British Hon- duras ? What are the principal exports ? Name the principal settlements of British Guiana. What are its exports ? Which of these is espe- cially noteworthy? Locate and describe the Falkland Islands. What are the exports ? Vn. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. — The southern p:irt of the continent of Africa contains several colonial dependencie.s of Great Britain having an aggregate area of over a million square miles, to which, as a result of the recent war, the territories of the former South African Republic and of the Orange Free State have been added. The population is densest near the coast cities of Cape Colony and Natal, and at the gold-mining centres of the Transvaal, while large parts of Rhodesia are uninhabitable or occupied by native races only. The population, white and black, of the whole territory is over five millions. The older colonies were largely peopled by Dutch immigrants, and their descendants now form about half the inliabitants of European blood. The coast line is deficient in natural harbors, and large sums are annually expended in improvements. Land naturally arable forms the lesser portion of the area of these colonies; but under government encouragement irrigation has been extensively resorted to, and considerable land has been thereby reclaimed. The wealth of this territory is, and must continue to be, largely in grazing and mining, and their allied industries and resulting trade. Cape Colony, the oldest of these British dependencies, lies to the south of the Orange River. The chief products are diamonds, wool, ostrich feathers, copper, hides, maize, wheat, and tobacco. A large part of -the export of wool and angora hair is raised in territory outside, and to the north of the colony. The population of Cape Colony is more than a million and three-quarters. Cupe Toimi, the capital, has the best harbor, and is the centre of the trade and manufac- tures. Kimberhj, on the northern border, is the centre of the diamond mines. Port Elizabeth is an important seaport. From the islands on the west coast guano is in- creasingly derived, the Peruvian deposits, long so important to commerce, being nearly exhausted. Natal, on the east coast, has a population of nearly a million. It has extensive graziug-lands, and there are rich coal deposits at New Castle in the north. The 106 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY exports are wool, sugar, maize, hides, ivory, and ostrich feathers. Durban is the juost important port, and Pietermaritzburg the capital. A submarine cable along the foast connects South Africa with Europe. The Transvaal lies between the rivers Vaal and Limpopo, and is cut off Ijj- Por- tuguese territory from the Indian Ocean. It is about the size of the Middle States, and had before the recent war a population of over a million, less than half the whites being of Dutch descent. It possesses in the Witwatersrand gold-fiekls the most productive gold-producing territory of the world. The ore is not rich in metal, but very even in texture and extending over a great distance. Johannesburg is the centre of the mining district and Pretoria the capital. The natural entry port of the Transvaal is Lourenqo Marquez on Delagoa Bay in Portuguese territory, which is con- nected by railway with Pretoria. The Orange Elver State hes between the Transvaal and Cape Colony, and is somewhat larger than Pennsylvania. The capital is Bloi'mfontein ; and its interests are mainly agricultural, though it possesses coal and diamond mines. Its productions are similar to those of Cape Colony. Mauritius, an important though small island, lies about 600 miles to the east of ]\Iadagascar. Its area is a little greater than that of Long Island, j^.Y., and it has a population equal to that of Rhode Island. The laboring-class is composed of coolies, who work on the sugar plantations. Sugar is the staple product and the principal export. It is sent mainl_y to India, Australia, England, and the United States ; the annual value of the export is about §800,000. Hemp, drugs, and caout- chouc are the other important exports. Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Lagos are small British colonies on the west coast. ]\Iuch of the trade centres at Freetown, the capital of Sierra Leone. The principal exports are palm-nuts and palm-oil ; but there is considerable trade in hides, rubber, ivory, cotton, and gums. The commerce of these colonies with the L'nited States is of considerable importance, our exportation to them consisting of agricultural imple- ments, petroleum, and minor wares. The climate is unhealthful. British West Africa. — The lower antl navigable course of the river Niger with a great extent of territory on either side became a crown colony in I'.MiO. ()I<1 Calabar is the principal port, and the products are palm-oil, rubber, ebony, and ivory. Lower Egypt is nominally a dependency of the Ottoman Empire. Practically, however, since the completion of the Suez canal, it has been a British protectorate. The canal was constructed and opened to traffic by French capitalists. But owing to the importance of her colonial interests in India, the control of this highway was of vital importance to Great Britain, and in 1875 a leading interest was purcliased from the Khedive of Egypt by the British government. England has reformed its finances, reconstructed its army, and used it as an instrument for conquering the Soudan. The commercial prosjierity of the country has increased amazingly in recent years ; and COMMlllK IM. Gi:oM.,n. iu Sniuh Afiioa. Wliere is Cape ('.i1mii\ ;■ \Vl]:it ;nv it^ principal products? Ill what city arc most i.f the manufactures? Wliere is Natal ? What mineral deposits in the colony ? W^hat are the leading expoi-ts ? What i.s the leading iiiodiu-t of the Transvaal ? WIcit is ii> c:i].ii;il ■.• — 111.- ciiiiv (if the mines? wiirr.' i. ih,- < i,,,ii^.' Hiv, r SI ii.' :' Wliat is its Ira.liiiu uniu.ux :• Wl.al i> it , raiiilal ? Wli, IV is l;liodcsia ':' ill uliat Ma-c of dcvelop- incHt is it'' AVhat i.s its ca]iital ;' Wliat river crosses if.' Describe Mamitias. Wlcii is the IcailiaL' in'oduct and export ? Whither is it sent? What otluT e.'qjorts can you name? What liiitisli Colonies on the west coast of Africa? Wliat ai'c the principal ports? What are the most iiniiortant exports ? What other exports can you name ? Wliat can you say of our own trade with these colonies ? What is tlie political .status of lower Egypt and the region of the Xile delta ? Wliat special cause has brought about tliis condition ? By what power is the Suez canal viitiiiiUy con- trolled ? Where is Port Said ? What is sai.t of its commerce ? What is the principal Egyptian export ? What are the principal imports ? With what nation is this trade chiefly carried on ? What is Egypt's chief seaport ? Wliat other ports are important ? AVhat two ports are the termini of the Suez canal ? Where is the Soudan ? At the junction of what rivers is its capital ? What will be its port on the Ked Sea? — on the Indian Ocean? What is the largest city of Eastern Africa ? On wliat island is it ? What are the staples of its trade ? 108 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER IV. THE GERMAN EMPIRE In tlie importance of commercial exchanges with the United States, Germany is second only to Great Britain.^ The empire extends along the Baltic Sea oOO miles, and on the North Sea 200 miles. Its situation is central in Europe, seven nations adjoining its borders. Along the coast the country is generally level, and in some sections marshy. Farther inland the level rises, terminating toward the south in a mountainous region. Although the total area is scarcely twice that of the State of Colorado, the population is two-thirds as great as that of the United States. Five large rivers traverse the empire and flow northerly into the sea, — the Vistula, in the extreme east, and in their order, the Oder, the Elbe, the Weser, and the Rhine. These are all more or less navigable. At the south are the head-waters of the Danube. The Rhine and the Danube are connected by a canal, thus forming an unbroken waterway betw^een the North and the Black Seas. Connection is also made by canal with the Seine and the Rhone, in France. The Oder with the Elbe, and the Vistula with the Oder, are also connected by canals, thus affording internal waterways of great commercial value. The Kaiser Wilhelm canal, from Kiel on the lialtic to the Elbe River, opened for traffic in 1895, has greatly stimulated German trade from the Baltic ports. In connection with these waterways Germany has the greatest railway system in the world, except that of the United States. The plains in the north are devoted mainly to agriculture. Much of the amber of commerce is found on the north coast. Except in the Rhine valley, the soil is not naturally very' fertile, but great skill is used in cultivating it, and large crops ' German Exports Textiles 8222,6"0,000 Metals and metal wares . . . 184,847,000 Food-products 120.809,000 Chemicals, drugs, etc '.14,870,000 Machinery, iiistruiiieiits . . . (Ki, 103,000 Fuel .02,394,000 Leather 59,171,000 Together with stone, clay, glass, and their manu- factures, wooden wares, paper goods, hard- ware, books and art works, with other articles, to the total value of over $1,000,000,000. Of till- ImIVl'm.II- r M,-.VI;,I ,Arl,ani;rs. (Ir, the total vain, -i --I.JJ.,' , - !..■ |.i in. i|ial and imporlnl li..ni a, anal. , n. ila^ \alur (.1' .-> cotton, to the \:ihK' nl ab..ui M7,-;.jO,()iio. V, 1898 Imports Textiles S22.3,10fi,000 Metals and metal wares . . . . 163,741.000' Food-products 409,217.000 Wooden wares 99,0S7,00O Leather 62,241,000 Live animals 45,542,000 Together with animal products, fuel, fats and oil, chemicals, leather, machinery, etc., to the total value of over $1,359,900,000. cd to the United States merchandise to sugar, to the value of over §13,000,000, one of the principal items being raw C().\nii:i: ili,,f :iii,l |M,il. pniducts), $1,075,000; cotton goods, $407,000; iron and strri -: U. sld^. aiii.iL. ^ ;iimI , mi^. .?-J14,000; kerosene and other oils, §1,628,000; and of less valur, liiiulin-, m.ilicijus, aniL;s, jrwclry, ftc. COMMEHCIAI. (iEtiailAI'llY • 121 ex]K)rt. Nearly th(> whnlc ci-dp is takni liy the Tnitcd States, ouv iiiipoH, in iS'M being over 070,000,00(1 iioiuuls. This crop has always proved profitable, and the production is steadily increasing.' Sugar was once a valuable export, as was also cotton ; but the shipments of both have fallen off. Tobacco is extensively cultivated, and the demand for the crop is steadily increasing; india-rubber, from the Amazon valley, and hides furnish valuable products. These six articles form four-fifths of the total exports. Commerce between Brazil and the United States is one-sided. ^Ve buy nearly 160,000,000 worth of her products, and in return sell about $12,000,000 worth. Increased steamship communication, and a better knowledge of the resources of each nation by the otlier, promises increase of trade. (See Note, p. 64.) While Brazil is primarily a land of plantations, her mineral resources are of great value. They comprise gold, coal, iron, salt, and precious stones, the latter being found in greater variety than in any other country, ('oal is mined iu the south, and the most celebrated diamond-mines are at Serro do Frio. The vast basin of the Amazon, comprising more than one-third of the total area, is covered with forests which contain some of the most valuable woods known to commerce. The great industry of the valley is that of rubber-getting, which is almost entirely in the liands of the half-civilized mixed Indian population ; and these have injured great rubber-producing tracts by improper treatment of the trees. (See page 184.) Para, or Belem, the only good harbor on the north coast, is the port through which the commerce of the Amazon passes. From this point passengers can ascend the river by steamer to points in Peru, Bolivia, and the interior of Brazil. Though these steamers traverse a vast forest region, they are dependent for fuel upon imported coal, what energy the people along the river possess being expended in collecting rubber. The government has endeavored to attract immigration to the Amazon valley ; but the imhealthful climate, low rate of wages, and distance from markets, have prevented development. Eio Janeiro is beautifully situated on the bay of the same name. The pojmla- tion (674,071!) is about e(|ual to that of Baltimore. It is the greatest coffee- nuxrket in the world, and, next to Buenos Ayres, the most important commercial centre in South America. As is the case with most South American capitals, trade is mainly in the hands of foreigners. The harbor is four miles wide and twelve long, and the largest ships can enter it. Pernambuco. or Recife, is the outlet for the product of the sugar country lying about it. Bahia. similarly situated, exports cotton, coffee, and rum. A submarine cable connects I'.ahia with Lisbon. ' Concerning the coffee of Brazil, Professor Alexander .\ga.ssiz wrote : " More than half of the coffee consumed on the globe is of Brazilian origin. And yet this coffee has by itself little reputation, and is even gi'eatly underrated, because a great de.al of the best product of the Brazilian plantations is .sold under the name of Java and Mocha. The so-called Mocha, considered the finest of all coffees, is often nothing but the small, round beans growing ut the summit of the Brazilian plant, very carefully selected and prepared." 122 CO.VMER CIA L GEOGRA PHY The connnerce of the United States with Brazil from 188G to 1892 showed a healthful increase. In 1S8G exports to the United States were in round numbers, $41,000,000, and in 1899 over $57,000,000. The imports from the United States increased from six and and a half millions in 188(5 to over twelve millions in 1899.^ The wonderful adaptability of the soil and climate for the production of the coffee plant in Brazil has been a principal source of wealth to the people and revenue to the government, and as coffee consumption is constantly increasing, so this South American state has in this product alone the promise of financial pros- perity. The export of coffee from Brazil to the United States in 1899, amounting to 670,000,000 pounds, and valued at $30,000,000, showed an increase in twenty years of nearly 380,000,000 pounds. The sugar-cane will thrive in all parts of Brazil, but the low prices of recent years have diminished the product here as well as in the West Indies. It is stated on the authority of " The Bureau of American Republics " that Brazil alone could in four years supply the sugar demand of the whole United States. QUESTIONS What is the comparative area of Brazil ? What is the national language ? What i.s the extent of the coast-line of Brazil ? Nnnio some impor- tant ports. What is the iliIimv ..f ilic surface of the country? What is ilic siiii:ilinii of the more productive sections '' 1 iiscriljr the surface in the central and southern parts. What LS the industrial condition of Brazil ? How is this to be accounted for ? What is said of the annual immigration ? What proportion of the total commerce of Brazil is with the United States ? — with Great Britain ? From what country does Brazil de- rive her principal imports ? Of what do these chiefly consist ? Wliat can you say of the growth of our commerce with Brazil ? What is our principal import from that country ? What Brazilian products together constitute four-fifths of her total exports ? How do our imports from Brazil compare with our exports to tliat cotintry ? What commercial phrase expresses this situation briefly ? \_Ans. — '• The balance of trade is against us."] Owing to wliat causes is this unfavorable situation likely to be improved ? What can you say of the mineral resources of Brazil ? — of her forest area ? What is the chief industry of the Amazon valley ? What is the leading export of Para ? Describe the situation of Rio Janeiro. Of what product is it the world's principal market ? What are tlie chief exports of Pernambuco ? — of Bahia ? What means of telegraphic connection between Brazil and Eu- rope ? 1 Trade with Brazil reached its highest point of development under the reciprocity treaty of 1801, culminating in 1892, when exports to the United States were §18,000,000, and imports §14,000,000. Since then both exports and imports have gradually, but not uniformly, decreased. COMMKJt CIA L aEuaUA I'll Y CHAPTER VfTT. THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM Hklgium, the smallest country of Eiiroi)e, lies between the southeru boundary of Tlie Netherlands and the Ardennes Mountains, from which the laud slopes to the plain at the mouth of the llhine. Its area is about equal to that of the state of Maryland ; the population is more than six times as great, being denser than in any other equal area in the world, with the possible exception of the lower Nile valley. Belgium has been described as " one great town." The prosperity of the country depends chiefly on manufacturing. Yet there are large returns from the many small farms into which the laud is divided. The dense population is largely due to the fact that the various manufactures are favored by mineral deposits, and by extraordinary facilities for commerce, both foreign and internal. The coast of Belgium is only forty miles in extent, and is generally low, requiring dikes to protect the country from inroads by the sea. The river Scheldt traverses the kingdom from the south- west to the northwest ; it is navigable from its mouth to the French border. Flow- ing nearly parallel to the Scheldt, acrosg the southern part of the kingdom, is .the Meuse, also navigable. These and other small rivers are connected by canals, which, with the rivers, have an aggregate length of over a thousand miles.' There is a fine system of railways, three-fourths of which are owned and operated by the State. About one-sixth of the area of Belgium is forest. Nearly all the rest is in a high state of cultivation, chiefly by small landholders; and heavy crops are raised relative to the area tilled. The mineral wealth is very great. The coal mined — nearly 20,000,000 tons yearly — is more than is produced by any other country of continental Europe. Iron and zinc are also extensively mined. The manufactures of iron and steel are important, but fabrics of cotton and woollen are the most valuable commercial products. Flax raising and spinning is one of the oldest indus- tries of the country ; and in fine linen and carpetings, Belgium has a world-wide reputation. Manufactures of laces and of paper are also important. Butter, eggs, and vegetables are exported in great quantities to the neighboring countries. In value the annual commerce of Belgium is nearly $800,000,000, most of it with England, France, and Germany. Our own imports from Belgium are chiefly glass 1 A canal lias been constructed in Belgium in which the boats are hoisted from one level to another by hydraulic elevators instead of by locks. This canal extends from the coal regions in the interior to Brussels, crossing several other canals at the same grade, so that Belgian coal can he carried directly by boat to Paris, as well as to the principal towns in Belgium and The Netherlands. The bo!its are towed at the low level into an immense tank, which is submerged in the canal. The gates are then closed; and the tank, which rests on the pistons of a huge hydraulic elevator, is raised to the upper level, where connection is made with the next section of the canal by means of double gates, and the boat proceeds on its w.iy. 124 COMMER CIA L GEO Gil A PHY and glassware, iron and steel products, and flax and hemp, raw and manufactured. Our exports to Belgium are chiefly cotton, cereals, meat-products, and kerosene.' From the point of view of her total commerce it may be said that Belgium imports raw and textile materials, and exports yarn, cloth, coal, and metal goods. As a part of the ancient Netherlands, Belgium, with Holland, once controlled most of the commerce of the world. The ships of Antwerp and other ports vied with those of the great commercial cities of Italy. Stimulated by the amount of •iw materials these ships gathered, industries sprang up and flourished. Antwerp, the chief seaport of Belgium, is still pre-eminently a commercial city, though relatively its commerce is not so great as it was three or four centuries ago. It is situated near the head of an estuary of the river Scheldt, and not only carries on a great part of the commerce of Belgium, but also a large in-transit trade from Switzerland and the Rhine districts of Germany. The German export is largely of iron and steel. Grain and petroleum from the United States are received at this point. Antwerp is a great industrial centre for cotton goods, carpets, laces, silk goods, and ship-building. Ghent, which is connected by a canal with the Scheldt, is a great factory-town. Sugar, from the sugar-beet, extensively cultivated in Bel- gium, and cotton and linen goods, are the principal manufactures. Brussels is not only the political but the industrial capital. Its carpets have a world-wide repute, and lace-making is one of the chief industries. Liege is best known for its manu- fp'itures of iron, woollen goods, and straw hats; Verviers, for its woollens; and Mechlin, for its laces. QUESTIONS What is the geographical situation of Belgium ? — its corapanitive area? — population? To what is the density of population to be attrib- uted ? What is tlio e.\tent of coast ? What is tlie nature of the surface near the coast-line ? Describe the river Scheldt, — tlie Meuse. What can you say of the waterways of Belgium ? How are most of the railways managed ? What proportion of the aiea of Belgium is under cultivation ? What niinorals nre hugely produced ? What can yon say of ilic r,rl.;i:iii out- put of coal ? Name the leailini; irianiil;n-iiirps of the country. What agricultural prudticts are exported ? With what countries are most of the commercial exchanges of Belgium con- ducted ? What are the principal exports of Belgium to the United States ? From the point of view of her total trade, what are Belgium's chief imports? — her chief exports? What are the situation, industries, and ex- ports of Antwerp? What country sends iron to Antwerp for export ? What American prod- ucts are largely imported tliere ? Wh.at are the manufactures of Ghent ? How does the coni- mercf of (ihenl reach the sea ? What are the piinci]ial industries of Brussels? — of Li^ge ? — of Verviers? — of Mecldin ? 1 In spite of the density of its i)opulation, Belgium is almo.st the only country of Eurojje ' year by year increases the total number ut its inhabitaiit.s by immigration. COMMEIICIAL UEuaUAl'llY 125 CHAPTER IX. THE KINGDOM OF ITALY Italy is a great peninsula projecting from central Europe southward into the Mediterranean Sea. The Apennines Mountains extend through its entire length. Flowing eastward into the head of the Adriatic Sea is the Po, the largest and the only important river. It drains most of the northern part of the peninsula, and its valley is a densely peopled plain of great fertility. Sicily, Sardinia, and a number of smaller islands along the coast, are part of the kingdom. The population of Italy, about 30,000,000, is somewhat smaller than that of France, and the area, 110,000 square miles, is about equal to that of Colorado. Italy is situated in the same latitude as the New England states, but its climate is drier and much warmer. The chief agricultural products are grain, fruits, olives, hemp, flax, and cotton. The more fertile areas frequently produce several field-crops in the year. Silk-culture is carried to a higher degree of perfection than in any other country except China, the mulberry-tree being carefully cultivated in many sections of the country. Grapes are extensively grown, and wine-making is one of the most important industries. As a wine-producing country, Italy ranks next to France, and in olive-culture it stands first among nations. The hill-slopes of Sicily are covered with olive and orange groves, while the level country is one great wheat-field. Sardinia produces fruits in great variety from its fertile soil ; but the chief natural wealth is its mineral deposits, of which iron, lead, and zinc are the more important. Silk is the most valuable product, forming one-quarter of the total exports. The manufactures are largely of an artistic nature, consisting of glassware, laces, mosaics, and carved marbles and woodwork. The lack of coal is a hinderance to manufacturing development, as very little is mined in the king- dom. Tliis lack, however, is partly compensated by the abundant water-power which the natural slopes of the Apennines and Alps provide. Sulphur is found in the vicinity of Mount Etna in Sicily, marble at Carrara in the northwestern part of the kingdom, iron, sulphur, tin, and lead in the island of Elba, and lead, zinc, iron, and copper in the island of Sardinia. Precious coral, sardines, oysters, and anchovies are the best-known products of the fisheries. Most of the export trade of Italy is with France and Austria-Hnngary. The chief imports come from Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, and France. The leading exports are silk, wine, and olive-oil ; and the leading imports are wheat, raw textiles, and coal. The share of the United States in this trade is increasing. 126 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY consisting of imports of silk and fruits, and exports of cotton, tobacco, and petroleum.' The various parts of the kingdom are united by railway ; and in spite of the mountain barrier on the north, connection is made with the railway system of France by the Mont Cenis tunnel, which was opened to traffic in 1871. It is seven and one-half miles long. Ten years later, in 1881, the St. Gothard tunnel, nine miles long, was completed, connecting the railway system of Italy with that of Switzerland. In spite of the extensive seacoast, the chief exports of Italy go by rail through these tunnels, in order to avoid the delays and cost of trans-shipment. This applies especially to silk, wine, and olive-oil. There were, in 1897, 9,500 miles of railway in the kingdom, about one-fourth of which is owned and operated by the government. At several points the Apennines are crossed by lines of railway which connect the more important roads running northwest and southeast along the two coast-lines of the peninsula. In several instances these lines have been built along the old Koman highways. The Mediterranean Sea was once the centre of the commercial world. From its geographical situation Italy commanded much of this trade, Venice and Genoa each possessing an immense commerce. But the discovery of the sea-passage to India changed the course of commerce, and led to a decline in the traffic of these ports. The recent building of the Suez canal, however, is tending to restore to them some share of their former importance. Genoa, on the northwestern coast, has the best harbor in Italy, and conducts the largest share of foreign trade. Naples, the largest city, ranks next to Genoa in commercial importance, and is the centre of trade for the southern part of Italy. It has extensive manufactures of silk. Venice, built upon more than one hundred islands, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is the outlet for shipments from the valley of the Po, and, like other Italian cities, has been greatly aided by railways. Milan is the greatest silk-manufacturing centre in Italy, being second in this respect only to Lyons in France, and has also important cutlery shops. Turin has a trade very much like that of Milan. Palermo, the chief Sicilian port, carries on a large export trade in the fruits and wines of Sicily, and has extensive manufactures of silk and cotton. 