SENTENCE CONNECTION 
 IN TACITUS 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARENCE W. MENDELL, Ph.D. 
 
 A Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Yale University 
 in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 NEW HAVEN : YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 London: Henry Frowde 
 Oxford University Press 
 
 MCMXI 
 
Copyright, 191 1, 
 
 By 
 
 YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 EXCHANGE 
 
 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE i TAYLOR COMPANY 
 
PREFACE 
 
 For the original suggestion which led to the writing of 
 the present book and also for much helpful comment and 
 criticism, my thanks are due and most heartily given to 
 Professor Edward P. Morris of Yale University. To him 
 belongs all the credit for the conception of sentence connec- 
 tion which underlies the work and which was set forth in 
 his book, "On Principles and Methods in Syntax." A 
 doctoral dissertation presented at Yale in 1902 by Dr. 
 Abraham R. Brubacher, dealing with the sentence connec- 
 tions in Herodotus, has been suggestive in matters of 
 method and arrangement. I am further indebted for 
 practical assistance to Dr. Samuel B. Hemingway. 
 
 New Haven, 
 January, 191 1. 
 
/•' OF- THE 
 
 OF 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION. i. 
 
 CHAPTER I, No Expressed Connection. 
 
 A. Rapid Narrative. B. Inventories, i. Summary 
 of events. 2. Summary account of a man's life. 
 3. Description. C. Logical Connection 1-18 
 
 CHAPTER II. Connection Expressed in the First 
 Clause, 
 
 A. Anticipation of a Quotation, i. Explicit verb of 
 saying. 2. Demonstrative pronoun, adverb or phrase. 
 3. General phrase of saying. B. Question and Answer. 
 C. Anticipation in Special Words, i. Licet. 2. Sane. 
 3. Modo. 4. Imperatives. 5. (Ceterus) and alius. 6. 
 Correlatives. D. Anticipation of Narrative (not Quo- 
 tation). I. Explicit announcement of narrative. 2. 
 Demonstrative word or phrase. 3. Use of a vague or 
 extremely concise word. E. Anticipation by Use of 
 Negative Statement, i. Indefinite word in the negative 
 clause. 2. Vague statement in the negative clause. 3. 
 Apparently irrelevant statement in the negative clause. 19-47 
 
 CHAPTER III. Connection Expressed in the Second 
 Clause. 
 
 A. Repetition, i. Actual repetition of a word. 
 
 2. Virtual repetition of a word by means of a syno- 
 nym, demonstrative pronoun, relative pronoun, etc. 
 
 3. Repetition of an element of meaning by means of 
 another part of speech, a summary word, or a partitive 
 word. 4. Repetition implied. B. Contrast, i. Contrast 
 essential in the meaning of contrasted words. 2. Con- 
 trast due purely to the context. 3. Border line cases. 4. 
 Contrast of words in obvious categories. 5. Contrasted 
 persons. 6. Words whose meaning implies contrast. 
 7. Contrasted Adverbs. C. Anticipation Due to the 
 Incomplete Meaning of a Word. i. Verbs with incom- 
 plete meaning, such as compounds with ad, or con and 
 
 
vi Contents. 
 
 also sequor and respondeo. 2. Comparatives. 3. Spe- 
 cial words: Alius, (ceterus), reliquus, par, similis. D. 
 Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases, i. Marking progress 
 of the narrative. 2. Showing repetition. 3. Showing 
 incompleteness of meaning. 4. Special adverbs : certe, 
 nimirum, quippe, scilicet. E. Functional Changes in 
 the Verb. i. Change of person. 2. Change of tense. 
 3. Change of mode. F. Parenthetical Clauses 48-153 
 
 CONCLUSION 153-158 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 The standard text books of Latin grammar, such as 
 Kiihner, Schmalz, Draeger and Lane, agree in the statement 
 that primitive language consisted of disconnected sentences 
 and that development in language, especially in written 
 language, was marked, first, by the coordination of sentences 
 and then by the subordination of one sentence to another. 
 This advance was accomplished by the development of 
 coordinating and subordinating conjunctions which became 
 to such an extent the regular means of connecting one 
 sentence with another that, in the developed language, all 
 sentences not so connected are considered exceptional and 
 equivalent to sentences with some one of the regular coor- 
 dinating or subordinating conjunctions. This theory, 
 whidh is generally accepted, means that, in the primitive 
 speech, sentences were put side by side without any connec- 
 tion between them, but that when the language was fully 
 developed every sentence was regularly connected with the 
 one next to it by the use of a conjunction which might mark 
 either coordination or subordination. In other words, we 
 must, on this theory, look to the conjunctions for all the 
 connection between consecutive sentences. Kuhner (IL 2, 
 § 178) says : Die parataktischen Satzverbindung ist, wie 
 es sich von selbst versteht, die urspriingliche. Die Satze 
 werden anfanglich an einander gereiht, ohne Riicksicht, ob 
 sie logisch, d. h. hinsichtlich des Gedankens, gleich oder ver- 
 schieden sind. Bis zu dieser Periode aber reicht unsere 
 Literatur nicht zuriick; denn auch die altesten Schrift- 
 stiicke, die auf uns gekommen sind, kennen schon die hypo- 
 taktischen Satzverbindung. Also (IL 2. § 150) : So lange 
 der Mensch auf der untersten Stufe seiner geistigen Ent- 
 wickelung steht, spricht er seine Gedanken in einzelnen 
 Satzen nach einander aus, und unbekiimmert, ob die Gedan- 
 ken in einem innerem Zusammenhange zu einander stehen 
 
ii Introduction. 
 
 oder nicht, stellt er dieselben in gleicher Form da. Drseger 
 (§310) says: Nur ausnahmsweise werden Satztheile und 
 Satze asyndetisch zusammeng-estellt, weit haufiger sind sie 
 durch et, -que, atque oder ac verbunden. Brugmann (Kurze 
 Vergleichende Grammatik der Indogermanischen Sprachen, 
 §§88711.) also says distinctly that originally there were 
 only independent sentences (Hauptsatze) and that subordi- 
 nation developed from a few of these which had a thought 
 relation, though no grammatical relation, with an adjoining 
 sentence. He continues : War also auf diese Weise durch 
 die verschiedenen Gedankenverhaltnisse, die zwischen zwei 
 Satzen obwalten konnen, der Gegensatz von Parataxe und 
 Hypotaxe von jeher gegeben, so kommt es uns hier doch in 
 erster Linie auf die grammatischen Ausdrucksmittel fiir 
 den Nebensatz als solchen an, und in dieser Beziehung ist 
 unzweifelhaft, dass die hypotaktische Verbindungsform 
 aus der parataktischen, die Nebensatzform aus der Haupt- 
 satzform entstanden ist. He also shows several relations 
 which could and did exist in the primitive speech between 
 consecutive sentences without any visible, grammatical sign 
 of this relation. For example, he shows that one sentence 
 may indicate a completion of the idea of the first and be 
 really nothing more than the object of the verb of the first 
 sentence, or again, that the second may express the result 
 of a condition stated by the first but without any grammati- 
 cal sign of connection. He then shows the development of 
 the relative pronoun and of conjunctions to express sub- 
 ordination in the primitive speech. Kiihner also {II. 2. 
 § 150) states that there are cases in which sentences 
 coordinate in form are subordinate in thought. But all of 
 the writers cited — and they fairly represent the generally 
 accepted views — deal with such cases, when they occur in 
 the developed language, as exceptional. Normal develop- 
 ment was from sentences placed in succession with no sort 
 of connection between them, through various stages, to 
 sentences connected by conjunctions; when this point was 
 reached, consecutive sentences not connected by conjunc- 
 tions were exceptions. 
 
Introduction. iii 
 
 Morris has pointed out (On Principles and Methods in 
 Syntax, Chapter VI.) that there is a fallacy at the bottom 
 of this theory. The development in language is not from 
 sentences without connection to sentences with connection 
 but from unexpressed to expressed connection. Whenever 
 a rational man speaks or writes one sentence after another, 
 there is connection between the two. At least in his own 
 mind, the two sentences are necessarily related, and if his 
 meaning is conveyed to the man who hears or reads them, 
 then the connection is in some way or other expressed in 
 the sentences themselves. How clearly it is expressed must 
 depend on the means which the speaker or writer uses to 
 express it, but regardless of the success with which the 
 relation is conveyed to another, it always exists in the 
 thought which he tries to express. There is therefore a 
 distinction between the thought connection of one sentence 
 with another, a relationship existing first in the mind of the 
 speaker, and the formal connection which is the expression 
 of this thought relation in words, spoken or written. The 
 former is always present in the mind of the speaker or 
 writer ; the latter aims to reproduce the former in the mind 
 of the hearer or reader. As a language develops, there are 
 more and more adequate means of accomplishing this, and 
 in written language we have the complete material for 
 studying the formal connection in each case ; for the writer 
 had nothing beyond the written words to aid him in convey- 
 ing from his own mind to that of the reader the sense of 
 relationship between sentences. This is not true of the 
 spoken language where the tone and accent, for instance, 
 are of great assistance to the speaker. However, to under- 
 stand the means made use of in the written language it is 
 necessary to at least consider the means available in the 
 spoken language which precedes the written. This is best 
 treated by the writers who have considered it primarily from 
 a psychological rather than from a linguistic point of view, 
 especially Wundt (Volkerpsychologie, I. 2, pp. 305 ff.) and 
 Paul (Principien der Sprachgeschichte, pp. 99 ff.) (of. also 
 
iv Introduction. 
 
 Jolly : Die Einfachste Form der Hypotaxis, in Curtius 
 Studien, VI. pp. 215 ff, and Hermann : Parataxis, in Kuhn's 
 Zeitung, ^;^.) Paul enumerates the means of connection 
 which he recognized, ranging from the mere placing of 
 words in succession, through such aids as tone, emphasis, 
 and tempo, to means used in written language such as 
 inflection and subordinating words. In the spoken language, 
 emphasis and tone are very frequently quite sufficient to 
 convey the desired idea of connection; in fact they very 
 seldom leave any real doubt. But when the same sentences, 
 whose connection is perfectly clear with the help of the tone 
 of voice, are written down, that means of expressing the 
 connection vanishes, and with it very often the clearness of 
 the connection itself. It is therefore true that the more 
 primitive forms of written language and those which come 
 nearer to the spoken language are the ones in which there 
 is the least expressed connection. But with the loss of 
 the vocal means of expressing connection it became neces- 
 sary to devise new means which would not vanish with the 
 writing down of the sentences, and with the development 
 of the language it is reasonable to look for the development 
 of these means to a greater and greater extent. That otte 
 regular method only should have developed is at once a 
 suspicious theory. There were undoubtedly many means 
 of connection already in use in the spoken language which 
 were at once available in the written, and in addition to 
 these arose many more. Equally without doubt, certain ones 
 of these, because of their simplicity and usefulness, were 
 more used than others and so became more generally recog- 
 nized and were crystalized into more fixed forms than the 
 rest. Some were very possibly in the crystahzation stage 
 when the development of the language ceased. It is at any 
 rate apparent that there must be great difficulty and great 
 danger in the theory which holds that connection by means 
 of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions is the only 
 regular method, while all others are exceptional and equiva- 
 lent to conjunctional uses. (Cf. Kiihner, II. 2. § 177. 4, a 
 
Introduction. v 
 
 discussion of the various conjunctions "omitted" in such 
 cases.) The difficulty becomes especially apparent in the 
 treatment of the so-called "causal coordinating conjunc- 
 tions" such as ergo and igitur. To fit the theory, they must 
 be considered conjunctions of one sort or the other, for they 
 cannot be ignored or called exceptions. They are exactly 
 as legitimate a means of connection as et or ut. But they 
 fit into neither the one category nor the other. Lane 
 (§ 1688) goes to the extent of calling them not conjunc- 
 tions but "words denoting inference" ; he admits, however, 
 that simple sentences may be coordinated by them and also 
 (§ 1691) by pronominal words such as eo, hinc, or inde. 
 This is a long step toward the acceptance of the many 
 means of connection which are, as a matter of fact, used. 
 Having made it, why stop at that point? Why is it not 
 equally true that demonstratives and demonstrative words 
 in general may coordinate simple sentences ? Why not the 
 repetition of words and many other similar means? These 
 various means do even more: they often express the sub- 
 ordinate relation of one sentence to another. When they 
 are sufficiently worked out, there may be less precise 
 boundaries between subordinate and coordinate sentences, 
 but there should undoubtedly be a better understanding of 
 both. Again, even when all the "exceptions" are explained 
 under the generally accepted theory, there are left the cases 
 of so-called parataxis or asyndeton, the cases where there 
 is apparently no expressed connection. These are regarded 
 as survivals of the period of no connection, of the time 
 when disconnected sentences were put down without 
 thought of their relation to each other. In the developed 
 language, they are therefore looked upon as anomalies. 
 They are the more obvious forms of parataxis, such as 
 necesse est venias, or interjected verbs, like credo. 
 Undoubtedly, these do come near to the spoken language, 
 but the reason why they survive in the written is that the 
 connection is absolutely clear. They are not, therefore, 
 anomalies. They are examples of one sort of connection 
 
vi Introduction. 
 
 by the side of many others. In the development of the lan- 
 guage, which is entirely a practical matter, those means of 
 connection which were sufficiently useful in the primitive 
 stages, naturally survived and the mere fact that they are 
 comparatively unchanged in the developed language argues 
 their efficiency. So, when we find, in a fully developed 
 language, cases where no special word marks the con- 
 nection, we should not consider them as anomalous 
 survivals, but as cases of one sort of sentence connection. 
 "It is raining. I am not going out," is as indisputably 
 clear as "It is raining; therefore I am not going out," or as 
 "Since it is raining, I am not going out." Not any one of 
 these three expresses any more clearly than the others the 
 thought connection which was in the writer's mind. In 
 general, a conjunction is primarily added to make clear a 
 connection otherwise obscure, just as a preposition is used 
 or not used with the ablative case according as the meaning 
 is or is not clear without it. When the custom of using it 
 has become common because it was often needed, either the 
 conjunction or the preposition may be used in cases which 
 do not absolutely require it, but it is still in such cases a 
 guide, rather than an essential part of the sentence. 
 
 As a result of the generally accepted theory of sentence 
 connections, the conjunctional uses have been pretty 
 thoroughly worked out, especially the use with subordinate 
 sentences. It remains to indicate the other means which 
 exist in Latin for connecting one sentence with another and 
 to make them familiar by a mass of examples ; then to show 
 the relations of the various means to each other through 
 the underlying thought-connection, and by this study to 
 show the development of the more crystalized forms as 
 they are found in the developed language. To make such 
 a study valuable, account must be taken of the authors of all 
 styles and of all periods, of the more colloquial authors like 
 Plautus and Pliny and also of the more rhetorical and 
 finished authors like Tacitus. The inscriptions must be 
 carefully studied for the earlier forms. Throughout, it will 
 
Introduction. vii 
 
 be evident that each connection is not made by the use of 
 a sing-le means. The written language, in its attempt to 
 reproduce the thought-connection in the mind of the writer, 
 may make use in a single case of many means and it may 
 not always be possible to say which is the main one. At 
 other times, when the connection seemed to the writer to 
 be obvious, it will be hard to detect the means by which it 
 is expressed. The object throughout is to recognize and 
 make familiar as many as possible of the means at the dis- 
 posal of a Latin writer. 
 
 In Tacitus, it would be foolish to look for many survivals 
 of early methods of sentence-connection: there will be no 
 cases where the relation of two sentences to each other 
 lacks clarity because the means to express it are undevel- 
 oped. By his time, the language had been fully developed, 
 and Tacitus especially was master of every device. This is 
 evident in every sentence and the fact that he uses the so- 
 called subordinate sentence far less than it was used by 
 Cicero in his formal writings, makes his work especially 
 interesting for the present study. Cicero had used most 
 extensively the conjunctional method of expressing con- 
 nection and developed it to the greatest efficiency. Tacitus 
 marks a reaction from this and a corresponding develop- 
 ment of the other means for expressing the same relations. 
 In the high development of rhetorical uses, Tacitus is very 
 nearly unique. But it is of course the means which already 
 existed in the language that Tacitus uses in this rhetorical 
 way. He did not create the means. Before an historical 
 understanding of the whole subject can be attained, a mass 
 of evidence is necessary covering all periods and all styles. 
 This paper proposes to furnish the material from Tacitus. 
 I shall classify as far as possible all the means of connection 
 that I recognize, but I shall naturally lay most emphasis on 
 the less familiar types ; the universally recognized conjunc- 
 tional uses will be either passed over or merely noted. This 
 paper is not the exposition of a theory, but a collection of 
 evidence eventually to be of use in such an exposition. The 
 
viii Introduction. 
 
 theory cannot fail to emerge even in such a collection, but it 
 cannot be demonstrated by evidence from one author or 
 from one period. 
 
 In presenting the material from Tacitus, I have followed 
 an obvious, formal arrangement, dividing the cases cited 
 into three main groups as follows: first, a comparatively 
 small group containing cases in which there is no expressed 
 connection between two consecutive sentences ; second, a 
 larger group of cases in which the expressed connection 
 lies in the first of the two sentences ; third, a group much 
 larger than the other two combined, composed of cases in 
 which the expressed connection lies in the second sentence. 
 The subdivisions can be better discussed under each sepa- 
 rate group. 
 
 The text used is that of Halm's fourth edition in the 
 Teubner text series (1905 and 1907). I have employed 
 the following abbreviations : Ag. for The Agricola ; Ann. 
 for The Annals ; D. for The Dialogus ; G. for The Ger- 
 mania; H. for The Histories. Roman numerals indicate 
 books of The Annals or Histories ; the first Arabic numeral 
 in each case indicates the chapter; the second, the line of 
 the chapter within which the quotation begins. 
 
 Obviousl}^ it will be impossible to give any accurate 
 statistics of the number of times that a given type of sen- 
 tence connection occurs: the question is too subjective and 
 the boundaries between different types are far from being 
 hard and fast. The question of main and subordinate 
 means of connection in each case would also complicate the 
 matter. I have, however, always stated the fact whenever 
 I have cited all the examples of a given type that I have 
 found. In all other types I have tried to give at least a gen- 
 eral idea of the frequency with which each one is 
 employed. 
 
NO EXPRESSED CONNECTION. 
 
 The chapter heading, "No Expressed Connection," is not 
 altogether accurate. It has already been stated in the 
 Introduction that there is always connection between two 
 consecutive sentences and that, in the case of written sen- 
 tences, if that connection is conveyed to the reader, it is 
 surely, somehow or other, expressed in the written sen- 
 tences. But, because of the accumulated experience which 
 every reader has, the mere juxtaposition of two sentences 
 suggests relation between them. To this extent, then, 
 expressed connection is always present, but, when this is 
 the only means of expression used, it cannot be said to lie 
 in any specific element of either sentence, and in this sense 
 the two sentences may be said to be without expressed con- 
 nection. They may be left so only when, in the written 
 language, the loss of the vocal means of expressing con- 
 nection, such as tone and emphasis, has not obscured 
 the sense of the thought connection. Even then, they are 
 not necessarily so left. The established custom of employ- 
 ing express connectives may lead to their use even where 
 they are not necessary. But there remain a considerable 
 number of instances in which the only connection between 
 two consecutive sentences is their juxtaposition ; in other 
 words, in which there is no expressed connection. These 
 instances consist of three sorts : The first is that in which 
 the narrative moves with such rapidity as to render con- 
 nectives unnecessary or even detrimental; the mind of the 
 reader is carried along with the rapid narrative and the suc- 
 cession of events is clearly expressed by the mere juxta- 
 position of sentences. The second type comprises cases 
 of inventory of one sort or another : lists of prodigies 
 occurring during a given time, of events during a given 
 
2 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 period, or of collected decrees of the senate ; descriptions of 
 men, of a place, or of a scene, or the summary account of a 
 man's life. The fact that each sentence in such collections 
 belongs to an inventory, and that the nature of the inven- 
 tor}^ is reg-ularly stated at the beginning, in other words, 
 that the individual sentences are parts of a larger whole, 
 has great influence in making juxtaposition a sufficient 
 means to relate the individual sentences. The third division 
 consists of cases in which there is an obvious logical con- 
 nection between two consecutive sentences, so clear that no 
 specific means are required to express it. 
 