1 In 1898, Italy exported goods to the value of S240.000,000, more than one-quarter of the whole amount being silk and cocoons. Wine, sulphur, oil, eggs, hemp and flax, and coral were other chief exports in order of value. In 1898, Italy imported goods to the value of 8282,000,000 ; grain, cotton, coal, silk, machinery, timber, hides, wool, and fish being the chief items in order of value. The United States exports to Italy were about $25,000,000 ; and her imports from Italy about a million less, the largest items being silk, lemons, and sulphur. Cotton, tobacco, kerosene, and lumber were the chief items of export to Italy. COMM K n 1 7 .1 /, U K nun. WHY 127 QUESTIONS What is the geographical situation of Italy ? Describe the course of the Kiver Po. Wliat islands are part of the kingdom of Italy ? What is the comparative area of the kingdom? — the comparative population ? What are the chief agricultural products ? In what industry is Italy second only to China? In what industry second only to France ? What are the field-products of Sicily? — of Sardinia? What other source of wealth has Sardinia? What is the nature of a large part of the manu- factures of Italy? What product forms a quarter of the total exports ? What special disadvan- tage do Italian manufactures labor under? How is this in some measure compensated? Wliat mineral products are found in Sicily? — in Sardinia? — in Elba? To what country is most of the iron of Elb?, exported ? What are some of the products of the fisheries ? With wliat country is the bulk of the export trade of Italy carried on ? From what countries do the bulk of the imports come ? What are the chief exports ? — the chief imports ? What products are mainly imported from Italy into the United States ? What are the principal items sent to Italy by the United States ? By what means is Italian commerce with France and Switzerland carried on ? How have the tunnels of the Alps affected the sea-going trade of Italy ? What can you say of the railway system ? What recent engineering-work has contributed to the revival of Italian commerce ? Give some account of the situation, industries, and trade of Genoa, — of Naples, — of Venice, — of Milan, — of Turin, — of Palermo. Which seaport of Italy conducts the largest commerce ? What cities have extensive silk industries ? What city affords an outlet for the products of the valley of the Po ? In what city is cutlery manu- factured ? In what city are there considerable cotton factories ? COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER X. THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO jNIexico ranks next after Italy in the amount of its trade with the United States. The area of the conntry, 7(37,31() square miles, is about three times as great as that of Texas, and the population, 12,000,000, is six times as large. The population is densest in the southern part of the country where, owing to the higher altitude of the land, the climate is cool. Three-fourths of the people are of mixed or Indian blood. The great body of the laborers are thriftless victims of the land system which has permitted the accumulation of vast estates in few hands. The purchase by foreigners of extensive areas, the growth of the railway system, and the influx of immigrants, are tending to improve the industrial situation. Mexico's great wealth has hitherto consisted in her mines of silver, gold, and copper. It is estimated that the silver-mines have furnished more than half the world's supply of that metal. During recent years the industry of the country has been drifting away from mining and turning to agriculture. Nearly every plant that grows between the equator and the Arctic circle can be raised in Mexico, and agricultural products of every sort would be greatly increased by a good system of irrigation. Cereals are the chief field-products of the highlands; in the lowlands hemp, sugar, coffee, cotton, and tobacco are the staple crops. The forest-products are mahogany, dye-woods, gums, and spices. Within recent years, the rearing of cattle, horses, and sheep has become a great industry in the north, and millions of dollars from the United States have here been invested. Owing to the deficiency of the coal supply, which has been one of the greatest obstacles to the growth of Mexican commerce and industries, manufactures are carried on upon a small scale. Cotton-spinning has become of some importance, affording business for about a hundred factories. The largest of these are in the vicinity of Vera Cruz, near which city there is valuable water-power. As with other Spanish-American countries, the business of Mexico is largely in the hands of foreigners. Commerce is developing very rapidly; and the United States is the chief selling-market, taking three-fourths of all Mexican exports, including the precious metals. Each year we buy more heavily of Mexican products ; and this increased purchase is greater than the increased product, showing that the commerce of Mexico is becoming more and more American. The precious metals constitute more than half the total value of exports. Apart from these it may be generally said, that Mexico sells mahogany, dye-woods, spices, coffee, hides, and hemp; and buys textile fabrics, articles of iron and steel, and leather goods. A large share of the manufactured goods imported by Mexico come from France. coM.\n:i;i/,\r. ar.ocuM'iiv 129 Within the last decade the Mexican governnioiit has piionuraiiod by subsidies the extension of the railway system of the countiT, and tlic important towns are now connected with the city of Mexico by rail. The northward-running roads have been constructed by American capitalists. The city of Mexico now has excellent railway connections with the United States, and is but four days' journey from New York. Railways cross Mexico from the Gulf to the Pacific, and, with their projected branches, will give the country a complete .system, and open ])roductive areas to further development. The completion of the projected Tehuantepec interoceanic railway promises to transform southern Mexico. With its varied mineral products and fertile soil, this part of the republic has always been regarded as the richest section of the country, yet up to the present time it has not been commercially aece.ssible. The Tehuantepec route between New York and San Francisco will be 1,500 miles shorter than the Panama route. The new route will make Tehuantepec an important commercial port of Mexico on the Pacific coast; but Acapulco, situated about midway between the northern and southern borders, with its line harbor, gives indications of becoming the chief shipping-port. Both Mazatlan and Guaymas have good harbors. Vera Cruz and Matamoras are the chief ports on the Gulf coast. The harbor of Vera Cruz is not very good, though it is the port of the city of Mexico. Matamoras was of little consequence until the recent growth of the railway system. Its trade is now rapidly extending, not only with other Mexican ports, but with New Orleans and other ports of the United States. Tlie City of Mexico, one of the largest and finest among the capitals of the Spanish-American republics, is a busy commercial centre, being at the heart of the railway system of the country. Many towns that once had active trade are now mere markets of supply and distribution for the City of Mexico.* QUESTIONS What are the comparative area and popula- and by what means, is cotton-spinning done ? tion of Mexico ? Wiiy liave her industries Wliat country takes tliree-fourlhs of all Me.\i- been in a backward condition? Wliat causes can exports except the precious metals ? What are tending to improve the industrial situation ? general statement can you make concerning What is the most valuable mineral product ? Mexican commerce? Wlience does Mexico With what important mineral is Mexico poorly derive most of her manufactured imports ? supplied? Name the principal agricultural What can yon say of tlie railways of Mexico? products, —the forest products. What can you Wliat results are likely to follow the completion say of the grazing industry ? of the Tehuantepec road? Name important What effect has tlie lack of coal upon the Pacific ports of Mexico, —Gulf ports. Of what manufacturing industries of Mexico ? Where, interior city is Vera Cruz the port ? ' In 1899 Mexico exported silver bullion, coin, and ore to the value of 867,258,000 ; henequen, $18,711,000; coffee, $7,030,000; cattle, S4,72:!,000, together with wood, tobacco, and vanilla, to the total amount of §138,478,000. To the United States she exported a total value of $22,995,000, of which henequen, jute, and other tpxtilo grasses amounted to one-tifth. During ten years the exports of the l.'nited States lo^Irxi. .. li:iv. hk.iv than doubled. The imports from iln I n ' I m m > in 1899 amounted ta §25,483,000, of which iron and steel products amounted to .s7 jni.iinn. i ml, i- .and its products, $1,425,000; coal, $1,424,000 ; cotton and cotton goods, .Sl,110,uuu , miU, .j;i;i',uuO. 130 COMMERCIAL GEOGllAPHY CHAPTER XI. THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN The empire of Japan consists of several. groups of islands lying off the east coast of Asia, in about the same latitude as that of southern Europe. Four of these islands are large, and three of them contain almost the whole population. The surface is mountainous and volcanic, and the low grounds and valleys that contain productive land are of limited extent. The rivers are short and of little commercial conse- quence. The area of the empire, about 160,000 square miles, is three times that of the state of New York ; the population, 43,000,000, is somewhat more than that of Austria-Hungary. The climate of Yezo, the northernmost island, is severe, and the population sparse ; in Hondo and Shikoku much milder and more equable ; while owing to the Japan Current and a low latitude, Kiushiu, tlie southernmost large island, has a semi-tropical climate. The roads of the country are primitive, few, and poor; tliere is little live-stock; and tillage by the plough, or by any implement more modem than the spade, is scarcely known. Yet agricultural products are raised in variety, — cereals in the north, and rice, tea, and silk in the south, — all of them due more to the industry and skill of the people than to any special fertility of the soil. Kice is the staple crop, a greater area being devoted to its cultivation than to all other field-products. Coal, iron, copper, and silver are extensively mined, — coal in Yezo, and iron in Hondo. Coal is a considerable export to neighboring countries, — and even to Cali- fornia and the western countries of South America. In manufactures the Japanese display great skill, not only in the goods they have made for generations, but also in imitating the products of Europe and America, many of which, formerly imported, are now made in Japan.' Eaw silk and silk fabrics are the leading Japanese manufactures. Another ancient industry is that of lacquer-work, and in this their proficiency is so well recognized that the name "Japanning" is generally adopted throughout the world for similar work. The mulberry -tree, on which the silk industry depends, is cultivated in tlie south ; the lacquer-tree mainly in the north. In 1852 the United States sent an expedition to Japan under Commodore Perry, and two years later succeeded in forming a commercial treaty with that country. Japan, which up to that time had excluded all foreigners, unwillingly opened a few ports, known as treaty ports, to commerce with the outside world. During recent ' No other country gives so much in many small and fancy manufactured articles that are artistic and beautiful, for so little money, as Japan. MMi:nci.\L ClKKillM'lIY 131 years tlio nation has luado reniarkalilc progrpss. Tlip Japancso are natural tradors, auil their products are in great demand in other parts of the world. The exports are silk, which furnishes more than one-third the total exj)ort trade ; tea, most of which comes to the United States ; rice, and coal. The imports are mainly cotton and woollen goods and petroleum. Our own trade with Japan may be summai-ized thus : we buy silk and tea, and sell to her petroleum.' In value about one-tenth of our imports from this country consists of hand-worked articles, both useful and orna- mental, that display the marvellous ingenuity and delicacy of Japanese workman- ship. Japan now has a well-equipped railway system of over ;},000 miles, and the cotton-spinning industry is rajjidly increasing, and her annual trade has doubled since 1885. Japan has many good harbors, and several treaty ports ; but the bulk of her foreign commerce is done at Yokohama, which is the great national port, and the main distributing centre of the empire. Tokio, the capital, contains a population of 1,300,000. Nagasaki has a deep harbor, and is an important centre of the coal-trade. The chief commercial cities are connected by railway, and these are continually extending and improving their means of communication and transportation. Korea, the mountainous peninsula to the northeast of China, employs three- fourths of its population in agriculture. The other chief industries are the making of cotton and grass cloth, thin silks, iron and brass utensils, all of which are for native use. The chief exports are rice, beans, hides, and ginseng. Seoul is the capital. Formosa, an island off the coast of ('hina, has through the Chino-Ja])anese war of 1894-it.-> been ceded to Japan. This island has an important trade in fine tea, most of which comes to the United States, and it controls the camphor-trade of the world. QUESTIONS Wliat is tlie genin"aiihical situation of .Japan ? Wliat can you say of its surface ? Give tlie comparative area and population of the empire. Describe the climate of the four principal islaiiiis. How is the cultivation of the soil carried on ? What are the products of the north ? — of the south ? What is the chief food-crop ? What minerals are extensively mined ? Where is coal found ? — iron ? In what section of Japan is the mulberry-tree especially cultivated? — the lacquer-tree ? What industry is dependent upon the former ? What industry, upon the latter ? What are "treaty ports"? What are the chief exports of Japan ? — the imports ? To what coinitry is most of the tea-crop exported ? From what country does Japan derive its supply of petroleum ? Summarize our own trade with Japan. In what class of workmanship are the Japanese unrivalled V Throni:li what ]invt is; tlii' Imlk of .Tapanese trade ciiirii.l on;' \:uiir ilir r,.|iiial of Japan. Forwiial r\|,..|1 i- \;m:i-akl Ih.lm n, ll,y ? What can you saj nf ihe luilwai.s of .lapaii V Describe Formosa and its products. ' In 1898 the United States imported from Japan : Silk and silk goods to the value of 518,.522,000 ; tea, §3,045.000 ; porcelain, rice, and other articles to the total value of .$26,710,000. The United States exported to Japan the same year : Petroleum, flour, clocks, watches, iron and steel goods, etc., to the total value of §17,264,000, being over five times as much as the exports 132 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER Xir. THE EMPIRE OF CHINA China occupies the middle eastern part of Asia. Its area is nearly one-fifth that of the continent, and is about one-twelfth of the entire land surface of the globe. The mountain-ranges, where rise the great rivers of the empire, added to the large amount of desert land in the western part, leave the remaining area, almost entirely in the river basins, to be densely inhabited by about 400,000,000 of people. At the north "is the Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River. It is nearly 3,000 miles long, but shallow and rapid. It often overflows its banks and changes its bed, so that the frequent and destructive floods justify its name, " the Sorrow of Han." The Yang-tse-Kianginthe south has about the same length as the Hoang; it is navigable for 1,000 miles. Many of the largest and most flourishing cities of the empire are on its banks, and nearly half the population of the country is settled in the basin of this river. Near the southern boundary of China is the Si-Kiang or West Eiver, sometimes called the Canton River, from the name of the city near its mouth. Ves- sels of light draught can ascend it 150 miles. Another important waterway is the Grand Canal, which for 700 miles traverses the most fertile regions of the empire, and is the channel of communication between the north and the south. The roads and canals are nearly all in poor condition, and much of the Grand Canal has fallen into disuse. The industries of China are in a backward state; though the Chinese, like the Japanese, have long excelled in the manufacture of silk fabrics, laces, pottery, and carved ornaments. Opium is a staple crop, and is raised in nearly every province.' Tea and sugar are extensively cultivated. The empire is especially rich in deposits of coal, which as yet have been comparatively little worked. The coal-fields are estimated to be twenty times as extensive as those of all Europe, and anthracite forms a large proportion of the whole. In course of time, when the industries of the western world shall have gained a foothold in China, national progress must be greatly stimulated by the inexhaustible supply of this mineral. Until about forty years ago China strictly excluded foreigners and their commerce. But one port after another has been opened, until now twenty-nine treaty ports are free to vessels of all nations. Yet China has not shown the progressive spirit of Japan, and her commerce and industries are less fully developed. ' In the western provinces, where coin is scan v. ..i-iuni t.ikes the place of money. When starting on a journey, a native carries liis estimiitr.] , x|mm.c. m, Uie form of opinm, soiling here and there as much as he requires. Kven students gun.- u. 1'. king carry their fnnds in the form of opium. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAl'llY 133 The exports are alnuist exclusively .silk, ami silk fabrics, tea, sugar and straw-braid; and of these tea forms twu-lifths of the total value. Owing to the increased cultivation of the poppy-plant, the importation of opium is steadily falling off, and the only remaining import of considerable value is that of cotton goods. But few wool-bearing animals are reared in the empire; and although in a great part of the area the climate is severe, the clothing of the people is largely of cotton, being padded for protection in the winter season. Hence the extensive importation of cotton goods. Rice is an important, but subordinate import. The' share of the United States in the trade of China is comparatively small. We import from China tea, silk, and straw-braid, and send in exchange cotton-cloth and petroleum.' Attempts have been made to develop the resources of the country by the build- ing of railways ; but the dread of foreign innovation, and of the industrial changes that must result, has hitherto frustrated all such endeavors. There are recent signs, however, that the immemorial conservatism of the Chinese, and the fixity of their institutions, both political and social, must give way before the encroach- ments of western enlightenment and progress. Peking, the capital and metropolis of the empire, has an estimated population of 500,000. The city has no particular industry, and foreigners are not allowed to trade there. Its port, Tientsin, a city of 1,000,000 jiopulation, has considerable foreign commerce ; but it is chiefly important as a terminus of the Grand Canal, and a centre for local trade. Canton, situated near the mouth of the Si-Kiang, has a population of 1,600,000, of which it is estimated that 100,000 live in boats, moored in rows on the river. Many factories for making cloth, especially silk, are here. Shanghai, a port about half way between Peking and Canton, has a i)0i>ulation of about 500,000 ; but its commerce is greatly crippled by the silting of the harbor, across the entrance of which a sandbar has formed. Improvements are contemplated which will make it one of the best harbors on the coast. Hong Kong, commercially by far the most important city on the eastern coast of .Vsia, is a liritish possession, situated on an island near the mouth of Canton River. Thibet is a mountainous province, the surface of which is over 12,000 feet above sea-level. It has some caravan trade, and is commercially best known for its wool- product. This is clipped from the Thibet goat, and is used in the making of the famous Cashmere shawls. 1 The trade of China is mostly with Great Britain, Japan, and the United States, the majority being with Great Britain. The principal articles sent to the United States in 1899 were silk and silk goods, tea, woods, mattins, hat.s, etc., to the total value of nearly 815,000,000, while we .sent China in the same year cotton cloth to the value of $9,844,000, oils, machinery, etc., to the total value of $18,619,000. 134 COMMER CIA L GEOGRAPH Y Q UESTIONS What can you say of the area of China ? What is the estimated population ? Give some account of tlie Hoang River, — of the Yang-tse- Kiang, — of the Si-Kiang. What artificial water- way connects the north of China with the south ? What can you say of the conJition of indus- try in China? — the manufactured products ? What are the chief agricultural products ? In what mineral is China especially rich ? How is the abundance of coal likely to affect the com- mercial and industrial future of the country ? What are the important exports of China ? — the imports? IIow is the great importation of cotton goods to be accounted for ? Give the items of our own trade with China. Locate and describe Peking, — Tientsin, — Canton, — Shanghai. What English colony is an important port in Chinese trade ? What city is a terminus of the Grand Canal ? What city has silk factories ? What large island oft the coast ? What prod- uct of the island of Formosa is largely exported to the United States ? What are the exports of Corea ? What product of Thibet is especially noteworthy ? COMMERCIAL OEOOUAl'UY 135 CHAPTER XIII. OTHER COUNTRIES OF EUROPE I. THE EMPIRE OF RUSSIA. — The llussian Eini.ire consists of Russia and Siberia. The former is in Europe, tlie Latter in Asia. Russia comprises about three-lifths of the area of Europe, and has a population of 1.30,000,000. Its short coast-line is low and flat. The central part is a plateau about one thousand feet above the sea-level, and from it the land slopes gradually toward the White and Baltic seas in the north, and the Caspian and Black seas in the south. The sluggish rivers are generally navigable, furnishing, in connection with the canals, so vast a system of internal communication that the building of railways has not pressed itself as a necessity upon the government. Though a great portion of the area is unfit for cultivation, Russia is neverthe- less pre-eminently an agricultural country. In the extreme north the climate is rigorous; the southeast is an ai'id region, and the interior is an almost unbroken forest. The western part of the empire, between the Baltic Sea on the north and the Black Sea on the south, is fertile, and produces abundant crops. Cereals can be grown here more cheaply than in other parts of Europe, and this region is the granary of the continent. The wheat crop is yearly increasing in amount, and is a strong competitor in the European market against that of the United States. Flax and hemp are extensively cultivated. Fish are abundant in the rivers and in the Caspian Sea, sturgeon being the chief export of this industry. The mineral products include gold, silver, lead, platinum, copper, iron, coal, rock-salt, and petroleum. Mining is in a low state of development, owing to lack of improved methods, remoteness of deposits, and poor transportation facilities; but the petroleum fields on the west shore of the Caspian Sea are worked with much energy. Heretofore they have been difficult of access ; but a railway has been built to connect the fields with Batum and Poti on the Black Sea, and a pipe-line is now in course of construction. The petroleum produced in these fields is greater in amount than that mined in the United States, and when refined has higher illuminating power. Though mainly a producer of raw materials, Russia has also considerable man- ufactures. The more important of these are cotton and linen goods, leather, and furs. In the tanning of " Russia " leather great perfection has been attained, but the product is now closely imitated in other countries. In making sheet-iron the Russians are unexcelled. St. Petersburg, the capital, with a population of over a million, is situated on the Neva River at tlie head of the Gult of Finland. Formerly Kronstadt, tlie 136 COMMERCIAL GEOGllAPHY Russian naval station, was tlie port of St. Petersburg; but in 1885 a ship canal was built to the capital, which has resulted in diverting to it the commerce once belong- ing to the former city. St. Petersburg is connected with the large rivers of the empire by canals, and with the producing centres by railway. It is the centre of a great trade in the products of the northern part. Industries are fast increasing in the city and its vicinity, chiefly the manufacture of cotton and linen fabrics, and iron and steel goods. Riga, the ne.xt seaport in importance, is situated on the Baltic, southwest of St. Petersburg. Its exports are flax, linseed, lumber, hemp, and cereals; and the commerce is mainly witli Germany and Great Britain. Lodz, a Polish city, is important for manufactures of cotton and wool. The growth of this place has been remarkable, the population having increased tive-fold in the last thirty years. Archangel, on the White Sea, has a great summer trade in the products of the northern part of the empire, such as flax, linseed, seal-skins, and hides. Consider- able flax-spinning is done inland, and the product is exported here. The southern part of Russia is better supplied with railways than the northern part. Odessa, the seaport for the basins of the Dneiper, the Bug, and the Dneister rivers, is rapidly becoming a city of great commercial importance, ranking next to St. Petersburg. Cereals and hides, tallow, and wool from the grazing districts, are the leading exports. Flour-making is the most important local industry. Odessa is in direct steamship communication with the principal Mediterranean ports, with Great Britain, and, by way of the Suez canal, with India, China, and the East. Several minor southern ports — Taganrog, Cherson, Nikolaiev, and Sebastopol — ship grain and other products ;• and Batum and Poti, on the east of the Black Sea, export petroleum. The harbors of St. Petersburg and Riga are blocked with ice from three to five months in the year, while the Black Sea ports are always open. Astrakhan, on the Caspian Sea, is the seat of the valuable Caspian fisheries. The city has also manufactures of silk, cotton, and leather. Moscow lies in the heart of Russia, and is tlie railway centre of the empire. It sends cereals, hemp, flax, furs, and other products of the interior, to St. Peters- burg for export, and distributes throughout the empire the tea, silk, and other goods Wrought from Asiatic countries, as well as the manufactured goods of western Europe. Moscow has many industries; sugar-refining, metal and wood working, cotton, woollen, linen, and silk weaving, and paper-making being the most notable. The opening of rich coal deposits near this city has proved of great benefit to its industries. Warsaw, in the extreme west, has railway communication with Germany, and carries on a great export trade in cereals and other raw materials of the empire. The opening and successful working of coal-mines in its neighborhood have led to considerable industrial development, the main item of which is cotton-manufacture. Kief is specially noteworthy for its leather-factories and sugar-refineries. COMMI'.nciAI. CEixniAI'IIY 137 A peculiar characteristic of iiilaiul tnule m I{iissia i;< the lioldiiii; I ih- importance of the annual Nijni Novgorod fair, which is held near the river. The si iil A ii-|.;il,iiion of the town is about 50,000, but at the time of the fair the number is five times a- jn n . Minnfiu'tiircvl ._'oo(ls form a great part of the trade ; and the prices of many of the prmln' i~ mi ili, ( iii|.iir. . ,|., n ill\ .1 cotton, wool, silk, and iron goods, are regulated by this fair. The Imi.i1 njIu. hI thr ii;in-.,i. i i-n^ annually consunnuated here is estimated at $85,000,000. Other fans an- yia.ly lu 1.1 ai r^li.ira and Jiluirk-nf, towns in the southwest. Nearly all Uic foreign commerce of Eussia is ctirried on with Great liiitaiii and (iermaiiy.' In general we may say that Ktissia exports cereals, and iiiiiiorfs raw tex- tiles and coal. The United States takes from Eussia wool and skins, and sells her in exchange raw cotton." Siberia, the vast Asiatic deijendency of Russia, occupies the wlK)le of the northern part of the continent of Asia. It has long been regarded as a bletik atid inhospitable region ; but recent explorations have shown that the southern part of this territory, especially along the valley of the Amoor River, contains extensive grain-growing areas. To develop this region, as well as for strategic purposes in the east, the Russian government has constructed a railway to connect St. Petersburg with Vladivostok and Fort Arthur on the Yellow Sea. This port has been leased by Russia from China and fortified. The neighboring port of Talien-^van is open to the commerce of the world, and is connected by railway with Moukden, the capital of Manchuria. With this newly acquired Russitui province of China, the United States has had a growing trade in cotton goods. (See note, p. 41.) The forest area is extensive, and fur-bearing animals are abundant, particularly in the less inhabited eastern portion ; and furs are the principal export. Before the discovery of gold in California and Australia, the chief supply of Europe came from the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains, and the product is still considerable both there and in the valley of the Amoor River. Lead, silver, copper, iron, salt, and coal are also pro- duced; but improved methods have not been generally adopted. The greatest deposits of graphite yet discovered are in Siberia, and much of the world's supply of platinum has come from this region. Emeralds, jasper, topaz, and other valuable stones, are also found. The trade in these products is as yet carried on almost entirely by caravans. Tobolsk, a small city near the Ural Mouiitaitis, on ;i bratich of the Obi River, is the centre of trade in corn, salt, timber, and fish. Vladivostok is the chief seaport on the Pacific, and the centre of trade in fitrs, gold, and dried fish. 1 As an interesting item of export, it is stated that in 1808 TJussia exported 1,831,000,000 eggs, of the value of over §15,000,000, chiefly to Germany, Austria, and France. - The total commerce of Kussia amounted in 1898 to nearly 5:118,000,000; with a considerable excess of exports over imports. 138 COMMERCIAL GEOGUAI'HY II. THE REPUBLIC OF SWITZERLAND. — Switzerland occupies the mountau. ous region lying between (rermany, Au.stria-Hungary, Italy, and France. The area, 16,000 square miles, is about twice that of the state of Massachusetts ; the popula- tion is 3,000,000. The greater part of the population is engaged in agriculture and cattle-raising, and the leading products of these industries are cheese and condensed milk. In 1898 the export of these articles was |)12,o81,000 in value. Considering the natural disadvantages under which they labor, especially the absence of any considerable deposits of coal and iron, the Swiss have achieved a high rank among manufacturing peoples. The nature of the surface of the country has provided abundant water-power, which somewhat compensates for the lack of coal; but a large part of the manufactured wares of Switzerland is literally hand- made. The best-known products are clocks and watches, and carved woods. Nearly all the raw materials are imported, and the bulk of exports consists of manufactured goods. In a general way it may be said that Switzerland buys cereals, and raw cotton and silk, and sells clocks and watches, silk and cotton goods, and cheese and condensed milk. The United States imports from Switzerland clocks and watches, laces and embroideries, silk goods and silk; and exports to Switzer- land a variety of goods of much less value.' Silk manufactures were greatly stimulated by the opening of the St. Gothard tunnel through the Alps, thus per- mitting the direct importation of raw silk from Italy. The greater part of the trade of Switzerland is conducted with the four nations whose borders enclose it, but considerable commerce is carried on with other countries, especially with Great Britain. The Swiss derive a large revenue from tourists, who, to the estimated num- ber of a million annually, visit the mountains and lakes of Switzerland and give employment in the hotels to 16,000 people. Geneva is the centre of the w^atch- and clock-making industry, the work being done in the surrounding villages. Zurich is the chief educational centre and largest city. ]\Iost of the cotton and silk goods are manufactured here. The city also carries on a large in-transit trade; i.e., goods destined for other points passing through the city and yielding a revenue from re-shipment. in. THE EMPIRE OF TURKEY. — Turkey in Europe occupies a large part of the Balkan peninsula. The soil is generally fertile ; but agriculture is carried on in a primitive way, and only a part of the productiveness of the soil is utilized. Fruits are extensively grown, and raisins form the largest item of export. Wheat, cotton, and tobacco are other important cultivated crojjs. On the slopes of the Balkan Mountains are great fields of roses from which attar of roses is produced. Grazing 1 Germany is credited with doing the largest trade witli Switzerland, to the amount of 838.000,000 annually ; but these figures are misleading, for they represent to a large degree goods that are in transit to or fioiii I'llur cdnmiii s. 'I'hc samr is trur of ilir ..tlur lionl, liii,' nations. The annual trade with tlic I'liiinl stjirs is ,x|s.,",(iii.(i(i(i in valnr. alh-m r^inally .lividnl hrtween exports and imports. Tlir rlncl .'xi..irls aiv (aiilii'Mi.l.iirs, sill; -ih.,!,, wai.'lirs, chi'.sr, ml inn goods, and Other manufactured uilieles, while Ihe ininciual iniiPiiUs are lau male rials ami loml products. COMMERCIAL (.EOCliArilY 1:^9 is followed in some sections, and wool is exported. Iron, Icud, silver, eopper. sul- phnr, salt, and coal are mined, but in small quantities. Carpets and rugs are the chief mainifa('tures for which the Turks are famous, and even in these goods the looms of western nations are fast becoming active competitors iu imitating by machinery the hand work of the Turkish weaver, yet uo loom can ever equal iu beauty and excellence the hand-made Oriental rugs of Turkey and Persia. Constantinople, the capital, the greatest commercial city of eastern Eurojie, is connected with the west by railway. It carries on trade with nearly all the nations of the world, being greatly favored by its excellent geographical situation. There is also a large caravan trade with western and central Asia; though the caravans now bring mohair, silk, and opium, rather than manufactured products, as was formerly the case. The commerce of the Ottoman empire is largely in the hands of Greeks, Hebrews, and other foreigners. Our own trade with Turkey is very small; we import wool, mohair, and oils, returning a small value in kerosene.' Turkey in Asia, known as Asia. Minor, or '• The Levant," is a high plateau, in the south of which are river valleys yielding tropical products. The interior is a hilly, grazing country from which Angora and other kinds of wool are exported. Smyrna, the chief commercial city, possesses a fine harbor, in which vessels of nearly all commercial nations trade. Direct steamship communication is held with various ports of Europe. The caravan routes that terminate at Smyrna have been used for centuries, and over them a great trade is carried on with inland Asia. The city is purely commercial ; and most of the products of the Levant, includ- ing fruits, opium, cotton, sponges, oil, and drugs, pass through its warehouses. The only manufactured products of Asia Minor are rugs and carpets. Though called '•Smyrna" rugs and "Smyrna" carpets, these goods are made in the interior, and are merely sent to market by way of that city. Imitations of these rugs and carpets are made by machinery in the carpet factories of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Damascus is still the starting-point for many caravans north, east, and south; but most of the foreign trade jmsses through the neighboring city of Beyrout. The two cities are connected by a fine railway." Beyrout is noted for its textile manu- factures, which, with a considerable commerce, place it next to Smyrna in trade importance. Angora, in the interior, is the shii)ping-point of the wool of the Angora goat, commonly known as mohair. The trade is very valuable. Most of ' III 1898 European Turkey exported to tlie I'nited State.s : Opium, wool, raw and niatu- factureii, oils, togetlier witli hides, fniiu. tobacco, silk, etc., to the total value of $2,300,000. The imports into Turkey from the United States were 8354,000 iu value the same year. - -Most of the railways iu Turkey are operated by German capital. 140 COMMERCIAL CEOGRAPHY the emery used in the arts comes from Asia Minor, and is known as Turkisli emery. The United States imports from Asia Minor, wool, opium, licorice, fruits, and skins.' IV. THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. — G reece occupies the southern part of the Balkan peninsula. The surface is rugged and mountainous ; the coast irregular, elevated, and deeply indented. The adjoining islands are parts of the kingdom. The area, 1!),000 square miles, is about twice that of the state of Vermont; the population, 2,400,000, is about equal to that of the state of Massachusetts. Half of the population pursues agriculture, and the fruit-crop is important. Currants (raisins of Corinth) are raised in immense quantities, the crop of 1898 being 160,000,000 pounds; while 750,000 bushels of olives are annually produced. Except in fruit products agriculture is in a backward state. Some raw silk is pro- duced ; but this industry, in which Greece once took the lead, has fallen into decay. Deposits of iron, lead, and zinc exist ; and their ores are second in value among the exports of Greece. The celebrated statuary marble from the island of Paros is a minor item of export. Manufactures are unimportant. The Greeks have been active traders from early times, and to-day they carry on most of the commerce of the eastern INIediter- ranean region. The ship canal across the Isthmus of Corinth is four miles in length, shortening the voyage from Athens to western Europe. It was used in 1898 by over 2,500 vessels. The bulk of the trade is with Great Britain, France, and Russia. Our own commerce with Greece amounts to nearly $8,000,000 annually, about equally divided between imports and exports. Generally speaking, we exchange breadstuffs, kero- sene, and machinery for currants, figs, and olives. Athens is the capital and largest city. The Piraeus, its seaport, has a fine harbor. V. NORWAY AND SWEDEN.— The kingdom which is composed of these two countries occupies the Scandinavian peninsula. The Norwegians and Swedes resemble each other in race characteristics, in institutions, and in industries. The peninsula is a mountainous table-land, except in the east and south, where there are lowlands of some fertility. Sweden has an area of 174,000 .square miles, five times that of the state of Maine; and a population, 5,000,000, seven times as great. Half the area is forest covered, and a large share of the timber of European commerce comes from this peninsula. Grazing and cattle-raising are extensively followed, and dairy products " In 1808 the exports from Asia Minor to the United States were : Licorice-root, wool and manufactures of wool, opium, figs, together with raisins, iron ore, emery, etc., to the total value of about $.3,284,000. The imports into Asia Minor from the TTnitcd States in 1894 were : Distilled spirits, cotton cloth, ami otlicr iirticlcs. to the value of $107,000. tOMMi:nC/AL GEOGRAPHY 141 are tlie exports next iu value. Tlirre are extensive iroii-iniiics, and the product is of tine quality. Manufactured goods have little variety, the best known being Swedish matches, which are sold the world over. A canal across the southern part of the peninsula connects the Baltic with the North Sea, and is of great commercial value to the kingdom. Sweden ini[)orts textiles and cereals, and exports timber and metals. The only important industrial towns are Stockholm, the capital, and Norrkoping. Gotheburg is the principal seaport. Xorway has an area of 122,000 square miles, about four times that of the state of Maine; and a population of 2,000,000. There are very extensive forests; and lumber, chiefly fir and pine, is the leading export. The fisheries of herring, cod, and whale provide the next export iu value. Copper is mined. Ship-building is the only industry of importance, and in proportion to population the Norwegians have a larger shipping-tonnage than any other nation. Norway imports cereals, and exports fish and hunber.' Christiania, the capital, is the principal seaport. VI. DENMARK. — Denmark occupies tlie peninsula of Jutland, north of the German Empire, together with the adjacent islands. The area is but little greater than that of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut together. The popula- tion is 2,185,000, — nearly a million less than that of the three states mentioned. The surface of the country is low, being less than 600 feet high at the highest point, yet it is nowhere below the sea-level. About half the people live bj' agriculture, a quarter are employed in factories, and the rest in trade and the fisheries. A considerable part of the country is covered with forests. Beech is almost the only species of timber, and articles made of the wood of this tree form a considerable export. No minerals are found ; and except a small amount of fine china-ware, no manufactured articles of importance are exported. Grazing is an important industry, and the products of the dairy exceed the products of the soil in commercial consequence. Three-quarters of the imports 1 In 1898 the Scandinavian kingdom exported to the United States : Iron and steel goods to the value of $1,388,000; wood pulp, fish, oils, together with books and works of art, hides and skins, and other products, to the total value of $2,005,000. The imports from the L'nited States during the same year were : Cotton, beef and pork product-s, breadstuffs, refined oils, leather, together with tobacco, fertilizers, butter, and other products, to the total value of §12,'J18,000. 142 COMMERCIAL GEOGRM'IIY come from Germany, England, and Sweden ; and nearly all of the exports go to these countries, live-stock and dairy products forming the greater part.' Copenhagen, the capital, has an excellent harbor. It is the chief commercial city and largest industrial centre of the kingdom. The colonial dependencies of Denmark are Greenland and Iceland, and the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St John, in the West Indies. None of them is of much commercial consequence. Greenland exports cryolite, — a mineral used in making soap-soda, — alum and cryolite glass, skins and whale-oil; Iceland exports eider-down, Iceland moss, stock-fish, and sulphur ; the Danish West Indies export sugar and molasses. VII. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. — This empire is situated in the east-central part of Europe. The area, 200,0(10 square miles, is about equal to that of the state of Texas ; and the population, 41,000,000, somewhat exceeds that of France. The emperor of Austria is also king of Hungary. More than half the area is mountainous. In the northeastern part are the plains of Hungary, forming about a third of the area : here cereals are grown in abundance. An equal area is forest-covered ; and oak, pine, and beech lumber form a considerable export. The other more important exports are cereals and beet-sugar. Vine-culture and fruit-raising, especially of prunes, are extensively carried on in the high country. Generally speaking, the eastern part of the empire is devoted to agriculture, while in the western part manu- facturing interests predominate. Rich deposits of iron and coal in the northwest have greatly stimulated industry. Both minerals are exported; and the chief indus- tries are button-manufaeture, iron-manufacture, linen, cotton, wool, and jute spinning, glass and paper making, and sugar-refining. With respect to mineral resources, the country is one of the richest in Europe, yielding iron, salt, lead, and lignite. The Danube Kiver, with its tributaries, drains nearly all the country ; and, as the more important of these tributaries are navigable for small vessels, they form valuable highways of commerce. In connection with them is an efficient railway system, in part owned or operated by the government. The railways provide close intercourse with neighboring nations, especially with Germany. Austria has a small coast on the Adriatic Sea ; but there are only two ports of any importance, — Trieste and Fiume. These ports have considerable commerce; that of the latter is increasing, since it affords an outlet for the cereals and timber of Hungary. More than half the trade of the empire is by railway with Ger- many. 1 In 180n Denmark exported to the United States: Paper-stock, oils, worlvs of art, togetljer witli vegetables, wool, books, maps, and engravings, etc., to the total value of $280,108. The imports into Denmark from the United States the same year were : Corn, 35,633,000 ; beef and pork products, wheat and wheat flour, refined oils, oil cake and meal, butter, fertilizers, together with ."ieeils, iron and steel products, leather, cotton, molasses, tobacco, and other products, to the total value of $l(i,005,000. fuMMlcmiA/. i.lUKiliM'lIY 148 Vienna, tlie caiiilal nf tlio enipirp, witli a population of nearly ono ami one-half luillious, i.s the most ini])oi'tant eity of Austria. It is situated on the Danube, at tlu; head of navigation, and thus controls a large water-trafiie. It is a great railway and industrial centre; the -chief manufactures are of machinery, metal, and fancy goods. Prague is the c(iuinu'rcial centre of Bohemian iudustvii's. 'I'licsc arc wciollcn and hardware niaimrai'turcs, and glass-making, for which latter inchistry the Jlohemians have long been famous. The twin city of Buda-Pesth — I'-uda liein- .m the west lunk, and I'esth on the east bank of the Danube — is the capital of Hungary. It is tiie centr.^ of Hungarian commerce, and has many tluur-niills. .Most of the grain, cattle, and wine trade of the kingdom centres here. The United States imports from Austria-Hungary buttons, fruits, drugs, and glassware. The exports of the United States to this country are of little value.' VIII. PORTUGAL. — I'ortugal lies west ..f Spain, and borders ..n tlie .\tlautic Ocean. Its surface characteristics and its productions are similar to those of Spain. The area, 34,000 square miles, is about equal to that of the state of Maine; and the population, 5,000,000, approximates that of the Netherlands or of (Canada. The people are dependent chiefly upon agriculture, and wine is the most valuable product. Fruits are next in value ; and this product includes oranges, lemons, citron, figs, and olives. Fishing is an important industry, and sardines and herring are a considerable export. Minerals are found in variety, and some copper is exported. Manufactures are not very important; they consist in the main of fabrics of cotton, silk, and wool, besides pottery, and leather goods, chiefly gloves. Speaking gener- ally, Portugal buys food products and raw textiles, and sells cork, silk, and wine.''' Lisbon, the capital, at the mouth of the Tagus, is the chief commercial city. Oporto, the only other seaport of note, is famous for its "port" wine. The last- named city has some manufactures of textiles. The Portuguese colonial dependencies in Asia and Africa are of great prospective importance. Near Africa are the Cape Verde Islands, on which is St. Vincent, a fine coaling-station ; the Madeira Islands, celebrated for their wine, are a resort for tourists; the Azores, which export oranges 1 In 1899 the exports from Austrian-Hungary to the United States were: Sugar, $1,459,000; glassware, stone and china ware, flax, lieinp, and jute, wood and its manufactures, vegetables, together with drugs and clipmirnls, fruits, jewelry and jewels, leather goods, silk good.s, and other products, to the total vaUu' nf .sr,.. ",.-,!. i. The imports into tln' mi]. lie tliai year from the United States were : Cotton to the value of Sl,o7(i,000; oils, rosin, turi»iitiiic, and ..ther products, to the total value of 157,378,000. - In 1890 Portugal exported to the United States : Cork, rubber, wines, drugs and chemicals, together with fi-sh, iron and steel manufactures, and other products, to the total value of §2,975,000. During the same year the imports from the United States were : Breadstuffs, lumber, cotton and its products, oils, together with tobacco, rosin, iron and steel products, jute goods, clocks, and other articles, to the total value of $4,132,000. The bark of the cork-bearing oaks is one of tlie largest sources of wealth to Portugal. In the last decade her manufactures of wool, cotton, linen, and silk have rapidly increased. 144 COM MERC I A L GEOdRA PII Y and pine-apples ; Angola, an immense undeveloped tenitdry soutli of the Congo State ; and Mozambique, with the important port of Lourenco Marquez, on the east coast. In Asia are three small colonies on the west coast of the Indian peninsula; a portion of Timor, and the port of Macao on the south side of the estuary at the mouth of the Canton River, not far from the citv of Honsr Konjj. QUESTIONS What are the comparative area and population of Russia ? Wliat is the nature of the surface ? What natural advantage has retarded the con- struction of railways ? What disadvantages to agriculture in the north ? — in the southeast ?^ in the interior ? What section is specially fer- tile ? In what agricultural product does Russia lead the nations of Europe ? What are the more important manufactures ? What mineral pro- ducts can you name ? Where are the petroleum fields of Russia ? Give some account of the situation, industries, and commerce of St. Peters- burg, — of Archangel, — of Odessa, — of Moscow. — of Warsaw, — of tlie situation and trade of Riga, — of the manufactures of Lodz, — of Kief. What important town on the Caspian Sea? Where is the world's greatest fair annually held ? What principal products are here interchanged ? With what countries is the bulk of Russian eoui- nierce carried on ? What are the main exports and imports ? What do we buy from Russia ? What great engineering-work now connects St. IVtersburg with the Sea of .Japan ? What is the principal export of Siberia '? What seaports are the eastrni i.iinini of tlic Sibovian Railway? Wbirb will lakr Ihr Willi. ■!■ lia.lrV Drsrril,,. ibr siliiaiioii of S»iiz.a]and. What are its comparative area and population ? — the chief agricultural products ? What natural ad- vantage partially compensates for the lack of coal deposits ? What are the more important manufactured products ? What is the natine of most of the imports ? — of most of the exports ? What do we mainly buy of the Swiss ? In whose favor is the balance of trade? [Ans. — It is largely in favor of Switzerland.] How liave Swiss manufactures of silk been greatly bene- fited ? What city is the centre of the watch- making industry ? — of the textile industries ? Describe the situation and surface of Turkey. What is the principal export ? What minerals are found ? For what especial manufacture are the Turks noted ? What are the situation and trade of Constantinople ? What can you say of our own trade with Turkey '.' Wliat is the principal city of Asia Minor? What special advantages for commerce has Smyrna? What products are exported here ? For what is Da- mascus commercially important ? — Beyrout ? — Angora ? What are the comparative area and popula- tion of Greece ? What are the most important products of this coiuitry ? What mineral forms a considerable export ? With what country is the bulk of Greek trade carried on ? Wliat two nations occupy the Scandinavian peninsula ? What are the comparative area and population of Sweden ? What product is the principal export ? What ore is extensively mined? What is the capital? — the principal seaport ? What are the comparative area and population of Norway ? What product is the leading export ? What can you say of the ship- ping tonnage of Norway ? What are the main imports of Sweden ? — of Norway ? What are the comparative area and population of Denmark ? How are the Danes subdivided as to occupations ? With what countries is most of the commerce of Denmark carried on ? What colonial dependencies can you name ? What are the exports of each ? What are the situation, area, and population of Austria-Hungary? What is said of the sur- face ? What natural product forms a large ex- port ? Name other leading exports. In what section of the empire does agriculture predomi- nate ? What mineral deposits in the northwest- ern part ? Name the chief industries of the empire. What great navigable river traverses the country ? Name two Seaports of Austria. Locate and describe Vienna, — Prague, — Uuda- Pesth. What are the leading items of our imports from Austria-Hungary ? What are the situation, area, and population of Portugal ? What is the most valuable prod- uct ? What products are next in value to that of wine ? Summarize the foreign trade of Por- tugal. Where is Lisbon ? What can you say of Oporto ? What African colonies of Portugal can you name ? — what Asiatic colonies ? C(iMMKl!( 7.1 /, GlCiXn;. I /•// )• CHAPTER XIV. SPAIN Spain is the chief instauce in iiiodpvii hi.stoiy of a commercially decadent nation. From a supreme place of wealth and commercial importance, she has fallen to a com- paratively insignificant place among the nations. Our imports from Spain consist largely of raisins, fruits, nuts, wine, and iron ore. We send to Spain cotton, petro- leum, tobacco, and wheat. Three-fifths of the commerce of Spain is with France and Great Britain.^ The Spanish-American war of 1898 has changed the commercial relations of Spain, lessening her trade with the United States and with her former colonies. " Her neglected home resources, aided by her fine maritime position, must be the hope for her future commercial prosperity. Her largest export, of ores and metals, is almost entirely the property of foreigners. Nearly fifteen per cent, of her soil is fertile but uncultivated; and much of the existing cultivation is wasteful and in- efficient. By improvement of agricultural methods, the fuller development of her mines, and the increase of manufactures, Spain has great possibilities lor future com- mercial prosperity. Spain is situated on the Iberian peninsula at the southwestern extremity of Europe. Five-sixths of this peninsula are Spanish territory, the remainder being occupied by the kingdom of Portugal. The area of Spain, 193,000 square miles, is about twice that of Oregon; and its population, 17,000,000, is about half that of France. The surface is an elevated, mountainous plateau, so rugged in the interior as to be unfavorable to internal communication. As a consequence, the densest population is found along the coast. Some parts of the interior are arid, and better fitted for grazing than for tilling; but the soil, as a whole, is fertile. This is particu- larly true in the south, where irrigation is resorted to. The river valleys are numer- ous and fertile, but only one river is navigable. The country is too mountainous 1 In 1S!>8 Spain fxportfil to tlir- T'nitffl Slatf< fniil- mi. I mil, i., il,, > i!,,. . ,f iir'T.imil ; wines, §474,000; ,lru:,s, rlirnii, Ml-, ,!>,■., sjiU.iiiMi; rni-K. -II, ..: . --- - .. ' ,Mililead, salt, tciliiicrn, ami wih, r |,r.iiluri>, I,, tlir loial \al -• --.-j j. ;-■,- ;. -lit great di.stiu-biinrr tu thu cmiiinLTcial ivhuiuiis bctwuiMi S|i.uii.iii i \'..- I : , i ~: .: ,.:. I •'..., havr not yet been entirely readjusted. During the year lSit4 tlie iinii-ii- im.. ^|.llIl inan ih.- United Slates were: Cotton, §8,085,000; tobacco, §1,034,000; breadstuli -. -I.I In, i, tn-nlirr with lumber, iron and steel goods, lard, and other product-s, to the t(;j;a PlfV 147 refiiiPi-it's and oottoii factoric grapes extensively eultivateil •Madrid, the caiiital, is a r;i ; aii])lie(l to a variety of a Ideal trade. QUESTIOXS Nai of Spaii Spain ■■ What lation ? Spain ? ■ our principal imports from the kingdom n. What are our leading exports to Willi uliMt roimtriesis the bulk of the ■IT ni S|.;uil roiiillicted ? i> ilir ^."^i;iiiliiral situation of Spain? iiipanaivu area'.'— its comparative popu- What is tlie nature of the surface of How is the population distributed ':' What can you say of the facilities for internal trade ? What is the only navigable river ? (Ans. Tlie Guadalquivir.) What proportion of the population is engaged in agriculture ? In what section are fruits chiefly grown ? AVhat section produces cereals ? What is the leading industry of Spain ? What share of the exports consists of wine ? What other agricultural products can you name ? Wliere is the cork-tree especially cultivated ? Name the principal minerals found in Spain. Which of these is the most valuable ? Wlicre are the ricliest deposits of iron ore ? From what city is the cliief iron export ? Where are the lead-mines of Spain ? — tlie quicksilver- Wliat is the industrial condition of Spain ? Where are its iron manufactures ? Wliat cities are seats of the silk-spinning iniiustry ? What can you say of the natural advantages of Spain for international commerce? — of the present condition of the merchant marine ? Name some of the principal seaports. Where is Barcelona? What are its commer- cial advantages? Locate Valencia. What are its exports? Where is Malaga ? AVhat are its exports ? What local industries has it ? 148 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER XV. OTHER NORTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES I THE CENTEAL AMERICAN STATES. — Central America, the southern extremity of Xorth America, is a little larger than California, and comprises the five republics of Guatemala, liouduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and the British colony of Balize, or British Honduras.' The inhabitants are mainly Indians and mixed races ; most of the whites are of Spanish descent. The greater part of the interior is a table-land of moderate height. The Pacific coast is mountainous ; the eastern coast low and marsliy. Guatemala is the northernmost of the republics. By far the most valuable product and export is coffee ; sugar, hides, indigo, rubber, and fruits follow in order. San Jose, and Champerico on the Pacific are tlie chief ports. Ne.w Guatemala, the capital, is a city of 60,000 people. The total population of the republic is about 1,400,000. Honduras is centrally situated with respect to the other states. The exports consist chiefly of fruits, cattle, mahogany, hides, rubber, coffee, and sugar. The mineral wealth of the country is but little developed. There is a short strip of coast-line on the Pacific, but the greater part of the republic stretches along the Caribbean Sea a distance of 400 miles. Tegucigalpa is the capital and largest city. The total population of the republic is less than half a million. Salvador is the only Ontral American state having no Caribbean coast. The people are devoted to agriculture and mining. Indigo, coffee, sugar, balsam, and silver are exported. The total population is about 800,000. The old capital. Sail Salvador, is surrounded by active volcanoes, and has been abandoned for another site called New San Salvador. Though the smallest of the five central American republics, Salvador ranks second in point of population. 1 In 1899 these five republics exported products to the United States to the total value of $9,205,000, in the following proportion : Costa Rica, $:5,581,000 ; Guatemala, 82,111,000 ; Nicaragua, §1,514,000; Salvador, i^I.n^.