 The most obvious of these three groups is that in which 
 the rapidity of the narrative serves to make the connection 
 between sentences clear. An account of events occurring 
 practically simultaneously has the same effect, and it is diffi- 
 cult and unprofitable to try to distinguish between the two 
 classes. In the one, the thread of the narrative is sufficient 
 to indicate the connection ; in the other, the unity of time : 
 but the two run into each other and are not essentially 
 different. For instance, in Ann. XV. 69. 9, the first part of 
 the sentence, Ille nihil demoratus exsurgit et omnia simul 
 properantur, implies that the connection will be of the 
 second sort, due to the fact that the events occur simulta- 
 neously. But, in the second part of the sentence, it turns out 
 that the events are described in the order of their occur- 
 rence, making a very rapid narrative: clauditur cubiculo, 
 praesto est medicus, abscinduntur venae, vigens adhuc 
 balneo infertur, calida aqua mersatur, nulla edita voce, qua 
 semet miseraretur. I have not, therefore, made any dis- 
 tinction between cases on this ground. In the cases where 
 the subject is the same in both sentences, this fact in itself 
 forms a further element in the connection, but all cases in 
 which the subject is actually repeated, are omitted here 
 because this repetition will be found to be a means of con- 
 
No Expressed Connection. 3 
 
 nection so widely used that, when it occurs, it is likely to 
 be the leading- element in the connection. Such cases will 
 be considered under the section on Connection by 
 Repetition. The frequency with which there occur cases 
 of sentences having their connection in the rapidity of the 
 narration varies widely throughout Tacitus. In the 
 descriptive portions and especially in the Dialogus they are 
 rare, but on the whole they form a very numerous group of 
 which nearly every page furnishes some example. Ann. II. 
 28. 12 shows a case in which there is very rapid narrative 
 and where the subject remains the same throughout: Statim 
 corripit reum, adit consules, cognitionem senatus poscit. 
 It is true that the knowledge of the course of procedure 
 under the circumstances was an aid to the Roman reader 
 toward the understanding of the connections in this sen- 
 tence, but the fact remains that they are clear without 
 mechanical aid. The case from Ann. XV., cited above, is 
 a good example of the cases in which the subject changes. 
 Further examples are: 
 
 Ann. II. 82. 18: Ciirsant per urbem, moliuntur templorum fores, 
 etc. Ann. III. 20. 8: Primoque impetu pulsa cohorte promptus inter 
 tela occursat fvigientibus, increpat signiferos, etc. Ag. 37. 10: sequi 
 vulnerare, capere, atque eosdem oblatis aliis trucidare. (The infini- 
 tives in this case and in most of the following cases are historical.) 
 H. III. y2>- 3: dux segnis et velut captns animi non lingua, non 
 auribus competere, neque alienis consiliis regi neque sua expedire, 
 hue illuc clamoribus hostium circumagi, quae iusserat vetare, quae 
 vetuerat iubere, etc. H. I. 41. 3 : Eo signo manifesta in Othonem 
 omnium militum studia, desertum fuga populi forum, destricta 
 adversus dubitantes tela. H. I. 58. i : Igitur laudata militum alacri- 
 tate Vitellius ministeria principatus per libertos agi solita in equites 
 Romanes disponit, vacationes centurionibus ex fisco numerat, 
 saevitiam militum plerosque ad poenam exposcentium saepius adpro- 
 babat, raro simulatione vinculorum f rustratur. Ag. 38. 2 : Britanni 
 palantes mixtoque virorum mulierumque ploratu trahere vulneratos, 
 vocare integros, deserere domos ac per iram ultro incendere, eligere 
 latebras et statim relinquere, etc. Ann. II. 13. 2: adit castrorum 
 vias, adsistit tabernaculis fniiturque fama sui, etc. Ann. II. 19. 2: 
 Qui modo abire sedibus, trans Albim concedere parabant, pugnam 
 volunt, arma rapiunt; plebes primores, inventus senes agmen 
 
4 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 Romanum repente incursant, turbant. Ann. II. 23. 5: simul variis 
 undique procellis incerti fluctus prospectum adimere, regimen 
 inpedire. Ann. II. 25. 9: Eo promptior Caesar pergit introrsus, 
 populatnr, excindit non ausum congredi hostem, etc. Ann. II. 31. 3: 
 cum Libo ipsis quas in novissimam voluptatem adhibuerat epulis 
 excruciatus vocare percussorem, prensare servorum dextras, inserere 
 gladium. Ann. III. 45. 10: Ipse inter primores equo insigni adire, 
 memorare veteres Gallorum glorias, etc. Ann. IV. 25. g: hostibus 
 contra omnium nesciis non arma, non ordo, non concilium, sed 
 pecorum modo trahi, occidi, capi. Ann. IV. 68. 20: Ac iam ultro 
 Sabinus quaerere Latiarem, ventitare domum, dolores suos quasi ad 
 fidissimum deferre. Ann. VI. 35. 9: lamque et Albani Hiberique 
 prensare, detnidere, ancipitem pugnam hostibus facere, etc. Ann. 
 XL 37. I : Interim Messalina Lucullianis in hortis prolatare vitam, 
 componere preces, nonnulla spe et aliquando ira, etc. Ann. XII. 
 12. 3: Ac tamen quantum sine bello dabatur, revocare priscum 
 morem, exercitare legiones, cura provisu perinde agere, ac si hostis 
 ingrueret, etc. Ann. XII. 32. 2: Vastati agri, praedae passim actae, 
 etc. Ann. XII. 34. 1 : Ad hoc gentium ductores circumire, hortari, 
 firmare animos, etc. Ann. XII. 51. 6: Ille primo amplecti adlevare 
 adhortari, etc. Ann. XII. 54. 11: Igitur raptare inter se, immittere 
 latronum globos, componere insidias et aliquando proeliis congredi, 
 spoliaque et praedas ad procuratores referre. Ann. XIII. 3. 17: 
 Nero puerilibus statim annis vividum animum in alia detorsit: 
 caelare, pingere, cantus aut regimen equorum exercere, etc. Ann. 
 XIII. 14. 17 : Simul intendere manus, aggerere probra, consecratum 
 Claudium, infernos Silanorum manes invocare et tot inrita facinora. 
 Ann. XIII. 16. 10: Trepidatur a circumsedentibus, diffugiunt inpni- 
 dentes, etc. Ann. XIII. 18. 6: At matris ira nulla munificentia 
 leniri, sed amplecti Octaviam, crebra cum amicis secreta habere, 
 super ingenitam avaritiam undique pecunias quasi in subsidium 
 corripiens, tribunes et centuriones comiter excipere, nomina et 
 virtutes nobilium, qui etiam turn supererant, in honore habere, quasi 
 
 quaereret ducem et partes. H. I. ig. 13: Legati quoque foeda 
 
 inconstantia nominati, excusati, substituti, etc. H. I. 36. 9 : prensare 
 manibus, complecti armis, conlocare iuxta, praeire sacramentum, 
 modo imperatorem militibus, modo milites imperatori commendare. 
 H. I. 45. I : Alium crederes senatum, alium populum : ruere cuncti 
 in castra, anteire proximos, certare cum praecurrentibus, increpare 
 Galbam, laudare militum iudicium, exosculari Othonis manum, etc. 
 H. I. 80. 14: Resistentem seditioni tribunum et severissimos 
 centurionum obtruncant; rapta arma, nudati gladii; insidentes 
 equis urbem ac Palatium petunt. H. II. 12. 9: tamquam externa 
 litora et urbes hostium urere, vastare, rapere eo atrocius, quod nihil 
 usquam provisum adversum metus. H. II. 15. 3 : Caesi vigiles, 
 
No Expressed Connection. 5 
 
 perrupta castra, trepidatum apud navis, donee sidente paulatim metu, 
 occupato iuxta colle defensi, mox inrupere. H. II. 19. 11: Solidati 
 muri, propugnacula addita, auctae turres, provisa parataque non 
 arma modo, sed obsequium et parendi amor, etc. H. II. 22. 7: 
 Legionarius pluteis et cratibus tectus subruit muros, instruit 
 aggerem, molitur portas, etc. H. II. 29. 2: ipsum invadunt, saxa 
 iaciunt, fugientem secuntur. H. II. 30. 3: nolle requiem, non 
 expectare ducem, anteire signa, urguere signiferos; rapido agmine 
 Caecinae iunguntur. H. II. 56. 2: Vitelliani spoliare, rapere, vi et 
 stupris polluere, etc. H. II. 78. I : Post Muciani orationem ceteri 
 audentius circumsistere, hortari, responsa vatum et siderum motus 
 referre. H. II. 82. 5 : Ipse Vespasianus adire, hortari, bonos laude, 
 segnes exemplo incitare saepius quam coercere, vitia magis amicorum 
 quam virtutes dissimulans. H. III. 25. 17: Simul attollere corpus, 
 aperire humum, supremo erga parentem officio fungi. H. IV. 29. 13 : 
 Ubi sonus molientium aut adpositae scalae hostem in manus 
 dederant, propellere umbone, pilo sequi ; multos in moenia egressos 
 pugionibus fodere. H. IV. 49. 20 : Vulgus credulum ruere in forum, 
 praesentiam Pisonis exposcere; gaudio clamoribusque cuncta misce- 
 bant, indiligentia veri et adulandi libidine. H. V. 22. 7 : Aliud 
 agmen turbare classem, inicere vincla, trahere puppis; etc. 
 
 Throughout these examples the frequency of the histori- 
 cal infinitive is noteworthy. This construction is evidently 
 a mark of rapid narrative and to a certain degree comes to 
 be in itself a guide to the connection. There are some 
 doubtful cases, such as Ann. IV. 22. 5 : Non cunctanter 
 Tiberius pergit in domum, visit cubiculum, in quo reluctan- 
 tis et impulsae vestigia cernebantur. Refert ad senatum 
 datisque iudicibus Urgulania Silvani avia pugionem nepoti 
 misit. The preceding sentence described the murder of 
 Apronia. She was thrown from an upper window by her 
 husband. The domum therefore and the cubiculum refer 
 back tacitly to this preceding sentence and this common 
 reference helps to connect each with the other as well as 
 with the previous statement. Furthermore, in the refert 
 there is a distinct reference to what has gone before, and 
 an object implied though not expressed. 
 
 Under this general group there are numerous cases in 
 which two verbs are used together without connective to 
 denote two actions simultaneous or consecutive, or fre- 
 
6 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 quently to express more fully or forcibly a single idea. 
 This is to a large extent a mannerism with Tacitus and the 
 second verb often adds practically nothing. Examples of 
 this usage are : 
 
 Ann. IV. 50. 18: Cum Sabinus circumire, hortari, ne ad ambigua 
 sonitus aut simulationem quietis casum insidientibus aperirent, etc. 
 Ann. IV. 51. 5: Eaque prensare, detrahere etc. Ann. IV. 57. 19: 
 Idque Augusta exprobrabat, reposcebat. Ann. VI. 24. 8: ut quis 
 egredientem cubiculo Drusum pulsaverat, exterruerat. Ann. VI. 
 35. 8: Et pulsu armorum pellerent pellerentur. H. III. 25. 21: Nee 
 eo segnius propinquos adfinis fratres trucidant, spoliant: etc. 
 H. IV. 74. 21 : Proinde pacem et urbem, quam victi victoresque 
 eodem iure obtinemus, amate, colite : etc. H. IV. 81. 10: Ves- 
 pasianus primo inridere, aspemari, etc. 
 
 One such case, H. I. 2. 16, is the formula, agere verier e: 
 Nee minus praemia delatorum invisa quam scelera, cum alii 
 sacerdotia et consulatus ut spolia adepti, procurationes alii 
 et interiorem potentiam, agerent verterent cuncta odio et 
 terrore. In this case undoubtedly the fact that this old 
 formula was a perfectly familiar phrase, renders a connec- 
 tive unnecessary. Even if this were not true, the case 
 would be rather different from the others cited above. For 
 the two verbs are in the same subordinate construction and 
 this fact in itself serves to indicate their connection. This 
 occurs very frequently, especially in the case of indirect 
 discourse in which connectives are dispensed with more 
 freely than in the direct discourse. It is, however, very 
 clear in many subjunctive cases as well. Examples are: 
 
 Ann. I. 36. 9: Igitur volutatis inter se rationibus placitum ut 
 epistulae nomine principis scriberentur: missionem dari vicena 
 stipendia meritis, exauctorari qui sena dena fecissent ac retineri sub 
 vexillo ceterorum inmunes nisi propulsandi hostis, legata quae 
 petiverant exsolvi duplicarique. H. III. 52. i : Antonio ducibusque 
 partium praemitti equites omnemque Umbriam explorari placuit, si 
 qua Appennini iuga clementius adirentur: acciri aquilas signaque 
 et quidquid Veronae militum foret, Padumque et mare commeatibus 
 
 compleri. H. I. 52. 14: e quibus Valens infensus Galbae 
 
 instigare Vitellium, ardorem militum ostentans : ipsum celebri 
 
No Expressed Connection. 7 
 
 ubique fama, nullam in Flacco Hordeonio moram; adfore Bri- 
 taniani, secutura Gennanorum auxilia : male fidas provincias, 
 precarium seni imperium et brevi transiturum: panderet modo 
 sinum et venienti Fortunae occurreret. H. I. 65. 12: nee iam 
 secreta exhortatio, sed publicae preces : irent ultores, excinderent 
 sedem Gallicae belli: etc. H. IV. 9. 8: Censuerat Helvidius, ut 
 Capitolium publica restitueretur, adiuvaret Vespasianus. Ann. II. 
 17. 6: Exclamat irent, sequerentur Romanas aves, propria legionum 
 
 numina. Ann. II. 40. 8: Ille e cHentibus duos deligit atque 
 
 hortatur, simulata conscientia adeant, offerant pecuniam, fidem atque 
 pericula polliceantur. Ann. XL 31. 3 : Quis fatentibus certatim 
 ceteri circumstrepunt, iret in castra, firmaret praetorias cohortes, 
 securitati ante quam vindictae consuleret. Ann. XL 36. 2 : clami- 
 tans, aspiceret verberum notas, reminisceretur vocis, qua se 
 obnoxium iussis Messalinae dedisset : etc. H. II. 76. 27 : cum 
 interim spargit legiones, exarmat cohortes, nova cotidie bello semina 
 ministrat. H. IV. 53. 3 : ut reliquiae prioris delubri in paludea 
 aveherentur, templum isdem vestigiis sisteretur: nolle deos mutari 
 
 veterem formam. D. 2^. 13: Quod adeo neglegitur ut ip-nor- 
 
 ent leges, non teneant senatus consulta, ius civitatis ultro derideant, 
 sapientiae vero studium et praecepta prudentium penitus reformi- 
 dent. 
 
 B. 
 
 The second group of consecutive sentences without 
 expressed connection comprises the inventories of various 
 sorts which occur with considerable frequency throughout 
 the work of Tacitus. The most frequent are the sum- 
 maries which come at the end of the account of each year, 
 stating briefly the events occurring in that year and not 
 discussed in full. They are usually marked by such expres- 
 sions as eo anno, or eadem aestate. With these fall all 
 summaries of events at a given time or accomplished by a 
 given man. They include collected decrees of the senate, 
 portents during a given period and the acts of a leader in a 
 crisis, A second subdivision is made up of the short sketch 
 of a man's life usually given in connection with the notice 
 of his death. The third subdivision is scarcely different 
 from this second but is more purely descriptive. It con- 
 sists of cases in which the fact that the same general sub- 
 
8 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 ject is continuously under discussion, is the factor which 
 marks the connection between the individual sentences. 
 This necessarily occurs most frequently in the descriptive 
 parts, especially in the Germania and the fifth book of the 
 Histories. The subject is always more or less definitely 
 stated and then connectives are used or not, quite without 
 distinction. The cases in the entire group differ from those 
 under section A in that they do not describe events as taking 
 place simultaneously or in rapid succession, but are either 
 summary accounts of acts performed in the past and only 
 arbitrarily grouped together, or else descriptions without 
 action. That there is not a clear cut division, however, 
 between the two groups is clear from such an example as 
 Ag. 38. 2: Britanni palantes mixtoque virorum mulierum- 
 que ploratu trahere vulneratos, vocare integros, deserere 
 domos ac per iram ultro incendere, eligere latebras et statim 
 relinquere; etc. H. II. 45. 10 illustrates the same thing: 
 Tum victi victoresque in lacrimas effusi, sortem civilium 
 armorum misera laetitia detestantes : isdem tentoriis alii 
 fratrum, alii propinquorum vulnera fovebant: spes et 
 praemia in ambiguo, certa funera et luctus, nee quisquam 
 adeo mali expers, ut non aliquam mortem maereret. 
 Requisitum Orfidii legati corpus honore solito crematur; 
 paucos necessarii ipsorum sepelivere, ceterum vulgus super 
 humum relictum. In these two examples it is difficult to 
 say whether there is actual narrative or the description of 
 a scene. The same is true of all the categories : they are 
 not rigid nor mutually exclusive. 
 
 I. The first class of summaries occur chiefly in the 
 Annals and Histories because of the annalistic character of 
 those two works. In fact, the regularity with which such 
 a summary occurs at the end of the account of each year, 
 makes the usage so familiar that the connection between 
 individual sentences is perfectly clear. A case in Ann. II. 
 83. I, shows plainly how impossible it is to draw hard and 
 fast lines between the different categories because of the 
 frequency with which they run into each other and overlap. 
 
No Expressed Connection. 9 
 
 It reads : Honores, ut quis amore in Germanicum aut 
 ingenio validus, reperti decretique : ut nomen eius Saliari 
 carmine caneretur; sedes curules sacerdotium Augustalium 
 locis superque eas querceae coronae statuerentur ; ludos 
 circenses eburna effigies praeiret, neve quis flamen aut 
 augur in locum Germanici nisi gentis luliae crearetur. In 
 this case the decrees were all voted at the same time and 
 moreover the common subordinate construction running 
 through the whole serves to connect the individual clauses. 
 At the same time it is rather a summary of decrees, after 
 all, united by their common subject and not by the rapidity 
 of the narrative. Further examples of this subdivision are : 
 
 Ann. XIII. 30. I : Damnatus isdem consulibus Vipsanius Laenas 
 ob Sardinian! provinciam avare habitam. Absolutus Cestius Procu- 
 
 lus repetundarum, Cretensibus accusantibus. Clodius Quirinalis 
 
 veneno damnationem anteiit. Ann. XII. 43. i : Multa eo anno 
 prodigia evenere. Insessum diris avibus Capitolium, crebris terrae 
 motibus prorutae domus, etc. Ann. I. 72. i : Decreta eo anno 
 triumphalia insignia A. Caecinae, L. Apronio, C. Silio ob res cum 
 Germanico gestas. Nomen patris patriae Tiberius, a populo saepius 
 ingestum, repudiavit; etc. At the end of the first book of the 
 Annals the paragraphs show the same method of connection. § 76 
 begins: Eodem anno continuis imbribus auctus Tiberis plana urbis 
 stagnaverat ; relabentem secuta est aedificiorum et hominum strages. 
 Igitur censuit Asinius Gallus ut libri Sibullini adirentur. Subse- 
 quent sentences in §76 take up other decrees of the year: Achaiam 
 ac Macedonicum etc. Edendis gladiatoribus, etc. § 77 has a con- 
 nective : At theatri licentia, etc. But § 78 has none : Templum ut 
 in colonia Tarraconensi strueretur Augusto petentibus Hispanis 
 permissum, datumque in omnes provincias exemplum. Centesimam 
 rerum venalium post bella civilia institutam deprecante populo 
 edixit Tiberius militare aerarium eo subsidio niti ; etc. § 79 has a 
 connective : Actum deinde in senatu etc., but §§ 80 and 81 are again 
 without connectives : Prorogatur Poppaeo Sabino provincia Moesia, 
 
 and De comitiis consularibus vix quicquam firmare ausim; etc. 
 
 Ann. XIII. 24. I : Fine anni statio cohortis adsidere ludis solita 
 
 demovetur Urbem princeps lustravit ex response haruspicum, 
 
 quod lovis ac Minervae aedes de caelo tactae erant. Ann. XV. 
 32. I : Eodem anno Caesar nationes Alpium maritimarum in ius 
 Latii transtulit. Equitum Romanorum locos sedilibus plebis ante- 
 posuit apud circum; etc. PI. IV. 40. 7: Tum sorte ducti, per quos 
 2 
 
lo No Expressed Connection. 
 
 redderentur bello rapta, quique aera legum vetustate delapsa nos- 
 cerent figerentque et fastos adulatione temporum foedatos exonera- 
 rent modumque publicis inpensis facerent. Redditur Tettio luliano 
 praetura, postquam cognitus est ad Vespasianum conf ugisse : Gripho 
 honor mansit. H. II. 62. 9: Praemisit in urbem edictum, quo 
 vocabulum August! differet, Caesaris non reciperet, cum de potestate 
 nihil detraheret. Pulsi Italia mathematici ; cautum severe, ne 
 equites Romani ludo et harena polluerentur. Ann. I. 63. 10: Mox 
 
 reducto ad Amisiam exercitu legiones classe reportat; pars 
 
 equitum litore Oceani petere Rhenuni iussa; Caecina monitus 
 
 pontes longos quam maturrime superare. 
 
 2. The second class of summaries is altogether simple, 
 consisting of the short summaries of a man's life given in 
 connection with the notice of his death. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. II. 88. 8: Ceterum Arminius dolo propinquorum 
 
 cecidit: liberator baud dubie Germaniae proeliis ambiguus, 
 
 bello non victus. Septem et triginta annos vitae, duodecim potentiae 
 
 explevit. H. I. 49. 7: Hunc exitum habuit Servius Galba 
 
 Vetus in familia nobilitas, magnae opes: ipsi medium ingenium 
 magis extra vitia quam cum virtutibus. Famae nee incuriosus nee 
 venditator; pecuniae alienae non adpetens, suae parens, publicae 
 avarus ; amicorum libertorumque, ubi in bonos incidisset, sine repre- 
 hensione patiens, si mali forent, usque ad culpam ignarus. Sed 
 claritas natalium et metus temporum obtentui, ut, quod segnitia erat, 
 sapientia vocaretur. Dum vigebat aetas, militari laude apud Ger- 
 manias floruit. Pro consule Africam moderate iam senior citer- 
 iorem Hispaniam pari iustitia continuit, etc. H. III. 62. 6: Natus 
 
 erat Valens Anagniae Ludicro luvenalium sub Nerone velut 
 
 ex necessitate, mox sponte mimos actitavit, scite magis quam probe. 
 Legatus legionis et fovit Verginium et infamavit; Fonteium 
 Capitonem corruptum, seu quia corrumpere nequiverat interfecit : 
 Galbae proditor, Vitellio fidus et aliorum perfidia inlustratus. 
 H. II. 5. I : Vespasianus acer militiae anteire agmen, locum castris 
 capere, noctu diuque consilio ac, si res posceret, manu hostibus 
 obniti, cibo f ortuito, veste habituque vix a gregario milite discrepans. 
 
 3. The third class of summaries consists of actual 
 descriptions in which the general subject connects the indi- 
 vidual sentences which are really items in an inventory. 
 This is very well illustrated on a large scale by the first 
 half of the Germania, the part dealing with Germany as a 
 
No Expressed Connection. u 
 
 whole. A glance at the openmg sentences of the chapters 
 shows that in many cases the unity of subject is relied on to 
 keep clear the connections between the chapters. The sub- 
 ject is laid down in the first two words: Germania omnis. 
 That the subject runs through this entire first part of the 
 essay is made certain by the closing words (27. 9) : haec 
 in commune de omnium Germanorum origine ac moribus 
 accepimus. The individual chapters which fall between 
 these two quotations take up various phases of this general 
 subject and very often have no expressed connection. For 
 example : § 5 : Terra etsi aliquanto specie differt, in uni- 
 versum tamen aut silvis horrida aut palustribus foeda. 
 § 7 : Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt, etc. 
 § 9 : Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt, etc. §11: De 
 minoribus rebus principes consultant, de maioribus omnes, 
 etc. § 20 : In omni domo nudi ac sordidi in hos artus, in 
 haec corpora quae miramur, excrescunt. § 21 : Suscipere 
 tam inimicitias seu patris seu propinqui quam amicitias 
 necesse est ; etc. § 22 : Statim e somno, quem plerumque 
 in diem extrahunt, lavantur, etc. § 23 : Potui humor ex 
 hordeo etc. § 24 : Genus spectaculorum unum atque in 
 omni coetu idem. § 26 : Faenus agitare et in usuras 
 extendere ignotum ; etc. §27: Funerum nulla ambitio: 
 etc. This is not true, however, of all the chapters. In the 
 midst of these in which the connection is not explicit are 
 others with the clearest sort of expressed connection. For 
 example : § 2 : Ipsos Germanos indiginas crediderim etc. 
 In this case the people are contrasted with the country and 
 the very name Germanos is practically a repetition. A rela- 
 tive refers back from the opening of § 3 to the close of § 2 ; 
 § 6 opens with ne ferrum quid em; in § 13 aut em is used and 
 a clause, cum ventum in aciem, connects §§ 13 and 14; in 
 § 17 omnibus is practically a repetition and, finally, § 19 
 opens with ergo. It is impossible to say that the paragraphs 
 opening with an explicit connective are more clearly con- 
 nected with the preceding paragraphs than those without. 
 In both cases the connection is perfectly plain. 
 
IB No Expressed Connection. 
 
 Passing from the general structure of this part of the 
 Germania to the particular paragraphs, the same use of one 
 general subject to connect individual sentences is still very 
 clear. For example, § i6 describes the dwellings of the 
 Germans : Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis 
 notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes. Colunt 
 discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. 
 Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerenti- 
 bus aedificiis : suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, etc. 
 Compare § 23, on food and drink : Potui humor ex hordeo 
 aut f rumento, in quandam similitudinem vini corruptus : 
 •proximi ripae et vinum mercantur. Cibi simplices, agrestia 
 poma, recens fera aut lac concretum: sine apparatu, sine 
 blandimentis expellunt famen. Adversus sitim non eadem 
 temperantia. Si indulseris ebrietati suggerendo quantum 
 concupiscunt, baud minus facile vitiis quam armis vincen- 
 tur. Finally compare § 27, on funeral rites : Funerum 
 nulla ambitio: id solum observatur, ut corpora clarorum 
 virorum certis lignis crementur. Struem rogi nee vestibus 
 nee odoribus cumulant: sua cuique arma, quorundam igni 
 et equus adicitur. Sepulcrum caespes erigit: monumen- 
 torum arduum et operosum honorem ut gravem defunctis 
 aspernantur. Lamenta ac lacrimas cito, dolorem et tristi- 
 tiam tarde ponunt. Feminis lugere honestum est, viris 
 meninisse. 
 
 In these cases the general subject is not always the sole 
 element of connection. On the contrary, there are such 
 
 obvious connectives in the examples cited, as ne 
 
 quidem, et — also, eadem and solum, the last two making 
 explicit reference to what has immediately preceded. Such 
 cases illustrate what was noted at the beginning of the 
 chapter, that from custom, various aids to the expression of 
 connection are often used unnecessarily. § 13 may also be 
 compared with the cases above : Nihil autem neque publicae 
 neque privatae rei nisi armati agunt. Sed arma sumere 
 -non ante cuiquam moris, quam civitas suffecturum pro- 
 baverit. Tum in ipso concilio vel principum aliquis vel 
 
No Expressed Connection. 13 
 
 pater vel propinqui scuto frameaque iuvenem ornant: haec 
 apud illos toga, hie primus iuventae honos ; ante hoc domus 
 pars videntur, mox rei publicae. In this example, the sed, 
 the turn, the demonstratives, the contrast between ante hoc 
 and mox, all are means often used by Tacitus to express 
 connection between two sentences. But in this as in the 
 preceding examples the specific connectives are scarcely- 
 necessary nor do they make the connections more clear. 
 There are, however, two general elements in this class of 
 cases which are really parts of the main element of connec- 
 tion, the unity of subject matter. These are, first, the use 
 of the same grammatical subject running through the sen- 
 tences of a paragraph without being repeated, and secondly 
 the use throughout each paragraph of many words which 
 are naturally associated in the mind. Funerum, corpora, 
 rogi, sepulcrum, monumentorum, lamenta — ^these fall into a 
 common category. 
 
 Further examples of this class are the following: 
 
 In H. V. 2. I : Tacitus states : Sed quoniam f amosae urbis 
 supremum diem tradituri sumus, congruens videtur primordia eius 
 aperire. This he proceeds to do, giving a brief account of the his- 
 tory of the Jews. In § 6 he continues : Terra finesque qua ad Orien- 
 tem vergunt Arabia terminantur, a meridie Aegyptus obiacet, ab 
 occasu Phoenices et mare, 'septentrionem e latere Suriae longe pros- 
 pectant. Corpora hominum salubria et ferentia laborum. Rari 
 imbres, uber solum : f rugus nostrum ad morem praeterque eas 
 
 balsamum et palmae. Palmetis proceritas et decor, etc. 
 
 Praecipuum montium Libanum erigit, mirum dictu, tantos inter 
 ardores opacum fidumque nivibus ; idem amnem lordanen alit 
 funditque. In Ag. 10, Tacitus announces an account of Britain and 
 the Britons ; § 12 opens : In pedite robur ; quaedam nationes et 
 curru proeliantur. Honestior auriga, clientes propugnant. Olim 
 regibus parebant, nunc per principes factionibus et studiis distra- 
 huntur. Nee aliud adversus validissimas gentis pro nobis utilius 
 quam quod in commune non consulunt. Rarus duabus civitatibus 
 ad propulsandum commune periculum conventus : ita singuli pug- 
 nant, universi vincuntur. Caelum crebris imbribis ac nebulis 
 foedum ; asperitas f rigorum abest. Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis 
 mensuram; nox clara — etc. Further illustrations are readily found 
 in the last half of the Germania among the descriptions of the 
 individual tribes. 
 
14 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 It appears from these cases that Tacitus, in his descrip- 
 tions, follows a rather indefinite outline or scheme : the sit- 
 uation and features of a country, including its boundaries, 
 configuration, products; the characteristics of the people, 
 their appearance, dress, mode of life, of warfare, of build- 
 ing and so on. It is by no means a hard and fast scheme 
 and is of course not peculiar to Tacitus. It comprises in a 
 logical order the information that we look for and that 
 Tacitus' immediate reader looked for when a new country 
 was mentioned. But this underlying scheme of arrange- 
 ment, however indefinite, makes clear connections not other- 
 wise indicated. Much more definite as a scheme of 
 arrangement or skeleton frame on which to build up a 
 description or even a narrative is the far less common one 
 in which the geographical sequence serves to connect sen- 
 tences or paragraphs. In cases of this type it is on the 
 knowledge of the geography that the writer relies. It is not 
 surprising therefore that in the second half of the Germania 
 where a clear geographical order is followed in the discus- 
 sion of tribes, Tacitus still felt it necessary, because of the 
 general lack of familiarity with Germany, to introduce 
 specific connectives. Some such phrase as ultra hos, 
 proximi Chattis, in latere Chancorum, or trans Suionas, 
 opens each paragraph. Ann. III. 9. i offers an example of 
 the usage : Piso Delmatico mare tramisso relictisque apud 
 Ancoram navibus per Picenum ac mox Flaminiam viam 
 adsequitur legionem, quae e Pannonia in urbem, dein prae- 
 sidio Africae ducebatur: eaque res agitata rumoribus, ut in 
 agmine atque itinere crebro se militibus ostentavisset. Ab 
 Narnia, vitandae suspicionis an quia pavidis consilia in 
 incerto sunt, Nare ac mox Tiberi devectus auxit vulgi iras, 
 etc. The situation of Narnia gives the clue to the connec- 
 tion between its sentence and the first. Similarly in Ann. 
 III. 2. 10, in the description of Agrippina's trip from 
 Brundisium to Rome, this sentence occurs: Drusus Tarra- 
 cinam progressus est cum Claudio fratre liberisque Ger- 
 manici, qui in urbe fuerant. It is the knowledge of the 
 
No Expressed Connection. 15 
 
 location of Tarracina which makes the connection clear. 
 Such cases are few and unsatisfactory, but exactly the same 
 principle holds in a rapid historical summary where the 
 names of the emperors mark the progress. For example, 
 Ag. 13. 7 '• Mox bella civilia et in rem publicam versa 
 principum arma, ac longa oblivio Britanniae etiam in pace: 
 consilium id divus Augustus vocabat, Tiberius praeceptum. 
 Agitasse Gaium Caesarem de intranda Britannia satis 
 constat, ni velox ingenio mobili paenitentiae, et ingentes 
 adversus Germaniam conatus frustra fuissent. Divus 
 Claudius auctor iterati operis, etc. H. V. 9. 8: Regnum 
 ab Antonio Herodi datum victor Augustus auxit. Post 
 mortem Herodis, nihil exspectato Caesare, Simo quidam 
 regium nomen invaserat. Is a Quintilio Varo optinente 
 Suriam punitus, et gentem coercitam liberi Herodis triper- 
 tito rexere. Sub Tiberio quies. Dein iussi a Gaio Caesare 
 effigiem eius in templo locare arma potius sumpsere, quem 
 motum Caesaris mors diremit. Claudius, defunctis regibus 
 aut ad modicum redactis, ludaeam provinciam equitibus 
 Romanis aut libertis permisit, etc. The dein introducing 
 the sentence about Gaius' attitude toward Judaea is appar- 
 ently introduced for the sake of variety. The connections 
 are just as clear in the other sentences when no such word 
 is used. 
 
 There will be found in the next chapter an extensive 
 group of cases in which a concise word or one of general 
 meaning, such as an indefinite neuter, is analyzed or defined 
 in detail in the clauses that follow. In such cases the 
 explanatory clauses are often connected merely by the 
 influence of their common relation to the first sentence. 
 To this extent they belong in the present category. But 
 the study of a large number of these cases makes it perfectly 
 clear that the indefinite or very concise word has by custom 
 attained an anticipatory force. There enters therefore a 
 new element of connection in such cases, and although the 
 explanatory clauses, considered by themselves, might be 
 classified with other summary paragraphs, it has been 
 
1 6 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 simpler to reserve their study for the chapter on anticipa- 
 tory connection. One example will serve here to illustrate 
 the usage: G. 30. 6: Multum, ut inter Germanos, rationis 
 ac sollertiae: praeponere electos, audire praepositos, nosse 
 ordines, intellegere occasiones, differre impetus, disponere 
 diem, vallare noctem, fortunam inter dubia virtutem inter 
 certa numerare, quodque rarissimum nee nisi Romanae 
 disciplinae concessum, plus reponere in duce quam in 
 exercitu. The infinitives are historical. 
 
 C. 
 
 In a third group of cases in which there is no expressed 
 connection between consecutive sentences, it is the clear 
 logical relation between the two sentences themselves that 
 makes the explicit connectives unnecessary. These cases 
 correspond to the illustration used in the introduction : "It 
 is raining. I am not going out." It is not any larger 
 whole embracing the two sentences, nor yet the rapidity of 
 narrative that makes their relation to each other plain; it 
 is merely their obvious logical connection. This is a very 
 common usage in our own spoken language and occurs in 
 Tacitus more than fifty times. Examples are : 
 
 Ag. 8. I : Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius Bolanus, placidius 
 quam feroci provincia dignum est. Temperavit Agricola vim suam 
 ardoremque compescuit, ne incresceret, peritus obsequi eruditusque 
 utilia honestis miscere. Ag. 8. 4: Brevi deinde Britannia consularem 
 Petilium Cerialem accepit. Habuerunt virtutes spatium exemplorum. 
 H. II. 76. 18 : Abiit iam et transvectum est tempus, quo posses 
 videri concupisse: confugiendum est ad imperium. Ann. II. 25. i: 
 Sed fama classis amissae ut Germanos ad spem belli, ita Caesarem 
 ad coercendum erexit. C. Silio cum triginta peditum, tribus equitum 
 milibus ire in Chattos imperat ; etc. H. I. 40. 5 : Othoni tamen 
 armari plebem nuntiabatur; ire praecipites et occupare pericula 
 iubet. H. III. 26. id: Plus apud socordem animum laetitia quam 
 cura valuit. Multa cum exsultatione in urbem revectus frequenti 
 contione pietatem militum laudibus cumulat; etc. H. IV. 35. i: 
 Nihil acque exercitus nostros quam egestas copiarum fatigabat. 
 Impedimenta legionum cum imbelli turba Novaesium missa. ut inde 
 
No Expressed Connection. 17 
 
 terrestri itinere frumentum adveherent; nam flumine hostes potie- 
 bantur. Ann. XII. 38. i : Vocati posthac patres multa et magnifica 
 super captivitate Carataci disseruere, neque minus id clarum quam 
 quod Syphacem P. Scipio, Persen L. Paulus, et si qui alii vinctos 
 reges populo Romano ostendere. Censentur Ostorio triumphi 
 insignia etc. II. I. 29. 6: Igitur consultantibus placuit pertemptari 
 animum cohortis, quae in Palatio stationem agebat, nee per ipsum 
 Galbam, cuius integra auctoritas maioribus remediis servebatur. 
 Piso pro gradibus domus vocatos in hunc modum adlocutus est : 
 
 etc. H. II. 64. I : Igitur Vitellius vocatum per epistulas vitata 
 
 Flaminiae viae celebritate devertere Interamnium atque ibi interfici 
 iussit. Longum interfectori visum : in itinere ac taberna proiectum 
 humi iugulavit etc. H. IV. 34. 13 : Unde maior indici fides, simul 
 
 venire victorem exercitum intellegebatur. In conspectu cas- 
 
 trorum constitui signa fossamque et vallum circumdari Vocula iubet 
 etc. H. V. 13. 17: Hanc adversus urbem gentemque Caesar Titus, 
 quando impetus et subita belli locus abnueret, aggeribus vineisque 
 certare statuit: dividuntur legionibus munia et quies proeliorum 
 fuit, etc. 
 
 These examples are clear ; there are others in which 
 there enter further means of connection so that the logical 
 relation of the sentences cannot be said to be the only one. 
 In the following examples the use of a word in the second 
 sentence which practically repeats some word, or at least 
 some idea, in the first, materially helps to make clear the 
 connection : 
 
 Ann. III. 60. 3 : Crebrescebat enim Graecas per urbes licentia 
 atque impunitas asyla statuendi ; conplebantur templa pessimis 
 servitiorum; etc. H. III. 61. 11: Nee ulla apud Vitellianos flagitii 
 poena, et praemiis defectorum versa fides ac reliquum perfidiae 
 certamen. Crebra transfugia tribunorum centurionumque; etc. 
 H. V. 23. I : Civilem cupido incessit navalem aciem ostentandi : 
 complet quod birennium quaeque simplici ordine agebantur ; etc. 
 
 It is not very often that Tacitus relies simply on the 
 logical relation of one sentence to another for expressing 
 the connection between the two. The other more explicit 
 methods for doing this were so well developed that he 
 almost always makes use of some one of them. But the 
 cases in which he does leave the connection unexpressed 
 
1 8 No Expressed Connection. 
 
 and trusts to the logical relation alone to make it clear, fur- 
 nish one of the few instances in Tacitus of the persistence 
 of a usage, common in the spoken language and presumably 
 in the earliest written language. Many times the use of a 
 conjunction like igitur adds very little, as in Ann. II. 68. 4: 
 specie venandi omissis maritimis locis avia saltuum petiit, 
 mox pernicitate equi ad amnem Pyramum contendit, cuius 
 pontes accolae ruperant audita regis fuga; neque vado 
 penetrari poterat. Igitur in ripa fluminis a Vibio Frontone 
 praefecto equitum vincitur, etc. The connection is per- 
 fectly evident from logic alone, but the conventional means 
 of expressing it are also employed. The same is true in 
 general of Tacitus, that he had at his command a wide 
 range of connectives and only rarely and with deliberate 
 purpose did he fail to make use of one or more. 
 
II. 
 
 CONNECTION EXPRESSED IN THE 
 FIRST CLAUSE. 
 
 The second large division of sentence connections com- 
 prises those cases in which the relation between two con- 
 secutive sentences is actually expressed and in which the 
 means used to express this relation lie largely or wholly in 
 the first sentence. The distinction between such cases and 
 others in which the expressed connection is to be found in 
 the second of the two sentences is not altogether rigid. 
 Very often two, and even more, distinct means are employed 
 in the same instance, some in the first sentence, some in the 
 second. It may often be doubtful whether the connection 
 is essentially made in the one or in the other, and the more 
 elaborate the attempt to make the relation between the two 
 absolutely clear, the more numerous are the means used. 
 Paul (3rd ed. p. no) says: Je nach der Menge und 
 Bestimmtheit der angewendeten Mittel ist die Art und 
 
 Weise genauer oder ungenauer bezeichnet. But 
 
 Paul also notes a principle which has important bearing on 
 the present question, namely, that if several means are 
 employed, the first which reaches the mind, provided it be 
 clear and distinct, is the determining one. It is this first 
 one which actually makes the connection ; the rest merely 
 reinforce it. H. V. 22 furnishes two cases to illustrate this 
 point. In line 5 it reads : Prima caedes astu adiuta : incisis 
 tabernaculorum funibus suismet tentoriis coopertos trucida- 
 bant. The connection is apparent, for the very general 
 nature of the first clause leads to the expectation of a 
 detailed explanation to follow. Nothing is added to the 
 clearness, in line 12, by the addition of a conjunction: Dux 
 semisomnus ac prope intectus errore hostium servatur: 
 namque praetoriam navem vexillo insignem, illic ducem rati, 
 
20 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 abripiunt. Two further examples are : Ann. VI. 32. 1 1 : 
 Sed non Tiberius omisit incepta: Tiridatem sanguinis 
 eiusdem aemulum Artabano, reciperandaeque Armeniae 
 Hiberum Mithridaten deligit etc. Ann. II. 80. i : Nee 
 Piso, quamquam incepta secus cadebant, omisit tutissima e 
 praesentibus, sed castellum Ciliciae munitum admodum, cui 
 nomen Celenderis, occupat; etc. In all of these examples 
 it is the anticipatory nature of the first sentence or clause 
 which makes clear the connection. The same is true of the 
 use of correlatives. So familiar have the correlative pairs 
 become in the language as we know it, that the use of the 
 first member of such a pair at once suggests the other mem- 
 ber, making the connection anticipatory. On the other 
 hand, connection by means of the repetition in the second 
 sentence of some element in the first, although it is mechani- 
 cally divided between the two sentences, belongs essentially 
 to the second, for there is nothing in the first to lead to an 
 anticipation of the repetition in the second. 
 