^.uiid ; llonilnins. §911,000. Coffee was the largest item, amounting to §4,409,000. IJanana.s ainoiniii.l i,. .s1,:,s,s,(iihi, of which Costa liica and Honduras shipped more tlian twii-llurcls. IJulilni aMiniinti il im si I'.i.iiiiO, of wliich Nicaragua sent more than three-quarters ; and .iiln I ]ii I \\. n i,: I. , I, II , .li iiL - .iiiil dyes, cocoanuts, and lumber. II II, : I II I I 1 I i! line year were: To Guatemala, §1,102,000; Salvador, is;l,cc';i. , (I.; K, .;. - 1. J in. 1111,1 , \i,,ii,imia, §1,514,000; Honduras, §911,000 ; aggregating, $4,l»s7,(ioo, luiiM.siin- i.iihri|.:ill\ ul ikIihK luii, food products, and manufactured arlicles. roMMKiiciA L (iKocn.x I'll y 149 Nicaragua is tlic hu-gi'st, in aiea of tlu-so n-imblics. anil lias an extensive seacoast on botli east and west. The eential part of the country is a great fertile plain. Many rivers flow to the sea from this plain, but tlie San Juan is the only one that is navigable. Mueli of the public income is derived from the monopoly of the experts of tobacco and gunpowder. Cattle-raising and the collecting of rubber are the chief occupations of the people. There are few exports, that of coffee being the most important. Greytown, on the east coast, and San Juan, on the west coast, are the chief seaports. Leon, the former capital, and the largest city, is situated on the Pacific. Managua, the new capital, is situated upon the lake of the same name. The total population of Nicaragua is about 400,000. Costa Rica is the southernmost of these republics. Its most valuable iiroduct is coffee. Exports of fruits and tobacco are increasing yearly. San Jum' is the capital. The total population of Costa Rica is over 260,000. II. THE ISLAND OF HAITI — This island, which is inhabited mainly by negroes, is divided into two republics — Santo Domingo in the eastern, and Haiti in the western part. The island has about the same area as Maine, and a population of nearly a million. The exports are chieHy troidral woods, coffee, cotton, sugar, and cocoa.' Port an Prince, the capital of Haiti, has a population of 50,000; that of San Domingo, the capital of Santo Domingo, is about 15,000. m. CUBA, the most important of the West Indies and until January 1, ISltl), a colony of Spain, is about the size of the state of Missouri, and has a population of about a million, equally divided between whites and blacks. The capital, Havana, is the greatest sugar-market in the world, and the third city of the western hemisphere in point of foreign commerce. All the energies of the people seem turned to the industry of sugar cultivation. Most of the product goes to the United States. The cane-fieids and sugar-mills of Cuba were nearly all ruined during the recent insurrec- tion. With their' restoration the export of sugar must grow enormously. The largest exports of Cuba to the United States were in 1893, when they amounted to f 78,000,000. Next in industrial importance are the cultivation of tobacco and the ' In 1899 Santo Domingo exported to the United States : Suf;:u- l. tlic v;ilu.- of .sj,ii:',ii.imiii ; mi- fee, logwood, hides and skins, and other products, to the total valm .ii s:;. li'.".,ii.in Tlir ini]. nis from the United States during the same year were : Cotton fjoods. >l:j'.i,iiiiii ; linn. sl_'r,,ii(ii) ; ii,in and steel goods, fish, ba^s, provi^imis. lumlu'i-, ;uid ntlicr produois, lu thr i.UhI valu. ..f si .liilnuii. In 1899 Haiti expoil,,! l.. ll,.- riiitrd Si;itrs : Lu^viod valued at §412.000; l.i^. - .umI -kin-^. $12,000; and other pnulurt-c. to ilir intnl value ..f ssjil.diio. The imports from the 1 1111..I si;iies m the same year were: .Meat pioduets. tliur, iLsli, cotton cloth, lumber, tobacco, so.p, .laiiy and ether products, to the total value of §2,465,000. 150 COMMERCIA L GEOdllA I'lIY inamifaoture of cigars.', Iron oro, especially adapted for use in making Bessemer steel, is mined in increasing quantities in the mountains of eastern Cnba, near Santiago. All these mines are owned by American companies, and nearly the whole product, amounting in 1S97 to 452,000 tons, is shipped to the furnaces of the United States. The climate of Cuba is mild and equable, and Havana has long been a popular winter veaovi.- QUESTIONS What can you say of the situation, area, sur- face, and population of Central America ? What is the situation of Guatemala ? What are its chief products and exports ? Name the Pacific ports of Guatemala. What is the capital ? AVhat is the approximate population of the republic ? Where is Honduras ? What are the chief prod- ucts ? What is the capital ? What are the leading industries of Salvador ? — the exports ? AVhat is the population ? What is the capital ? Describe Nicaragua, its situation, surface, and products. What are the chief exports ? Name the principal seaports. AVhat is the capital ? AA'here is Costa Rica ? AVhat is the most valu- able product of this republic ? AVhat exports can you name ? AA'hat is the total population of the country ? AVhat two republics in Haiti ? By what race is the island peopled ? AVhat are the leading exports? Name two considerable towns on this island. What are the area and population of Cuba ? For what product is Havana the world's largest market ? AVhat can you say of the foreign com- merce of this port ? To what country does most of Cuba's sugar product go ? Name another im- portant product of this island ? 1 Havana tobacco, which takes its name from the port of shipment. Is principally grown on the southwestern extremity of the island, in a small tract about 150 square miles in area. It is well e.stablislied that many so-called Havana cigars of commerce are not made from Cuban tobacco. It is asserted in some quarters that tobacco grown elsewhere is imported into Cuba to be made up into cigars, which are then exported as genuine Havanas. Cigar-making in Havana has suffered greatly from the growth of the same industry in \\vy West, Florida, where it is encouraged by the customs duty imposed by our governmenl, wliirli is i;iiater on manufactured than on leaf tobacco. 2 In the year ending June :;ii. I'.idii. tlic ixports of Cuba to the United States were §31,000,000 and her imports from the United (Suilfs ■'jL'OjUUO.OOO. CUMMEUCIAL GEOallAl'liy 161 CHAPTER XVI. OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES I. VENEZUELA. — A'enezuela borders on the Caribbean Sea; Guiana bounds it on the east, Brazil on the south, and Colombia ou the west. The greater part of the republic lies in the basin of the Orinoco Kiver. The area, 439,000 square miles, is about twice that of Germany, and the population, 2,300,000, about equals that of the state of Missouri. Political disturbances have retarded the development of the country, aud progress has also been checked by government monopolies granted upon certain uative pi'oducts, and on the right of steam navigation upon Lake Mara- caybo. Inland, and at present beyond the reach of commerce, are great forests, extensive grazing areas, and a very fertile agricultural country. Concessions have been made for the building of railways, and these are giving great impetus to the industries and commerce of the interior. Agriculture is the leading occupation, and cattle-raising is extensively carried on upon the llanos of the Orinoco. The gold-fields, though not yet very productive, are among the richest in the world. Coal exists in considerable quantities ; and iron, copper, asphalt, petroleum, silver, tin, and salt abound. Within the last few years, owing to the increased development of the vast natural resources of the republic, the foreign commerce has quadrupled. The exports of greatest conse- quence are coffee and copper ; subordinate items are hides, dyewoods, cocoa, and timber. Most of the trade of Venezuela is with our own country, Germany, and France. We buy of Venezuela principally coffee, and sell to her in exchange food- stuffs, cotton goods, and iron and steel manufactures.' Caracas, the capital, is the principal cocoa-market. Valencia exports coffee. Maracai/bo is the chief seaport. When Columbus visited this region he found the native settlement on Lake Maracaybo built upon piles, whenee the name Venezuela, " Little Venice." XL THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. — This republic occupies the southeastern portion of the continent of South America. The area is about one-third that of the United States; the population is estinuited at four millions. There is a large aud 1 In 1898 Venezuela rxi«.i1c.l In (lie Inilr.! Scii.s: c.-ITcr. si;, 171. ; hidrs iiii.l skins, §1,194,000; cacao. S141.ihi(I ; tM-.^ilin- will, nilil.rr, LmiIht-. . ir.. ii rhi, il\ ni -..iliiiui nitrate, only a small quantity of potassium nitrate being found. The.se c1i|.mmn :iii rniMnirivKilly spoken of as "nitrates." 8In 1800ChiIiexi.oii,,l inih,. 1 Hii,,! st:ites : Nitrate of soda to the value of $2,29.3,000 ; wool, $118,000; to,seUier wiili liiilrs. dnus. , i,.. i.. il,,. ini,,I value of $2,942,000. The impiirt.s fmm the liiii. il siii. ^ in iIh > nih \ rar were : Iron and steel goods, cotton goods, kero.scne and other oils, luiiiln r. i i ■ iln i wiili .i-i ii nliiir.U implements, meat products, sugiir, medi- cines, and other articles, to thu lut.il wilia- ut >::i,liJ7,i)UU. (•OMMEIICIAI. CEixinAPIlY 155 being on the shore. Jfpdrjxc. farther north, is the [lort from whic'h most of the products of tlie northern part are exported. A railway connects the two cities. The rivers are necessarily short and are navigable for limited distances and by small steamers only, t'hili has liberal immigration laws, and is one of the most active and energetic states of South America. She recently joined with the Argen- tine Republic in the partition of Patagonia, and, by her war with Peru and Bolivia, added largely to her area and wealth. Chili, like other South American republics, has had her progress anil prosi)erity seriously impeded by civil war. V. XTRUGUAY. — Uruguay, south of Brazil, and east of the Argentine Republic, is the smallest of the South American republics. The area, 72,000 square miles, is about twice that of the state of Indiana ; the population, 800,000, is about equal to that of the state of Connecticut. There are few Indians among the inhabitants, the people being chiefly descendants of the original Spanish settlers, together with Italians and other European immigrants. The republic is fortunately situated for commerce, having more than (iOO miles of water front on the Atlantic coast and on the Uruguay and Plate rivers. The surface is a vast grassy plain, diversified by low swells of land in the interior. The country is well watered, and the climate is not unlike that of southern France. Fruits and vegetables are grown in great abundance and variety. The chief wealth of the country, however, centres in the grazing interests ; and the exports of beef, hides, and wool are of chief importance. The agricultural resources are unsur- passed. It is said that there is not an acre of unproductive land in the republic. The most important field products are wheat and maize. There are several agricul- tural colonies in the country, composed mainly of Italians and Spaniards. The forests yield a plentiful supply of useful timber. Trade is carried on mainly with Great Britain and France. The chief wealth of Uruguay is in cattle and sheep, and the manufacture of sun-dried beef and beef extracts with other animal products is the leading industry. In 1899 821,600 cattle were slaughtered, and the total value of the flocks and herds is estimated at over $73,000,000. The leading imports are of liquors, and manufactured goods in great variety. We buy of Uruguay, hides, wool, and hair, and sell in exchange lumber, kerosene, and manufactured products.' Montevideo, the capital and largest city, is situated upon a tdugue of land which is washed on one side by the Atlantic, and on the other by the lliver Plate, which is 1 In 1890 Uruguay exported to the United States : Hides, fertilizers, hair, together with other products, to tlie total value of $1,281,000. The imports into Uruguay from the United States in the same year were : Kerosene and otlier oils, lumber, cotton giHid.s, together witli farm tools, drugs, cordage, rosin, lard, tobacco, etc., to the total value of $1. •242,000. 150 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY here sixty-five miles wide. The harbor is tho host smitli of Tuo do Janeiro; most of the trade of the republic passes through this port. By reason of its natural advantages in climate, geographical position, and soil, Uruguay has a promising future. Tlie River Plate drains an area of more than a million square miles, and, witli its triliiiMi i.s. iilTcrds more navigable waters than all lli.- liv. is ..f i:iii,.]ir tMt;,-ther. The tide from tin- Ailaiii;. .M. lalsadi.stance of 250 miles, ami th.iv i^ a .Liiili "i wai. i Nulhcient for vessels of il,.,.|, ,|iaii-lii fa- a thousand miles into the iiiK lan. I la |i.i|inliii'.ii m| ih,- i, public has been rapidly ineiva,>iii,i;, aial much of the prosperity of the euuutiy i.s due lu the lael Ihiit the native population has largely ^iven place to energetic foreign immigrants. VI. ECUADOR. — Ecuador lies on the Pacific coast, between Colombia and Peru. The area, 120,000 square miles, nearly equals that of New Mexico ; the popu- lation is more than a million, over half of it consisting of Indians. Agriculture is in a backward state. Cacao is the staple product. The minerals comprise gold, sulphur, lead, iron, copper, and emeralds. Extensive forests afford timber suitable for ship-building and cabinet-work. In the highlands saddles and a coarse earthen- ware are made ; gold lace and filigree work are produced in Quito. The manufacture of "Panama" hats is a leading industry; cordage, mats, sackcloth, and hammocks are made from the fibre of the maguey, a species of agave. The roads are very poor, even in the dry season, and during the several wet months of the year are impassable. Freight and merchandise are transported by pack-animals. There are two short railways from the coast to the interior. Trade is carried on chiefly with Great Britain. Cacao is the principal export: rubber, hides, coffee, vegetable ivory, barks, precious metals, and Panama hats, are also articles of traffic' Quito, the capital and largest city, is nearly on the equator, at an altitude of about ten thousand feet. Guayaquil is the principal seaport. The so-called Panama hats are made here — the name coming from the fact that Panama merchants for- merly controlled their sale. Guayaquil is the only place of much importance, and most of the shipments of cacao, rubber, hides, and bark pass through this port. Ecuador is a country of great resources, needing capital and jjcople of energy for their development. Vn. PERU. — Peru is situated on the Pacific coast, south of Ecuador, and west of I'.razil and Bolivia. Its area is estimated at 400,000 square miles; the population is nearly 3,000,000, of which the great majority are Indians and half- breeds. Along the coast the country is low. The lands lying to the eastward of the Andes are very fertile, and will be opened to enterprise and trade by the completion of railways and irrigation works now projected. The ocean cable on 1 In l^'i'i 1" i;i I r exported to the United Slates: Cacao to the value of $270,000; india- rubber, .$:;:;! !i with other products, to the total vahie of $1,054,000. In I la i; 1 uador imported from the United States a variety of articles amounting to COMMKHcIM. CKOCItAI'lIY lo? the poast lias stations at Payta. ('allao. and Lima. IVru is inlorsocted by tlu> head waters of the Amazon, which afford it connniinication with the Atlantic. The chief exports are cotton, coffee, sugar, Peruvian (cinchona) bark, wool, both from sheep and from the alpaca goat, and ores. Our own trade with Peru is very .small.' It was a dispute over the nitraie beils that led to the war with Chili, which resulted disastrously to both Peru and Bolivia. When the independence of these republics was first obtained, Bolivia had a barren strip of seacoast. When, how- ever, the nitre beds were discovered and their value demonstrated, Chili asserted her ownership to theiu under an ancient claim. Bolivia and Peru had treaties, offensive and defensive; and the latter unsuccessfully defended Bolivia's claim. Peru was bankrupted and demoralized by the ensuing war witK Chili. The importance of the port of Callao has lessened ; and where hundreds of vessels formerly anchored, now hardly a dozen are found. A French company holds a monopoly of the anchor- age, wharves, and shipping-rights, and has so oppressed commerce as to injure it. TJma is the capital and chief centre of trade and wealth. It is connected with Cidliio, its seaport, by railway. Some of the largest and finest business houses in Linui are owned by Chinese merchants, who have the monopoly of trade in certain textile goods. A majority of the commerce is with the United Kingdom, while second place in trade belongs to Germany. VIII. PARAGUAY. — Paraguay lies between Brazil and Bolivia and the Argen- tine Republic. From the latter it is separated by the Paraguay and Parana rivers. It is one of the smallest states of South America, and, like Bolivia, has no seacoast. The area is estimated at 140,000 square miles, and the population at nearly half a million. The southern part of the country is low and swampy. A large part of the northern section is covered with forests, comprising a great variety of timber. The mineral resources are imperfectly known, but iron and copper have been found in several places. Paraguay has every advantage that nature can afford, and needs only develop- ment to become of greater commercial importance. Its pastures support vast herds of cattle, and fruits in great variety are grown. The raising of yerba male (Para- guay tea) is a leading industry. The majority of trade, like most South American states, is with Great Britain and Germany, and is credited to the River Plate. The manioc root, from which the tapioca of commerce is produced, is the staple diet of the people. This is to Paraguay and Brazil what rice is to China and Japan, and potatoes to Ireland. The plant grows to a height of four feet and resembles the tomato. The stalk and leaves, when dried, serve as fodder for cattle. 1 In 1899 Peru exported to the United States: Hides and skins, cotton, and other articles, to the total value of $1,. 325,000. In the same year Peru imported from the United States: Farm tools, breadstuffs, chemicals, cottons, and other articles, to the total value of .81.490,000. 158 COMMERCIAL GEOGUAI'IIY The principal export is the yi'rba fiuitt', or Paraguay tea, made of leaves of the ilex-tree, dried and reduced to powder. This tea is a mild stimulant, and is exten- sively consumed in the other countries of South America. Paraguay tobacco, a poor article, and hides, are other exports. About half the total imports of Paraguay are derived from Great Britain, and consist mainly of machinery and clothing. Asuncion, the capital, is situated on the Paraguay River. Villa Rica and Con- cepcion are other towns of importance. IX. BOLIVIA. ^ ISolivia is bordered north and east by Brazil, south by the Argentine liepublic and Paraguay, and west by Peru and Chili. It is, therefore, an inland country, its communication with the sea being carried on through the ports of Peru, Chili, and the Argentine Republic. Recent explorations in the upper waters of the Parana, give reason to believe that Bolivia will soon be connected with the Atlantic by means of tributaries of this river, which are navigable for steamboats of considerable draught. Bolivia embraces an area of 567,000 square miles. The population, about 2,000,000 in number, is chiefly of Indian descent. The surface, a high plateau surmounted by lofty peaks of the Andes in the west, descends to a low, fertile plain in the east. Bolivia's products are mainly mineral, though there are several natural products from the forests. The india-rubber is of the finest quality, and almost inexhaustible. Coca and cacao are important products. The plant from which coca is derived is raised in the valleys of the Andes and exported to a considerable extent. The cinchona-tree, from the bark of which quinine is produced, was first discovered in Bolivia. Of late years it has been found in the forests along the entire chain of the Andes. Efforts have been made to transplant the cinchona-tree into Java, Ceylon, and India, and with such success, that much of the quinine now comes from these countries. The result of the East Indian competition has been to reduce the price of quinine more than half. Bolivia is very rich in minerals. With only the most primitive methods of mining, the silver-mines of Potosi are estimated to have produced $1?,000,000,0()0 since their discovery. It is said that every ounce of ore that finds its way out of the Andes is carried on the back of a man or a llama, and the quartz is broken by rolling logs upon it. By most primitive methods of mining and transportation the annual output of silver is over $10,000,000. Besides the precious metals, co]iper, lead, tin, salt, and sulphur are found. There is now a railway from Jlolknulo, on the Peruvian coast, to Lake Titicaca, and some of the produce of Bolivia reaches a market by this route. Jlost of the exports of Bolivia, however, are sent abroad by way of Buenos Ayres. The exports comprise silver, Peruvian bark, rubber, gum, cacao, coft'ee. coca, copper, tin, and other ores. Silver forms two-thirds (if tlie value of tlir exports. La Paz is the nominal capital ami the largest city. Sucre is the seat of govern- ment. COMMERCIA L UKWJRAl'UY 169 QUESTIONS What is the situation of Venezuela ? Wliat are its comparative area and population ? Wliat can you say of tlie natural resources of this country ? Wliat is the chief industry of tlie llanos '? What can you say of the uiineral deposits ? Which exports are the more impor- tant ? What other exports can you name ? With what countries is the greater part of the commerce of Venezuela carried on ? Summa- rize our own trade with Venezuela. What is tlie capital ? — the chief seaport ? What is the main export of Valencia ? Locate the Argentine Republic. What is its comparative area ? — estimated population ? From what countries is most of its immigration derived ? What mineral deposits are known to exist ? What great railway is now in course of construction ? In what does the commer- cial value of tliis railway line mainly consist ? What can you say of the natural resources of Patagonia ? Wliat are the main exports of the Argentine Republic ? Summarize our own com- merce witli that country. What striking fact can you name in respect to the recent commerce of the Argentine Republic ? Describe the situa- tion of Buenos Ayres. What can you say of its commerce ? — of its population ? What is the situation of Ihe republic of Co- lombia •? WHiat are its area and population ? What is the nature of the surface ? What in- dustry is most important ? Name the principal agricultural products, — the forest products. — the mineral products. What are the leading exports ? — imports ? Wliat great commercial highway crosses Colombia? Name the cliief waterway. What commodities are exported by way of the Magdalena River ? What is the principal seaport ? — the capital ? Through what port is most of the foreign trade of Co- lombia carried on ? Summarize our own trade with this republic. What are the situation, area, and population of Chili ? What can you say of its surface in the north ? — in the central part ? — in the south ? What are the products of each of these sections ? What minerals does the country yield ? Name the leading exports, — the im- ports. Summarize our own trade with Chili. What is tlie capital? — the chief seaport? What port on the upper coast ? Describe the situation of Uruguay. What are its comparative area and population ? What natural advantages for commerce has this re- public ? What is tlie nature of the surface ? In what does the chief wealth of the country consist ? What are the most important field- products ? With what country is most of the foreign trade of Uruguay carried on ? What is the leading export ? What are the leading im- ports ? Summarize our own trade with this republic. What Is the capital and chief sea- port ? AVhat great river, with its tributaries, traverses the territory of Uruguay ? What are the situation, area, and population of Ecuador ? Wliat Is the most important agri- cultural product ? What minerals are found ? What country absorbs most of the trade of Ecuador ? What are the more important ex- ports ? What is the capital? — the chief sea- port ? What are the principal shipments from Guayaquil ? What are the situation, area, and population of Peru ? What is the nature of its western surface ? Where are the most fertile lands situ- ated ? By what means has Peru communication with the Atlantic coast of South America ? What are the priiir-ii.al PX,H)rts of Peru ? What causes Ir-il ii. tlir iiiiii.^\i'ii-linii-iit of this repub- lic? Wliai i^ ilir . ,ii,ii;ii .1 W i 1 h what seaport is Lima cuinHTinl Ijy i;iilu:i_v '.' What are tlio situation, area, and population of Paraguay ? Describe the nature of the sur- face. Where is the forest area ? What minerals are found ? What crops are of importance ? What is the leading export ? What other ex- ports can you name ? What are the principal imports ? What city is the capital ? Describe the situation of Bolivia. Through what countries is its foreign commerce carried on ? What are its area and population ? What minerals are largely produced ? Which of tlieso is the most important ? What other products can you naine ? What are the chief exports I What is the capital ? 160 COMMERCIAL CF.OGRAPHY CHAPTER XVII. COMMODITIES IMPORTANT TO COMMERCE I. — FOOD SUBSTANCES Beef and Beef Products. — Xo other species of auimal is of so great service to maiikiiid as that conimonl3' known as neat-cattle. From the most remote times these animals have been closely associated with the industries of mankind as beasts of burden, in tilling the soil, and in gathering the harvests. Their flesh serves as one of the chief articles of food for nearly three-fourths of the world's population, while milk and other dairy products probably rank next after grain and meat in the order of value. Leather, made from their hides, is used in one form or another by three-fourths of the world's population; and the horns, hoofs, and hair are utilized in a variety of ways. Cattle are reared for different objects. In thickly inhabited countries milk- producing qualities are most desirable, while in grazing countries beef-producing qualities are sought. The cattle interests of the United States are greater than those of any other country.^ Our dairy interests alone represent an investment of twenty times the bank capital of the country. The number of milch cows in the United States is estimated at 17,500,000, with an average yearly yield of 350 gal- lons of milk each. The quantity of butter made is nearly 1,400,000,000 pounds, and of cheese 300,000,000 pounds annually. In 1899 the value of the dairy products was estimated at $500,000,000, — a sum exceeding the value of the wheat crop. The value of the beef, butter, cheese, leather, and other products of beef, exported from the United States is annually more than $50,000,000.- The other chief beef- 1 The number of cattle slaughtered and*dressed for market in Chicago, the centre of the American heef business, is annually about two millions. "■^ The total export of provisions, including meat and dairy products, in 1899 was §175,508,000. In 1899 over 500,000 cattle were inspected by the government for export. Averaging abnut 1.400 poimds apiece, these cattle represent 700,000,000 pounds live weight, of which about 4l'0.iiimi,00(> pounds would be available for food. But this is by no means the whole of our contribution to tlie worl.r.s sii|,].ly of luvf. Til Hit- saiiu- ywir the t'xpi.rls ..f fresh beef were 282,139.974 i«.iin diu >..!( I\ to improved means for ocean transportation. 162 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY owing to the fact that the fish cannot be transported far, they are of little commer- cial value. In the United States the whiteiish of the Great Lakes are of consider- able commercial consequence. The sturgeon of the Volga River in Russia are the most important product of the inland fisheries of Europe. Fish-culture is now carried on by nearly all leading nations, and valuable food- fish from one part of the world are transported to other parts and planted in exhausted fisheries. The value of the annual product of the fisheries of the United States/ is more than $50,000,000. The most important are the general sea-fisheries, the oyster-fish- eries being next in value. The annual products of the fisheries exported from the United States are more than six millions of dollars in value, canned salmon repre- senting nearly one-third of this amount. Pork and Pork Products. — Swine have always been a source of food supply in Europe and Asia. In warmer countries the flesh is not considered wholesome. In Europe the raising of swine is confined mainly to Great Britain and the Balkan states. But rearing swine and curing pork is a greater industry in the United States than in any other country. Owing to the fact that our staple crop, Indian corn, affords the best food for these animals, American pork is superior to that of Europe, as i* makes the flesh harder. The leading pork-producing states are, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, Nebraska, and Texas. For the year end- ing March 1, 1899, the "number of hogs packed in Chicago was over eight millions ; in Kansas City, two and a half millions ; while the total number packed and marketed in the country was more than twenty-three millions. The value of the exports of hog-products from the United States in 1899 was $115,000,000. This includes bacon, ham, salted and pickled pork, lard and lard-oil. Barley. — Barley was formerly used for food in northern countries, where it was supposed that wheat would not grow. But wheat has very generally super- seded it, both as a crop and as a food ; and barley is now mainly used in the brewing of malt liquors. For this purpose it is steeped in water and then fermented, being thereby converted into malt. Barley is cultivated in the western part of the United States, and forms a small export. Germany, England, and Austria, the chief brew- ing countries of the world, consume most of the barley of commerce. Cocoa. — The cocoa-tree, grows mainly in America, to which continent it is indi- genous. Cocoa is an important article of commerce in the Spanish American nations, the United States, and Spain. In its various forms the products of this tree are called nibs, shells, cocoa, chocolate, broma, etc. The greatest consumers of the beverages made from the cocoa-seed are the Spanish and Portuguese, who have long preferred them to either coffee or tea. The manufacture of chocolate is an increas- ing industry in France, from which country our own supply of this product is chiefly derived. We take cocoa, shells, and leaves from South America and the West Indies to the annual value of about $3,500,000. coMMEiiciAi. <:E(k:i!M'IIY 163 Coffee. — CottVe was in use in Arabia Ion- boi'oi-c it was known in Kuropo. Hut since its iutroductiou to the euiiuneri-ial world, I'OO years ago, its eonsumptiou has enormously increased. Its growth is limited to a few countries. A century ago coffee-growing was introduced into Brazil, and half the world's supply now comes from that country. Java ranks next in the amount produced. The rest of the supply comes from Ceylon, Ab^-ssinia, Arabia, the West Indies, Liberia, and Central and South America. The best variety is grown in Yemen, a province in Arabia of which Mocha is the capital ; and the coffee derives its name from that city. The product of Java stands next in favor; but nearly all of the "Mocha" and much of the ".lava" coffee consumed in the United States comes from Brazil. Coffee is not grown in the United States, yet this country consumes more than any other nation. The average annual importation is about 870,000,000 pounds, an amount greater than that used by Austria, France, Germany, and Great Britain together. The total consumption in the United States is over ten pounds per I'lipita. Two countries of Europe, the J^^etherlands and Belgium, show even a larger consuniption per capita than this. Of the coffee used in the United States, Brazil furnishes seventy per cent. Fruits. — The introduction of steamship navigation has made the interchange of fruit-products among nations a vci y iiii|iiivtaiit braucli of commerce. Oranges are raised chiefly in the West in.liis. l''loii,l;i. ('alit'oi'iiia, Spain, Italy, and Asia Minor; lemons, in Italy, Spain, the ^\'l■sr Indies. Kloviila. and California: pine-apples, in the W^est Indies, Mexico, and Central America ; bananas, in Central America, tropical South America, the West Indies, and Mexico ; figs, in Asia Minor, Turkey, Florida, and California ; dates, in northern Africa and Arabia ; prunes and plums, in Austria, France, Turkey, and Italy ; and grape-raisins, in Spain, France, Turkey, and Cali- fornia. Owing to the perishable nature of the commodity, traffic in many small fruits is limited to adjoining countries. The United States anmially imports fruits and nuts to the vahie of nearly $20,000,000, the leading item being bananas to tlif vnhie of over §4,000,000. Tlie apples of conjan n, air >lii]i].iMl mainly from tlie United States, thougli Canada has some trade in this fruit. The valw m| iiijili s. L;reen and dried, exported from the United States in 18il9 was nearly .