 The sub-divisions of this general group are arranged with 
 the purpose of presenting the more obvious first. The cases 
 are therefore treated in the following order: First, a large 
 group in which a quotation occurs in the second sentence 
 or clause and is introduced or anticipated in the first by an 
 expression of saying, writing or the like. This expression 
 may consist of a single word or of a phrase and the antici- 
 patory element lies in the incompleteness of the meaning 
 of the particular word or phrase by itself. Second, there 
 are a few cases of a question directly put, implying the 
 answer to follow in the next sentence. The third group 
 contains those cases in which the anticipatory element lies 
 in some special word, so regularly used in this way as to 
 imply a following clause. Such words are licet or sane, 
 and also the first members of the various correlative pairs. 
 The fourth group is less tangible including the cases in 
 which some word or phrase is used in the first sentence, 
 directly implying by its very meaning an analysis to follow ; 
 or else so general or so concise in its meaning as to suggest 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 21 
 
 a more particular explanation to come. Finally, there is a 
 group of cases in which the first sentence or clause is 
 expressed in the negative with the evident purpose of 
 emphasizing or leading up to a positive statement in the 
 second. The last two classes are the least obvious and 
 require the most complete illustration. They are very large 
 groups and are to a certain degree the result of stylistic 
 peculiarities of Tacitus, so that a familiarity with his usage 
 removes much of the difficulty in understanding them. 
 
 The simplest forms of connection by anticipation are to 
 be found preceding a quotation, either direct or indirect. 
 Owing to the large amount of quotation in Tacitus the 
 group is a very large one and also a varied one, because it 
 includes instances of such explicit anticipation as dixit and 
 also such comparatively indefinite anticipation as litteras 
 misit. It is only after a study of the more obvious cases 
 and a familiarity with the usage of Tacitus that litteras 
 misit is seen to have anticipatory force. 
 
 I. There are not many cases in Tacitus of direct quota- 
 tion of the perfectly obvious type, a type in which the quo- 
 tation virtually occupies the position of object to the verb 
 of saying. The following are all that I have found: Ann. 
 I. 65. 14: Inrumpere Germanos iubet, clamitans 'En Varus 
 eodemque iterum fato vinctae legiones !' Ann. I. 13. 13: 
 cum dixisset 'quo usque patieris, Caesar, non adesse caput 
 rei publicae?' Ann. I. 18. 8: Properantibus Blaesus 
 advenit, increpebatque ac retinebat singulos, clamitans 
 'mea potius caede imbuite manus etc' Ann. XL 20. 4: 
 Nihil aliud prolocutus quam 'beatos quondam duces 
 Romanos' signum receptui dedit. Ann. XIII. 56. 6: Quod 
 ille ut proditionis pretium aspernatus addidit 'deesse nobis 
 terra in vitam, in qua moriamur, non potest etc' Ann. II. 
 40. 13 : Percontanti Tiberio, quo modo Agrippa f actus esset, 
 
2 2 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 respondisse fertur 'quo modo tu Caesar.' This last case is 
 more doubtful than the rest, because the fact that the verb 
 used in the first clause is assumed in the second, becomes a 
 very prominent factor in establishing the connection. The 
 respondisse, however, at least suggests the quotation to 
 follow and is to that extent anticipatory. It is perhaps 
 doubtful whether this case belongs in the present class or 
 under section 4, below. 
 
 Tacitus' regular method of introducing a short direct 
 statement is to use inquit, and the post-positive nature of the 
 word somewhat obscures the anticipatory effect. Moreover, 
 it is often used in a purely parenthetical way. But the 
 cases where the subject is stated at first and the inquit 
 merely delayed because of the fact that it is post-positive, 
 are as clearly anticipatory as are the previous cases. 
 Examples are: 
 
 Ann, I. 12. 4: Turn Asinius Gallus 'Interrogo,' inquit, 'Caesar, 
 quam partem rei publicae mandari tibi velis.' H. I. 35. 11 : et Galba 
 'Commilito,' inquit, 'quis iussit?' H. IV. 66. 8: simul Civilis, ausus 
 an ex composito, intulit se agmini Tungrorum, et clara voce 'non 
 ideo' inquit 'bellum sumpsimus etc' D. 3. 10: Turn ille 'leges' inquit 
 'quid Maternus sibi debuerit, et agnosces quae audisti.' D. 11. 2: 
 Maternus 'parantem me' inquit 'non minus diu accusare oratores 
 quam Aper laudeverat arte quodam mitigavit etc' 
 
 This use of inquit is, of course, most common in the 
 Dialogus, where it occurs very frequently, so much so that 
 the cases in which the name only is given and the inquit 
 omitted are as readily recognized to be anticipatory as are 
 the others. For example: 
 
 D. 4. I : Et Maternus : 'perturbarer hac tua severitate, nisi f re- 
 quens et assidua nobis contentio iam prope in consuetudinem 
 vertisset' D. 15. i : Tum Aper : *non desinis, Messala, vetera 
 tantum et antiqua mirari etc' D. 28. i : Cui Messala 'non recon- 
 ditas, Materne, causas requiris, etc' Ann. XIII. 56. i : Et commotus 
 his Avitus: patienda melionim imperia; id dis, quos implorarent, 
 placitum etc 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 23 
 
 The last case, although the quotation is in indirect dis- 
 course, is as truly an instance of explicit anticipation as the 
 rest. Such quotations are far more common in Tacitus 
 than the direct. It is ordinarily considered that in indirect 
 discourse it is the infinitive mode that expresses the relation 
 between the so-called "main clause" and "dependent clause." 
 This is always a prominent factor ; in some cases, in which 
 the verb of saying is very vague, it becomes the chief factor. 
 But there are very many cases which fall within the present 
 group, for their verb of saying is perfectly clear and there- 
 fore anticipatory and as it affects the mind before the infini- 
 tive mode does, it is the principal means of indicating the 
 sentence connection. Compare, for instance, Ann. I. 18. 8, 
 quoted above, with Ann. III. 46. 3 : Contra Silius, etsi prae- 
 sumpta spes hortandi causas exemerat, clamitabat tamen, 
 pudendum ipsis, quod Germaniarum victores adversum 
 Gallos, tamquam in hostem ducerentur. The verb (clamito) 
 is the same in each case and, in spite of the difference in 
 form of the clauses following it, the connection is also 
 essentially the same. The form of quotation is direct in 
 the one case, indirect in the other, but in both instances 
 there is the underlying, fundamental relation between first 
 clause and second, firmly established in the mind by the 
 anticipatory force of the verb. A few examples will illus- 
 trate this very numerous class : 
 
 Ann. I. 12. 2: Dixit forte Tiberius se ut non toti rei publicae 
 parem, ita quaecumque pars sibi mandaretur, eius tutelam sus- 
 cepturuni. Ann. III. 36. 5 : Igitur C. Cestius senator disseruit 
 principes quidem instar deorum esse etc. Ann. VI. 21. 13 : postremo 
 exclamat ambiguum sibi ac prope ultimum discrimen instare. Ann. 
 VI. 28. g : Sunt qui adseverent mille quadringentos sexaginta unum 
 interici, etc. H. II. 54. 2: Cum repente Coenus libertus Neronis 
 atroci mendacio universos perculit, adfirmans superventu quartae 
 decumae legionis, iunctis a Brixello viribus, caesos victores; versam 
 partium fortunam. Ann. XV. 61. 12: Tradit Fabius Rusticus non 
 eo quo venerat itinere redisse tribunum, sed flexisse ad Faenium 
 praefectum, etc. D. 18, 19: Satis constat ne Ciceroni quidem 
 obtrectatores defuisse etc. 
 
24 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 Such cases of simple indirect discourse would ordinarily 
 be considered merely as subordinate clauses and of course 
 they are such in the language as we know it; nevertheless 
 the underlying connection is of interest as suggesting that 
 originally there was no such hard and fast subordinated 
 construction — that the ultimate thought connection is really 
 established as much by the incomplete nature of the first 
 verb, leading to the expectation of something more to come, 
 as by the mode of the second verb. This view is largely 
 confirmed by the next group. 
 
 2. The quotation is sometimes explicitly anticipated by a 
 demonstrative pronoun, adverb, or phrase. In one case 
 only does a pronoun stand alone in this use ; in that case the 
 second clause is, in reality, in apposition with the pronoun 
 which is itself the object of the verb of saying. This case 
 is Ann. XV, 20. 8 : haec addidit : 'Usu probatum est, patres 
 conscripti, leges egregias, exempla honesta apud bonos ex 
 delictis aliorum gigni.' In spite of the variation in form of 
 expression the underlying connection is still the same ; this 
 is also true of a case in H. IV. 75. i, in which the form is 
 again varied : cum Civilis et Classicus misere ad Cerialem 
 epistulas, quarum haec sententia fuit : Vespasianum, quam- 
 quam nuntios occultarent, excessisse vita, etc. All the cases 
 in the present group are from the beginning of relatively 
 long quotations ; they are not very numerous. Further 
 examples are: 
 
 Ag. 29. 16: Calgacus apud contractam multitudinem proelium 
 poscentem in hunc modum locutus fertur: 'Quotiens causas belli et 
 necessitatem nostram intueor, etc' Ag. 33. 3 : simul instruebatur 
 
 acies, cum Agricola ita disseruit : 'Septimus annus est, com- 
 
 militones, ex quo virtute vestra, auspiciis imperii Romani, fide atque 
 opera nostra Britanniam vicistis.' Ann. VI. 6. 2: Nam his verbis 
 
 exorsus est: 'Quid scribam vobis, patres conscripti di me 
 
 deaeque peius perdant quam perire me cotidie sentio, si scio.' Ann. 
 XIII. 9. 18: Nero quo componeret diversos, sic evulgari iussit: ob 
 res a Quadrato et Corbulone prospere gestas laurum fascibus 
 imperatoriis addi. Ann. XII. 10. 2: Senatum ingrediuntur man- 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 25 
 
 dataque in hunc modum incipiunt: non se foederis ignaros esse nee 
 defectione a familia Arsacidarum venire, etc. 
 
 By far the most frequently used of these anticipatory 
 demonstrative phrases in the works of Tacitus are in hunc 
 modum and ita. Besides these there occur: ad hunc 
 modum (vid. Ann. VI. 8. 3) hoc modo (vid. H. IV. 14. 2.) 
 in hanc sententiam (vid. Ann. VI. 20. 10) and hactenus 
 (vid. Ann. XIV. 51.8). 
 
 3. In the third place, there is very often used to antici- 
 pate a quotation, a word or phrase which has not necessarily 
 the suggestion of incompleteness which causes the antici- 
 pation in the cases cited above. Such words and phrases 
 do not, therefore, necessarily imply a quotation to follow, 
 but their frequent use by Tacitus to actually introduce a 
 quotation gives them this anticipatory force. This is 
 carried much farther in indirect quotation than in the direct, 
 as will appear in the examples cited. In such a sentence as 
 Ann. II. 23- 7, Contra Callus Asinius disseruit : auctu imperii 
 adolevisse etiam privatas opes, the anticipation in the first 
 clause is apparent. But without some familiarity with the 
 usage, it would not be at all apparent in Ag. 15. i : Namque 
 absentia legati remoto metu Britanni agitare inter se mala 
 servitutis, conferre iniurias et interpretando accendere: 
 nihil profici patientia nisi ut graviora tamquam ex facili 
 tolerantibus imperentur. This sentence might end with 
 accendere and have no appearance of incompleteness except 
 for the fact that others like it are regularly used with a 
 quotation following. It is true that this is not absolutely 
 always the case. In Latin, as in English, certain words 
 may be used absolutely, or with a direct object, or followed 
 by a quotation. We say "he spoke" or "he spoke these 
 words" or "he spoke as follows." So in Latin dico or 
 dissero may be used in all these ways and are so used in 
 Tacitus. Compare, for instance, with the quotation cited 
 above from Ann. II. t^^i- ?> "the following : Ann. II. 43. i : 
 Igitur haec et de Armenia quae supra memoravi apud patres 
 
26 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 disseriiit, nee posse motum Orientem nisi Germanici 
 sapientia conponi: etc. H. I. 90. 6: adversum Vitellianas 
 partes modeste disseruit, inscitiam potius legionum quam 
 atidaciam increpans, etc. But there are very few instances 
 in Tacitus where these words do not introduce a quotation 
 so that their use becomes an easily recognized means for 
 connecting two sentences by an element of anticipation in 
 the first. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. III. 69. 6: Adversum quae disseruit Caesar: non quidem 
 sibi ignara quae de Silano vulgabantur, sed non ex rumore statuen- 
 dum. Ann. XIII. 27. i : Disserebantur contra : paucorum culpam 
 ipsis exitiosam esse debere etc. Ann I. 7. 12 : Verba edicti fuere 
 pauca et sensu permodesto : de honoribus parentis consulturum etc. 
 Ann. I. 48. 3 : Praemittit literas ad Caecinam, venire se valida 
 manu etc. Ann. II. 82. 3 : et erumpebant questus. Ideo nimirum 
 in extremas terras relegatum, ideo Pisoni permissam provinciam. 
 Ann. III. 12. I : Die senatus Caesar orationem habuit meditate 
 temperamento. Patris sui legatum atque amicum Pisonem fuisse 
 
 etc. Ann. III. 56. 11: Sed principio litterarum modica de 
 
 moribus adulescentis neque in falsum aucta rettulit. Esse illi 
 coniugem et tres liberos etc. Ann. IV. 14. 10: postremo Caesar de 
 inmodestia histrionum rettulit : multa ab iis in publicum seditiose, 
 f oeda per domos temptari etc. Ann. IV. 53. 3 : mox invidiam et 
 preces orditur : subveniret solitudini, daret maritum etc. Ann. XI. 
 21. 6: et audita est vox 'tu es, Rufe, qui in banc provinciam pro 
 consule venis.' Ann. XIV. 58. 11: et mandata L. Antistii soceri 
 attulit : effugeret segnem mortem, dum suffugium esset : etc. H. I. 
 21. 4: fmgebat et metum, quo magis concupisceret : praegravem se 
 Neroni fuisse, nee Lusitaniam rursus at alterius exilii honorem 
 expectandum. H. I. 65. 12 : Nee iam secreta exhortatio, sed publicae 
 preces : irent ultores, excinderent sedem Gallici belli : etc. H. II. 
 74. 11: Et Vespasianus modo in spem erectus, aliquando adversa 
 reputabat: quis ille dies foret, quo sexaginta aetatis annos et duos 
 filios iuvenes bello permitteret? H. II. 96. 4: et amici adulantes 
 mollius interpretebantur : unius legionis eam seditionem, ceteris 
 exercitibus constare fidem. H. III. 13. 4: Ibi Vespasiani virtutem 
 viresque partium extollit: transfugisse classem, in arto commeatum, 
 adversas Gallias Hispaniasque, nihil in urbe fidum atque omnia de 
 Vitellio in deterius. H. III. 13. 11: vastum primo silentium, mox 
 cuncta simul erumpunt. Hue cecedisse Germanici exercitus gloriam, 
 ut sine proelio. sine vulnere, vinctas manus et capta traderent arma? 
 H. IV. 21. 6: Redditur responsum : neque proditoris neque hostium 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 27 
 
 se consiliis uti etc. H. V. 25. i : et concussa Transrhenanorum 
 fide inter Batavos quoque sermones orti : non prorogandam ultra 
 ruinam, nee posse ab una natione totius orbis servitium depelli. 
 Ag. 33. 15 : fortissimi cuiusque voces audiebam : 'quando dabitur 
 hostis, quando acies?' 
 
 The two following examples are so doubtful as hardly to 
 belong to this class at all ; they mark the border line 
 between the present group and one in which the connection 
 lies in the second clause. Ann. II. 13. 11: Incendit ea 
 contumelia legionum iras : veniret dies, daretur pugna etc. 
 H. II. 70. 10: Aderant Valens et Caecina, monstrabantque 
 locos : hinc inrupisse legionum agmen, hinc equites coortos, 
 inde circumfusas auxiliorum manus etc. If the usage were 
 not already familiar, there would be no idea of anticipation 
 whatever in the first clauses of these two examples. As it 
 is, this is very slight indeed, and it is only when the second 
 clauses show a subjunctive and an infinitive with subject 
 accusative, that the connection between clauses becomes 
 altogether clear. This indication of the relation of the 
 clauses by means of the mode of the verb in the second 
 clause, is always present in cases under this group and of 
 course always serves to at least reinforce the principal 
 means of expressing the connection, namely, the element of 
 anticipation in the first clause. The weaker this last ele- 
 ment becomes, the more important is the former, but it is 
 impossible to say in each individual case which is the main 
 factor in determining the sentence connection. Other 
 means also are frequently used to reinforce the element of 
 anticipation but rarely do they become the chief means of 
 expressing this connection. For example, Ann. III. 64. 11 : 
 Contra dixit Caesar, distincto sacerdotiorum iure et repetitis 
 exemplis : neque enim umquam f etialibus hoc maiestatis 
 fuisse. The connection is made perfectly clear by the first 
 clause which, by its incompleteness, leads to the expectation 
 of the second to follow. The neque enim is merely an addi- 
 tional connective and not a necessary one. The same is true 
 of the following: Ann. III. 34. 26: Addidit pauca Drusus 
 
28 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 de matrimonio suo ; nam principibus adeunda saepius longin- 
 qua imperii. 
 
 B. 
 
 A type of anticipation almost as obvious as is the preced- 
 ing in its simplest form, consists of the asking of a question 
 in the first sentence. It is only natural to expect the answer 
 in the second and this expectation is sufficient to make evi- 
 dent the connection between the two sentences. This group 
 is a very small one; there are but six cases of direct ques- 
 tion and answer and five of these are rhetorical questions, 
 put and answered by the same person. These six examples 
 are: 
 
 D. 14. 4: 'Num parum tempestivus' inquit 'interveni secretum 
 consilium aut causae alicuius meditationem tractantibus ?' 'Minime, 
 minime' inquit Secundus. Ann. I. 41. 3: Quis ille flebilis sonus? 
 quod tarn triste? Feminas inhistres, non centurionem ad tutelam, 
 non militeni, nihil imperatoriae uxoris aut comitatus soliti : pergere 
 ad Treveros externae fidei. Ann. III. 54. 13 : Cur ergo dim parsi- 
 monia pollebat? Quia sibi quisque moderabatur, quia unius urbis 
 cives eramus, etc. H. III. 13. 14: Quas enim ex diverse legiones? 
 Nempe victas; etc. Ann. XIV. i. 7: Cur enim differri nuptias suas? 
 Formam scilicet displicere et triumphales avos an fecunditatem et 
 verum animum? Ag. 33. 15: voces audiebam 'quando dabitur hos- 
 tis, quando acies?' Veniunt, e latebris suis extrusi etc. 
 
 The last case is the most doubtful. The second sentence 
 does not directly answer the question although it is virtually 
 equivalent to an answer, nunc. Furthermore, the fact that 
 the question does not stand independently but as the quota- 
 tion of a question which Agricola says that he has heard, 
 deprives it of most of its anticipatory value. There are 
 other questions indirectly quoted in the same manner but 
 with a different verb which retain the anticipatory force of 
 the direct question. For example : Ann. II. 9. 9 : Illo locum 
 et proelium referente, quodnam praemium recepisset 
 exquirit. Flavus aucta stipendia, torquem et coronam 
 aliaque militaria dona memorat, etc. H. III. 8. i : Quaesi- 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 29 
 
 turn inde, quae sedes bello legeretur. Verona potior visa 
 patentibus circum campis, ad pugnam equestrem qua 
 praevalebant etc. H. IV. 50. 6: Haud procul cubiculo 
 obvium forte servum, quisnam et ubi esset Piso, inter- 
 rogavere. Servus egregio mendacio se Pisonem esse 
 respondit ac statim obtruncatur. In the last case the repe- 
 tition of servus and Piso helps materially to connect the 
 sentences, but this is not essential ; the interrogavere implies 
 an answer to follow. 
 