§2,500,000, ami liir sanu- yar canned fruits were exported to nearly tlie same value. Maize. — ^laize, or Indian corn, is the leading food-crop of the United States, and, with the manufactures from it, is of great commercial value. This cereal requires a warmer climate than wheat, and is therefore raised chiefly in the states south of the wheat-growing belt. Corn is the main food-supply of the people of Mexico, Central America, and South America, and is an important element of diet in southern Europe, as well as in the United States. Besides entering directly into the food-supply of many nations, corn is largely used in fattening cattle and swine for market, its fattening properties exceeding those of any other grain. It also enters into the manufacture of alcohol and alcoholic liquors, starch, and glucose. Corn starch is a common article of diet in the United States, and is extensively 164 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY exported. The Kingsford factory at Oswego, New York, produces 25,000,000 pounds of starch annually. Glucose, or " grape " sugar, is largely used in making confec- tionery, and various food products in which sweetening is required. Much the greater part of the Indian corn supply of the world is raised in the United States. The farm value of our corn crop in 1899 was estimated at over $600,000,000. Potatoes. — The potato is cultivated in nearly every part of the civilized world, and is au important reliance for food to the mass of people in Germany and Ireland In most other European countries, as well as in the United States and Canada, it is also used to a very great extent. Except in a year when the crop of some consuming nation is a failure, this tuber is of but little commercial value. In 1887, when the crop in the United States was small, potatoes were imported to the value of over $i3,i500,000, most of the supply coming from Canada, Scotland, and England. In the warm and in equatorial regions a species called the "sweet potato" is extensively raised. This and a similar tuber, called the yam, are a considerable export when the crop is harvested, but they keep only a short time. Common potatoes are much used in the manufacture of starch. Like maize, the potato is indigenous to America; but it is now cultivated in all civilized lands ; and its comparative consumption is greater in some European countries — notably in Ireland and Germany — than in our own. Eice. — Eice, the main food supply of most of the inhabitants of Asia, is a staple article of diet for a greater number of people than any other food product. In the commerce of the more advanced nations, howevei-, it plays a comparatively small part, since it is not used largely as food either in Europe or Xorth America. Eice is grown to greater perfection in South Carolina, Georgia, North Carolina, Louisiana, and Mississippi than in Asia; yet most of the world's supply comes from China, the East Indies, Korea, and Egypt. Sugar. — Sugar is an article of great commercial value, and in the past century has received more attention than any other vegetable food product. The greatest source of supply has always been the sugar-cane of the East and the West Indies. Sugar is a constituent part of nearly all vegetable products. By careful cultivation of a variety of beets called the sugar-beet, the amount of sugar in them has been greatly increased. The latter grows in a more temperate climate than that required by the sugar-cane, and is raised to great perfection in continental Europe. The annual sugar product of the world now reaches 7,300,000 tons, over half nf which is made from tlie beet. Germany leads in the production of beet-sugar, and is followed in order by Austria, France, Russia, Belgium, and the United States. The sugar made from cane is slightly more soluble than that made from the beet, and hence has a sweeter taste. By governmental patronage and a system of bounties, beet-sugar has grown to be an important rival of cane-sugar. The more important caue-sugar regions are Cuba, Java, Brazil, Egypt, the Philippine COMMEHCIAL C! tldCI! M'H Y 165 Islands, Feni, India, tlio United States,' and the Hawaiian Islands. The sugar is extracted from tlie eane in the country where it is j,'rown. The crystalline part of the extract is the raw sugar of commerce, and the liquid part is the molasses. In the United States most of the sugar-refining, or manufacture of white sugar, is done in P.rooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston, and San Francisco. The consumption of sugar in the United States is about 2,000,000 tons a year. Of this amount Cuba furnishes a large proportion. The rest comes chiefly from other islands of the West Indies, from the Hawaiian Islands, from Germany, and i'rom Brazil. Louisiana is the only state in the Union in which sugar-cane to any considerable amount is grown. The manufacture of beet-sugar has become an active industry in many states, the product amounting in 1898 to 122,000 tons. Our government has experimented with sorghum for several years, but it is yet a ques- tion whether sugar can profitably be made from the sorghum cane. The making of glucose, or "grape-sugar," from corn is an active industry in the United States. Sugar is made in New England, New York, and parts of Canada from the sap of the sugar-maple, but the crop is small and of but little commercial consequence. An important industry connected with the growing of sugar-cane is the manu- facture of rum. This spirit is obtained by distilling fermented molasses. Tea. — Tea was introduced into Europe about three hundred years ago, and has now become an important article of commerce. China produces a large part of the world's supply. The other tea-produciug countries are India, Japan, Java, and Ceylon. India is fast assuming chief importance as a tea-growing country, and furnishes more tea for the English market than China. Attempts have been made to introduce tea-culture into South America, Australia, South Africa, and the United States, but with little success. There are two leading kinds of tea and several grades of each kind. Black tea comes from China and India, while green tea comes from Japan and to a limited extent from China. Australia, Great I'.ritain, and Russia are the three greatest tea-consuming countries; and in these countries the use of coffee is decreasing. In the United States there is an increasing consumption of coffee and a decreasing consumption of tea. The importation of tea into the United States is about 96,000,000 pounds a year, nearly all of it coming from China and Japan. In several South American states a kind of tea called Paraguay tea, or yerha matt', is used. It is an important article of traffic in South America, particularly among the native population. ' There is prospect of a considerable extension of sugar-makins in Florida now that much rich sugar-land is being reclaimed by drainage. The average crop of Louisiana is about 300,000 tons, but there are .sugar-lands in the state sufficient to double or even triple this production. Texas lia-s many tlK.usand arris nf fine sugar-lands, and is rapidly developing this industry. Michigan, Cali- fornia, I "I all, Xiliriska, and other states produce beet-.sugar in increasing quantities. He fore the present cniiuiv ilnsts an enormous increa.se is promised in the sugar production of the United States, but it will for a long time be less than the consumption. 166 COMMEUCIAL GEOGRAPHY Wheat. — Wheat is the food grain of the more civilized nations of the world, and the leading grain crop of Europe. It grows in almost any climate except the hot belts, but it reaches the greatest perfection in those parts of the Temperate Zone where the summers are very hot and the winters cold. The rich soil and rigorous climate of the northern half of the United States and the southern part of the Dominion of Canada provide the best conditions for raising this grain, and more than a quarter of the world's supply is grown in this territory. The other leading wheat-producing sections of the world are the rich plains of Russia north of the Black Sea, Austria- Hungary, the Balkan states, France, and India. Wheat is also grown in Germany, Denmark, England, and Australia, but not in quantities sufficient to supply the home demand. The quantity of wheat raised to the acre is dependent largely upon the weather; but the average productiveness of the northwestern states of the Union is far in excess of that of other wheat-producing countries. While the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Illinois produce from fifteen to twenty bushels to the acre, Russia and the Balkan states produce from six to ten, India about the same quantity, but of inferior quality, and Australia from three to eight bushels to the acre. The international trade in wheat and wheat-flour now far exceeds that in any other vegetable food-product, and in fact is only surpassed by that in raw and man- ufactured textiles. It may be generally stated that wheat is bought by the nations of western Europe, and sold by the United States and Russia. II. — TEXTILE SUBSTANCES. Cotton. — Cotton is the most important of all the vegetable fibres. The cotton plant is found on all the continents, but the American plant produces the most valuable fibre. The annual product of all the cotton-growing countries is about 14,000,000 bales, the average weight to the bale being 500 pounds. Four-fifths of the supply come from the United States ; the rest from the East Indies, Egypt, Brazil, the West Indies, and Turkey. Cotton, as grown in the United States, is of two kinds, — the "sea-island," which has a long fibre and grows on the islands off the coast of Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina; and "upland," which grows on the mainland. Nearly all the cotton of commerce is upland, and this is divided into a dozen or more distinct qualities. Searisland cotton is too expensive for general manufacture. Nearly all the cotton product of the United States is grown in Mississippi, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, Arkansas, South Carolina, Louisiana, North Carolina, and Tennessee. In the manufacture of cotton. Great Britain leads all other nations ; the United States ranks second, Germany third, and France fourth. But while the number ol spindles is not increasing in Great Britain, the reverse is true of the United States During the past quarter of a century the export of raw cotton from the United States has averaged over $200,000,000 in value a year. CUMMEllCIAL GEOCHAI'IIY. 167 Flax. —Flax is a vosotablo iil.re fnmi wliirh inucli of tin- cloth of the world was made until the great expansion of cotton-growing in the United States. Cotton fibre is more easily gathered, requires no bleaching, and is, therefore, cheaper; it has generally superseded flax in use. The process of preparing the plant by which the fibre is made ready for manufacture is elaborate and expensive. The stalk is first softened and rotted so as to separate the bark ; then by a slow process the fibre is removed. This, made white by bleaching, is the linen of commerce. Flax is grown chiefly in Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Belgium, Ireland, The Netherlands, and to a small extent in Canada and the United States. The spinning and weaving of linen is carried on almost entirely in Great Britain, Qermany, and France. Belfast, in Ireland, is a great centre of the linen- spinning industry. In the United States a variety of flax is grown also for the seeds, which are used in making linseed-oil. Hemp. — Hemp fibre is coarser than flax. It is very strong, and is used in making cordage. Two-thirds of the supply used in the United States comes from the I'hilippiue Islands. In 1899 the total import of hemp and other coarse vegetable fibres for making cordage and similar articles aggregated in value nearly If 18,000,000. Sisal grass, or sisal hemp, sometimes called henequin, is the leading crop of Yucatan, and forms an important export to the United States. The trade in this article has increased from a few thousand dollars to over $9,000,000 annually. This gras.s is used in making cordage, hammocks, and similar articles. Jute. — Jute is a coarser fibre than hemp or flax. It is grown mainly in India, and is largely manufactured there. The principal use of jute is for making very coarse cloth called "gunny," or burlaps. The cloth is used extensively in commerce for protecting articles from wear, and, when made into bags, for carrying com- modities, which are thus more conveniently handled than in bulk. From this fibre a coarse kind of paper is also made. Its various manufactures are largely developed in Scotland, Dundee being especially celebrated for this industry. A large part of our own supply of jute manufactures is derived from Scotland. We import but little jute fibre, having nearer at hand a cheaper and better article for the same uses in sisal hemp. Silk. — Silk was first introduced into Europe from China, where silk-worms have been carefully reared for centuries. This culture has been extended into Italy, Japan, India, France, Russia, and elsewhere ; but half the world's supply of silk still comes from China, where the industry is more skilfully carried on, and the other countries named depend largely upon China for silk-worm eggs. Silk is extensively manufactured in China, Japan, and India, and the goods are exported ; but the exports of raw silk from these countries is much more important. France is the leading silk-manufacturing country of Europe ; and Lyons, the centre of the industry, is the chief silk-market of the world. Germany ranks next to 168 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAI'llY Fi-anee in tliis manufacture, Crefeld being the most important centre of it there. Tlie chief Lyons product is dress-goods, while that of Crefehl is silk velvet. The United States stands third as a silk-manufacturing nation, and New York and New Jersey are the leading states in this industry. The product is mainly sewing-silk, ribbons, and handkerchiefs, though the manufacture of dress-goods and velvets is rapidly increasing. Silk cloth is very generally worn in China and Japan, but there are no statistics by which a comparison can be made between the manufactured product of these countries and that of western nations. In 1890 raw silk was imported into the United States to the value of $32,000,000 — more than half of it coming from Japan. The importation of manufactured silk during the same year was about $25,000,000. Wool. — Sheep are raised in most countries, flourishing best where the climate is temperate and pasturage ample. In wool-growing, Australasia, with an annual out- put of 520,000,000 pounds, takes first rank. The Argentine Republic stands second as a wool-growing nation, Russia third, and the United States fourth. Wool is the largest agricultural export of Great Britain, but the greater part of the wool of commerce comes from Australia, New Zealand, Russia, and the Argentine Republic, in which countries the fibre is but little manufactured ; while in the United States wool is very extensively manufactured, and the home supply, though very large, does not equal the demand. Australian wool goes almost wholly to Great Britain ; Argentine wool is sold to the United States, Belgium, and Germany. Great Britain is the leading wool-manufacturing nation. France is second, the United States third, Germany fourth, and Austria-Hungary fiftli. The manu- facture of wool in the United States has its principal seats in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania; the leading sheep-raising states are California, Oregon, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, New Mexico, and Texas. Usually the wool is clipped from the sheep once a year, but in California and other warm sections there are two clips annually. The yearly production of wool in tlie world amounts to about 2,500,000,000 pounds, and of this the United States consumes nearly one-eighth. Several other kinds of wool besides that of the sheep are used in making fabrics. The silky wool of the Angora goat, used for very fine and costly fabrics, comes chiefly from Asia Minor, though the Angora goat, has been introduced into South Africa and Australia. This wool, which is called mohair, is woven in Persia into choice shawls, and in France, Great Britain, and elsewhere, into sliawls often made in imitation of the Persian product. The wool of the Cashmere goat, fro)n the Himalaya region, is of two qualities ; the finer fibre being separated from the coarser by hand. The former is the finest quality of wool grown, and is exported to Europe in small quantities. It was first made into shawls at Cashmere in northern India, wlience tlie name. The wool of the, alpaca and the llama is exported to some extent from the west coast of South America, chiefly from Peru. Alpaca wool is used in weaving sonic of the finer grades of dress-goods. COMMERCIA J. GKOailA PHY Copper. — Xpxt to iron, copper is the inost iisiful of metals. It is found botli ill its jmre state and in combination with ntlicr mineials. Numerous copper-mines exist in Europe, the more important being in Spain and Germany ; but the discovery of rich deposits in other parts of the world has almost entirely changed the source of supply. One-half of the world's copper comes from our own country. The richest and most productive mines in the United States are in Montana, and in Michigan along the shores of Lake Superior. There are other very valuable deposits in Utah, Arizona, and New ^Afexico. Cojiper is also produced in Canada, Mexico, Chili, Japan, and Australia. In electric conductivity this metal is almost etpial to silver; and, being much cheaper tiian silver, the recent increase in the uses of electricity has greatly stimulated its production. Copper is used for sheathing ocean vessels, for covering roofs, for numerous domestic purposes, and as an alloy, not only with gold and silver, but also for making brass, which is the most extensively used of all alloys. It is likewise a component element in bronze, bell-metal, gun-metal, and other compositions. Valuable substances are obtained from copper by chemical operations, among them verdigris, Paris green, and other coloring substances ; blue vitriol, used for electrical purposes and in the arts ; and copper paint, which, owing to the cheapness of the substance, is used on the bottoms of coasting-vessels instead of sheathing. Gold. — Gold is one of the few metals that is found in a metallic form. As it usually occurs, it is imbedded in quartz, except where the action of water or other elements has separated it. It is found in all parts of the world ; but the largest sources of the world's supply are South Africa, the United States, Australia, and Russia. The Eand mines of the Transvaal supply about one-fifth, while Alaska and the Canadian Northwest are large producers. Gold forms the basis of the coinage of nations. It is also extensively used in the arts, especially in the making of jewelry and the setting of jewels. It is softer than most metals, very ductile, and so malleable that it may be beaten into leaves innnnrT °f ^^ "^"^^ i" thickness. When used in coins and other manufactured articles, gold is mixed with silver, copper, or other metals, to give it a greater degree of hardness. Some of the finest and most delicate colors are chemical combinations of gold, particularly those colors which are used in glass and porcelain decoration. Gold is extracted from the ore by crusliing the rock and then agitating the finely pulverized ore with water and quicksilver. The latter dissolves the gold, uniting with it to form an amalgam. The foreign matter is washed away, leaving the two metals. The quicksilver is then separated from the gold by distillation, and is ready to be used again. The cyanide process is used for certain ores. In 1848 the discovery of gold in California caused a rush of people from all parts of the world to that state, and the amount of gold mined there has reached 170 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY over $1,000,000,000 in value. Three years later gold was discovered in Victoria, Australia ; and the product of the mines of Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania has aggregated an equal amount. Iron. — Iron is the most extensively used of the metals. It is found in nearly every part of the globe ; but four-fifths of the world's supply come from the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. The United States is the largest iron and steel producing nation in the world, but in addition to the vast domestic production of iron, imports iron and steel and their products to the value of about $12,000,000 annually. The greater part of this is derived from England and Germany. The United States buys iron ore from Spain and Cuba. The annual export of these is rapidly increasing in value.' No metal is found in such varying quality as iron, the quality being graded by the amount of other min- erals existing in the ore. The metal is rarely found in its pure state. The most abundant and workable ores are the oxides and carbonates, the former being the most plentiful and valuable. Iron combined with sulphur is one of the most com- mon of all metal ores ; but it is used only in making sulphuric acid. To extract iron from the ore, coal and ore are put into the blast furnace together with a varying amount of limestone. Under the intense heat the iron separates from the ore, melts, and collects at the bottom of the furnace, while the other ele- ments of the ore form a slag with the limestone. The latter is light, and floats on the molten metal. This operation is called smelting. The molten iron drawn off from the furnace is the pig-iron of commerce. A " pig " is intended to be a load for one man, and weighs about one hundred pounds. The product of the iron-regions is reckoned in the amount of this pig-iron. There are three ways in which refined iron can be manufactured: first, by remelting and pouring into moulds, thus forming cast-iron; second, by reheating pig-iron and forging or rolling it, making malleable, or wrought iron ; and third, by refining the pig-iron, and then combining with it from one to one and a half per cent, of carbon, thereby making steel. Cast-iron contains four or five per cent, of carbon, and is brittle and easily broken. Malleable iron is practically free from carbon, and is tough and elastic. In chemical composition steel has a position between cast and malleable iron. It possesses many valuable properties, however, that as iron it did not have.- Steel can be tempered to give it almost any degree of hardness, toughness, or elasticity according to the use to be made of it. The virtues of steel were known to the ancients, as is shown by the Damascus sword-blades, which cannot be equalled 1 In 1888 the iron and steel goods exported amounted to 810,000,000. In 1899 the export reached over .593,000,000 in value. The imports of like goods decreased from §40,000,000 in 1888 to 812,000,000 in 1890. 2 A sUUistinaii rstiiiiatcs that a bar of iron worth 85 becomes worth 810 wlien made into liorseshoes ; x;„, u in n , haimcd into steel and made into needles ; 83,285 when made into penl liutinns; and 8240,000, or more than its weiglit in gold, when made into watcli-springs. COMMEHCIAL GEOGItAI'IlY 171 to-day. Until the invi'utioii of Sir Ilpury Uessemer the process of making steel was expensive ami required two weeks or hniger. ' Much of the progress of the world in mechanical and labor-saving contrivances is due to the great adaptability of iron for a multitude of uses ; but steel, weight for weight, is of greater strength and durability, and has superseded iron for many pur- poses. In the building of bridges, in making freight cars, and in the framework of modern fireproof buildings steel now is used instead of wood and iron. Since the cost of making it has been so greatly reduced, steel has taken the place of ir^n in many uses, especially in those iu which the material is subject to great wear. Car wlucls and rails, the hulls of ocean-going ships, and agricultural implements — all formerly made of iron — are now very largely made of steel. The United States, Great Britain, and Germany make nearly all of the world's supply of steel. = Lead. — Lead is found combined with other substances, usually with sulphur, this mineral being known as galena. Spain was formerly the chief lead-producing countrj-, but of late years the United States has furnished the largest quantity of this metal. Much of this is found associated with silver ore ; the rest, a relatively small amount, comes from the lead-producing districts of the Mississippi Valley . The most productive lead-mines in the world are in Colorado and Idaho. Rich deposits are also worked in Utah, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri. h\ the Missouri mines zinc is found combined with the lead. Owing to the extent to which silver-mining is carried on, Colorado produces immense quantities of lead, nearly all the silver found in the state being combined with lead. This metal is also a considerable product of Germany, Spain, and Great Britain. Lead is very malleable, and is easily rolled into sheets ; but it possesses very little tenacity. It is so soft that it can easily be cut with a knife. When subjected to heat in the presence of air, lead is converted into an orange-colored powder com- monly known as litharge. This is used for making certain pigments, and in glass- making. "White lead, which is the basis of most paint, is produced from this metal by chemical process. 