 A third group of sentence connections in which the 
 element of anticipation is present, is the most interesting 
 for the present study. It comprises cases in which the con- 
 nection between the two sentences or clauses is expressed 
 by the use of some special word in the first clause. These 
 words are licet, sane, modo, (ceterus) and alius; instances 
 in which the imperative stands in the first clause and which 
 parallel the use with modo or sane are included in the group. 
 The interest in these cases lies in the fact that they express 
 exactly the same relation between clauses that is expressed 
 by several of the well recognized "subordinate" construc- 
 tions. Especially is this true whenever there is a contrast 
 clearly expressed between the two clauses, for then the rela- 
 tion between the two is exactly the same as that between a 
 "concessive" clause and the main clause of a sentence. The 
 contrast is evidently the chief element in expressing the con- 
 nection for this appears in all the cases while the other 
 elements vary. The licet or sane must therefore be looked 
 on rather as an additional help to the reader to warn him 
 of the sort of clause to expect, and, as so developed and 
 used, it becomes an anticipatory means of connection. 
 This group furnishes one of the few instances from Tacitus 
 in which there is to be found an indication of an unde- 
 veloped construction. It is apparent that the concessive 
 idea never developed any single form of expression, but was 
 
30 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 always expressed in a great many various ways, all depend- 
 ing on the underlying contrast between clauses to make the 
 connection clear. 
 
 The use of these special words is not, however, confined 
 to the expression or rather anticipation of a concessive 
 connection. When there is no element of contrast there is 
 no trace of a concessive idea. Licet is always used with an 
 accompanying contrast and so are sane, (ceterus) and alius 
 when they have an anticipatory force, but modo is used with 
 an imperative, with no accompanying contrast. In such 
 instances the effect is that of a conditional clause, as will 
 appear in the discussion of these cases below. 
 
 Finally the use of correlatives is included in the present 
 section because the first member of a correlative pair is as 
 truly an anticipatory word as licet or sane. 
 
 I. LICET, used as a verb of simple narrative followed 
 by the infinitive, does not fall within the present group. It 
 is only when followed directly by the subjunctive that it 
 has anticipatory and concessive force. There are but four 
 instances of such use in Tacitus. D. 13. 3 furnishes the 
 best example: Licet illos certamina et pericula sua ad con- 
 sulatus evexerint, malo securum et quietum Virgilii seces- 
 sum etc. There is elaborate contrast throughout, certamina 
 and pericula contrasted in chiastic order with securum and 
 quietum; consulatus contrasted with secessum; and the very 
 meaning of the verb malo implying a contrast. This in 
 itself suggests an adversative idea in the second clause and 
 the use of licet clearly anticipates this. The other examples 
 are: 
 
 Ag. 32. 5 : nisi si Gallos et Germanos et (pudet dictu) Britannorum 
 plerosque, licet dominationi alienae sanguinem commodent, diutius 
 tamen hostes quam servos, fide et adfectu teneri putatis. (This case 
 is complicated by the involved nature of the sentence, and the conces- 
 sive idea is substantially reinforced by the tamen; but the contrast 
 is clear yi^ithout the tamen and the anticipation evident in the licet.) 
 D. 9. 5 : Licet haec ipsa et quae deinceps dicturus sum aures tuae, 
 Materne, respuant, cui bono est, si apud te Agamemnon aut lason 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 31 
 
 diserte loquitur? Ann. XIV. 55. 13: Ac licet multa videantur, pler- 
 ique haudquaquam artibus tuis pares plura tenuerunt. 
 
 The question of the relation between licet and the sub- 
 junctive following does not belong in the present discussion 
 and will be taken up in the third chapter. 
 
 2. SANE is not, like licet, confined in Tacitus to this use 
 in the first clause, but often occurs in the second ; that is, 
 sane often denotes a connection between its own clause and 
 the preceding, rather than between its own and that which 
 follows. Such instances, however, belong to the next 
 chapter. The anticipatory use of sane seems to come from 
 its function as an emphasizing adverb. In English a word 
 is often printed in italics to give the same emphasis and 
 there follows a clause beginning with "but." For instance, 
 "He is wealthy, but he makes no display." The emphasis 
 expresses a concession which may be further marked by 
 such expressions as "to be sure" or "it is true." The same 
 concession may be expressed in Latin by sane with or with- 
 out an adversative conjunction in the second clause. Con- 
 trast always accompanies this use. H. IV. 58. 22 furnishes 
 a simple example : Sane ego displiceam : sunt alii legati, 
 tribuni, centurio denique aut miles, ne hoc prodigium toto 
 terrarum orbe vulgetur, vobis satellitibus Civilem et Classi- 
 cum Italiam invasuros. The contrast between ego and alii 
 determines the connection ; sane by emphasizing the ego, 
 emphasizes also the contrast. The remaining examples are : 
 
 Ann. I. 10. 12: Sane Casii et Brutorum exitus paternis inimicitiis 
 datos, quamquam fas sit privata odia publicis utilitatibus remittere : 
 sed Pompeium imagine pacis, sed Lepidum specie amicitiae deceptos ; 
 etc. Ann. III. 5. 9 : Sane corpus ob longinquitatem itinerum externis 
 terris quoquo modo crematum : sed tanto plura decora mox tribui 
 par fuisse, quanto prima fors negavisset. Ann. III. 59. 13 : Sane 
 gravaretur aspectum civium senex imperator fessamque aetatem et 
 actos labores praetenderet : Druso quod nisi ex adrogantia impedi- 
 mentum? Ann. XII. 27. 15: Novum sane et moribus veterum 
 insolitum, f eminam signis Romanis praesidere : ipsa semet parti 
 a maioribus suis imperii sociam ferebat. Ann. XIV. 44. 5 : Sane 
 
32 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 consilium occultavit, telum inter ignaros paravit: num excubias 
 transire, cubiculo fores recludere, lumen inferre, caedem patrare 
 poterat omnibus nesciis? 
 
 The following show a hortatory or imperative expression 
 used with the sane and, although the underlying connection 
 is still the same, they form a transitional group between the 
 other cases with licet and sane and those with modo. For 
 the imperatives are not actual commands but merely hypo- 
 thetical, and express the same idea that a conditional clause 
 might express. At the same time, they do not express a 
 pure condition like the imperatives with modo below, but 
 with the element of contrast still strong, they have still a 
 concessive tone, such as we express in English by "even if." 
 The examples are: 
 
 Ann. III. 70. 7: Sane lentus in suo dolore asset: rei publicae 
 iniurias ne largiretur. Ann. XL 23. 18: Fruerentur sane vocabulo 
 civitatis : insignia patriun, decora magistratuum ne vulgarent. Ann. 
 XIII. 55. 10: Ser\'arent sane receptus gregibus inter hominum 
 famem, modo ne vastitatem et solitudinem mallent quam amicos 
 populos. H. IV. 42. 14: Sane toleremus istorum defensiones, qui 
 perdere alios quam periclitari ipsi maluerunt : te securum reliquerat 
 exul pater etc. 
 
 3. MODO. There is only one case of anticipation 
 marked by modo: Ann. II. 15. 10: Meminissent modo 
 avaritiae, crudelitatis, superbiae; aliud sibi reliquum quam 
 tenere libertatem aut mori ante servitium ? In this case the 
 clause with modo clearly expresses a supposition. It hap- 
 pens that a rhetorical question takes the place of a statement 
 of the result of accepting the supposition, but this does not 
 change the connection. Two examples in which the order 
 of clauses is reversed will make this type of connection 
 more familiar: H. I. 52. 19: Male fidas provincias, pre- 
 carium seni imperium et brevi transiturum : panderet modo 
 sinum et venienti Fortunae occurreret. Ann. XIV. 61. 14: 
 Arma ilia adversus principem sumpta ; ducem tantum 
 defuisse, qui motis rebus facile reperiretur, omitteret modo 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 33 
 
 Campaniam et in urbem ipsa pergeret, ad cuius nutum 
 absentis tumultus cierentur. 
 
 4. IMPERATIVE ALONE. With the last three exam- 
 ples in mind, there is no difficulty in understanding the cases 
 in which the imperative stands alone in the first clause to 
 express a supposition or hypothesis with no special word to 
 mark it. The element of anticipation in such cases lies in 
 the hypothetical nature of the imperative itself, which does 
 not state a literal command to do something but merely a 
 premise to which the second clause states the conclusion. 
 The future idea in the second clause confirms the connec- 
 tion between the two, but the anticipatory element in the 
 first really establishes it. The usage is easily paralleled in 
 English. Kipling's "Give me my father's mare again, And 
 I'll fight my own way back" is a good illustration, and 
 another is the authorized translation of Matthew 7. 7 : Ask, 
 and it shall be given you ; seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and 
 it shall be opened unto you. Examples from Tacitus are : 
 
 Ann. II. 71. 17: Ostendite populo Romano divi Augusti neptem 
 eandemque coniugem meam, numerate sex liberos. Misericordia cum 
 accusantibus erit, fugientibusque scelesta mandata aut non credent 
 homines aut non ignoscent. Ann. XI. 2. 5 : et 'interroga' inquit, 
 'Suilli, filios tuos: virum esse me fatebuntur.' Ann. XIV. 43. 13: 
 Decernite hercule inpunitatem : at quem dignitas sua def endet, cum 
 praefecto urbis non profuerit? H. IV. 77. 20: Ite, nuntiate 
 Vespasiano vel, quod propius est, Civili et Classico, relictum a vobis 
 in acie ducem : venient legiones, quae neque me inultum neque vos 
 impunitos patiantur. D. 17. 10: Statue sex et quinquaginta annos, 
 quibus mox divus Augustus rem publicam rexit ; adice Tiberii tres 
 et viginti et prope quadriennium Gai, ac bis quaternos denos Claudii 
 et Neronis annos, atque ilium Galbae et Othonis et Vitelli longum et 
 unum annum, ac sextam iam huius principatus stationem, quo Ves- 
 pasianus rem publicam f ovet : centum et viginti anni ab interitu 
 Ciceronis in hunc diem colliguntur, unius hominis aetas. 
 
 In the last example the hypothetical nature of the impera- 
 tives is clear and there is no real difficulty with the present 
 tense of colliguntur. It is used as though the computation 
 
34 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 were made as the various items are stated so that it is com- 
 plete when they are exhausted, but it is still future with 
 reference to the imperatives. There are, however, cases 
 which have no such future idea in the second clause, cases 
 like those with licet in the first clause and an element of 
 contrast between the two clauses. These are : 
 
 Ann. I. 59. 12: Coleret Segestes victam ripam, redderet filio 
 sacerdotium hominum : Germanos numquam satis excusaturos, 
 quod inter Albim et Rhenum virgas et secures et togam viderint. H. 
 IV. 8. 15: Denique constantia fortitudine Catonibus et Brutis 
 aequaretur Helvidius : se unam esse ex illo senatu, qui simul 
 servierit. H. IV. 17. 20: Servirent Suria Asiaque et suetus regibus 
 Oriens : multos adhuc in Gallis vivere ante tributa genitos. 
 
 The practical subordination from a logical point of view 
 of the imperative clauses, is clear in all the examples. The 
 force of the imperative is either concessive or conditional, 
 according as the contrast or the future idea is present in the 
 second clause, and the connection between the two clauses 
 would not be more clear if a subordinating particle were 
 used. The only question that arises is whether such cases 
 should be classified as anticipatory or not. Anticipation is 
 undoubtedly present. At the same time, the second clause 
 is required to determine exactly the relation between the 
 clauses. This does not lessen the value of the present cate- 
 gory, which plainly represents one means of sentence con- 
 nection whether or not it is the main one used in these 
 instances. 
 
 5. (CETERUS) AND ALIUS. Like the licet clauses 
 and the imperatives with a concessive idea, are the clauses 
 with (ceterus) or alius in which these words refer, not to 
 what has preceded but to what follows. Such clauses make 
 a general statement to which an exception is given in the 
 second clause. The connection seems to lie essentially in 
 the contrast idea which is necessarily present in the words 
 (ceterus) and alius themselves. By their very meaning 
 they are comparative or contrasting and so when they do 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 35 
 
 not refer to what has preceded they at once create the anti- 
 cipation of a comparison by way of contrast still to come. 
 The instances of this usage are somewhat more numerous 
 than those of the other types under the present group ; about 
 half are cited below : 
 
 Ann. I. 25. 3 : Ceteri tribunal ingenti agmine circumveniunt. Stabat 
 Drusus silentium manu poscens. Ann. II. 38. 24: Egere alii 
 grates: siluit Hortalus etc. Ann. III. 53. I: Ceteris forsitan in 
 rebus, patres conscripti, magis expediat me coram interrogari et 
 dicere quid e re publica censeam: in hac relatione subtrahi oculos 
 meos melius fuit etc. Ann. XIII. 15. 6: Igitur ceteris diversa nee 
 
 ruborem adlatura : ubi Britannico iussit exsurgeret ille con- 
 
 stanter exorsus est carmen, etc. H. II. 44. 16: Ceteris fractus 
 animus : praetorianus miles non virtute se, sed proditione victum 
 fremebant etc. H. III. 32. 14: Ceteri duces in obscuro : Antonium 
 f ortuna f amaque omnium oculis exposuerat. H. IV. 62. 7 : Alii 
 nulla dedecoris cura pecuniam aut carissima sibimet ipsi circumdare, 
 quidam expedire arma telisque tamquam in aciem accingi. D. 8. 22 : 
 bene intellegit ceteros quidem amicos suos iis niti, quae ab ipso 
 acceperint quaeque ipsi accumulare et in alios congerere promptum 
 sit, Marcellum autem et Crispum attulisse ad amicitiam suam quod 
 non a principe acceperint nee accipi possit. In this last example the 
 quidem and the autem serve to support the other means of connec- 
 tion but do not at all change them. 
 
 6. CORRELATIVES. The use of correlatives is quite 
 distinct from the other usages grouped under the present 
 section. It is included because, whenever it occurs, the 
 connection is established in the first clause by the anticipa- 
 tion expressed in a special word. The usage is thoroughly 
 familiar and has been so extensively recognized and studied 
 that it does not need to be illustrated here. Only one or 
 two cases are of special interest because they show the 
 strength of the anticipatory element in the use of correl- 
 atives. For example, in D. 39. 6, there is a case of quo 
 modo, sic: Nam quo modo nobiles equos cursus et spatia 
 probant, sic est aliquis oratorum campus, per quem nisi 
 liberi et soluti ferantur, debilitatur ac frangitur eloquentia. 
 This pair is so familiar that, in H. IV. 42. 27, the last mem- 
 
36 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 ber is omitted without making the connection between the 
 clauses less clear: et quo modo senes nostri Marcellum, 
 Crispum, iuvenes Regulum imitentur. The contrast here 
 between senes and iuvenes, which is really the underlying 
 means of connection, is quite sufficient to confirm the rela- 
 tion between the clauses already established by the quo 
 modo. The same is shown in the following examples : 
 D. 22. 19: non ea solum instrui (sc. volo) supellectile quae 
 necessariis usibus sufficiat, sed sit in apparatu eius aurum 
 et gemmae, ut sumere in manus et aspicere saepius libeat. 
 H. II. 2y. 2 : nee solum apud Caecinam, qui culpam in mili- 
 tem conferebat, seditione magis quam proelio paratum: 
 Fabii quoque Valentis copiae (iam enim Ticinum venerat) 
 posito hostium contemptu et reciperandi decoris cupidine 
 reverentius et aequalius duci parebant. Ann. XVI. 26. 3: 
 Non solum Cossutianum aut Eprium ad scelus promptos: 
 superesse qui forsitan manus ictusque per immanitatem 
 ingesturi sint; etc. 
 
 D. 
 
 There are a great many instances in which Tacitus uses 
 practically the same means of connection that were noted 
 under section (A) of the present chapter, but in which, 
 instead of quotation, either direct or indirect, it is a piece 
 of direct narrative which is anticipated by the first clause 
 or sentence. The range of expressions which can be used 
 to excite anticipation is much wider in such cases than in 
 the ones with quotations. This makes the connection in 
 many instances much less obvious. But the means used 
 are very nearly identical. They are, first, the direct 
 announcement of a given piece of subject matter to be dis- 
 cussed ; second, the use of a demonstrative word or phrase 
 such as tali modo; finally, a wide range of less precise 
 anticipatory words or phrases which, from their meaning, 
 imply an explanation to follow: these may be such words 
 as diversus, implying an analysis to follow, or words so very 
 general in meaning as to imply that a more precise explana- 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 37 
 
 tion is coming. Tiiis last usage is largely a matter of style, 
 as was that of the corresponding group under section (A), 
 and therefore requires more familiarity to make it clear, 
 and more examples to make it familiar. 
 
 1. The direct announcement that a given piece of subject 
 matter is to be discussed corresponds to the use of exclamo, 
 addo or the like, before a quotation. There are few exam- 
 ples of this usage in Tacitus but they are simple and require 
 no explanation : 
 
 Ann. III. 24. 3: Casum eius paucis repetam. Ut valida divo 
 Augusto in rem publicam fortuna, ita domi improspera fuit etc. 
 H. I. 51. i: Nunc initia causasque motus Vitelliani expediam. 
 Caeso cum omnibus copiis lulio Vindice ferox praeda gloriaque 
 
 exercitus praemia quam stipendia malebat. H. II. 27. 7 : Gravis 
 
 alioquin seditio exarserat, quam altiore initio repetam. Cohortes 
 
 Batavorum superbe agebant etc. H. V. 2. i: Sed quoniam 
 
 famosae urbis supremum diem tradituri sumus, congruens videtur 
 primordia eius aperire. A history of the Jews and Jerusalem fol- 
 lows. G. 27. 10: nunc singularum gentium instituta ritusque, 
 quatenus differant, quaeque nationes e Germania in Gallias cpm- 
 migraverint, expediam. D. 6. i : Ad voluptatem oratoriae eloquentiae 
 transeo etc. D. 22. i : Ad Ciceronem venio etc. 
 
 2. Scarcely different is the group in which a demonstra- 
 tive word or phrase is similarly used to anticipate a state- 
 ment. This includes indirect statements and questions, 
 other than quotations, in apposition with a demonstrative. 
 All the examples are cited : 
 
 Ann. VI. 50. 6 : Illic eum adpropinquare supremis tali modo 
 compertum. Erat medicus arte insignis, nomine Charicles, etc. 
 Ann. XIII. 47. 4: Quem metum Graptus ex libertis Caesaris, usu et 
 senecta Tiberio abusque domum principum edoctus, tali mendacio 
 intendit. Pons Mulvius in eo tempore Celebris nocturnis inlecebris 
 erat; etc. H. I. 38. 10: Hoc solum erit certamen, quis mihi pluri- 
 mum inputet. Cf . Ann. IV. 4. 13 : Quod mihi quoque exsequendum 
 reor, quae tunc Romana copia in armis, qui socii reges, quanto sit 
 angustius imperitatum. D. 16. 15 : sed hoc primum interrogabo, 
 quos vocetis antiquos. quam oratorum aetatem significatione ista 
 determinetis. D. 18. 7 : Agere enim fortius iam et audentius volo. 
 
38 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 si illud ante praedixero, mutari cum temporibus formas quoque et 
 genera dicendi. D. 30. 24 : Ita est enim, optimi viri, ita est : ex 
 multa eruditione et plurimis artibus et omnium rerum scientia 
 exundat et exuberat ilia admirabilis eloquentia. Ag. 27. 5 : Iniquis- 
 sima haec bellorum condicio est : prospera omnes sibi vindicant, 
 adversa uni imputantur. (Note that the demonstrative looks both 
 ways.) 
 
 3. The third division of this group is very extensive and 
 less famiHar than the first two. Among the means of anti- 
 cipating a quotation the one most widely used by Tacitus 
 was the least tangible, namely, the employment of a word 
 or phrase of speaking which was not necessarily incomplete 
 in meaning and therefore did not necessarily imply a quota- 
 tion to follow, but which did, in actual use, regularly have 
 an element of anticipation because it was Tacitus' custom 
 so to use it and this custom soon became familiar. The 
 same usage is prominent also in direct narrative. It is a 
 point of style which, from the frequency of its use, becomes 
 a recognizable means of expressing connection. Neces- 
 sarily there are gradations in the clearness of such connec- 
 tions : that which is most like the type in which a demon- 
 strative word or phrase serves to denote the relation of two 
 sentences to each other, consists of the use, in the first 
 clause or sentence, of some word whose meaning implies an 
 analysis : such words as diversus or varie. There are some 
 thirty or forty such cases of which the following are 
 typical examples : 
 
 Ann. I. 47. 3 : Multa quippe et diversa angebant : validior per 
 Germaniam exercitus, proprior apud Pannoniam etc. Ann. I. 80. 4: 
 Causae variae traduntur: alii taedio novae curae semel placita pro 
 aeternis servavisse, quidam invidia, ne plures fruerentur; sunt qui 
 existiment, ut callidum eius ingenium, ita anxium iudicium etc. 
 Ann. XVI. 25. 2: Diversa consilia adferebantur. Quibus intrari 
 
 curiam placebat, secures esse de constantia eius disserunt; 
 
 Contra qui opperiendum domui censebant, de ipso Thrasea eadem, 
 sed ludibria et contumelias imminere : etc. H. I. 62. i : Mira inter 
 
 exercitum imperatoremque diversitas : instare miles Torpebat 
 
 Vitellius etc. H. II. 42. 10: Et per locos arboribus ac vineis 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 39 
 
 inpeditos non una pugnae f acies : comminus eminus, catervis et 
 cuneis concurrebant. H. III. 80. 6 : Varia legatorum sors fuit. Qui 
 Petilio Ceriali occurerant extremum discrimen adiere, aspernante 
 
 milite condiciones pacis Aequioribus animis accept! sunt qui ad 
 
 Antonium venerant, non quia modestior miles, sed duci plus auctori- 
 tatis. Ag. 9. 8 : lam vero tempora curarum remissionumque divisa : 
 ubi conventus ac iudicia poscerent, gravis intentus severus, et saepius 
 misericors : ubi officio satis factum, nulla ultra potestatis persona; 
 tristitiam et adrogantiam et avaritiam exuerat. G. 12. 2 : Distinctio 
 poenarum ex delicto. Proditores et transfugas arboribus suspen- 
 dunt, ignavos et imbelles et corpore infames caeno ac palude, 
 iniecta insuper crate, mergunt. G. 22. 14 : et salva utriusque 
 temporis ratio est : deliberant, dum fingere nesciunt, constituunt 
 dum errare non possunt. 
 