1 The old process for reducing the amount of carbon in the metal to the required percentage necessitated great care, and was tedious. By the Bessemer process all the carbon is first removed from the metal, then the necessary amount of carbon is added. The time needed for converting the iron into steel is thus reduced from two weeks to fifteen minutes. The steel is made in bottle-shaped iron vessels called converters, each of which holds from five to ten tons. After the steel is formed in the converter, the molten metal Ls poured into heavy iron moulds, and the ingots of steel thus formed are either sold to manufacturers of steel articles, or, as is often the ca.se, transferred to another part of the mill and rolled out into rails for railways, or into other merchantable forms. In a large rolling-mill the iron from the smelter may become a steel rail ready for use in two hours. •■! In 1899 the United States, Great Britain, and Germany produced 28,104,000 tons of pig-iron. The United States produced the largest amount, and Great Britain next. The other nations in the order of their product were France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Sweden, and Spain, to the total amount of 36,500.000 tons. In the production of steel in 1899 the United States, (Jreat Britain, and Germany produced 19,500,000 tons, the United States being first, Germany second, and (Jreat Britain third. The total product of the world for that year amounted to over 24,000,000 172 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Nickel. — Nickel is one of the less abundant minerals. It is found in various parts of the United States, but the native production is unimportant. Canada is the chief source of the world's supply, followed by France and Germany. In Europe it is combined with copper and zinc, forming the alloj' known as " German silver." This alloy is also made in the United States, but by far the greater part is used in plating iron and brass articles. Nickel-plating is an American invention, and nickel- plated wares are produced to a much greater extent here than in any other country. In the United States, Germany, and a few other countries, an alloy with this metal is used ia coins of small denomination. It is also used in the manufacture of glass, in tlie decoration of pottery, and in other arts and manufactures. Quicksilver. — Quicksilver, or mercury, is sometimes found in the metallic state, but it usually occurs in combination with sulphur. In this form it is known as cinnabar, the artificial form of which is the pigment known as vermilion. This metal is largely employed in the United States in extracting gold and silver from the crashed ore. Until within about fifty years the supply was entirely imported. There are several extensive deposits of cinnabar in California; and her mines produce the entire domestic supi^ly. New mines are reported in western Texas. Quicksilver is now exported by the United States. Until the discovery of the mines in California the world's supply came from Spain, and Idria in Austria. Quicksilver is used in the manufacture of mirrors, thermometers, barometers, and similar instruments. Its salts are used in medicine. Silver. — Silver is rarely found in its pure state. It usually occurs in combina- tion with other rainerals. In the great Comstock lode in Nevada, gold is associated with the silver. In twenty-five years the mines of this lode produced these metals to the value of $300,000,000. The discovery of tlie New "World led to the develop- ment of mines of both the precious metals ; but tlie production of silver increased in a much greater ratio than that of gold, and for tlie past fifty years silver has been growing cheaper. In 1840 the value of silver was one-sixteenth that of gold; in 1890 it had decreased to one-thirty-fifth. A large proportion of the world's supi^ly of silver has come from the mines of ^Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. The mine that has furnished the greatest amount is near Potosi, in Bolivia, and it is estimated to have produced metal to the value of $2,000,000,000. Since the development of the mineral wealth of the western part of the United States, our own country has become the chief silver-producing nation ; and more than one-third of the world's supply now comes from the United States, — Colorado and Montana being the two leading states in the yield of the metal. Aside from its use in the coinage of nearly every nation, particularly in the making of small coins, silver is very extensively employed in manufactures and in the arts. Tlie process of depositing a thin coat of silver on the surface of some cheaper metal has led to the manufacture of an enormous amount of ^jlated-ware for household and other purposes. C0M^fEnt•I^L OEoanAniY 173 Thp Fiiitod States imports silver ores to the value of about .'§21,()0n,0(^0 annually, nearly all of it from ]\[exico. Tin. — Tin is the only metal of value that is not in-odueeil in quantity in the United States. Deposits of it exist iu the Black Jlills and in San Jiernardino County, California; traces of it have also been found in several other places. Hitherto, nearly all of the tin used in thi.s country has been imported. The mines of Cornwall in the southwest of England have furnished much of the world's supply of tin, and are still quite produptive ; but the richest tin-mines in the world are on the islands of Banca and Billiton, south of Indo-China, and in Australia. The centre of the tin-trade is Singapore, where the product of the mines of Banca and adjoining regions is shipped to market. Owing to the development of our canning industries, the United States is the greatest tin-consuming nation. Tin is mainly employed in coating thin sheets of iron' to protect the latter from rust. Tin itself is too expensive to be used iu sheet form. Tinned iron is largely employed for household utensils, for roofing and other purposes, as well as in the canning industries. A large \mvt of our iron imports from Great Britain is classed under the head of "tin." Tin enters into the alloys known as pewter, bronze, type- metal, and britannia. Zinc. — Zinc is a hard, tough metal, capable of withstanding considerable heat, and not easily corroded, yet it is volatile. Germany and Belgium are the chief sources of supply, but the United States produces one-fourth of the world's output. In 1899 our export of zinc was over a million dollars in value. Great Britain and France produce small amounts. In the United States, this metal is found mainly in Missouri and Kansas ; it is usually combined with lead and sulphur. Zinc is rolled into sheets, and in this form is much used to protect surfaces exposed to heat. Deposited in thin layers over sheet-iron it becomes the galvanized iron of commerce. Zinc and copper are combined to make brass. Aluminum is fast assuming commercial importance. Its production lias incrfased from 28;> pnnmls in lSfS5 lo more than Ti, 000.000 pounds in 1898, valued at over $1,700,000. Aluminum is a light silvery-looking metal, and is tlie most widely distributed of all metals. It exists in clay, but no method is yit kn.iuii for its extraction from this substance. Georgia and Alabama are the chief sources of supply in the United States. ■ IV. — OTHER MINERAL SUBSTANCES Building-Stone. — Building-stone abounds in nearly every part of the world. Three kinds are in general use: granite, sandstone, and limestone. The granite used in the United States comes chiefly from the great cpiarries in Massachusetts at Quincy and Cape Ann; and to a less extent from Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and California. Granite is abundant in Scotland, and quarrying it is a considerable industry. The best-known and most extensively used sandstone is commonly known as brown- stone. It is quarried at Portland, iu the Connecticut valley, and in Xew Jersey in the neighborhood of Belleville. Other varieties of sandstone are found iu nearly 174 COMMERCIAL GEOanAPHY every state, Oliio leading in the aiiiomit produced. Limestone, the crj-stalline form of which is called marble, is found in ahundauce and iu beautiful colors iu Vermont, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, Missouri, and Iowa. Slate is a rock resulting from altered clay. It has numerous uses, and is found in Pennsylvania, Vermont, Maine, and New York. .Some of the most extensive slate-quarries in the world are in Wales. Clay and Clay Products. — Clay is one of the most abundant and useful of minerals. It is converted into brick, terrarcotta, china, and porcelain by working, moulding, and baking. Different qualities of clay are used for making different articles. Brick and terra-cotta work are made from coarser grades which usually contain iron, the latter giving the reddish color to the product. Common heavy chinaware is made from better grades of clay, while porcelain is made from the finest and purest white clay, called kaolin. In the manufacture of china and porce- lain a small proportion of lime is combined with the clay to complete the chemical change brought about by baking. It is estimated that the brick and terra-cotta product of the United States amounts in value to $70,000,000 yearly. Beds of clay are so universal that the cruder forms of the manufactures of clay are produced in nearly every country ; but the manufacture of porcelain, china, and art-pottery, is limited to a few countries. The finest porcelain is made in and near Dresden in Germany, at Sevres in France, in Worcestershire in England, and to a limited extent in China, Japan, and the United States. Most of the common chinaware of commerce, often called stoneware, is made in England. Germany and Austria-Hungary rank next in the amount produced. This ware is also made in the United States, chiefly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Illinois. Large quantities of artistic pottery are made in Worcestershire, and elsewhere in England, to be shipped to all parts of the world. Ohio and New Jersey are the leading states for this industry in the United States, Trenton being famous for its pottery. In Cincinnati a kind of ware called Kookwood pottery is manufactured. Coal. — Coal is one of the most valuable of mineral substances. It has been used as fuel for about three centuries ; but its great value has been demonstrated only within the past fifty years, with the development of steam-power in manufacturing. Coal is found in nearly every country; but over four-fifths of the world's supply come from Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. The output of the United States is now more than I'dO, 00(1,000 tons, or more than the production of Great Britain, and Germany yields about half as much. Undeveloped coal areas are known to exist in t^hina, Alaska, Russia, Turkey, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, and Canada. Tills miui'ral is found in several forms — the most important being the anthracite and the bituminous varieties. Bituminous coal yields much gas and tarrv oil when heated. In anthracite coal these are wanting, having been driven otf CUMMEIICIAL GEuallAl'IlY 175 while tlie poal was in the proooss of fonnatioii ; the coal, therefore, gives an intense heat with but little smoke. The amount of manufacturing that can be done in a country, particularly in iron and steel working, is limited by the amount of fuel at hand. In Sweden, where very little coal is mined, but vast forest areas are near by, charcoal is used, instead of coal, in working iron. In most of the great manu- facturing nations coal and iron are found together, and manufacture is thus greatly cheapened by the saving in the cost of transportation. Some of the deepest coal- mines in the world are in Belgium, where they have been sunk to a depth of 3,500 feet or more beneath the surface. The limit of deep mining is said to be 4,000 feet. Coal is found in seams or beds, which vary in thickness from a few inches to sixty feet. In Europe these seams are numerous but generally thin ; while in the United States the coal-veins are le.^". numerous, but those now developed are thicker and more easily worked. Until the introduction of the steam-engine, raining was limited to shallow excavations, owing to lack of means for keeping mines free from water. The presence of a gas called fire-damp, which is very combustible, and has caused many great disasters, is the chief peril in coal-mining. The use of safety- lamps, through which a flame cannot pass, and the thorough ventilation of mines by means of steam-fans, have greatly lessened the danger from this source. Coke is extensively made from bituminous coal by heating the coal until the volatile constituents are driven off. It is, therefore, an artificial anthracite, and makes a smokeless fire. Coke is extensively used in smelting metals, particularly in iron- and steel-working. The gas used for illuminating and heating purposes is made by distilling bitu- minous coal. This process of distillation also removes the hydro-carbons, commonly called coal-tar. A ton of coal yields about 10,000 feet of gas, and about thirty gallons of this tar. One of the products from the tar is a substance called aniline, which is the base from which many beautiful colors are made ; and much of the dye- ing of the world is now done with aniline dyes. More than a hundred varieties of dyes are now made in this way, and these have largely supplanted vegetable and animal dyes. Coal-tar and creosote, a distillate from it, are nsed to saturate piles and other woods used in harbor-structures to prevent the ravages of the teredo, or ship-worm. Petroleum. — This natural mineral oil is found to a greater or less extent in many parts of the world. Its existence has been known for centuries, and it has been collected from springs and used medicinally. But its commercial value was not realized until the Pennsylvania fields were developed. Its illuminating qualities were then ascertained, and kerosene became the common illuminant of the world.' > The strength of lights is estimated by " candle-power." The standard is a sperm candle that consumes 120 grains of spermaceti in an hour. A sixteen-candle gas-burner is estimated to have an illuminating power equal to sixteen of these sperm candles. The illuminating power of a pound of kerosene is equal to that of three pounds of spermaceti. Electric lights are estimated upon this basis, and incandescent lamps are marked 8, 12, 16 candle-power and upwards. This method of computing illuiniiKiting power is, however, uncertain and uutrustwortliy. 176 r(nrMERCiAi. aEoonAPiiY The oil-fields were extended by the boring of nianj- wells ; and oil, both refined and crude, soon became au important export. The first shipment was in 1802, and from that date there has been an almost uninterrupted increase in the amount. In 1899 the export was nearly 2,oo0,000 barrels. The total value of the oil sold to foreign nations has been more than a billion and a half dollars.' The field from which nearly all this oil has hitherto been obtained, extends from western New York, across Pennsylvania, into West Virginia. This field fur- nishes four-fifths of the world's supply of oil to-day. Petroleum is found also in other parts of the United States. The Lima oil-field, in western Ohio, is very pro- ductive ; but the oil is of inferior illuminating quality, and is largely employed as fuel in manufacturing. A pipe-line connects the Lima fields with Chicago. Very productive wells are now in operation in southern California. The richest oil-fields in the world are in Eussia, in the region between the Black and Caspian seas. The flow of oil is more than that of the Pennsylvania field ; but the present facilities for storing, transporting, and refining it, are inadequate for bringing these fields into their real commercial importance. Nearly all petroleum is now transported in bulk. The crude oil is sent to New York, Philadeljihia, Baltimore, Cleveland, or Parkersburg by pipe-lines to be refined ; and oil is usually shipped in vessels specially provided with tanks for carrying it. Petroleum as fuel is used iu its crude form. For other uses it is distilled. " Gasalene," the first and lightest product secured in the refining operation, contains much of the gaseous part of the oil, and is consumed in making gas. Naphtha, the next product, is very inflammable, and is used to a limited extent for lighting purposes, more particularly in the open air. Benzine, the tliird product, is much used as a solvent, and in the preparation of paint and varnish. Kerosene is made in the next stage of the operation. The law requires that it shall staml a r,i tiiin ti st of heat without taking fire. This law varies in different states, but 140° is a standara i. -i . ( hi that stands a considerably higher test than kerosene, is called head-light oil, from tli.' fart iliat it was first made for use in the head-lights of locomotives. Parafflne oil remains after tins,- nils havn been distilled from the crude petroleum. This is in turn refined, and from it result-; y,,r'ifi,n . fi-.im which nearly all the candles of commerce are now made, it having almost iniiivl) suiinxrili'd tallow, wax, and .spermaceti. It also yields an oil which is used for lubricating pmposi s. I'hc sul)- stance skimmed from the oil during the refining process is purified, making vaseline. In 1878, wliile a well was being sunk near Pittsburg, Pa., for petroleum, a reservoir of natural gas was struck. A great explosion followed, and when the gas was lighted a column nf fire shot into the air. Au altfni|.i I'l iiiili I iliisgas as fuel in an iron-mill pi;oved so sucrissfiil thai otliir wrils were sunk, an>l hi :: I . I lirst generally used in Pittsburg, not only in iiiui-aiid ula-<-\\ m kin;;, bin also /or ■! ; i -rs. This gas is inferior for illuminating iMii|i--i ~ ; Imi a- lid 1 ii -ivos intense heat. au.L i.^ .ii> . a>ily recrnlnted. Its imrticular advantam' in _l,i - umI iroa-workiug is due to tlie fact that it gives otf im siimkr. Natural gas is found > : - iion with petroleum or in a form.ation similar to tliai in wlii.h |.i-tn)leum exists. I'. I 'ciuLsylvania, there are fields iu wdiich this gas has bnn ilrvrlniicd in western New ^^ul.. W . i \ ii^inia, and parts of Ohio and Indiana. Some wells have given a steady flow of gas for years, while others were soon exhausted. In order to keep up the supply, new wells have been bored and new fields opened. This leads to the inferences that the gas is not forming naturally in quantities suflScient to satisfy the demand, > Kerosene oil goes more generally over the world than any other important product of the Ignited States. There is a growing demand for it in Kurope, .\sia, .\ustnilia, and the Pacific islands. In 1809 the United States exported petroleum anil its pRuluets tu the value of over Si.')(!,OI10,Ol1(). COMMERCIAL CKOGHAPJIY 177 mill that the supply may become exhausted. The I'nitcd States is the only country in which any ciinsidcralile indnstfial use has been made of natural u'as, Asjilmll. mineral pitch, or bitumen, is i,.iind in snuthern California, in several parts of Siiuth Anuriea, and in Kurope. The hui^.si ^iipplN. however, is derived from the island of Trinidad, where is a lake of It. The primipal use ut this substance is for paving and the laying of sidewalks. Asphalt results also from the thickening of petroleum through the absorption of oxygen, and it is hence found in layers exposed to the air. Precious Stones. — The diamond is one of the most costly of precious stones. Most of the supply of this jewel comes from Cape Colony, in South Africa ; but a few diamonds are mined in Brazil and India. The stones are sent to Amsterdam, Kotterdam, Antwerp, or London to be cut before being set. Diamond is the hardest substance known, and is exceeded in value by the ruby only. The best specimens are from India and Burmah. Sapphires coine from Ceylon, Siam, and Burmah. The topaz is found principally in Brazil, Siberia, Great Britain, and Colorado; amethysts in India, Persia, Siam, the West Indies, and Brazil; emeralds in Peru and the East Indies ; and jasper in Tiidiii and China. A variety of precious stcnics has li.cii found in the United States, but the value of the annual product is les.s than .SL'nii.diio. The trade in precious stones and jewelry in the United States is an important one, but no traffic is more subject to fluctua- tion. In years of general prosperity, like 1899, jewels and other articles of pure luxury find much more ready sale than at other times.' The making of imitation " precious stones " is an extensive industry, particidarly in France. Salt, chloride of sodium, is found in solution in sea-water, and in deposits which occur in all parts of the world, being as widely distributed in nature as it is necessary to man. Sea-water is evaporated either by the sun's rays or by artificial heat. In low latitudes and where the climate is dry, natural heat is relied upon. Much of the salt of commerce is produced from sea-water. Turk's Island in the West Indies, and the coasts of Spain and Portugal, supply a large share of this salt. Salt-beds are generally worked by means of borings and shafts into which fresh water is pumped, to be again pumped out and evaporated when saturated with salt. There are great salt-wells in France and in Cheshire, England. Deposits of rock- salt, however, are sometimes excavated. The most famous salt-mines in the world are near Cracow in Austrian Poland. These mines have been worked for centuries, and contain thirty miles of galleries and halls quarried out of the solid salt. There are valuable salt-mines in Germany and France. In our own country the most considerable salt-wells are those of Syracuse, and of the Genesee region. New York ; and those in the vicinity of Saginaw Bay, Michigan. Undeveloped beds of rock-salt exist in Louisiana. On the Pacific slope salt is obtained by the evaporation of sea-water, and also from dei)osits of rock-salt. Salt is much used in the arts and manufactures, and in the preservation of foods, especially meat and fish. This mineral is so abundant and widely distributed ' In 1899 the importation of precious stones, including uncut diamonds, was §3,718,000 in value. The importation of jewelry and manufactures of gold and silver w;is about §500,000 in 1894, while in 1899 it amounted to over .$.'!, 000,000. 178 COMMEllCIAL GEOGRAPHY tliat it. plays but a small part in poiiinicrce. The world's product of it is estimated at seven million tons a year. Of tlus Great Britain furnishes more than anj- other country, and is followed, in their order, by the United States, India, Germany, and Russia. We now import salt to the annual value of about $500,000, chiefly from England and Italy. Our annual consumption of this mineral is over two million tons, used mainly in preserving food-products and in the manufactures. v. — MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS Alcohol. — Alcohol is a volatile liquid formed during the fermentation of vegetable juices that contain sugar. In different countries it is made from different substances. The chief sources from which alcohol is derived in the United States are corn and other grains, and potatoes. In Europe alcohol is made from grapes, rice, beets, potatoes, molasses, grain, and various fruits. In Asia rice is mainly used. and the product is known as arrack. Alcohol enters largely into the common beverages of most nations, and its manufacture is thus an important industry. In the arts and manufactures alcohol is of great value, and is used in a variety of ways, especially in making varnishes, medicines, and perfumes, and in preserving animal substances. Alcohol exists to a small per cent, in the fermented liquors, such as wine, cider, beer, and ale, and to a large per cent, in the various distilled liquors, such as gin, rum, whi.skey, and brandy. A cheap kind of alcohol, sometimes called wood spirits, is made from wood and other vegetable fibres. Its manufacture is more expensive than that of ordinary alcohol ; but not being used as a beverage, it is not taxed, and hence it is cheaper. It is used in the manufacture of cheap varnishes and for similar purposes. Buttons. — Buttons are of considerable importance in commerce. They are manu- factured in the United States, yet the import in 1888 reached an aggregate value of .$4,000,000. This importation is decreasing, amounting to nearly $500,000 in 1899. ]'>uttons are made from a great variety of materials, but chiefly from vegetable ivory, pearl shell, metal, and wood. Wooden buttons are covered with silk or other mate- rials. Many of the buttons of commerce are made in the penal institutions of France and Austria, and are so cheap that much of the world's supply is thus produced. Byes. — Until the introduction of aniline coloring matters, nearly all dyeing was done with colors of vegetable or animal origin, and a large traffic was carried on in these dyestuffs which were gathered from all parts of the world. jSIost of this trade has now disappeared. Previous to the discovery of America the dye- stuffs used in Europe were few in number. Several colors were added from American plants. The chief red dyes are madder and cochineal. :\Iaa(hM- is a plant raised in nearly all parts of Europe, and in Asia and Asia .Minor. ("ochineal is the dried body of an insect that lives on several species of the cactus plant. It was originally found in Guatemala and Mexico; but was successfully introduced into the Canary Islands, from which much of the supply now comes. rOMMRRCT \L GKOnnAPIIY 179 Blue is produced from indigo. 'I'lic cultivation of tlic indigo ])lant is very ex- tensive in India, and on a smaller scale in Indo-China, Spain, Japan, Central America, and the Philippine Islands. Indigo is one of the most important of dyestuffs, owing to the permanence of its colors. An inferior imitation is now made chemically. The chief yellow colors are produced from fustic. This tree is native to Mexico, lirazil, and the West Indies. Fustic logs are exported, and the colonng matter afterwards extracted. Orange colors are produced from annotto. This is made from the pulp sur- rounding the seeds of a tree that grows in the "West Indies, Mexico, and Brazil. Besides its use in dyeing fabrics, annotto is in demand in all leading dairy countries for coloring butter. Logwood and nut-galls are the chief dyes to produce black. Logwood is the heart of a tree, native to Mexico and Central America, but cultivated in the West Indies. The bark and outside wood are chopped away, and the coloring part exported in the log. Nut-galls are excrescences that grow on many kinds of trees, but more particularly on the oak. Other dyestuffs are used to a limited extent, and those above enumerated are combined to form other colors. But artificial dyes, especially aniline colors, are in- creasing in use every year. Glass. — Glass is a chemical combination of silica with an alkali, such as potash or soda. It is prepared by subjecting the mixture to intense heat, other ingredients being added according to the kind of glass required. Its manufacture is carried on very extensively in England, Germany, Belgium, and France, as well as in the United States. Some of the finest silica, commonly called quartz, used in glass-making, is found in western Massachusetts. It is white, and is pulverized so that it resembles flour. This powder is used for making the purest crystal glass, and is exported to the various glass-making nations of Europe. In England much of the silica is from the Isle of Wight, but the finest silica found in Europe comes from Belgium and from Fontainebleau in France. Glass is very extensively used for domestic purposes, and in the arts and manufactures. It is unaffected by chemicals, except fluoric acid, and is much used in laboratories. When in its melted state glass is easily worked. Glass-making in the United States has reached a higli state of perfection, not only in plate, crystal, and cut glass, but in the delicate and beautiful colors of cathedral glass. Considerable amounts of this arc exported to Europe. In Europe, Bohemia in Austria is the -natcsl centre for fine and cut glass; heavy plate glass is made in Paris and its vicinity, uml the cheaper grades of window glass in Belgium, Germany, and England. In the United States most of the cut and art glass is made in Massachusetts and New York, while cheaper grades are manufactured in western Pennsylvania and West Virginia, whore natural gas is available for fuel. The United States imports plate glass from Belgium and England; bottles and vials from Germany ; window glass from Belgium : and small glassware from 180 COMMERCIAL GKOGnAPHY Austria and Germany — to the annual value of about !|4,000,()00. Our exports of glass of all kinds aggregate a value of about $1,500,000 a year. Leather. — Hides, skins, and their manufactured products enter largelj' into the commerce of every civilized country. As might be expected, the raw material is exported mainly from countries where the grazing interests are largest ; and accord- ingly the vast region watered by the Eiver Plate, the Brazilian tablelands, the British territories in India and Australasia, together with our o^\n western plains, yield the greater part of the raw hides of commerce. Hides are converted into leather by a series of processes called tanning, which consists in subjecting them to the influence of tannic acid. This principle is derived from many natural sources, the most important of which is the bark of the hemlock- tree. The location of tanning industries the world over is largely determined by the proximity of forest growths which yield the various tanning-barks. Oak bark is especially valuable for tanning purposes, but its use is comparatively small. Russia leather derives much of its excellence from the bark of the Russian birch which is used in producing it. We annually import hides and skins to the value of about $40,000,000; and these come to us largely from the Argentine Republic, Brazil, Jlexico, and Colombia, although the goat-skins and ox-hides which we derive from British sources are of great importance. We buy tanned calfskins of France and Germany, and great quantities of skins for morocco from France and Great Britain. We export sole-leather and upper-leather to the value of about $17,000,000 a year, chiefly to supply the boot-and-shoe factories of Great Britain. The manufactures of leather, or into which leather enters, are very numerous ; but by far the most important of leather products are those of footwear and gloves. In these, as in most other manufactures. Great Britain, France, Germany, and our own country are the leading nations. We buy gloves to the amount of nearly $6,000,000 annually, taking our supply from Germany and France. We buy upper- leathers to nearly half that amount from the same countries. Our domestic manu- factures in all the forms of leather foot-coverings are so active and extensive that our imports of finished goods of this type are relatively small. In fact, we export about $2,500,000 worth of leather manufactures a year, principally to the West Indies and Canada. Paper. — Paper is vegetable fibre made into pulp, and then rolled into thin sheets and dried. Until within a few years its use was limited to the making of books, mauusrript, wrappings, etc., but now innumerable uses have been found for it. The United States is the leading paper-producing nation, with Great Britain second, and Germany third in order. Rags, wood, straw, grass, and many kinds of fibre, are worked up into paper. Paper pulp moulded into shapes for ornamental work is used as a substitute for wood and metal. This material is called papier-macM. Articles are made from this by applying enormous hydrostatic pressure. Papier-macU is now much used in the manufacture of car-wheels, the core of which is made of this COMMERCIAL GEOGItAPlIV 181 substance. Thus made they are less brittle, and will outwear wheels of solid steel. The quality of paper depends upon the kind of fibre used. With the develoi)nient of the art of paper-making in countries of commercial importance, the denuuul for paper-making material has become very great. The best paper is made from fibre that has been spun and woven, such as linen and cotton, and rags of these sub- stances are of much economic value. Linen rags are especially valuable for making the finest and strongest paper. Other fibre, particularly that of wood, is employed for common paper. Poplar and spruce are the woods most used, but not to the exclusion of other soft woods. Wood-pulp is extensively made in JIaine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, and a larger quan- tity of paper is made from this than from any other sub.stance. It is also imported from Canada, Norway, Sweden, and Germany. Other fibres used in making the coarser kinds of paper are jute, hemp, and straw. In 1899 rags, wood-pulp, and other paper-stock were imported into the United States to the value of over $3,000,(100. As an export, paper was worth about $r>,0()0,000 to the United States in 1899. Jluch of the fine paper manufactured in the United States is made in western JMassachusetts. Wine. — ^With the exception of raisins, wines and brandy are the only impor- tant products of vine-culture. From the oldest recorded time, all the territory bordering on the Mediterranean Sea has yielded the grape in finest varieties; but to-day this fruit is grown in all countries of the world that lie between 20° and 50° of latitude, north or south. In our own country, western New York and central Ohio yield a fine variety of this fruit. But our richest wine-producing section is middle and southern California. The grape is indigenous to the territory of the United States, but the finest California product is the result of graftings from European stock. Thus far, however, the wine of commerce is principally derived from ircditonaui'au countries, especially the western ones, and from the valleys of the Ivliinr ;niil 1 »anube. The United States imports wines to the value of about f 7,0(»0,<)i)i) a yt'iiv. mainly from France, Germany, and Spain. Brandy comes almost wholly from France. The wines of Germany and Spain imported by us, about one- quarter of the whole, come usually in casks, while that from France, nearly three- quarters of the whole, is imported in bottles. The United States exports very little wine, the value of the annual shipment averaging recently about $050,000, and this almost entirely to other countries of our own continent. The Californian product of wine is such that in spite of the conservatism of trade, and of the opposition of interested importers, it must, by reason of its many excellences, eventually supplant the various European products in our own market. Sherry is the jirincipal wine of Spain, port of Portugal, Burgundy of France, and various white wines, known as Rhine wine, of Germany. Italian and Hungarian wines have for some time been steadily increasing in commercial consequence ; and the former are now largely sold to France, to make up for the decrease in the French supply occasioned by the ravages of the phylloxera. t' OMMER CIA L G E OR A I'H Y VI. - MISCELLANEOUS COMMODITIES Drugs and Chemicals. — The iiriiiriiJiil drui^s of coiiiiiiorce are cinchona, opium, sulphur, soda, tartrate of potash, potash, and the " chloride " of lime. Cinchona, or Peruviaii bark, is one of the most important of dnigs. It is ob- tained from several species of trees that are indigenous on the slopes of the Andes. These trees have been introduced into the West Indies, India, and Ceylon, and are now cultivated with such success that much of the world's supply of cinchona comes from these regions. Quinine is made from this bark, and is a trustworthy remedy in many cases of malarial fevers. Cinchona bark valued at over .^3(MI,(M)(i is annually imported into the United States, and quinine to the value of f 950,000. Opium is the dried juice of poppy -heads. It is produced almost entirely in India, China, Persia, and Asia Minor. The medicinal properties of opium are very important; and, owing to the great value of the drug, more efforts are made to smuggle it into restricted countries than are made with almost any other article of commerce. The government of Great Britain holds the monopoly of the traffic in opium in India. Laudanum and morphini' air made from opium; it is also an ingredient of paregoric and many other |ih;iiiiiu((iitical prejiarations. The annual import of this drug into the United States reaches tlie value of over $2,000,000. Sulphur, or brimstone, is a very common mineral, and is found chiefly in combination with other minerals. When found pure it is a product of volcanoes. Several rich deposits of sulphur occur in the United States, particularly in Alaska ; but most of the world's supply comes from Sicily, and it is the most important mineral product of Italy. Its principal use is for making sulphuric acid, but it is also valuable in the manufacture of hard rubber and of gunpowder. As a constituent of iron pyrites, it is a large e.xport of both Spain and Portugal. Our annual imports of sulphur amount to over $2,000,000, almost wholly from Sicily. Soda is imported by us from Chili and Peru, where it chiefly occurs in the form of nitrate of soda, in which countries this salt is found in vast beds. From it is made the bulk of nitric acid, and it is also useful in tlie manufacture of fertilizers. Nitrate of sodium is familiarly known as ( Inli sail |ieli-e, to distinguish it from nitrate of potassium. Carbonate of soda is exteusi\i'ly usimI in tlu- manufactures of glass and soap. Potash salts are also an important article of commerce. Nitrate of potassium, nitre, or salt |ii'h'e, is extensively imported from Peru. It is used mainly in the mauu- facluie 111 ;4un|Hiwder and of nitric acid. The value of nitrates annually imported is alinul .S2.."in(),000. Tartrate of potassium, the "tartar," or "argol," of commerce, is a product of wine-manufacture, being deposited on the inside of wine-casks in a hard crust. It is, therefore, chiefly exported from wine-producing countries. We import crude tartar to the value of about $2,000,000, most of wliich conies from Italy and France. It is used in calico-printing and dyeing. By far the greater part of the potash, of commerce, however, is the caustic potash used in the manufacture of soap and of alum. COMMKRCIM. aEOGRAI'HY 183 Lime "chloride" is the most important substance used for bleaching and dis- infecting purposes. The chief supplies of the world are derived from England, Germany, and Spain. Our own purchases of it, to the annual value of aljout $1,500,000, are almost wholly derived from England and Scotland. Furs. The skins of animals were formerly much used for clothing in countries where the winter climate is rigorous. But with the increase in skill in manufac- turing cloth, and the growth of commerce between nations, cloth has superseded furs for general use as apparel among all peoples except those living in the coldest countries. Furs are worn in winter in Europe and America, not only for the comfort they give, but also to a greater extent for adornment. The skins of the fur-seal are the first in value in the fur-trade ; and these come almost entirely from Bering Sea. The seal rookeries of this sea are controlled by the United States government, and the number of seals killed each year is limited by law so that these animals may be preserved from extinction. In their natural condition the skins are coarse and unsightly; but, by an elaborate process, the long hairs are plucked out, and the soft fur remaining is dyed either black or deep bronze. The method of treating the skins was long kept secret, and all skins were sent to London ; but the process is now known elsewhere, and many skins are now plucked and dyed in the United States. The squirrel-skins of commerce come almost entirely from Siberia, where these animals are killed in great numbers, particularly in the eastern part. Fox-skins, la the order of their value, are the black, silver-gray, blue, cross, white, and red. These skins come from British America and Siberia. Skins of the wolf, bear, and sable come from the same regions; the beaver and muskrat, from northern America; the rabbit, from Australia ; the nutria, from the Plate regions of South America ; and the lion and tiger, from southern Asia and from Africa. Sea-otter, now very rare, inhabit Bering Sea. The skin of the sea-otter sometimes brings three hundred dollars. The annual value of the furs and skins exported from the United States is about $3,000,000. San FrancLsco is the leading seal-skin market; and London, Leipzig, and Nijui-jSTovgorod, are the chief fur-markets of Europe. A close imitation of seal-skiu made from silk is a common article of commerce, as it is much lighter than fur, less expensive, and nearly as warm. Gums and Eesins. — Gums and resins exist in great variety. The more important are the following : — Amber is the fossilized resin of trees that once grew in northern Germany and The Netherlands and in parts of Siberia and Xorth America. Most of the amber of commerce comes from northern Germany, where it is either dug from the earth or washed up by the sea. Amber has many uses, depending upon its quality and color. The chief uses are for articles of adornment and for making varnishes. Amber is found in Burmah, but the product is sold wholly in the adjoining countries. Gnm-Arabic is a resinous gum, gathered from several varieties of acacia. The 18i COMMERCIAL GEUURAPHY chief sources of this gum are the Barbary States and the Soudan in North Africa, Turkej^, Asia Minor, Australia, and the East Indies. The finest qualities are used in making confectionery. Other and more important uses are in the manufactures for stiffening and giving lustre to cloth, for making paste, and for sizing. Copal is a resinous gum found both in fossil form and exuding from trees. The chief sources of supply are the east and west coasts of Africa. It is obtained from the interior of Africa, but reaches the coast in trade. Copal also comes from the East Indies. This gum is extensively used in making varnishes and in calking ships. The fossil gum is the best. Dextrine is artificial gum made from starch. There are several processes for making it. The uses for dextrine are similar to those of gum-arabic ; and it has superseded gum-arabic to a considerable extent in the manufactures. It is used in giving the adhesive surface to labels, postage-stamps, and envelopes. Kauri gum is similar to copal. All the kauri gum of commerce comes from New Zealand. It is found in fossil form, and also exuding from the kauri pine. The fossil gum is more valuable than the fresh gum. Kauri gum is used in making the better qualities of varnish and cheap imitations of amber adornments. Shellac is a resinous incrustation formed on the bark of various kinds of trees by an insect called the lac. The shellac of commerce comes from India, China, Siam, and the East Indies. The supply is derived both from the forests and from artificial propagation. In the countries in which it is produced shellac is much used for making ornaments and trinkets ; but in Europe and America its chief utility lies in the manufacture of varnishes and sealing-wax, and in stiffening hats. The lacquer-work of China and Japan is made of this substance. Mastic is an exudation from the mastic shrub, grown chiefly in Spain. Portugal, and the Canary Islands, but to some extent in Italy, Greece, and Asia Jlinor. It is used principally in making varnish. The numerous uses of India-ruhher, or caoutchouc, have made it an important article of commerce. It is the gum of several varieties of tree that abound in Brazil and Central America. Two-thirds of the supply come from the basin of the Amazon River. Para, at the mouth of the river, is the greatest rubber-market in the world. A small amount is derived from the west coast of Africa. It is very elastic, and is used in articles where this characteristic is valued. It is also used exten- sively in making water-proof shoes and clothing. When heated, and incorporated with sulphur and other ingredients, it forms a hard substance known as "vulcanized " rubber. The latter is used in making a great variety of small articles. The manu- facture of rubber is carried on more largely and to greater perfection in the United States than in any other country. ■ In 1899 rubber and gutta-percha were imported into the United States to the value of about $32,000,000; the export of rubber goods amounted tn si.rc.'i.iKMi. Outtu-iiirrliK is ;i gum similar in many respects to rubber. It is softened by hot water and is easily wrought. The uses for gutta-percha are similar to those of caoutchouc, but more varied. It resists the action of water, and is a good non-con- ductor of electricity ; hence the iisc of it as an insulating material for ocean cables (•(iMMKRciAL (;i:oai;M'iiY 185 and parts of elcrti-iciil insti\iiuents. The sujijily comes entirely from the East Indies. Tar is obtained from two sources, coal and wood. "Wood tar is obtained by extracting the pitch from pine-trees by heat. Tar is largely produced from the yellow pine of the South Atlantic states. In Europe it is produced mostly in Russia, Sweden, and Norway. It is much used in shipbuilding as a preservative. Trayacanth is a gummy exudation from a shrub that grows in Asia Jlinor, Persia, India, and parts of Africa. It is easily dissolved iu water, and is used in making lozenges, pills, and paste, in marbling paper, and in calico-printing. THrpentine is a resinous liquid obtained from nearly all kinds of pine. It is made in Russia and Sweden, but the greatest amount is derived from the yellow pine of the South Atlantic states. Crude turpentine is distilled, and from it is produced spirit or oil of turpentine. The solid matter resulting from this distilla- tion is the rosin of commerce. The annual value of the foreign trade iu these resinous products to the United States is nearly $10,000,000. Hops. — The blossoms of the hop-plant contain a bitter principle extensively used in the making of beer and ale. Hops are raised chiefly in coimtries where brewing is carried on; such as Germany, England, The Netherlands, and Austria- Hungary. In the United States hops are grown in the states of New York and Washington. Our export of hops is from |;3,000,000 to $4,000,000 annually. Our imports of hops fluctuate from $500,000 to $1,000,000. They are mainly from Germany. In 1899 our total foreign trade in hops amounted to more than $4,000,000, and the trade in liquors in which hops are used to nearly as much more. Ivory. — The ivory of commerce comes from the tusk of the elephant, of the walrus, and from vegetable ivory nuts. The elephant ivory is the finest quality. It comes principally from Africa, though a small amount is derived from southern Asia. The annual product of Africa is estimated at about 150,000 pounds, but the supply is decreasing. The elephants are killed in the interior of the continent; and the ivorj' finds its way to market by barter all along the coast, but chiefly on the west by way of the Congo. Walrus ivory is of inferior qualitj', owing to a coarse-grained core through the centre of the tusk. The annual product does not reach 50,000 pounds. Fossil ivory, from the tusks of the extinct mammoth, is exported from Siberia; but it is stained and of poor quality. The manufacture of celluloid, or artificial ivory, is an important industry, particularly in the United States and France. When soft it is easily moulded into shape, and it has very generally superseded genuine ivory. For small articles, particularly buttons, a palm-nut that grows in abundance in the northern part of South America is used. This nut possesses firm texture, and closely resembles ivory. It is easily worked when softened by hot water. Lumber. — Trees are the most universally useful products of nature. They are used iu building houses and ships, in making household utensils and ornaments, and more than any other substance as fuel. After the tree is felled, and the wood 186 CO\fMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY is partly wrought, it is called lumber. In several countries the supply of wood is limited and lumber is imported/ In Europe the chief lumber-producing countries are Scandinavia, Germany, and Russia. But lumbering is not carried on in any of these countries to the extent that it is in the United States. The forest area of the United States exceeds that of omj other country, and -wood-working is pursued more extensively iu the United States than elsewhere. In 1899 the value of the lumber and manufactures of lumber exported from the United States was over $41,000,000. The imports of lumber and manufactures of lumber were valued at $8,672,000. Nearly three-quarters of this importation was of logs and lumber from Canada. Of the lumber exported, more was sent to the Argentine Eepublic and to Australia than to other countries ; but the articles manufactured from wood were exported chiefly to the nations of Europe. Soft wood of the various kinds of cone-bearing species forms most of the lumber of commerce. This includes pine, hemlock, and spruce from the United States and <^anada, spruce from Norway, and pine from Germany, The most abundant and valuable pine-tree in the United States is the yellow or southern pine. Not only is the lumber valuable, but most of the turpentine of commerce, the resinous sap of the tree, comes from it. Owing to its durability, oak, one of the toughest and strongest kinds of woods, is used in shiiJ-building, carriage-making, and iu fine cabinet-work. Live-oak, that grows in the Southern States, is the best wood for ship-building purposes. Oak is exported from Spain and Portugal. Teak, another kind of wood valuable in ship-building, grows in southern Asia and adjoining islands. Redwood is plentiful in California, and some is exported. It is very durable, soft, and easily worked. It possesses a beautiful grain and color, and is susceptible of fine polish. It is used not only in building, but in interior finishing, for making shingles, and in cabinet-work. Oregon jyine, a species of fir, is exported from the Pacific slope, particularly from Oregon and Washington. It is used for all kinds of building purposes. Owing to its elasticity it is much employed in ship-building. Most vessels built on the Pacific slope are made of this timber. In Australia there are great forests of J(tr rah. This is similar to the redwood of California, and is rapidly making its way into conuncri'e. The kauri pine of New Zealand is used iu all kinds of building, including ship-building. Black walmtt, used in ornamental and cabinet work, comes mostly from the valley of the Mississippi, and the supply is being rapidly exhausted. Maple abounds in the northern United States and Canada, and has grown into recent demand for flooring, cabinet-work, furniture-making, and other grades of fine work. 1 Australia, Cliina, Japan, and Mexico draw from the United Slates largely for lumber, their native supplies being mainly iu almost undeveloped and inaccessible regions. rOMMKRCIAL (lEOCHM'IIY 187 MnlHiijuiiii. ;i Vfi-y hi'ilvy and costly tiinhcr, is iist-il iiriiicipally as voiiPPr in the tiiiest kiiiJs of cabinet-work and interior linisliiug. Tiiis wood comes from Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies. Red cedar, used in lead-jieneil making, comes entirely from Florida. This wood also finds some use in cabinet-work. Among other kinds of wood are ebony, from the east coast of Africa, used for fine cabinet-work ; roaewood, from Brazil, for veneer-work ; boxwood, from Spain and nearly all parts of the United States, for turning purposes, carving, and engraving blocks; chestnut, ivhite wood, and ash from the northern part of the United States, for interior wood-finish. Tobacco. — Tobacco is a plant native to the Americas. In the seventeenth century it was introduced into Europe, and its use spread with great rajjiditv in si)ite of the opposition of church and state. The cultivation of the plant lias now e.Ktended to many countries, but the best tobacco still comes from the New World. The annual production of the world is over 750,000 tons, and about a quarter of this amount is raised in the United States. Tobacco is an article of great money value to the world, as it is heavily taxed in every country; and in France, Austria, Italy, and Spain the sale of it is a govern- ment monopoly. It has been exported from tlie United States to the average value of nearly $l.'r),000,000 a year for the past thirty years. The leading tobacco regions outside of the United States are Cuba, tlie Duteli East Indies, India, Brazil, and Turkey. Tobacco stands among the important articles of commerce of Europe and America. Our import of leaf-tobacco has a value of about $10,000,000 a year from Holland and Cuba; and of manufactured tobacco about .'i!.'>,500,000 from Cuba. An excellent quality of tobacco is grown in the I'hilippines, and with the normal development of these islands under American rule and energy, this product must greatly increase in value. INDEX [The Introdiicti- :i, being but a review of the principles of common-school geography, is not indexed. The references marked k. are to foot-notes.] Aberdeen, 87. Abyssinia, 103. Acacia. See Gums. Acapulco, 129. Adelaide, 90. Aden, 42»., 90, 93,94, 107. Africa, 105. Agave, 156. Agricultural products, 65, 98, 99, 101, 109, 128, 131, 146; implements, 76, 77, 94 n., 100, 152 ?t., 154 «., 155 H., 157 n., 171 ; agriculture England, 83 «. Alabama, 48, 71, 77, 92. Alaska, 45, 50, 52, 54, 78, 98, 169. Albany and Schenectady R. R., Alcohol, 40, 163, 178. See Spirits. Ale. See Brewing. Alen^ons, 114. Alexandria, 107. Algeria, 114, 115. Algiers, 39, 115. Allegheny City, 75. AUentown, 76. Almaden, 140. Almonds, 113, 140. Alpaca, 157, 108. See Wool. Aluionn, 70. Ahim, 112. Auuizun. 157. Amber, 92 «., 108, 183. Amethysts, 177. Amritsar, 92. Amsterdam, 41 )i., 118. Anam, 114, 115. Anchovies, 125. Ancona, 35 ii. Andres Islands, 102. Angola, 144. Angora Wool, 105, 139, 168. Aniline, 109, 175. 178. &eDyes. Animal Products, 71, 99 h., 109, •117. See Beef, Pork, Hides, Leather, Furs. Animals, Live, 103 n., 108 n., 152. Annotto. See Dyes. Anthracite. See Coal. Antigua Island, 103. Antwerp, 41 n., 124. Appalachioola, 71. Apples, 113, 163. See Fruits. Arabia, 163. Archangel, 136. Argentine Republic, 41 «., 64, 110, 151, 152, 155, 157, 161, 168. Argol. See Potash. Arkansas, 48. Arrack. See Alcohol. Arrowroot, 103. Art Works, 142 «. Asphalt, 102, 103 «., 151, 177. Aspinwall. See Colon. Astrakhan, 136. Asuncion, 158. Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 R. R., 40. Atliabasca, 98, 100. Athens, 140. Atlanta, 63, 77. Attar of Roses, 138. Atlleboro, 76. Auburn. 75, 76. Auckland, 97. • Augusta (Georgia), 63, 77. Australia, 09. 79. 80. 93, 94, 137, 103, 166. 168, 180. 188 Austria-Hungary, 109 ; com- merce, 34 ; wheat, 48, 04, 65, resources and products, 142, 143, 160 ; cities and indus- tries, 143, 108. Azores Islands, 143. Bacon. See Pork Products. Bahamas, Islands, 102. Bahia, 121. Balbriggan, 89. Balize, 103, 148. Balsams. 148, 153. Baltic Ports, 108. 110. Baltimore. 35, 30 h.. 42. 47. -50 n., 69. Bananas. 80, 103 u.. 148 «.. 103. 154 H., 163. Banca Island, 110. 173. Bangor. 75. Banking Centres. 66. 67, 93. Barbadoes, Island, 103. Barcelona, 35 «., 146. Bark, Tanning. See Hemlock, Oak, Birch. Barley, 162. Barometers, 172. Barranquilla, 154. Barter, 31. Basic Steel, 51 n. Basque Provinces, 146. Batavia, 119. Bath (Maine), 70. Batum, 135. Bay City, 72. Bayonne, 50 n. Bay St. Louis, 71. Beacons, 34. Beans, 131. Beaufort, 71. Beaver, 52. .Sec Furs. 189 Beech. 100, lin. Ml, M-.'. Hee-culture, 113, 118. Beef and Beef Products, 40, 02, 81, 82 H., 104, 120 H., 141 «., 142 n., 155, 100-161. Beef Extract, 155. Beer. See Brewing. Beet Sugar, 100, 110, 142, 105 h. Belem. See Para. Belfast, 41 n.. 80. Belgium, Commerce, 34, 05, 123 ; resources, 123, 175. Belize. See. Balize. Benzine, 176. See Petroleum. Berbice, 104. Bering Sea, 52. Berlin, 109. Berlin (New Hampshire), 76. Bermudas, Islands, 102. Bessemer Steel, oln., 150, 171, 171 n. Bethlehem, 76. Beyrout, 139. Bicycles, 64, 76, 86. Biddeford, 75. Bilbao, 146. Billiton Island, 173. Birch, 109, 180. Birkenhead, 85. Birmingham (Alabama), 77. Birmingham (England), 80. Bitumen. .S'ee Asphalt. Bituminous Coal. See Coal. Black Walnut, 186. See Tim- ber. Bleaching. 70. 87. Bloemfontein. 100. Blue Vitriol, 109. Bogota, 153. Bolivia, 41 h., 155, 156, 157, 158. Bombay, 42)i., 92. Books, 81,94n., 141 »., 142 ».. 154h.. 180. Boots and Shoes, 57. 67, 74, 70. See Leather. Bordeaux. 114. Borneo, Lsland, 118, 119. Boston, 35, 60, 66, 67, 69, 16.5. Boston & Albany K. R., 66, 67. Boston & Maine R. R. , 66, 67. See Glass. Bradford, 80. Brandy. 178, 181. See Spirits. Brass, 173. Brass Goods, 57, 76, 86, 131, 169. .See Copper. Brazil, 05, 151, 156, 163, 187 ; products and trading, 120- 121; chief cities, 121, Bread Stuffs, 48, 49, 54, 92 n., 94,99 k., 103«.,112?i.,117n., 140, 141 n., 143 k., 145 n., 157 k. See Flour, Wheat, Maize. Bremen, 109, 110. Brewing. 57. 80. 80, 110, W->. 185. See Hops. Bricks. 71. 72. 73, 74, 83, 174. Bridgeport. 70. Bridgetown. 103. Brimstone. See Sulphur. Brisbane. 90. Bristol, 85. Britannia-ware, 76, 173. See Tin. British Africa, 105. British Burmah, 91. British Columbia, 69, 98, 99. British Guiana, 104. British Honduras. 101, 103. British India, 64, 00, 114, 105, 187. British AVest Indies, 101. Brito, 30. Brockton, 7(i. Bronzes, 109. See Copper. Brooklyn, 50 «., 00. Brunswick, 71. Bru.s.sel.s, 41 »., 124. Brussels & Jfalines R. R., 33. Buda-Pesth, 143, Buenos Ayres, 40,41 n., 121, 152, 158. Buffalo, 50 H, 50)1., 02, 71, 72, 100 II. Building-stone, 45, .-)4, 07, 173. Bulbs, 117. Burgundy. See Wine. Burlaps, 107. Burlington, 76. Burmah, British. 91. Burlon-on-Trent, 86. Butte City (Montana), 77. Butter,82, 88, 80, 97h., 100. 104, 117, 123, 141k., 142 «., 100. Butterine, 48 n. Buttons, 111«., 142, 143, 147. 170 K., 178, 185. Cabinet-woods, 156, 180, 187. Cabinet-work, 180, 187. Cable Codes, 42. Cacao. See Cocoa. Cadiz, 146. Caicos Island, 103. Cairo, 46 n. cutta. 76, 87, 92, 182, 185. California, 45, 46, 40 n., 49 «., 69, 77, 130, 137, 148, 153, 165 n. Callao, 157. Cambodia, 114, 115. Camel, 32 k. Camphor, 119, 131. Canada, railways, 40, 67 ; coal, 52 11., 98 ; trade, 72, 73 ; land values, 99. Canadian-Pacific Railway, 40, 40 k., 99. Canals, 36, 37, 38, 59, 60 ; Eng- land, 84, 85, 89; Sweden, 141 ; Germany, 108, 109, 110 ; France, 112, 113; Nether- lands, 117 ; Belgium, 123 ; China, 132 ; Russia, 136. See also Panama, Suez, and Corinth. Canal Boat, Capacity, .59 ii. Canal, Intemceanic. 1.53. Canary Islands, 178. Caiulle Power, 175 k. Candles. 170. Cane Sugar. 164. Canned-goods, 78, 163, 173. Canso, 42 ii. Canton, .30, 93, 13:!. Caoutchouc. See Rublier. Cape Breton Island, 101. Cape Cod, 70. Cape Cod Canal, 37. Cape Colony. 105. 100. I'JO I.XDEX Cape Nome, 78. Cape Town, lOo. Cape Verde Islands, 143. Caracas, 151. Caravans and Routes, 32 ;;., 39, 84, 91 n., 133, 137, 139. Carbonate of Iron, 170. Carbonate of Soda, 182. Cardiff, 85. Caribbean Sea, 103, 148. Caroline Islands, 111. Carpets, 67, 76, 123, 124, 139. Cars and Carriages, 74, 76, 94 n., 120 «., 171, 180. Cashmere Shawls, 91, 133, 168. Caspian, 137. Cast Iron. See Iron. Cattle, 49, 51, 77, 81,90, 99 n., 109, 113, 115, 128, 129, 138, 140, 146, 148, 149, 151, 155, 157, 160, 160 n., 161 «. Caustic Potash. See Potash. Cayenne, 115. Cayuga & Seneca Canal, 59 n. Cedar, 78, 103, 153 ; red, 187. See Timber. Celebes Island, 118, 119. Celluloid, 76, 185. Central America, 148. Cereals, 86, 95, 101, 109, 112, 117, 124, 128, 136. See Items. Ceylon, 00, 91n., 92, 163, 165. Champerico, 148. Champlain Canal, 37, 59. Charcoal 175. See Coal. Charleston, 57. Charlotte (North Carolina), 77. Charlottetown, P. K. I., 101. Charts, Marine, 34. Chattanooga, 77. Cheese, 70, 82 «., 88, 97 n., 100, See IJrugs and Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, 59. Chesapeake Bay. 67. Chesapeake Fisheries. 54. Chestnut, 113, 187. Cheyenne. 77. Chicago, 60. 71. 72; 73, 74. Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy R.R., 40. Chicago and Northwestern R.R., 40. Chili, 152, 154, 155. China, 41, 41 «., 42 n., 04, 05, 69 )(. , 79 ; opium, 32 n. ; coal, 52 )i. ; resources and indus- tries, 132, 165, 167, 174 ; trade, 84, 91 m., 93, 114, 133 n. ; cities and dependencies, 133. Chinaware, 81, 83, 141, 143 Ji. See Pottery, Porcelain. Chloride of Sodium. See Salt. Chocolate. See Cocoa. Christiania. 141. Cider, 178. Cigars, 80, 150, 150 n. See To- bacco. Cinchona, 92, 118, 119, 153, 157, 158, 182. Cincinnati, 39 ?i., 40 «., 59, 74, 174. Cinnabar. See Quicksilver. Cipher Telegraph Codes, 42 n., 44. Citron, 113, 143. Clams, 161. Clay and Clay Products, 83, 1 73, 174. See Pottery. Cleveland, 50 n., 59, 71, 72, 72 n. Clocks and Watches, 56, 63, 94 n., 131 H., 138, 143 ?i. See also Watches. Clothing, 153. See Woollen, Cotton, Silk, etc. Cloves, 107, 119. Coal, 35, 45, 46 n., 52, 62 ji., 54, 09, 75, 76, 78, 81, 82 ii., 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 94h., 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99 n., 100, 101, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 113, 117 n., 118,119,121,123, 124, 125, 126 n., 128, 129 n., 130, 131, 132, 135, 130, 137, 138, 139, 142, 151, 152, 153, 154, 174, 175, 185. Coal Mining, 175. Coca, 158, 162. Cochineal. See Dyes. Cocoa, 92, 102, 103 h., 120 «., 149, 151, 151)!., 153, 154)1., 156, 156 n., 158, 162. Cocoanuts, 102, 104, 148 n., 154 n. Cod, 54 n., 78, 83, 88, 101, 113, 141, 161. Coffee, 79, 80, 82)).. 91 )i., 92, 96, 102, 103, 103)1., 104, 115, 117, 117 )(., 118, 119, 120, 120))., 121, 121 n., 122, 128. 129)1., 148, 149, 151, loin.. 153, 154, 154)1., 156, 156 )i., 157, 158, 162, 163. Cohoes, 76. Coke, 175. Colegrove, 50 n. Cologne, 110. Colombia, U. S. of. 41 n.. 151, 153-154. Colon, 36, 40. 