 In all of these cases there is, in some word of the first 
 clause, at least the suggestion that an analysis is to follow 
 which will give precision to the statement. There are a 
 great many more instances of a similar but less obvious 
 usage. This consists of making first a statement which is 
 so general or vague as to be in itself unsatisfactory, and 
 then following it with a second or with several more state- 
 ments which are precise and particular and therefore 
 explain the first. This is a matter of style : by making the 
 first general or vague statement, Tacitus holds the attention 
 until he has explained what is obscure, and in this way 
 emphasizes the later clauses. For example, in Ann. I. 29. 
 12, the statement, Promptum ad asperiora ingenium Druso 
 erat, coming as it does, not in a description of Drusus, but 
 in the course of a narrative, has no meaning, except as it 
 anticipates the concrete example of this cruelty in the second 
 clause: vocatos Vibulenum et Percennium interfici iubet. 
 Ann. III. 31. 7, furnishes a good example: Ac forte parva 
 res magnum ad certamen progressa praebuit iuveni 
 materiam apiscendi favoris. The parva res and the mag- 
 num certamen, in fact the whole sentence, is so vague as to 
 be without meaning if it stood alone. But the next sentence 
 makes it clear: Domitius Corbulo praetura functus de L. 
 Sulla nobili iuvene questus est apud senatum. Such a case 
 
40 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 as G. 12. 6 is somewhat more doubtful: Sed et levioribus 
 delictis pro modo poena : equorum pecorumque numero 
 convicti multantur. The first clause might stand alone and 
 be satisfactory, but when the usage is familiar, such a phrase 
 is sufficiently vague to suggest the detailed explanation 
 which follows. It would be impossible to say just how 
 many times this means of connection is used by Tacitus, 
 but the following examples represent several hundred fairly 
 clear instances : 
 
 Ann. II. 66. 3 : Rhescuperis inter metum et iram cunctatus maluit 
 patrati quam incepti f acinoris reus esse : occidi Cotyn iubet 
 mortemque sponte sumptam ementitur. Ann. XIII. 45. i : Non 
 minus insignis eo anno impudicitia magnorum rei publicae malorum 
 initium fecit. Erat in civitate Sabina Poppaea etc. Ann. XIV. 4. 
 14 : Ibi blandimentum sublevavit metum : comiter excepta superque 
 ipsum coUocata. Ann. XV. 29. 16: At nunc versos casus: iturum 
 Tiridaten ostentui gentibus, quanto minus quam captivum? H. II. 
 8. 15: Inde late terror; multi ad celebritatem nominis erecti rerum 
 novarum cupidine et odio praesentium. H. II. 56. i : Ceterum 
 Italia gravius atque atrocius quam bello adflictabatur. Dispersi per 
 municipia et colonias Vitelliani spoliare, rapere, vi et stupris 
 polluere etc. H. II. 94. i : Ceterum non ita ducibus indulsit Vitel- 
 lius, ut non plus militi liceret. Sibi quisque militiam sumpsere : 
 quamvis indignus, si ita maluerat, urbanae militiae adscribebatur etc. 
 H. III. 45. 9: Concussa statim flagitio domus : pro marito studia 
 civitatis, pro adultero libido reginae et saevitia. H. IV. i. i : Inter- 
 fecto Vitellio bellum magis desierat quam pax coeperat. Armati per 
 urbem victores inplacabili odio victos consectabantur : etc. H. IV. 
 67. 5 : Fortuna melioribus adf uit : f usi Lingones. H. V. 22. 5 : 
 Prima caedes astu adiuta : incisis tabernaculorum funibus suismet 
 tentoriis coopertos trucidabant. G. 4. 4: Unde habitus quoque 
 
 corporum idem omnibus : truces et caerulei oculi, rutilae comae 
 
 etc. G. 39. 2: fides antiquitatis religione firmatur. Stato tempore 
 
 in silvam sacram omnes eiusdem sanguinis populi legationibus 
 
 coeunt etc. G. 19. 4 : quorum poena praesens et maritis permissa : 
 abscissis crinibus nudatam coram propinquis expellit domo maritus 
 etc. G. 10. I : sortium consuetudo simplex. Virgam f rugiferae 
 arbori decisam in surculos amputant etc. Ag. 13. 14: quod initium 
 venturae mox fortunae fuit: domitae gentes, capti reges, et mon- 
 stratus f atis Vespasianus. Ag. 28. 2 : magnum et memorabile 
 
 f acinus ausa est. Deciso centurione tris liburnicas adactis per 
 
 vim gubernatoribus ascendere etc. Ag. 29. i : Initio aestatis 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 41 
 
 Agricola domestico vulnere ictus, anno ante natum filium amisit. 
 D. 25. 17: Nee refert quod inter se specie differunt, cum genere 
 consentiant. Adstrictior Calvus, numerosior Asinius, splendidior 
 
 Caesar : omnes tamen eandem sanitatem eloquentiae prae se 
 
 ferunt etc. 
 
 There are two types of connection under this division 
 which occur so frequently as to form groups of themselves. 
 The first of these consists of instances in which some form 
 of alius is used with a noun in the first clause. The alius 
 itself refers back to some preceding word but the phrase 
 formed by the alius and the noun together is so indefinite 
 as to imply an explanation to come in the second sentence. 
 Examples are: 
 
 H. II. 68. 13 : Remedium tumultus f uit alius tumultus. Pulvis 
 procul et arma adspiciebantur : conclamatum repente quartam 
 decumam legionem verso itinere ad proelium venire etc. H. II. 99. 
 4: Longe alia proficiscentis ex urbe Germanici exercitus species: 
 non vigor corporibus, non ardor animis; lentum et rarum agmen, 
 fluxa arma, etc. H. IV. 9. i : Secutum aliud certamen. Praetores 
 aerarii (nam tum a praetoribus tractabatur aerarium) publicam 
 paupertatem questi modum inpensis postulaverant. G. 10. 17: Est 
 et alia observatio auspiciorum qua gravium bellorum eventus 
 explorant. Eius gentis, cum qua bellum est, captivum quoquo modo 
 interceptum cum electo popularium suorum, patriis quemque armis, 
 committunt: victoria huius vel illius pro praeiudicio accipitur. 
 G. 39. 6: Est et alia luco reverentia: nemo nisi vinculo ligatus 
 ingreditur, ut minor et potestatem numinis prae se ferens. 
 
 The second small group under this division consists of 
 eases in which the vagueness or generality which furnishes 
 the element of anticipation, lies in a single plural noun, 
 usually a neuter, of very wide meaning. This word is 
 explained in the second clause by a more detailed statement 
 of its parts. Examples are: 
 
 Ann. II. 82. 5: Vera prorsus de Druse seniores locutos : 
 displicere regnantibus civilia filiorum ingenia, neque ob aliud inter- 
 ceptos quam quia populum Romanum aequo iure complecti reddita 
 libertate agitaverint. Ann. III. 18. i : Malta ex ea sententia 
 
 4 
 
42 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 mitig-ata sunt a principe : ne nomen Pisonis fastis eximeretur etc. 
 Ann. XIII. 3. 17 : Nero puerilibus statim annis vividum animum 
 in alia detorsit: caelare, pingere, cantus aut regimen equorum 
 exercere etc. Ann. XIV. 12. 8: Prodigia quoque crebra et invita 
 intercessere. Anguem nixa mulier, et alia in concubitu mariti 
 f ulmine exanimata : iam sol repente obscuratus et tactae de caelo 
 quattuordecim urbis regiones. Ann. XV. 69. 10 : omnia simul 
 properantur: clauditur cubiculo, praesto est medicus, etc. H. II. 
 78. 5 : Recursabant animo vetera omina : cupressus arbor in agris 
 eius conspicua altitudine repente prociderat ac postera die eodem 
 vestigio resurgens procera et latior virebat. D. 22. 22 : Quaedam 
 vero procul arceantur ut iam oblitterata et olentia : nullum sit 
 verbum velut rubigine infectum, nulli sensus tarda et inerti structura 
 in morem animalium componantur; etc. Ag. s^- 10: Omnia 
 victoriae incitamenta pro nobis sunt: nuUae Romanos coniuges 
 accendunt, nulli parentes fugam exprobaturi sunt; aut nulla 
 plerisque patria aut alia est. 
 
 A few of the examples cited above show the same rela- 
 tion between clauses that was illustrated in Chapter I. Sec- 
 tion C. There the connection was purely logical, the second 
 clause expressing the result of some fact stated in the first. 
 For example, Ag. 8. i : Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius 
 Bolanus, placidius quam feroci provincia dignum est. 
 Temperavit Agricola vim suam ardoremque compescuit, ne 
 incresceret, peritus obsequi eruditusque utilia honestis 
 miscere. The same relation between the two clauses occurs 
 in Ann. I. 29. 12 : Promptum ad asperiora ingenium Druso 
 erat; vocatos Vibulenum et Percennium interfici iubet. 
 The only difference between the two is that, in the former, 
 the first clause is a natural part of the narrative and requires 
 no explanation of its presence, while, in the latter, the first 
 clause is out of place except as it leads up to the second. 
 In other words, the first statement is made for the sake of 
 the second and is therefore expressed in such a way as to 
 anticipate the second. A further example of such cases is 
 Ann. V. 4. 6: disserebatque brevibus momentis summa 
 verti: posse quandoque domus Germanici exitium pae- 
 nitentiae esse <seni.> 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 43 
 
 The distinguishing mark of cases that fall under the last 
 division of the present chapter is that in all of them the 
 first clause is negative, the second affirmative. The element 
 of anticipation enters into the connection because of the 
 fact that the negative statement is in itself inconclusive. 
 As vi^ith the cases in the last paragraph, so here, the con- 
 nection is largely the result of a habit of style, and is not 
 obvious without a familiarity with many examples. Usu- 
 ally there are other means of connection employed which 
 support that established by the anticipation expressed in the 
 negative clause. For example, Ann. VI. 35. i : Enimvero 
 apud Sarmatas non una vox ducis : se quisque stimulant, ne 
 pugnam per sagittas sinerent: impetu et comminus prae- 
 veniendum. The first clause, if it stood by itself, would be 
 inconclusive : it merely states what is not so, and adds noth- 
 ing definite to the understanding of what is true. If it 
 were contradicting some statement already made it would 
 on that account be conclusive, but as it is not, the reader is 
 led to look forward to find the reason for this negative 
 statement. This reason is found in the second clause which 
 states positively what is true. In view of this second clause, 
 it becomes evident that the purpose of the first was to hold 
 the attention in suspense and so emphasize the second clause. 
 The contrast between una vox and quisque serves to make 
 this still more clear. The last part of the second clause is 
 related in the same way to the third, the per sagittas being 
 contrasted with the impetu and comminus. 
 
 The ways in which Tacitus uses a negative clause to 
 anticipate a following positive clause correspond somewhat 
 closely to the divisions under D. above. The negative 
 clause may contain a word or phrase of very general mean- 
 ing, analyzed in detail, in the second clause; or it may, by 
 itself, be vague and practically meaningless until the second 
 gives it point by stating explicitly a positive fact more or 
 less in contrast with it ; or, finally, the negative clause may 
 state a general principle which appears out of place until the 
 
44 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 application of it is given in the affirmative in the second 
 clause. In all there are several hundred cases of this usage 
 in Tacitus. 
 
 I. The type of connection in which the indefinite mean- 
 ing of a word in the first clause anticipates an analysis in 
 the second is illustrated in Ann. I. lo. 19. The negative 
 statement, Nee domesticis abstinebatur, is, to be sure, in 
 contrast with what has preceded, namely, an account of 
 public wrongs. But the word domesticis is so very general 
 as to arouse an expectation of particular details to follow. 
 These come in the rest of the sentence: abducta Neroni 
 uxor et consulti per ludibrium pontifices an concepto nec- 
 dum edito partu rite nuberet etc. Further examples are: 
 
 Ann. I. 29. 10 : nihil in vulgo modicum ; terrere, ni paveant, ubi 
 pertimuerint, impune contemni etc. Ann. II. 20. i : Nihil ex his 
 Caesari incognitum : consilia locos, prompta occulta noverat 
 astusque hostium in perniciem ipsis vertebat. Ann. XV. 5. 9: 
 nee praesentia prospere fluebant. Inritum obsidium, tutus manu et 
 copiis Tigranes, fugati qui expugnationem sumpserant, missae in 
 Armeniam legiones etc. H. I. 85. 4 : Non tamen quies urbi redierat : 
 strepitus telorum et facies belli, militibus ut nihil in commune 
 turbantibus, ita sparsis per domos occulto habitu, etc. H. II. 55. i : 
 At Romae nihil trepidationis : Ceriales ludi ex more spectabantur. 
 H. III. 47. I : Nee ceterae nationes silebant. Subita per Pontum 
 arma barbarum mancipium, regiae quondam classis praefectus, 
 moverat. Ag. 5. 8: Non sane alias exercitatior magisque in 
 ambiguo Britannia fuit : trucidati veterani, incensae coloniae, inter- 
 cepti exercitus; turn de salute, mox de victoria certavere. Ag. 32. 
 20 : Nee quicquam ultra formidinis : vacua castella, senum 
 coloniae, inter male parentes et iniuste imperantes aegra municipia 
 et diseordantia. Ann. VI. 32. 11: Sed non Tiberius omisit incepta : 
 Tiridatem sanguinis eiusdem aemulum Artabano, reciperandaeque 
 Armeniae Hiberum Mithridaten deligit eoneiliatque fratri Pharas- 
 mani, qui gentile imperium obtinebat etc. H. I. 3. i : Non tamen 
 adeo virtutum sterile saeculum, ut non et bona exempla prodiderit. 
 Comitatae profugos liberos matres, seeutae maritos in exilia con- 
 iuges : propinqui audentes, constantes generi, contumax etiam adver- 
 sus tormenta servorum fides; etc. H. III. 17. l: Nullum in ilia 
 trepidatione Antonius constantis duels aut fortis militis offieium 
 omisit. Oceursare paventibus, retinere cedentes, ubi plurimus labor, 
 unde aliqua spes, consilio manu voce insignis hosti, eonspieuus suis. 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 45 
 
 2. In a second group of cases, there is no analysis in the 
 positive clause. The element of anticipation is due to the 
 fact that the negative clause by itself gives practically no 
 information. It is used purely as a rhetorical device to 
 draw special attention to the facts contained in the positive 
 clause which follows it. Almost always there is an element 
 of contrast which also acts as a means of expressing the 
 relation between the two clauses. This type of sentence 
 connection is especially prominent in the Germania, in which 
 it occurs constantly through all the descriptions. Examples 
 are: 
 
 Ann. I. 65. 25 : Neque is miserarum finis. Struendum vallum, 
 petendus agger, amissa magna ex parte per quae egeritur humus aut 
 exciditur caespes; etc. Ann. IV. 74. 8: Non illi tamen in urbem 
 aut propinqua urbi degressi sunt: satis visum omittere insulam et 
 in proximo Campaniae aspici. Ann. XVI. 26. 3 : Non solum Cos- 
 sutianum aut Eprium ad scelus promptos : superesse qui f orsitan 
 manus ictusque per immanitatem ingesturi sint etc. H. I. 38. 7 : Non 
 ad bellum vos nee ad periculum voco : omnium militum arma nobis- 
 cum sunt. H. II. gi. 16: Nihil novi accidisse respondit quod duo 
 senatores in re publica dissentirent ; solitum se etiam Thraseae 
 contra dicere. H. IV. 79. i : Nee in longum quies militi data. Orabant 
 auxilium Agrippinenses offerebantque uxorem ac sororem Civilis 
 et filiam Classici, relicta sibi pignora societatis. Ag. 15. 17: Neve 
 proelii unius aut alterius eventu pavescerent: plus impetus integris, 
 maiorem constantiam penes miseros esse. Ag. 22. 13 : Nee Agricola 
 umquam per alios gesta avidus accepit: seu centurio seu praefectus 
 incorruptum facti testem habebat. G. 6. 10: Sed nee variare gyros 
 in morem nostrum docentur : in rectum aut uno flexu dextros agunt, 
 ita coniuncto orbe, ut nemo posterior sit. G. 24. 3 : Exercitatio artem 
 paravit, ars decorem, non in quaestum tamen aut mercedem : quam- 
 vis audacis lasciviae pretium est voluptas spectantium. 
 
 The contrast is especially prominent in the following 
 examples : 
 
 Ann. IV. 39. 7 : Neque f ulgorem honorum umquam precatum : 
 excubias ac labores, ut unum e militibus, pro incolumitate imperatoris 
 malle. H. II. 88. 9: Non tulit ludibrium insolens contumeliarum 
 animus: inermem populum gladiis invasere. H. II. 95. 10: Nemo 
 in ilia aula probitate aut industria certavit : unum ad potentiam iter, 
 
46 Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 
 
 prodigiis epulis et sumptu ganiaque satiare inexplebiles Vitelii 
 libidines. G. 16. 3 : Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et 
 cohaerentibus aeWificiis : suam quisque domum spatio circumdat. 
 G. 21. 10: Nee interest: pari humanitate accipiuntur. Ann. XI. 
 2. I : Neque data senatus copia : intra cubiculum auditur etc. H. I. 
 76. 6 : Nusquam fides aut amor : metu ac necessitate hue illuc muta- 
 bantur. H. II. 16. 16: Et aversi repente animi, nee tamen aperta 
 vi : aptum tempus insidiis legere. H. II. 46. 3 : Non expectavit 
 militum ardor vocem imperatoris : bonum haberet animum iubebant 
 etc. G. 5. 5 : Ne armentis quidem suus honor aut gloria f rontis : 
 numero gaudent eaeque solae et gratissimae opes sunt. G. 16. i : 
 Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati 
 quidem inter se iunctas sedes. Colunt discreti ac diversi ut fons, 
 ut campus, ut nemus placuit. G. 16. 6: Ne caementorum quidem 
 apud illos aut tegularum usus : materia ad omnia utuntur informi 
 et citra speciem aut delectationem. G. 25. i : Ceteris servis non 
 in nostrum morem, discriptis per f amiliam ministeriis, utuntur : suam 
 quisque sedem, suos penates regit. G. 39. 8: Si forte prolapsus est, 
 attolli et insurgere baud licitum : per humum evolvuntur. 
 
 3. Finally, there are the cases in which the negative 
 clause states a general fact which by itself is almost irrele- 
 vant. Its bearing is seen only when the following clause 
 cites an application of the fact which is relevant. The first 
 clause is then seen to be an explanation of the second. This 
 usage is like that described at the very close of Section D 
 of the present chapter and in Section C of Chapter I. In 
 all of these cases the logical connection between clauses is 
 the same; in the present type the statement of the first 
 clause in the negative adds an element of anticipation when 
 the other cases in the present section are familiar. Exam- 
 ples are : 
 
 Ann. I. 41. 12: Sed nihil aeque flexit quam invidia in Treveros : 
 orant obsistunt, rediret maneret, pars Agrippinae occursantes, 
 plurimi ad Germanicum egressi. Ann. II. 65. i : Nihil aeque Tiber- 
 ium anxium habetat, quam ne composita turbarentur. Deligit cen- 
 turionem, qui nuntiaret regibus ne armis disceptarent statimque a 
 Cotye dimissa sunt quae paraverat auxilia. Ann. III. 76. 6: neque 
 prohibuit quo minus laudatione pro rostris ceterisque sollemnibus 
 funus cohonestaretur. Viginti clarissimarum familiarum imagines 
 antelatae sunt, Manlii, Quinctii aliaque eiusdem nobilitatis nomina. 
 
Connection Expressed in the First Clause. 47 
 
 H. III. 35. I : Ceterum adsidere sepultae urbis minis noxia tabo 
 humus haud diu permisit. Ad tertium lapidem progressi vagos 
 paventesque Vitellianos, sua quemque apud signa, componunt; etc. 
 H. IV. 22. 5 : Sed parum provisum, ut copiae in castra conveheren- 
 tur; rapi permisere : etc. H. IV. 41. 15: Africanus neque fateri 
 audebat neque abnuere poterat: in Vibium Crispum, cuius inter- 
 rogationibus fatigabatur, ultro conversus, miscendo quae defendere 
 nequibat, societate culpae invidiam declinavit. 
 
 Sometimes a conjunction is used in the second clause to 
 express the connection more clearly. In such cases the 
 fundamental means of connection remains the same, the 
 use of the conjunction merely adds precision. For example: 
 
 Ann. XV. 61. 10: Tum tribunus nulla pavoris signa, nihil triste 
 in verbis eius aut vultu deprensum confirmavit. Ergo regredi et 
 indicere mortem iubetur. Ann. XIV. 25. i : At praesidium Legerda, 
 quod ferox iuventus clauserat, non sine certamine expugnatum est: 
 nam et proelium pro muris ausi erant et puisi intra munimenta 
 aggeri demum et inrumpentium armis cessere. Ann. VI. 40. 17: 
 post a delatoribus corripitur ob servum adulterum, nee dubitabatur 
 de flagitio: ergo omissa defensione finem vitae sibi posuit. 
 
 In no one of these cases i§ the conjunction necessary to 
 express the relation of the clauses, which is first indicated 
 by the feeling of incompleteness which the first clause leaves 
 in the mind of the reader. This is least evident in the last 
 example: nee dubitabatur de flagitio does not necessarily 
 imply any statement to follow which will give it point. The 
 conjunction is therefore more essential and the example is 
 an extreme one, defining the extent to which this particular 
 means of sentence connection is available. 
 
III. 
 
 CONNECTION EXPRESSED IN THE SECOND 
 CLAUSE. 
 
 When the connection between two consecutive sentences 
 is expressed in some word or phrase, as it usually is in for- 
 mal writings such as those of Tacitus, this expression occurs 
 more frequently in the second of the two sentences. This 
 is altogether natural, for it is simpler to connect a state- 
 ment with something already expressed than to plan out the 
 connection beforehand and anticipate the second statement 
 in the first. This is not so generally true of the written 
 language as of the spoken, for the former is, as a rule, much 
 more carefully worked over and, furthermore, the reader is 
 not under the necessity of grasping the connection so 
 quickly as the listener. The more artificial the writer the 
 more frequently is he likely to use the less common method 
 of expressing his connections in the first sentence. This 
 explains the large number of such instances in Tacitus. 
 But the fact remains, that in the large majority of consecu- 
 tive sentences or clauses, even in Tacitus, the connection is 
 expressed in the second. Many different means are used to 
 accomplish this : the two most frequent in Tacitus, aside 
 from the familiar use of conjunctions, are Repetition and 
 Contrast. Each of these is in turn used in a very wide 
 variety of ways and often other means are used in conjunc- 
 tion with them, but they occur constantly, and it is probably 
 a decided understatement of the facts to say that one sen- 
 tence out of every ten shows some form or other of repe- 
 tition of, or contrast with, some element in the preceding 
 sentence. Other means similarly used are the mode or tense 
 of the verb, adverbs denoting sequence, and verbs, or occa- 
 sionally other words, whose meaning is incomplete except 
 as they refer to something in the preceding sentence or 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 49 
 
 clause. Parenthetical sentences usually contain one or more 
 of these means of connection but it is convenient to study 
 them as a group by themselves. 
 
 Under the general head of connection by means of repe- 
 tition are included not alone the cases of two consecutive 
 sentences of which the second contains a word or phrase 
 actually repeated from the first ; there are also many cases 
 in which the same effect is produced by the use of a syno- 
 nym, or of one of a man's names instead of another, or of a 
 title instead of a name or z'ice versa. Also, a word in the 
 second sentence may repeat some part of the meaning of a 
 word in the first, instead of the whole, or the repetition may 
 be only implied, as in such phrases as causa fuit. Finally, 
 instead of actual repetition, there may be used a demonstra- 
 tive pronoun or some other demonstrative word such as 
 adhuc, dehinc or talis, or else a relative clause, which will be 
 shown to be only another form of this same means of sen- 
 tence connection. 
 
 I. Instances of the actual repetition of a word are legion, 
 for this is one of the simplest methods of expressing the 
 connection between one sentence and another. The large 
 number of cases cited is due to the necessity of familiarity 
 with this usage for an understanding of the less generally 
 recognized types to follow. One distinction is drawn in 
 the examples given: the word repeated may be a word of 
 prominence in the first sentence, used again in the second to 
 show the relation of a new item in the narrative to what has 
 preceded ; or it may be merely part of a rhetorical mechan- 
 ism to denote parallelism between the two sentences. For 
 example, in Ann. III. 30. i, the repeated word is the most 
 prominent one in the second sentence : Fine anni concessere 
 vita insignes viri L. Volusius et Sallustius Crispus. Volusio 
 vetus familia neque tamen praeturam egressa : etc. The 
 
50 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 same is true of Ann. XV. 37. 5 : Igitur in stagno Agrippae 
 fabricatus est ratem, cui superpositum convivium navium 
 aliarum tractu moveretur. Naves auro et ebore distinctae, 
 etc. In cases of repetition of this type the repeated word 
 is most frequently a noun and its construction is usually 
 different in the two sentences. Quite distinct is a case like 
 Ag. 9. 9 : ubi conventus ac iudicia poscerent, gravis intentus 
 severus, et saepius misericors : ubi officio satis factum, nulla 
 ultra potestatis persona; etc. In this case the ubi is used 
 a second time for the purpose of making the construction 
 parallel with that of the first clause. In cases of this type 
 the word repeated is usually a conjunction or adverb, but it 
 will be seen from the examples given below that this is not 
 essential. 
 
 The following are examples of the first type of repetition : 
 
 Ann. II. 7. 7 : tumulum tamen nuper Varianis legionibus structum 
 et veterem aram Druso sitam disiecerant. Restituit aram honorique 
 patris princeps ipse cum legionibus decucurrit; tumulum iterate 
 haud visum. Ann. VI. 4. i : Ut vero Latinium Latiarem ingressus 
 est, accusator ac reus iuxta invisi gratissimum spectaculum praebe- 
 bant. Latiaris, ut rettuli, praecipuus olim circumveniendi Titii 
 Sabini et tunc luendae poenae primus fuit. Ann. XII. 13. 8: Interea 
 Gotarzes apud montem, cui nomen Sanbulos, vota dis loci suscipie- 
 bat, praecipua religione Herculis, qui tempore stato per quietem 
 monet sacerdotes, ut templum iuxta equos venatui adornatos sistant. 
 Equi ubi pharetras telis onustas accepere, per saltus vagi nocte 
 demum vacuis pharetris multo cum anhelitu redeunt. Ann. XIV. 
 8. 9: Anicetus villam statione circumdat refractaque ianua obvios 
 servorum abripit, donee ad fores cubiculi veniret; cui pauci 
 adstabant, ceteris terrore inrumpentium exterritis. Cubiculo modi- 
 cum lumen inerat etc. Ann. XV. 67. 6: "Oderam te" inquit, "nee 
 quisquam tibi fidelior militum fuit, dum amari meruisti. Odisse 
 coepi postquam parracida matris et uxoris, auriga et histrio et 
 incendiarius extitisti." H. I. 7. i : Forte congruerat ut Clodii 
 Macri et Fontei Capitonis caedes nuntiarentur. Macrum in Africa 
 haud dubie turbantem Trebonius Garutianus procurator iussu 
 Galbae, Capitonem in Germania, cum similia coeptaret, Cornelius 
 Aquinus et Fabius Valens legati legionum interfecerant, antequam 
 iuberentur. H. II. 65. 9: Auctoritas Cluvii praevaluit, ut puniri 
 ultro libertum suum Vitellius iuberet. Cluvius comitatui principis 
 adiectus, non adempta Hispania, quam rexit absens exemplo L. 
 Arrunti. H. V. 6. 4 : Rari imbres, uber solum : frugus nostrum ad 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 51 
 
 morem praeterque eas balsamum et palmae. Palmetis proceritas et 
 decor, balsamum modica arbor etc. H. V. 6. 11 : Nee lordanes 
 pelago accipitur, sed unum atque alterum lacum integer perfluit, 
 tertio retinetur. Lacus immenso ambitu, specie maris, sapore 
 corruptior, gravitate odoris accolis pestifer, neque vento impellitur 
 neque pisces aut suetas aquis volucres patitur. Ag. 9. 24: et statim 
 Britanniae praepositus est, adiecto pontificatus sacerdatio. Bri- 
 tanniae situm populosque multis scriptoribus memoratos non in 
 comparationem curae inegniive referam, sed quia turn primum 
 perdomita est: etc. Ag. 16. 14: compositis prioribus nihil ultra 
 ausus Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit. Trebellius segnior et 
 nullis castrorum experimentis, comitate quadam curandi provinciam 
 tenuit. G. 10. i : Auspicia sortesque ut qui maxime observant : 
 sortium consuetudo simplex. G. 42. i : luxta Hermunduros Naristi 
 ac deinde Marcomani et Quadi agunt. Praecipua Marcomanorum 
 gloria viresque etc. G. 43. 3 : Cotinos Gallica, Osos Pannonica 
 lingua coarguit non esse Germanos, et quod tributa patiuntur. 
 Partem tributorum Sarmatae, partem Quadi ut alienigenis imponunt : 
 etc. 
 
 The repeated word is very frequently taken, not from the 
 sentence or clause immediately preceding its own, but from 
 some more remote sentence. For example, H. IV. 65, 17: 
 Sic lenitis Tencteris legati ad Civilem ac Velaedam missi 
 cum donis cuncta ex voluntate Agrippinensium perpetra- 
 vere; sed coram adire adloquique Velaedam negatum: 
 arcebantur adspectu, quo venerationis plus inesset. Ipsa 
 edita in turre; delectus e propinquis consulta responsaque 
 ut internuntius numinis portabat. Civilis societate Agrip- 
 pinensium auctus proximas civitates adfectare aut adver- 
 santibus bellum inferre statuit. In narrative this usage is 
 very frequent, especially following a digression : the exam- 
 ples require too much space to quote, but they are familiar. 
 Throughout the account of Britain in the Agricola the name 
 Britannia is constantly used in this resumptive sense (vid. 
 §§ 10, II, 13 et al.) and other good cases are to be found 
 throughout Tacitus. 
 
 The second type of connection by actual repetition of a 
 word is not very different from the type of connection by 
 means of correlatives, with this exception: the correlatives 
 had been so much used before the time of Tacitus that they 
 
52 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 were already fixed and familiar in their correlative use, 
 while the words used in the present cases are not thus fixed. 
 The result is that there is no element of anticipation in the 
 connection, which is made entirely in the second clause. 
 Examples are: 
 
 Ann. II. 21. 2 : cum ingens multitudo artis locis praelongas hastas 
 non protenderet, non colligeret etc. Ann. II. 33. 3 : decretumque 
 ne vasa auro solida ministrandis cibis fierent, ne vestis serica viros 
 foedaret. Ann. IV. 70. 7: Quo intendisset oculos, quo verba 
 acciderent, fuga vastitas, deseri itinera fora. Ann. XIII. 15. 24: 
 quod dum rumorem respiciunt, dum parant defensiones, securitatem 
 morarentur. H. I. 32. 9: daret malorum paenitentiae, daret 
 bonorum consensu! spatium: etc. H. II. 75. 7: Sic Scribonianum 
 sub Claudio interfectum, sic percussorem eius Volaginium e 
 gregario ad summa militiae provectum : etc. H. III. 68. 4 : Nihil 
 tale viderant, nihil audierant. H. IV. 74. 6: Ipsi plerumque 
 legionibus nostris praesidetis, ipsi has aliasque provincias regitis; 
 etc. D. 36. 21 : Hi clientelis etiam externarum nationum redunda- 
 bant, hos ituri in provincias magistratus reverebantur, hos reversi 
 colebant, hos et praeturae et consulatus vocare ultro videbantur, hi 
 ne privati quidem sine potestate erant, cum et populum et senatum 
 consilio et auctoritate regerent. Ag. 41. i : Crebro per eos dies 
 apud Domitianum absens accusatus absens absolutus est. G. 14. i : 
 Cum ventum in aciem, turpe principi virtute vinci, turpe comitatui 
 virtutem principis non adaequare. G. 18. 12: accipere se quae 
 liberis inviolata ac digna reddat, quae nurus accipiant rursusque ad 
 nepotes referantur. 
 
 Very similar to this second type of repetition is the 
 repeated use of a subjunctive or an infinitive, that is, of a 
 mode other than that of ordinary narrative, indicating the 
 parallel construction of two or more clauses. For example, 
 Ann. II. 40. 9: hortatur, simulata conscientia adeant, 
 offerant pecuniam, fidem atque pericula polliceantur. But 
 cases of this sort are reserved for the section dealing with 
 connection by means of the mode. 
 
 2. It very often happens that there is not, in the second 
 clause, actual repetition of a word in the first, but that 
 exactly the same thing is accompli.shed by a slightly dififerent 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 53 
 
 means : a synonym may virtually repeat some word from the 
 first clause or one of a man's names or titles be used for 
 another to avoid the monotony of actual repetition; a pro- 
 noun, personal, demonstrative or even relative, often per- 
 forms the same function. In all of these types the second 
 word has exactly the same content as the first, so that, 
 except for the fact that the same identical word is not used 
 twice, the repetition is of the same sort as that in the cases 
 under the last section. It is not always as clear: the most 
 extreme instances of this use are those in which the repeti- 
 tion is not expressed, but more or less clearly implied. All 
 of the cases under the present section are alike in that the 
 whole of a given word in one clause is virtually repeated in 
 another, while in the following section will be found 
 instances in which the repetition is rather of some element 
 of meaning than of a particular word. 
 
 a. The use of a synonym is so simple and so nearly like 
 actual repetition as to require little discussion. For exam- 
 ple, H. IV. 62. 11: Quippe intra vallum def ormitas haud 
 perinde notabilis : detexit ignominiam campus et dies. To 
 have repeated def ormitas in the second clause would have 
 been altogether foreign to Tacitus' habit of varying his 
 expressions as much as possible. The result is that 
 ignominiam in this instance is virtually a repetition of 
 def ormitas and means just what deformitatem would mean if 
 it had been used. A similar case in which two words which 
 ordinarily have somewhat different meanings, are used with 
 identically the same meaning to avoid the monotony of 
 actual repetition, is H. V. 26. 6: Cuncta inter nos inimica: 
 hostilia ab illo coepta, a me aucta erant etc. Further 
 examples of the use of synonyms are : 
 
 Ann. II. 69. 8: Turn Seleuciam degreditur, opperiens aegritudinem, 
 quae rursum Germanico acciderat. Saevam vim morbi augebat 
 persuasio veneni a Pisone accepti. Ann. III. 2Z- 6: Haud enim 
 frustra placitum olim, ne feminae in socios aut gentes externas 
 traherentur: inesse mulierum comitatui quae pacem luxu, bellum 
 formidine morentur etc. Ann. XII. 17. 4: datumque militibus, qui 
 
54 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 scalis evaserant, signum caedis. Excidio Uspensium metus ceteris 
 iniectus etc. Ann. XV. i6. 14: iMaesti manipuli ac vicem commili- 
 tonum miserantes ne lacrimis quidem temperare ; vix prae fletu 
 usurpata consalutatio. H. III. 80. i : Eo successu studia populi 
 aucta: vulgus urbanum arma cepit. G. i. 9: donee in Ponticum 
 mare sex meatibus erumpat : septimum os paludibus hauritur. 
 
 b. A variation of the use of a synonym is that of one of 
 a man's names for another already used. Whenever this 
 occurs, either the whole name is familiar or else it has been 
 recently stated. The most common type of this usage is 
 that in which the semi-title Caesar is employed for one of 
 the names. Examples are: 
 
 Ann. II. 28. I : Ut satis testium et qui servi eadem noscerent 
 repperit, aditum ad principem postulat, demonstrate crimine et reo 
 per Flaccum Vescularium equitem Romanum, cui propior cum 
 Tiberio usus erat. Caesar indicium baud aspernatus congressus 
 abnuit etc. Ann. II. 70. 9: Nee Piso moratus ultra navis solvit, 
 moderabaturque cursui, quo propius regrederetur, si mors Germanici 
 Suriam aperuisset. Caesar paulisper ad spem erectus, dein fesso 
 corpore, ubi finis aderat, adsistens amieos in hunc modum adloquitur 
 etc. H. IV. 19. 8: Spreto Flacco inferiorem Germaniam petivere, 
 ut Civili iungerentur. Hordeonius adhibitis tribunis centurionibus- 
 que consultavit etc. H. IV. 6. 12 : Hinc inter Helvidium et Eprium 
 acre iurgium : Priscus eligi nominatim a magistratibus iuratis, 
 Marcellus urnam postulabat, quae consulis designati sententia fuerat. 
 
 c. Instead of a synonym for some word in the first clause 
 or another name for some man mentioned, a title may be 
 used in the second clause with the effect of repeating a 
 name in the first. This may also be reversed, the title 
 standing in the first clause, the name in the second. 
 Examples are: 
 
 Ann. XIII. 38. 15 : Dieque pacto prior Corbulo socias cohortes et 
 auxilia regum pro cornibus, medio sextam legionem eonstituit, cui 
 accita per noctem aliis ex castris tria milia tertianorum permis- 
 cuerat, una cum aquila, quasi eadem legio spectaretur. Tiridates 
 vergente iam die procul adstitit, unde videri magis quam audiri 
 posset. Ita sine congressu dux Romanus abscedere militem sua 
 quemque in castra iubet. Rex sive fraudem suspectans, quia plura 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 55 
 
 simul in loca ibatur, sive ut commeatus nostros Pontico mari et 
 Trapezunte oppido adventantes interciperet, propere discedit. Ann. 
 XIV. 18. 9 : et senatus ignota sibi esse mandata Claudii et consulen- 
 dum principem respondit. Nero probata Strabonis sententia, se 
 nihilo minus subvenire sociis et usurpata concedere rescripsit. H. 
 II. 46. I : Opperiebatur Otho nuntium pugnae nequaquam trepidus 
 et consilii certus. Maesta primum fama, dein profugi e proelio 
 perditas res patefaciunt. Non expectavit militum ardor vocem 
 imperatoris etc. H. IV. 42. 34 : Non timemus Vespasianum ; ea 
 principis aetas, ea moderatio: sed diutius durant exempla quam 
 mores. Elanguimus, patres conscripti, nee iam senatus sumus, qui 
 occiso Nerone delatores et ministros more maiorum puniendos 
 flagitabat. Optimus est post malum principem dies primus. Ag. 
 14. 11: Suetonius hinc Paulinus biennio prosperas res habuit, 
 subactis nationibus firmatisque praesidiis ; quorum fiducia Monam 
 insulam ut vires rebellibus ministrantem adgressus terga occasion! 
 patefecit. Namque absentia legati remoto metu Britanni agitare 
 inter se mala servitutis, etc. 
 
 As can be seen from the following cases, this usage is 
 not confined to actual titles but occurs also with descriptive 
 nouns of various sorts : 
 
 Ann. I. 58. 7 : Ergo raptorem filiae meae, violatorem foederis 
 vestri, Arminium apud Varum, qui tum exercitui praesidebat, reum 
 feci. Dilatus segnitia ducis, quia parum praesidii in legibus erat, ut 
 me et Arminium et conscios vinciret flagitavi etc. Ann. III. 43. i : 
 Apud Aeduos maior moles exorta, quanto civitas opulentior et 
 comprimendi procul praesidium. Augustodunum caput gentis 
 armatis cohortibus Sacrovir occupaverat etc. Ann. IV. 22. 7 : 
 Refert ad senatum, datisque iudicibus Urgulania Silvani avia 
 pugionem nepoti misit. Quod perinde creditum, quasi principis 
 monitu, ob amicitiam Augustae cum Urgulania. Reus frustra 
 temptato f erro venas praebuit exsolvendas. H. II. 68. 22 : Nee 
 quemquam saepius quam Verginium omnis seditio inf estavit : mane- 
 bat admiratio viri et fama, sed oderant ut fastiditi. H. IV. 82. g: 
 tunc divinam speciem et vim responsi ex nomine Basilidis interpre- 
 tatus est. Origo dei nondum nostris auctoribus celebrata: etc. 
 H. IV. 84. 14: mirum inde dictu, tertio die tantum maris emensi 
 Alexandriam adpelluntur. Templum pro magnitudine urbis 
 extructum loco, cui nomen Rhacotis etc. G. 38. i : Nunc de Suebis 
 
 dicendum est Insigne gentis obliquare crinem nodoque 
 
 substringere etc. 
 