153. Colorado, 77, 104, 108, 125. Columbus (Georgia), 77. Columbus (Ohio), 77. Combs, 87. Comstock Lode, 77. Concepcion, 158. Concord, 76. Condensed Milk, 138. Congo, 185. Connecticut, 76. Constantinople, 35 )i., 139. Consular Service, 32. Copal Gum, 184. Copenhagen, 142. Copper, 52, 52 ii., 76, 77,81, 88, 96,96)1., 100. 101, 105.117)1. 125, 128, 130, 137. 141. 143, 146, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 169, 172. Copperas, 92. Copra, 79, 107. See Cocoanut. Coral, 125, 120 ii. Cordage, 150, 167. See Hemp and Sisal. Corea. See Korea. Corinth Canal. .36. 140. Cork, 113. 143)1., 140. Cork (Ireland). 89. Corn. See Maize. I.XDEX VM CrpusCln-isii, 71. Corsicii, HI. Costa Kica, 148. 149, 153. Cotton, 45, 47, 48, .54, 59 n., 04, 68, 70, 70, 81, 82, 82 n., 83, 85, 87, 91, 92, 97, 102, 103, 104, llKi. 108)1., 112 n., 115, 117, 118, 119, 121, 124, 125, 120, 120 «., 128, 136, 137, 1.38, 13!l, 143 H., 145, 145 «., 149, 153, 157, 160, 167. Cotton-gin, 47, 56. Cotton-goods, 67, 63, 64, 75, 76, 77.81 n., 85, 86, 87, 93, 9»«., 101, 107, 109, 111, 112 n., 113, 114,118,119, 120n., 123, 124, 128. 129 n., 133, 133 n., 138, 142, 14:!. 140, 149 «., 151. l.Jl n.. I.v2»., 154 H., 155 H., 157 n. Cotton-seed and Products, 48, 48 H., 73, 81, 82 n. Cotton-.spinning, 07, 63, 131. Coventry, 86. Cowes, 85. Cracow, 177. Crefeld, 168. Creosote, 175. Cryolite, 142. Crystal. See Gla,ss. Cuba, 51 n., 65, 102, 115, 149, 1.50, 165, 187. Cura^oa, 118. Currants (Raisins of Corinth), 140. Current (Japan), 34, 78. Cut-glass. See Glass. Cutlery, 57, 86, 126. Cyanide, 169. Cypres.s, 78. Dahomey, 116. Dairy-products, 99 n., 100, 101, 103 n,, 140, 142, 149 n., 151 n., 154 »., 160, 101. Ace Items. Dakotas, 73, 99. Dallas, 77. Damascus, .39, 139, 140 k., 170. Damietta, 107. Danish Dependencies, 142. Danzig, 110. Dates. 140. 103. Davenport, 40 ii. Dayton, 77. Delagoa, 100. Delaware, 70. Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, 37. Delaware and Hudson Canal, 37. Delaware and Raritan Canal, 59. Delaware River, 67, 68. De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 30. Delft-ware, ll,s. Demerara, 1(1 1. Denmark, O.",, 141, 142, 101. Denver, 77. Detroit, 72. Dextrine, 184. Diamonds, 105, 100, 118, 121, 177. Dominion of Canada. See Can- ada. Douglas Island, 78. Dover, 75. Dresden, 110, 174. Drugs and Chemicals, 68. 81, 82 k., 87, 91, 94 »i., 99 «., 103)i.,106,108H.,114, 120n., 143, 143)1., 145)1., 155)1.. 157?!., 182-183. Dublin, 89. Duluth, 40, 71, 72, 73. Dunkard Creek, 49 n. Dundee, 87. Dunedin, 97. Durban, 100. Dus-seldorf, 110. Dutch Colonies, 187. See Neth- erlands. Dyes and Dyestuffs. 87, 91 , 94 «. , 103, 103)1., 128, 148)1., 151, 153, 175, 178-179, 182. Earthenware, 83. See Clay Products. Easton, 76. Eastport, 70. Ebony, 102, 106, 187. Ecuador, 150. Edinburgh, 87. Eggs, 82))., 99)).. 100, 12.3, 126 11., 137 )i. I'.gypi. liM,. KiderdowM, 142. Elba, Island, 51 ii.. 125. Electric Appliances, 63. 04, 70, 185. Electric Light, 50. Elizabeth, 70. Elniira, 76. Embroideries. 138. Emeralds, 137, 150, 177. Emery, 140, 140 ». England, 174. Envelopes, 70, 184. Erie Canal, 37, 40, .59, 59 n., 66, 67, 72, 73. Erie, Lake, 72, 74. Essen, 110, 110 ii. Essequibo, 104. Evansville, 59, 77. Exposition, 64 n. Fairhaven, 60. Falkland Islands, 104. Fall River, 03, 70. Farm Tools. See Agricultural Implements. Farming Implements. See Agri- cultural. Feathei-s, 151 n. Feejee Lslands, 94, 97. Fernandina, 71. Fertilizers, 48, 141 «., 142)). Figs, 113, 163. Fir, 78, 109, 141, 186. See Timber. Firearms, 56. 76. Fish, 78, 80, 93, 126ii., 141 ii., 143)1., 149)1., 101. Fish Culture, 54 »., 162. Fisheries, 54, 65)1., 70, 78, 83, 85, 88, 92)1., 98, 09, 100, 101, 113, 114. 125, 135, 136, 141, 14.3, 161, 162. FitchburgR.R., 66, 67. Fiume, 142. Flax, 84, 86, 88, 89, 96, 99»!., 109, 112, 123. 124, 125, 126, 136, 143)1., 146, 149)1., 152, 167. Florence. 35 n. Florida, 45, 48, 71, 102, 105 )i. 192 IXDEX Plouv, 40, 50 n., 74, 7G, 77, 80, '.Hi )i., 120 «., Villi., 136, 142 n., 151 n., 154 »., 106. See Wheat. Flowera, Artificial, 113. Fluoric Acid, 179. See Glass. Fond du lac, 77. Food Substances, 108 n., 113, 153, 154, 160-166. Forest Products, 65 n. Forestry, 109. Forests, 50, 78, 86, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 103, 109, 113, 118, 121, 123, 128, 1.37, 140, 141, 142,152, 152 n., 163,154,15.5, 156, 157, 158, 175, 186. Formosa, 131. Fort Wayne, 77. France, 65, 82, 89, 109, 145, 163, 168 ; merchant marine, 34 ; exports, 64 ; canals and railways, 112 ; agriculture, 112 ; resources and manu- factures, 113; cities, 114; colonial possessions, 114, 116. Fraukfort-on-the-Main, 110. Frederioton, 101. Freetown, 106. French Guiana, 114, 115; Congo- Soudan, 114, 116. Fruits, 77, 91, 94 n., 95, 96, 97, 97 re., 99 m., 102, 103, 103 re., 11.3, 115, 119, 120 n., 125, 126, 139, 140, 142, 14.S, 14.5, 145 k., 146, 148, 149, 155, 157, 163. See also Items. Fulton, Robert, 39 re. Furniture, Household, 50, 57, 72, 73, 77, 186. Furs and Fur Skins, 32 re. , 52, 81, 110, 135, 136, 137, 183. Fustic, 163, 179. Galashiels, 87. Galena. See Lead. Galvanized Iron. See Zinc. Galveston, (18, 69, 71. Gambia, 106. Gambler, 93. Ganges, 91, 92. Gas, Coal, 175. Gas, Natural, 02. "Gasolene,'' 176. Geneva (X.Y.), 76. Geneva (Switzerland), 138. Genoa, 35 re., 120. Georgetown (Guiana), 104. Georgia, 48, 03, 77. German Silver, 172. Germany, 64, 65, 80, 112, 151, 157, 163, 168; merchant ma- rine, 34; trade, 107; products, 109 ; manufactures and cities, 108-111 ; colonies, 111. Ghent, 124. Gibraltar, 39. Gin, 118, 168. Ginghams, 87. Ginseng-root, 131. Glasgow, 87. Glass and Glassware, 74, 75, 76, 94 re., 109, 123, 125, 142, 143, 169, 171, 176, 179. Gloucester, 70, 78. Gloversville, 70. Gloves, 76, 143, 180. Glucose, 49, 72, 163, 164, 165. Goatskins, 180. See Leather. Gold, 45, 54, 77, 78, 88, 95, 95 re., 96, 97, 100, 106, 106, 121, 128, 137, 152, 153, 154, 156, 169. Golden Gate, 69. Gotheburg, 141. Grand Canal (China), 132, 1.3.3. Grand Canal (Ireland), 89. Grand Rapids, 77. Grand Trunk Railway, 100. Granite, 86, 173. Grape Sugar. See Glucose. Grapes, 112, 125, 146, 163, 181. Graphite, 137. Grass Cloth, 131. Gravesend, 84. Grazing, 82, 88, 95, 96, 97, 104, 105, 109, 113, 117, 136, 138, 139,140,141,146, 152 re., 155, 157, 160. Great Britain, 81, 112, 145, 163, 165, 168 ; shipping tonnage, 34 ; value of oommeroe, 34, 64, 65 ; canals. ;!(i. Great Inagua, island, 102. Great Lakes, 59, 68, 71, 72, 73. Greece, 140. Greenland, 142. Grenada, island, 102. Greymouth, 97. Greytown, 36, 149. Guam, 80, 111. Guano, 105, 154. Guatemala, 103, 148. Guayaquil, 156. Guaymas, 129. Guiana, 151 ; British, 98, 104 ; French, 114, 115 ; Dutch, 118, 119. Gulf Stream, 34. Gums and Resins, 93 re., 94 h., 106, 111, 128, 158, 183-184. Gunnybags, 167. Gunpowder, 76, 149. Gutta-percha, 119, 184. Haarlem, 118. Haddock, 83. 101, 161. Hague, The, 118. Hair, 155, 155 re. Haiti, 149. Halibut, 54 re., 78, 161. Halifax, 40, 101. Hamburg, 110. Hamilton (Bermuda), 102. Hamilton (Ontario), 100. Hammocks, 167. Hardware, 51, 143. Hartford, 76. Hats, 76, 1.56. Havana, 150, 1.50 n. Havre, 41 re., 113. Hawaii, Territory of, 35, 79, 80, 96. Hawick, 87. Hay, 99«., 100, 109. Headlight-oil, 176. Hemlock, 52, 78, 180, 186. Hemp, 80, 86, 87, 97 re., 106, 124, 125, 126 n., 128, 129 »., 135, 136, 143»t., 146,167,181. Hennequin. See Sisal Hemp. Herring, 82 ii., 83, 88. 101, 141, 161. Hides, 52, 68, 77, 79, 81, 91, 92, IXDEX 193 Iliilos. Conliniifd. W.'h.. 04 k., '.)7 H., 105, 10(1, lir,, 120)!., 121, 120)1., 128, l.il, 1.36, 137, 141 )!., 148, 149 )i., 151, 151 )i., 152, 152 ))., 153, 154, 154 «., 155, 150, 157 n., 158, 160, 180. Hobart, 97. Holland. See Netherlands. Holyoke, CI, 76. Homestead Law.s, 62 n. Hondo, island, 130. Honduras (British), 103. Honduras (Central American State), 148. Honey. See Bee-culture. Hong Kong, 4ln., 42n., 90, 93, 133, 144. Honolulu, 69, 79. Hops, 90, 97, 109, 185. Horsehair, 1.55. Horses, 32 )i., 95, 00 »., 109, 11.!, 118, 128. Hosiery, 70, 89, 109. Hu6, 11.5. Hull, 85. Hungary, 142. Huntsville, 77. Huron, Lake, 72. Idria, 172. Ilex Tree, 158. Illinois, 77. Illinois and Michigan Canal, 60. Iloilo, 80. Immigrants, 62 )i., 90, 105, 120, 124 »j., 128, 1.52, 155. Import Trade, 32, 64 n. India. .See British India'. India Rubber. See IJubber. Indian Corn. See Maize. Indian Territory, 48. Indiana, 62, 77, 155. Indianapolis, 47, 77. Indigo, 91, 91 n., 92, 103, 118, 148, 153, 179. International Congress, 64 n. Iquique, 155. Ireland, 48 ; agriculture, 88 ; li.sherii-s, 88 ; linen luiinufac- ture, 89, 161. Ireland Island, 102. Irkutsk, 41 n. Iron, 45, 47. 60, 61 «., 52, 54, 63, 74, 81, 83, 86, 87, 00, 100, 101, 109, 110, 113, 114, 121, 123, 125,130,131, 131 )j., 137, 1.38, 139, 142, 145, 151, 153, 156, 1.57, 100, 170. Iron and Steel Goods, 51, 56, 67, 67, 70, 77, 81, 85, 80, 94)1., 98, 110, 117, 118, 119, 120)1., 124, 128, ]29)i., 130, 141?!., 142)1., 143 n., 145 )i., 140, 140)1., 151, 151)1., 1.52)1., 154)1., 170-171. Iron Mountain, 51 n. Iron Ores, 51, 51 )i., 72, 80, 88, 140)1., 141, 145 «., 140, 150, 170. Irrawaddy, 01, 92. Irrigation, 91, 92. 95, 00, 105, 128, 14.5, 156. Isle of Wight, 170. Italy, 05, 82, 84 ; merchant marine, 34 ; early commerce, 35, 89 ; resources and prod- ucts, 125 ; railways, 120 ; cities, 120. Ivory, animal, 03, 106, 107, 111, 185; vegeUble, 153, 154 «., 156, 178, 185 ; walrus, 185. Jamaica, 103. Japan, 41 n., 42 «., 65, 114, 1.30, 131 ; commerce, 131, 105, 174. Japan Current, 34, 130. Jarrah, 06. Jasper, 137, 177. Java, 42)1., 118, 110, 121 n., 103, 165. ■lefferson City, 46 n. Jerked Beef, 152, 153, 155. Jersey City, 6(>, 70. Jetties of the Mississippi, 08. Jewelry, 81, 80, 113, 120 «,, 109, 177, 177 )i. Johannesburg, 100. Johnstown, 70. Jute and Jute Goods, 82 n. , 80, 87,01,01 «.,02, 120 «., 143))., K.aiser WiUulni Caii.al, 108. Kanakas, 79. Kansas City, 74. Kaolin, 174. Kauri, Pine, and Gum, 97, 07 n., 184, 180. Keewatin, 08. Kennebeck, 70. Kentucky, 48. Kerosene, 92, 94 »., 103 »., 119, 120)1., 124, 120)1., 129)1., 131, 131)1., 133, 135,139,140,145, 148)1., 151, 154)1., 155,155)1., 170, 170)1. See Petroleum. Key West, 71, 150 n. Kharkov, 137. Khartum, 107. Kief, 130. Kiel, 108. Kimberley, 105. Kingston (Canada), 100. Kingston (Jamaica), 103. Kiushiu Island, 130. Klondike, 78. Knitting Mills, 70. Knoxville, 77. Korea, 131. Krefeld, 110. Kronstadt, 135. Krupp Steel Works, 110. Kuro Siwo. See Japan Current. Labor-saving Inventions, 50. Labrador, 101. Laces, 114, 123, 124, 12.'>, 132, 138. Laconia, 70. Lacquer-work, 1.30, 184. Lacrosse, 77. Ladrone Islands, 80, 111. Lagos, 106. Lake Erie, 72. Lancaster, 70. Lands. Public, 02 n. La Paz, 158. Larch, 109. Lard, 165 n. See Pork Products. 194 INDEX Las Vegas, 7". Laudanum. .SVe Opium. Lauuceston, 07. Lawrence, 7(i. Lead, 54, 83, 88. 9t!, 100, 113, 125, 137, 139, 142, 140, 153, 156, 158, 171. Lead Pencils, 76, 187. Leadville, 77. Leaf Tobacco. See Tobacco. Leather, 51, 52, 76, 81, 82 h., 94, 108 »., 1.36, 141 n., 142ft., 160, 180. Leather Goods, 52, 57, 73, 70, 81, 98, 103 ».,109, 110, 112, 113, 128, 130, 143 ft. Leeds, 86. Lehigh Valley K. R., 40 n. Leipzig, 110, 183. Lemons, 143, 146, 163. Leon, 149. Lewiston, 01, 75. Liberia, 10:!. Licorice, 140, 140 n. Lifege, 124. Life-saving Stations, 34. Light. See Coal, Petroleum. Lighthouses, 34, 81. Lima (Ohio) Oil Field, 176. Lima (Peru), 157. Lime, "Chloride," 183. Limerick, 89. Limestone, 170, 174. See Build- ing-stone. Linen, 82 «., 87, 89, 123, 142, 167. Sec Flax. Linen Goods, 57, 76, 81, 82 n., 87,109,113,114,118,124,135, 136, 146. Linen Rags. See Paper Stock. Linseed, 91, 130. Linseed Oil, 167. Liquors, 86, 89, 91 »i., 94 n., 155, 103, 185. See Spirits. Lisbon, 143. Lisle, 114. Litharge. See Lead. Little Falls, 76. Liverpool, 85. Llama, 32»., 158, 168. Lobsters, 101, 161. Locomotives, 64, 76. Lodz, 136. Logwood, 149 n., 179. London, 84, 113, 183. Los Angeles, 71, 77. Louisiana, 48, 68, 165 n. Louisville, 46 ft., 74. Louren9o Marquez, 106, 144. Lowell, 63, 76. Lumber, 50, 71, 76, 77, 81, 94 n., 98, 99, 100, 101, 109, 109 ft., 120 ft., 126 ft., 128, 136, 141, 143 ft., 145 ft., 148 ft., 149 ft., 152, 154 ft., 155, 155 n., 185- 187. Lumbering, 70, 100, 186. Luzon, 79. Lynchburg, 70. Lynn, 76. Lyons, 41»., 114, 107. Lyttleton, 97. Macao, 144. Macassar, 119. Machinery, 56, 126 n., 133 n. Mackerel, 101, 161. Macon, 77. Madagascar, 106, 114, 115. Madder. See Dyes. Madeira Islands, 143. Madras, 42 ft., 92. Madrid, 147. Madura Island, 119. Magdeburg, 110. Magellan, Strait, 35 n. , 104. Maguey, 156. Mahogany, 102, 103, 128, 148, 153, 187. Maine, 70, 75, 143, 149. Maize, 48, 49, 49 ft., 59 ft., 81, 142 ft., 152, 155,162, 16.3,164, 165, 178. Malacca, 93. Malaga, 140, 147. Malt Liquore. See Brewing. Managua, 149. Manchester (England), 85. Manchester (New Hampshire), 01, 75. Manchester Ship Canal. 30, 86. Manila, 80. Manioc. See Tapioca. Manitoba, 73, 98, 99, 100. Maple Sugar, 100, 165. Maple Wood, 180. Maracaybo, 151. Marble, 45, 76, 125, 140, 174. Market-gardening, 63, 82. Marquesas Islands, 114, 115. Marquette, 72. Marseilles, 35 ft., 114. Maryland, 123. Massachusetts, 63, 70, 76. Mastic, 184. Matamoras, 129. Matches. Swedish, 141. Mauritius. Island, 106. Mazatlan, 129. Meat-packing, 57, 73, 74, 97. Meat-products, 103 «., 124, 151 ft., 154 ft. See Items. Mecca, 39. Mechlin, 124. Mediterranean, 114, 126. Melbourne, 95, 97. Memphis, 46 ft. , 73. Menhaden, 161. Merchant Marine, 61. Mercury. See Quicksilver. Meriden, 76. Meridian, 77. Mersey, 84, 85. Mesabi, 72. Metal Goods, 57, 82 m.. 108ft., 109,110,113,114,124,136,1.37. Metals of Commerce, 169-173. Mexican Southern R. R., 40. Mexico, 64, 65. 129 ; railways, 40, 41 ft. ; natural resources, 128; cities, 129. Miami Canal, 37, 59, 72, 74. Michigan, 77, 165. Michigan, Lake, 72. Middlebury, 70. Midway Island, 35. Milan, 126. Millet, 91. Millinery, 113. See Bonnets, Hats. Milwaukee, 72, 73, Mineral Oil, See Petroleum. 195 Mineral IMtcli. See Asphalt. Miiu'ial Resources of United States, 49, 52 (chart 53). Minneapolis, 46 n., 74. ra, 90. River, Minnesota, 45 n. Mirrors, 172. Mississippi, 48, 68, 73. Missouri, 48, 151. Missouri Pacific H. R., 40. Mittens, 76. Mobile, 71. Mocha, 121 n., 163. Mohair, 139, 168. Molas.ses, 102, 103, 104, 142 n., 165. Mollenclo, 158. Moluccas Islands, 118, 119. Momba,sa, 107. Money, defined, 32. Montana, 45, 77. Montevideo, 153, 155. Montreal, 37, 70, 100, 101. Morocco. See Caravans. Morphine. See Opium. Mosaics, 125. Moscow, 136. Mother-of-pearl. See Buttons. Moukden, 137. Mozambique, 144. Mulberry-tree, 112. 125, 130. Murcia, 146. Murray River, 94, 95. Mutton, 82 n., 104. 131. Nails, 77. Nanaimo, 99. Nantucket, 60. Naphtha, 176. Nashua, 75. Nashville, 77: Nassau, N. P., 102. Natal, 105. Natural Gas, 4.''). 75, 176. Naval Stores, 71. Nebraska, 165 n. Netherlands, The, 123 ; com- merce, .34, 65, 82, 109 n., 110, 117, 161 ; products and manu- factures, 118; cities, 118; [ Netherliuul.-j, 'I'lie, Cimanued. colonial po.ssessions, 118, 119, 187. Nevada, 77. New Almaden, 146. Newark, 76. New Bedford, 6:i. 09, 70. XfW Brunswick (province), 70, 98, ini. New Calfdonia. 115. Newcastle (Africa), 105. Newcastle (Kngland), 85. Newcastle (N. S. W.), 96. New England, 61. 62. Newfoundland, 98. 101, 101 »., 161. New Guatemala, 148. New Guinea. See Papua. New Hampshire, 75. New Haven, 67, 70, 76. New Jersey, 62, 76. New London. 70. , New Mexico, 77, 156. New Orleans, 46 n., 07, 68, 09. Newport, 60. Newport News, 70. New San Salvador, 148. New South Wales, 94 n.. 95, 96. New York (City), 61 »., 65, 66. New York (State), 46 n., 49, 62, 76, 115. New York Central R. R., 40, 66. New York, Lake Erie & West- ern R. R., 40, 66. New Zealand, 42 h., 94, 97. Niagara, 62. Nicaragua. 148, 149. Nicaragua Canal, 35, 36, 37, 68, 69, 101. Nickel, 45, 115, 172. Nijni Novgorod, 137, 183. Nikolaiev, 136. Nitrates, 154. 1.54 n., 157. Nitric Acid, 182. Norfolk, 70. Normandy, 113. Norrkoping, 141. Northampton, 86. North Australia, 96. North Carolina, 48, 71, 77. North Dakota, 45. Northern Pacific R. R., 7:!. North Island (.New Zealand), 97. North Sea Canal, 118. Northwest Territory, 100. Norway and Sweden, 34, 140, 141. Norwich, 76. Nova Scotia, 98. 101, 161. Nut-galls, 179. See Dyes. Nutmegs, 119. Nuts, 79. 103 »., 113, 145, 145 »., 153, 163. Oak, 50, 52, 109, 113, 142, 180, 180. Oak-bark. See Leather. Oak-galls. See Dye.s. Oats, 49, 88, 100, 109. Ocean Currents, 34. Ocean Telegraphs, 42, 121, 153 (map 43). Ocean Trade Routes, 34, 35. Odessa, 136. Ohio, 62, 75, 77. Ohio Canal, .59, 72. Oil Cake, 81, 103 «., 142 k. Oil City, 76. Oil Vegetable, 111. Oil Wells, 77. 176. Old Calabar, 106. Old Providence Lsland, 101. Olean, 50 n. Oleomargarine, 49. Olive-oil, 115, 125, 126, 126 ji. Olives, 112, 113, 115, 125, 140, 143, 146. Omaha, 46 n., 74. Omsk, 41 n. Onions, Bermuda, 102. Ontario (Province), 98, 100. Opium, 32 )!., 91, 91 n., 92, 93, 115, 132, 139, 140, 140 n., 182. Oporto, 143. Oran, 115. Orange Free State, 105, 106. Oranges, 102, 125, 143, 140, 1C3. Oregon, 97, 145, 186. Oregon Pine, 180. Oshkosh, 77. Ostrich Feathers, 105. Oswego, 72. 196 IXDEX Ottawa, 100. Ottawa Canal, 40. Otter-skins. .See Furs. Ox-hides. See Leathev. Oxides of Iron, 170. Oysters, 54, 64 n., 65, 125, 161. Pacific Slope, 62, 03, 71. Pack Animals, 150. Palermo, 126. Palm-nuts and Oil, 106, 185. Panama, 40, 129, 153. Panama Canal, 36. Panama Hats, 150. Panama R.R., 40, 153. Pan-American Congress, 64 n. Panay, 80. Paper, 76, 87, 04)!., 109, 117 h., 118, 123, 130, 142, 167, 180, 181. Paper-stock, 80, 118, 142 n., 181. Papier-mach^, 180. Papua, 111, 118, 119. Para, 41 n., 121, 184. Paraffine, 176. Paraguay, 157-158. Paraguay Tea. See Yerba mat6. Parana, 153, 158. Paregoric. See Opium. Paris, 41 n., 109, 113. Paris Green, 169. Parkersburg, 77. Paros Island, 140. Passaic Falls, 76 n. Patagonia, 152, 155. Paterson, 76, 76 «. Patna, 92. Pauillac, 114. Pawtucket, 76. Payta, 157. Pearl Fisheries, 93. Pearl Shell, 96 n., 178. Pears, 113. Peat, 88, 118. Peking, 133. Penang Island. 42 «., 93. Pennsylvania, 52, 64, 76, 78, 106; coal, 52. Pennsylvania K. R., 66. Penobscot, 70. Pensacola, 71. Penzance, 42 n. Peoria, 77. Pepper, Cayenne, 115. Percheron, 113. Perfumes, 91. Pernambuco, 121. Persia, 137. Persian Shawls, 41 n., 87, 168. Perth, 96. Peru, 41 n., 155, 156-157. Peruvian Bark. .S'ee Cinchona. Pesth. See Buda-Pesth. Petroleum, 45, 46 ?i., 49. 49 n.. 54, 65, 67, 75, 70, 77, 81. 82 n., 99n.,100, 106, 117, 175. See also Kerosene. Pewter. See Tin. Phials. See Glass. Philadelphia. 35, .39 n., 49, .50 «., 51, 67, 68, 69. Philippine Island.s, 69, 70. 80, 167, 179. Phosphate Rock. 71. Phosphorus, in iron ores, 51 n. Phylloxera. See Wine. Pietermaritzburg, 106. Pig-iron, 51 n., 170. »S'ee also Iron. Pilot Knob, 51 n. Pine, 50, 109, 141, 142, 185, 186. Pineapples, 102, 144, 163. Pipe-lines, 49, 176. PiriBus, The, 140. Pisa, 35 n. Pitch, 185. .S'ee Asphalt, Pine. Pittsburg, 46?!., 73. Plate-glass. (See Glass. Plate River, 153, 155, l.')0. 180. Plated- ware, 57, 172. Platinum, 54, 137, 153. Plumbago, 92. Plum.s. See Prunes. Plymouth, 85. Poltava, 137. Pomona, 77. Ponce, 80. Poplar. See Paper-stock. Poppie.s, 91. See Opium. Porcelain, 81, 83, 109, 113, 174. See Chinaware. Pork, 81, 82?!., 102. Pork Packing, 74. Pork Products, 82 »., 141 ?!., 142?!., 162. Port Arthur, 137. Port-au-Prince, 149. l^rt Castries, 102. Port Elizabeth, 105. Porter. jS'ee Brewing. Portland (Maine), 70, 100. Portland (Oregon), 71. Port of Spain, 102. Port Said, 107. Porto Rico, 80. Port Wine. See Wine. Portsmouth (England), 85. Portsmouth (Ohio), 59. Portugal, 48, 82. Postal System, 41. Potash, 48, 182. Potassium Nitrate, 182. Fotatoes, 88, 99 n., 100. 102, 109, 157. Poti, 135, 136. Potosi, 158, 172. Pottery, 57, 74, 76. 113, 132, 143?!., 172, 174. ,S'ee also Chinaware, Porcelain. Pottsville, 76. Poultry, 118. Prague, 143. Precious Stones. 117, 121, 137, 153, 177, 177 ?!. Preserved Beef, 152. Pretoria, 106. Pribylov Islands, 52. Prince Edward Island, 98, 101. Printing and Publishing, 73, 87, 110. " Proviclencc. 70. Provincetown, 69. 70. Prunes, 113, 142, 163. Pueblo, 77. Paget Sound, 71. Pyrites, Iron, 182. Quartz, 179. See Glass. Quebec (City), 40, 40 »., 70, 101, Quebec (Piovince), 98, 100. Queensland, 96. Queenstown, 89. I.XDEX 107 Quioksilver, 54, CO, HC, 140 h., ' Ronkw,>o.l I'otlory. 174. San Domingo. 140. UiO, 17:!. K.isvs, Attar of, 1:!8. San Francisco, 42 n., 63, 09, 79, Quiiioy, 77. Kosi-tta, 107. 80, 97, 183. Quinine. Sec Cincliona. lioscwood, 103, 187. San Jos6 (California), 77. Quito, 150. Rosin, 143 H., 1.55 h., 185. San Jos6 (Costa Rica), 149. Rotterdam, 118. San Juan (Nicaragua), 149. Hacinc, 77. Rouen, 114. San Juan, 80. nails. Iron and Steel, 170, 171. Roumania, 64. San Pablo, 69. Railway Cars. See Cars and Royal Canal (Ireland), 89. San Pedro (California), 71. Carriage.s. Rubber, 82 n., 99h., 100. 107, San Salvador, Island, 102. Kailways, 39-41, 60 ; India, 91- 111, 115, 120 n., 121, 143 H., Sandalwood, 90. 92 ; China, 93, 133 ; Australia, 148, 149, 151 n., 15.3, 154 «., Sandstone. See Building stone. 95, 96, 98, 100 ; Germany, 108, 1.56, 156 H., 158, 184. Sandwich Islands. See Hawai- 109; France, 112, 113, 117, RuMhtG Is, 57, 70. ian! I>Ii.iu!s. 120 ; Belgiurii, 123 ; Mexico, Kul.ir>, !)- ,,., 177. S;iiil:i r,;nL;ir:l, 77. 129 ; Japan, 131 ; Russia, 136 ; Kni;s, (hinilal, Smyrna, 139. Siiuii.mu iCI.ili), 150, 154. Turkey, 139 ; Austria-Hun- Hum, 102, lo;i, 104,119,105,178. Santo Domingo, 149. gary, 142; Venezuela, 151; Rumford Falls, 75. Sapphires, 177. Argentine Republic, 152. Russell, 97. Sardines, 125, 143, 161. Railways, Street, 60. Russia, 109, 165, 168; com- Sardinia, 125. Raisins, 46 n., 138, 145, 140, 103, merce, 34, 82, 137, 137 n.; Saskatchewan, 99. 181. caravan routes, 39; Siberian Satinwood, 102. Rangoon, 92. railroad, 41, 41 n. ; wheat. Savanilla, 154. Raritan Canal, 37. 48, 64, 166; resources and Savannah, 57, 71. Rattan, 93. products, 135 ; cities, 135, 136 ; Schenectady, 70. Raw-hides. &e Hides. Siberia, 137. Scotland, manufactures, 86; ship- Raw-silk, 112 n., 114. See also Russia Leather, 135, 180. building, 86 ; fisheries, 87, 88. Silk. Rutland, 76. Seranton, 76. Reading, 76. Rye, 49, 109. Screws. See Birmingham. Recife. See Pernambuco. Sea-Island Cotton, 48, 160. Reciprocity Treaties, 64 n., 122 n. Sackcloth, 156. See also Bur- Seal Fisheries, 52, 78, 87, 104, Redlands, 77. laps. 183. Redwood, 96, 180. Saco, 75. Seal, Hair, 52. Reunion Island, 114, 115. Sacramento, 77. Sealing-wax, 184. Rhine Wine, 181. See Wine. Saddles, 156. Sealskin, 52, 136, 183. ■Rhode Island, 70, 76, 106. Safety Lamps, 175. Seattle, 09, 71. Ribbons, Silk, 114, 168. Saginaw, 77. Sebastopol, 136. Rice, .59 )}., 68, 79. 91, 92, 93, 90, SagQ, 111. Seed.s 117, 142 n. 107,109, 115, 117, 117?!., 118, Saigon, 115. Segars. See Cigars. 119, 130, 131, 131 n., 152 n., Saint. See St. Selma, 77. 157. 104. Salem, 60, 76. S^oul, 131. Rice-shelling, 110. Salmon, 54, 78, 101, 161. Sequatchee, 52 n. Richmond, 76, 77. Salt, 45, 72, 70, 77, 83, 102, 103, Seville, 146. T?iga, 136. 109, 121, 137, 139, 142, 151, SfevTes, 174. Rio Janeiro, 121, 150. 152, 158, 177, 178. Sewing Machines, 64, 76, 86. Riverside, 77. Saltpetre. See Nitrates. Sewing-silk, 168. Rochester, 76. Saluria, 71. Shad-fisheries, 161. Rockland, 75. Salvador (Central American Shanghai, 133. Rock-salt, 177. See Salt. State), 148. Shawls, 41 «.. 87. Romans, 84 n. Samoa, 80. Sheep- raising. 95. 96. 109. 113 aiome, 77. San Diego. 71. 77. 128, 146. 1-55, 157. 108. 198 INDEX Sheet-iron, 135, 173. Sheffield, 80. Shellac, Gum, 184. Shell-fish. See Items. Sherry, 181. Shetland Islands, 52. Shikoku, Island, 130. Ship-building, 33 n., 58. 68, 76, 86, 87, 92, 100, 110, 111, 114, 141, 156, 186. Ship Subsidies, 58. Shoes, 56 n., 86. Siberian-Pacific Railroad, 41, 41 n. Sicily, 125. Sierra Leone, 106. Silica, 179. See Glass. Silk, 71, 82, 84, 91, 91 n., 93, 96, 112, 112 n., 114, 115, 125, 126, 126 »., 130, 131, 132, 133 «., 136, 138, 1.39, 140, 143. 143 n., 146, 167-168. Silk Culture, 96, 97, 146. Silk Goods, 57, 76, 81, 110, 112, 113, 115, 124, 130, 133, 136. 1.37, 138, 168. Silver, 54, 77, 88, 93, 97 «., 109, 128, 130, 137, 139, 148, 151, 152, 15.3, 154, 158, 171, 172. Silver Coinage, 172. Singapore, 42 n., 93, 173. Sisal Hemp, 102, 167. Slate, 46, 83, 174. Smelting (iron), 51, 74, 77, 170. Smyrna, 139. Soap, 48, 74, 114, 142, 182. Society Islands, 115. Soda, 182. Sodium nitrate, 182 ; carbonate, 182. Sole Leather. See. Leather. Solomon Islands, 111. •Soiiicr.sut Island, 102. ■• Soo" Canal, 37, 59. Sorghum, 165. Soudan, 106, 107. South Africa, 64, 169. South America, 98, 130. Southampton, 85. South Australia, 90. South Carolina, 48, 71. South Island (New Zealand). 97. Spain, 84 ; commerce, 89; re- sources and products. 145, 146 ; cities, 146, 147 ; colonial possessions, 145 n. ; iron, 51 n. ; lead, 171. Spermaceti, 176. Sperm-oil, 54. Spices, 91, 92, 93.93,i., 103 «., Ill, 115, 119, 128. Spindles, 83, 166. Spinning flax, 136 ; silk. 146. Spirits, 140 n. , 163. See Alcohol. Spokane, 62. Sponges, 102, 103 «., 1.39. Springfield (Illinois), 77. Springfield (Ohio), 77. Springfield (Massachusetts). 70. Spruce, 78, 181, 180. See Paper. Timber. Srietensk, 41 n. Stanley, 104. Starch, 49, 163. Steam Engine, 63, 77. 81 «., 175. Steam Locomotive, 33 Steam Navigation, 33. Steel, 51 n., 63, 76. 83. .S>(- Iron. Steel Goods. See Iron and Steel Goods. Steel-pens, 86. Stettin, 110. St. Anthony's Falls, 40 n. St. Croix, island, 142. St. David's Island, 102. St. George's Island, 102. St. Gothard Tunnel, 138. St. Helena, Island. 35. St. .lohn. Island, 142. St. John (New Brunswick). 101. St. .lohn's (Antigua), 103. St. John's (Newfoundland), 101. St. Joseph (Missouri), 74. St. Lawrence River, 100. St. Louis, 39 n.. 46 )!.. 73, 74. St. Lucia, Island, 102. St. Mary's Falls Canal, 37, 59, 00. St. Paul, 40 n., 74. St. Petersburg, 41 n.. 135, 130. St. Thomas, Island, 142. St. Vincent, 143. St. Vincent, Island, 102. Stockholm, 141. Stockton, 77. Stockton and Darlington R. R., Stoneware, 174. See Earthen- ware. Stonington, 70. Strait Settlements, 90. Straw. See Paper Stock. Straw Goods, 41 n., 124, 133, 153. Sturgeon, 135. Suakin, 107. Submarine Cables. See Ocean Telegraphs. Subsidies, Commercial, 58, 04 n. Sucr6, 158. Suez, 42 n., 107. Suez Canal, 35, .36, 60. 84, 91, 93, 106, 114, 126, 136. Sugar, 45, 68, 79, 80, 97, 102, 103, 103 n., 104, 106, 108 k., 115, 117, 117 71., 118, 119, 120 «., 121, 124, 128, 132, 133, 136, 146, 148, 148 n.. 149, 152 n., 153 n.. 154 «., 157, 164, 165, 165 n., 178. Sugar-beet, 109, 112. 124, 164. Sugar-cane, 91, 95. Sugar-refining, 57, 100. 110, 114. Sulphur, 54, 88, 125, 126 »i., 139, 142, 152, 166, 158, 170, 171, 182, 184. Sulphuric Acid, 170, 182. Sumatra, 118, 119. Sunderland. 85. Superior Lake, 60. Surabaya, 119. Surinam, 118, 119. Suva, 97. Swansea, 85. Sweden. >SV<; Norway and Sweden. Sweet Potatoes, 164. Swine, 162. Switzerland, 66, 92, 109, 124, 1.38. Sydney, 79, 95, 97. Syracuse, 76, 177. Tacoma, 00. 71. Tobacco, Cwtinned. I'nitiMl Slates, 1(13, 106, KiS; Ta-aiirof;. Kill. 70, 80, 81, 91, 92, 9:!, 94))., shipping and ship-buildinu, Taliiti. Ill, 11.-). 99)1., 103, 105, 110, 112, 115, 33)1., 68; light-houses, 34; Talli.w, 'Mn., 97ll., 136, 152, 117, 118, 121, 126 »., 128, 129))., canals, 37-38 ; roads, 39 ; rail- 170. 138, 141 11., 142))., 143 n. 145, ways, 40 ; telegraphs, 42 ; area Tamatave, 115. 145))., 149, 149)1., 150, 1 jO)i., and position, 45 ; physical re- Tampa, 71. 153, 155))., 158, 187. See also gions and natural resources. Tannic Acid, 180. Cigars. 45; population and occupa- Tanning, 52, 57, 180. See Hem- Tobolsk, 137. tions, 47; raw products, 47- lock. Tokio, 131. 55 ; manufactures, 66-57 ; Tapioca, 03, 157. Toledo (Ohio),. 59, 72. commerce, 58-63; industries. Tar and Pilch, 185. Toledo (Spain), 146, 14G)i 61-64 ; exports and imports. Tariffs, 32. Tonquin, 93, 114. 64-69 ; principal seaports, 05- Tartar. See Potash. Topaz, 137, 177. 69 ; minor coast cities, 70. 71 ; Tasmania, 94, 07. Topeka, 74. lake ports, 70-73 ; river ports, Taunton, 70. Toronto, 100. 73-75 ; other cities and towns, Tea, 32 H., 71, 82 »., 91, 11 )!.. Tracy City, 52 n. 75-78 ; possessions, 78-80 ; 92 H., 93, 115, 117. 118 119, Trade Route, 137. coal production, 83 ; steel. 130, 131, 132, 133, 133 n. 136, Tradewinds, 34, 37. 83)1. 137, 165. Tragacanth Gum, 185. " Upland " Cotton, 106. Teak, 91, 92, 186. Trans-Caspian Railway, 41 Uruguay, 153, 155, 150, 161. Tegucigalpa, 148. Trans-continental Railway 40, Utah, 165 n. Tehuantepec Railway, 40, 29. 69. Utica, 76. Telegraphs, 42, 42 h., 66. See Transit Trade, 93))., 124, 1.38, Ocean Telegraphs. 138))., 153. Valencia (Spain), 146. Telephone, 42 «., 56, 153. Transvaal, 105, 100, 109. Valencia (Venezuela), 151. Tennes.see, 77. Treaties of Commerce. See Valenciennes, 114. Tennessee Coal & Iron Co.. Reciprocity Treaties. Valparaiso, 40, 154. 52 «. Treaty of Paris. 79))., 80. Vancouver, 40?)., 99. Terra Cotta, 83, 174. Treaty Ports. 130, 132. Vancouver Island, 99. Terra Haute. 77. Tree Nurseries, 76. Van Diemen's Land. See Tas- Texas. 48, 68, 71, 77, 128. 142, Trenton, 76, 174. mania. 165 K. Trieste, 142. Vanilla, 115, 129 n. Textile substances, 108 n., 166- Triiicomali, 93. Vanua Levu, Island, 97. 168 ; grasses, 94 n. See Items. Trinidad, Maud, 102. Varnishes. 97)).. 176, 178, 183, Thermometers, 172. Tripoli, 39. 184. Thibet, 133. Troy, 76. Vaseline, 170. Thread, 76, 87, 89. Trunk Lines, 40, 84. Velvet, 114, 108. Threshing Machines, 77. Tunis, 114, 115. Veneers, 187. Tientsin, 133. Turin, 126. Venezuela, 104, 151. Timber, 82 n., 96, 102, 10.3, 115, Turkey, Empire, 138, 1.39, 187. Venice. 35 n., 126. 118, 126)1., 137, 151,155 156, Turk's Island. 177. Vera Cruz, 129. 157, 186, 187. Turpentine, 71, 94»)., 143 ii., Verdigris, 169. Timbuctoo, Caravan Station, 39, 18.5-186. See Pine. Vermilion, 172. 116. Tutuila. 80. Vermont, 76. Timor, 144. '•Tweeds," 87. Verviers. 124. Tin, 54, 81.83, 93. 93)i..9l . 97, Typewriters, 64. Vials. .Sec Glass. 97))., 109. 119, 125. 151. 158. Vicksburg, 46 n., 73. 173. Uganda, 107. Victoria (Australia), 95, 95 n.,