56 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 d. There are two cases in which a personal pronoun and 
 a noun stand, in consecutive sentences, for the same person, 
 and so estabHsh the connection by means of repetition : 
 
 Ann. III. 53. 11: mihi autem neque honestum silere neque 
 proloqui expeditum, quia non aedilis aut praetoris aut consulis 
 partis sustineo. Maius aliquid et excelsius a principe postulatur. 
 H. II. yy. 2: ne tamen Mucianum socium spreveris, quia aemulum 
 non experiris. Me Vitellio antepono, te mihi. 
 
 e. The two cases just cited, in which a personal pronoun 
 virtually repeats a noun, or vice versa, do not differ practi- 
 cally from others in which a demonstrative is used instead 
 of a personal pronoun. This use occurs very frequently in 
 Tacitus and is one of the most interesting types of con- 
 nection by repetition because it leads to an understanding 
 of the clauses introduced by relatives and regularly classi- 
 fied as "subordinate." A comparison of clauses introduced 
 by demonstratives with others introduced by relatives will 
 show, I think, that there is no essential difference in the 
 connection made in each case with the preceding clause. 
 Whether connection between two clauses is expressed by 
 actually repeating a word or by virtually repeating a word 
 by means of a synonym, of a word of similar meaning, or 
 of a demonstrative, or of a relative, the essential connection 
 is the same. It lies in the repetition of an element of 
 meaning. There is not necessarily more subordination 
 produced by one of these means than by another. It is true 
 that as the language developed and became more fixed, the 
 expression of this connection was left more and more to the 
 relative, and that, consequently, the method with the rela- 
 tive was more and more carefully worked out until it came 
 to have a more definite form than did the others. But the 
 presence to such an extent of the other means of expressing 
 the same connection, even in so late an author as Tacitus, 
 shows that these other means really established the connec- 
 tion just as well. The question will be taken up more thor- 
 oughly at the end of this section. Before that, it is neces- 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 57 
 
 sary to illustrate the use of the demonstrative, which is itself 
 somewhat varied. 
 
 First, the demonstrative in the second clause may indicate 
 some person or thing expressly named in the first clause by 
 a noun or its equivalent. In other words, it virtually repeats 
 this noun, making the usage parallel to that with actual repe- 
 tition or with a synonym, title or personal pronoun in the 
 second clause. Ann. I. 26. i illustrates this: Responsum 
 est a contione, mandata Clementi centurioni quae perferret. 
 Is orditur de missione a sedecim annis, de praemiis finitae 
 militiae, ut denarius diurnum stipendium foret, ne veterani 
 sub vexillo haberentur. The is of the second clause has 
 exactly the same force that the noun Clemens would have if 
 it had been used instead. Of the hundreds of other exam- 
 ples, a few follow : 
 
 Ann. I. 28. 13 : accitur centurio Clemens et si alii bonis artibus 
 grati in vulgus. Hi vigiliis, stationibus, custodiis portarum se 
 inserunt, spem offerunt, metum intendunt. Ann. I. 33. i : Interea 
 Germanico per Gallias, ut diximus, census accipienti excessisse 
 Augustum adfertur. Neptem eius Aggripinam in matrimonio 
 plurisque ex ea liberos habebat etc. H. III. 30. 9: Propinqua muris 
 tecta et altitudinem moenium egressa fortissimo quoque militum 
 complet; illi trabibus tegulisque et facibus propugnatores deturbant. 
 H. V. 6. 17: Certo anni bitumen egerit, cuius legendi usum, ut 
 ceteras artes, experientia docuit. Ater suapte natura liquor et 
 sparso aceto concretus innatat; hunc manu captum, quibus ea cura, 
 in summa navis trahunt etc. Ag. 4. 7 : Mater lulia Procilla f uit, 
 rarae castitatis. In huius sinu indulgentiaque educatus per omnem 
 honestarum artium cultum pueritiam adulescentiamque transegit. 
 Ag. 31. I. : liberos cuique ac propinquos suos natura carissimos esse 
 voluit : hi per dilectus alibi servituri auferuntur etc. G. 7. 11 : et 
 in proximo pignora, unde feminarum ululatus audiri, unde vagitus 
 infantium. Hi cuique sanctissimi testes etc. G. 10. 19 : Eius gentis 
 cum qua bellum est, captivum quoquo modo interceptum cum electo 
 popularium suorum, patriis quemque armis, committunt : victoria 
 huius vel illius pro praeiudicio accipitur. 
 
 The second use of the demonstrative is parallel to a type 
 of repetition to be taken up later rather than to any one of 
 those already discussed. Instead of virtually repeating 
 5 
 
58 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 some definite word in the preceding clause, the demon- 
 strative stands either for some idea expressed in that 
 clause or collectively for a number of ideas or statements 
 made there. For example: Ann. I. 34. 15: Italiae inde 
 consensum, Galliarum fidem extollit ; nil umquam turbidum 
 aut discors. Silentio haec vel murmure modico audita sunt. 
 The haec stands for the statements made by Germanicus, 
 not only in the sentence quoted but in several that precede. 
 It is no one word or several words which the haec virtually 
 repeats but it rather refers to what has been said as a whole. 
 The use is familiar and a few illustrations will be sufficient 
 to illustrate it : 
 
 Ann. III. 34. I, following the speech of Severus Caecina in the 
 thirty-third chapter: paucorum haec adsensu audita etc. H. IV. 
 56. I, after the indirect quotation of what the Treveri and Lingones 
 have said, continues: Haec dicta pariter probataque, de reliquiis 
 Vitelliani exercitus dubitavere. Ann. I. 28. i : Noctem minacem et 
 in scelus erupturam f ors lenivit : nam miles rationis ignarus omen 
 praesentium accepit etc. Ann. I. 38. 2: et praesenti duorum mili- 
 tum supplicio paulum repressi sunt. lusserat id M'. Ennius etc. 
 Ag. 38. 14 : praef ecto classis circumvehi Britanniam praecipit. 
 Datae ad id vires, et praecesserat terror. G. 18. 9: admonetur 
 venire se laborum periculorumque sociam, idem in pace, idem in 
 proelio passuram ausuramque: hoc iuncti boves, hoc paratus equus, 
 hoc data arma denuntiant. G. 45. 9: insigne superstitionis formas 
 aprorum gestant: id pro armis omnique tutela securum deae 
 cultprem etiam inter hostis praestat. D. 18. i : Haec ideo praedixi, 
 ut si qua ex horum oratorum fama gloriaque laus temporibus 
 adquiritur, eam docerem in medio sitam etc. 
 
 In the third place, a demonstrative may stand with a noun 
 and the combination may express connection between the 
 clauses in either of the two ways discussed in the last two 
 paragraphs : that is, it may virtually repeat some concrete 
 word in the preceding clause or it may summarize an idea 
 expressed in that clause. When the latter is the case, the 
 noun is regularly a general abstract term. Examples of 
 this use are : 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 59 
 
 Ag. 10. 12: sed inmensum et enorme spatium procurrentium 
 extreme iam litore terrarum velut in cuneum tenuatur. Hanc 
 Oram novissimi maris tunc primum Romana classis circumvecta 
 insulam esse Britanniam adfirmavit, etc. G. 18. 2: Intersunt 
 parentes et propinqni ac munera probant, munera non ad delicias 
 muliebres quaesita nee quibus nova nupta comatur, sed boves et 
 frenatum equum et scutum cum framea gladioque. In haec munera 
 uxor accipitur, etc. G. 38. 9: capillum retorquent, ac saepe in ipso 
 vertice religant ; principes et ornatiorem habent. Ea cura formae, 
 sed innoxia ; etc. Ann. I. 54. 5 : Ludos Augustales tunc primum 
 coeptos turbavit discordia ex certamine histrionum. Indulserat ei 
 ludicro Augustus etc. Ann. VI. 32. 14: et cunctis, quae apud 
 Orientem parabantur, L. Vitellium praefecit. Eo de homine baud 
 sum ignarus sinistram in urbe famam, pleraque foeda memorari, 
 ceterum in regendis provinciis prisca virtute egit. Ann. VI. 44. 13: 
 Verum Abdagaeses regrediendum in Mesopotamiam censebat, ut 
 amne obiecto, Armeniis interim Elymaeisque et ceteris a tergo 
 excitis, aucti copiis socialibus et quas dux Romanus mississet 
 fortunam temptarent. Ea sententia valuit etc. Ann. XL 26. 8: 
 Mansuram eandem Messalinae potentiam, addita securitate, si 
 praevenirent Claudium, ut insidiis incautum, ita irae properum. 
 Segniter eae voces acceptae etc. H. III. 5. 5 : Plebem quoque et 
 vim equitum, qua sola valent, offerebant: remissum id munus, ne 
 inter discordias externa molirentur aut maiore ex diverso mercede 
 ius fasque exuerent. 
 
 With the demonstrative pronouns should be inchided the 
 intensive ipse and ide?n; also ambo, uterque and neuter: 
 
 H. III. I. 6: Quibus opperiri auxilia et trahere bellum videbatur, 
 Germanicarum legionum vim famamque extollebant, et advenisse 
 mox cum Vitellio Britannici exercitus robora : ipsis nee numerum 
 parem pulsarum nuper legionum, et quamquam atrociter loquerentur, 
 minorem esse apud victos animum. Ann. XIV. 22. 3 : Et omnium 
 ore Rubellius Plautus celebratur, cui nobilitas per matrem ex lulia 
 familia. Ipse placita maiorum colebat etc. Ann. XI. 19. 2: Et 
 natio Frisiorum, post rebellionem clade L. Apronii coeptam infensa 
 aut male fida, datis obsidibus consedit apud agros a Corbulone 
 descriptos : idem senatum, magistratus, leges inposuit. H. IV. 44. 9 : 
 Octavius Pontiam Postumiam, stupro cognitam et nuptias suas 
 abnuentem, inpotens amoris interfecerat, Sosianus pravitate morum 
 multis exitiosus. Ambo gravi senatus consulto damnati pulsique, 
 quamvis concesso aliis reditu, in eadem poena retenti sunt. Ann. 
 III. S7. I : Et Considius Aequus et Caelius Cursor equites Romani, 
 
6o Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 quod fictis criminibus Magium Caecilianum praetorem petivissent, 
 auctore principe ac decreto senatus puniti. Utrumque in laudem 
 Drusi trahebatur etc. H. IV. 40. 4: Referente Caesare de resti- 
 tuendis Galbae honoribus, censuit Curtius Montanus, ut Pisonis 
 quoque memoria celebraretur. Patres utrumque iussere: de Pisone 
 irritum fuit. Ag. 12. 17: tarda mitescunt, cito proveniunt ; eadem 
 utriusque rei causa, multus umor terrarum caelique. G. 29. 4: 
 
 Manet honos et antiquae societatis insigne; exempti oneribus 
 
 bellis reservantur. Est in eodem obsequio et Mattiacorum 
 
 gens ; etc. G. 34. 3 : Maioribus minoribusque Frisiis vocabulum 
 est ex modo virium. Utraeque nationes usque ad Oceanum Rheno 
 praetereuntur ambiuntque inmensos insuper lacus et Romanis classi- 
 bus navigates. H. V. 14. 7, after several sentences on Civilis and 
 Cerialis : Neuter ducum cunctator, sed arcebat latitude camporum 
 suopte ingenio umentium etc. Ag. 6. 6 : Sors quaesturae provinciam 
 Asiam, pro consule Salvium Titianum dedit, quorum neutro cor- 
 ruptus est. (Neuter is never used by Tacitus w^ithout some other 
 regular means of expressing sentence connection.) 
 
 The following examples of demonstrative pronouns used 
 with a conjunction are introduced here partly to show that 
 the connection between clauses is essentially unchanged by 
 the addition of the conjunction and partly as evidence to be 
 used later in discussing the statement, often made, that qui 
 is equivalent to et is. Twenty-seven conjunctions are used 
 with demonstratives, exactly as they are frequently used 
 with a word repeated from the preceding clause : to supple- 
 ment the other means of sentence connection without 
 changing it. 
 
 Ann. I. 41. 14: plurimi ad Germanicum regressi. Isque ut erat 
 recens dolore et ira, apud circumfusos ita coepit. Ann. I. 11. i: 
 Versae inde ad Tiberium preces. Et ille varie disserebat de magni- 
 tudine imperii, sua modestia. H. II. 16. 19 : Capita ut hostium 
 ipsi interf ectores ad Othonem tulere ; neque eos aut Otho praemio 
 adfecit aut puniit Vitellius, in multa conluvie rerum maioribus 
 flagitiis permixtos. Ag. 11. 2: Habitus corporum varii: atque ex 
 eo argumenta. Ag. 14. 10: Didium Veranius excepit, isque intra 
 annum exstinctus est. Ag. 18. 4: Ordovicum civitas baud multo 
 ante adventum eius alam in finibus suis agentem prope universam 
 obtriverat, eoque initio erecta provincia. G. 36. i : Cherusci 
 nimiam ac marcentem diu pacem inlacessiti nutrierunt: idque 
 iucundius quam tutius fuit, etc. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 6i 
 
 The following demonstrative adverbs are used by Taci- 
 tus to express exactly the same sort of connection between 
 consecutive sentences or clauses: adeo, adhuc, dehinc, 
 eoque, hactenus, hie, hinc, ihi, ideo, illic, illuc, inde, ita, 
 postea, posthac, sic, utrimque and utrobique. With these 
 should be included the demonstrative adjectives talis and 
 tantus, tot and totidem. The examples of the use of these 
 words are, like those falling under the last head, very 
 numerous. The following will serve as illustrations : 
 
 Ann. I. 3. 14: Nero solus e privignis erat, illuc cuncta vergere 
 etc. H. IV. 6. 11: Ceterum eo senatus die, quo de imperio Ves- 
 pasiani censebant, placuerat mitti ad principem legates. Hinc inter 
 Helvidium et Eprium acre iurgium : etc. H. V. 23. 11: His flumen 
 secundum, illi vento agebantur : sic praetervecti temptato levium 
 telorum iactu dirimuntur. Ann. I. 10. 32 : Ceterum sepultura more 
 perfecta templum et caelestes religiones decernuntur. Versae inde 
 ad Tiberium preces. H. IV. 28. 2: Ille, ut cuique proximum, vas- 
 tari Ubios Treverosque, et aliam manum Mosam amnem transire 
 iubet, ut Menapios et Morinos et extrema Galliarum quateret. 
 Actae utrobique praedae etc. Ann. XIV. 24. 3 : Ad hoc penuria 
 aquae, fervida aestas, longinqua itinera sola ducis patientia miti- 
 gabantur, eadem pluraque gregario milite tolerantis. Ventum 
 dehinc in locos cuUos demessaeque segetes etc. H. III. 31. 22: 
 superbiam saevitiamque (adeo invisa scelera sunt), etiam perfidiam. 
 obiectabant. Ann. I. 35. 23 : ac spatium fuit, quo Caesar ab amicis 
 in tabernaculum raperetur. Consultatum ibi de remedio; etc. H. 
 I. 27. 12: Ibi tres et viginti speculatores consalutatum imperatorem 
 ac paucitate salutantium trepidum et sellae festinanter impositum 
 strictis mucronibus rapiunt; totidem ferme milites in itinere adgre- 
 gantur, etc. H. II. 48. i, after a speech by Otho : Talia locutus, ut 
 
 cuique aetas aut dignitas, comiter appellatos, irent propere 
 
 movebat etc. 
 
 Tantus is not easy to classify : when used in this demon- 
 strative sense, Tacitus always puts with it a noun which 
 practically repeats an element of meaning from the first 
 clause. For example, Ann. XII. 66. i, after a paragraph 
 on the difficulties attending the plots against Claudius: 
 In tanta mole curarum valetudine adversa corripitur etc. 
 Ann. I. II. i: Et ille varie disserebat de magnitudine 
 
62 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 imperii, sua modestia. Solam divi Augusti mentem tantae 
 molis capacem etc. H. IV. 58. 25 : An, si ad moenia urbis 
 Germani Gallique duxerint, arnia patriae inferetis? Horret 
 animus tanti flagitii imagine. In other cases tantus is 
 correlative with quantiis or nt, expressed or clearly under- 
 stood. 
 
 The use of demonstratives in the first of two consecutive 
 clauses, expressing the connection between them, has been 
 treated in the second chapter. 
 
 f. It remains to support with evidence the statement 
 already made that the sentence connection established by 
 the use of a relative clause does not differ essentially from 
 that effected by a clause with a demonstrative pronoun. It 
 is undeniably true that in the development of the language 
 the relative pronoun was used more to express this particu- 
 lar kind of connection than any other one of the means 
 here cited, and that by being so used the clause with a 
 relative received more fixed and definite form than the other 
 similar means of repeating an element from a preceding 
 clause. In this way there developed uses of the relative 
 which cannot be paralleled in clauses with a demonstrative. 
 But, on the other hand, there are enough cases of exact 
 parallels between the use of a demonstrative and that of a 
 relative to show that the fundamental element which serves 
 in each case to express the relation of clauses, is the same. 
 This fundamental element is the repetition of something in 
 the clause preceding the one in which the relative or demon- 
 strative is used. The following paragraphs give examples 
 of various uses in which the two sorts of pronouns are 
 employed without any essential difference in the resulting 
 connection. But first, an interesting illustration of the 
 interchangeability of the two with each other and with the 
 use of a simple repeated word, is afforded by H. I. 58. 12. 
 As it stands in the manuscripts this passage reads : Interim 
 ut piaculum obicitur centurio Crispinus .... sanguine Cap- 
 itonis cruentaverat. In the second lacuna Gronovius 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 6^ 
 
 supplied se, which seems certain. In the first Haase sup- 
 plied Is. As far as making the meaning- of the sentence 
 and its connection with the preceding sentence clear, noth- 
 ing is actually required before sanguine. The understood 
 subject of se cruentaverat is so evidently Crispinus and the 
 pluperfect with its explanatory force so evidently shows the 
 object of the sentence to explain the ofifering up of Cris- 
 pinus, that nothing further is needed. But if a word is 
 to be added there are at least three possibilities, still consid- 
 ering the meaning and logical connection only. Crispinus 
 might be used by way of direct repetition; is may be 
 supplied with Haase or, with equal satisfaction, qui, deleting 
 the period, A fourth possibility might be the use of some 
 such word as vir which would virtually repeat Crispinus. 
 Certainly for clearness of meaning and clause relation there 
 is little to choose between qui and is. 
 
 Most numerous and most familiar of all the parallel uses 
 of relatives and demonstratives is that in which the pronoun 
 is the subject of the second of two consecutive clauses. 
 The use with the demonstrative has already been illustrated 
 but for convenience in making comparisons in this as well as 
 in the following paragraphs, some examples of the demon- 
 strative usage are given after those of the relative. Exam- 
 ples of this first group are the following: 
 
 RELATIVES. Ann. I. i. 5: et Pompeii Crassique potentia cito 
 in Caesarem, Lepidi atque Antonii arma in Augustum cessere. qui 
 cuncta discordiis civilibus fessa nomine principis sub imperium 
 accepit. Ag. 42. 7 : postremo non iam obscuri suadentes simul 
 terrentesque pertraxere ad Domitianum. Qui paratus simulatione, 
 in adrogantiam compositus, et audiit preces excusantis et, cum 
 adnuisset, agi sibi gratias passus est nee erubuit beneficii invidia. 
 H. II. 100. 8: sic sibi cum Caecina convenisse. Qui praesens eoque 
 validior mutatum id consilium finxit, ut ingruenti bello tota mole 
 occurreretur. D. 38. i : Transeo ad formam et consuetudinem 
 veterum iudiciorum. Quae etsi nunc aptior extiterit, eloquentiam 
 tamen illud forum magis exercebat, in quo nemo intra paucissimas 
 perorare boras cogebatur etc. Ag. 11. 15: Nam Gallos quoque in 
 bellis floruisse accepimus, mox segnitia cum otio intravit, amissa 
 virtute pariter ac libertate. Quod Britannorum olim victis evenit: 
 
64 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 ceteri manent quales Galli fuerunt. Ann. III. 38. 15: Coelaletae 
 Odrusaeque et Dii, validae nationes, arma cepere, ducibus diversis 
 et paribus inter se per ignobilitatem ; quae causa f uit, ne in bellum 
 atrox coalescerent. Ann. XVI. 17. 23, after an account of manu- 
 factured charges : Quae composita credebantur de Crispino, quia 
 interfectus erat, de Ceriale, ut interficeretur. H. I. 86. 8: Sed 
 praecipuus et cum praesenti exitio etiam futuri paver subita inunda- 
 
 tione Tiberis, qui inmenso auctu non modo iacentia et plana 
 
 urbis loca, sed secura eius modi causuum implevit etc. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVES. H. I. 57. i: Proxima legionis primae 
 hiberna erant et promptissimus e legatis Fabius Valens. Is die 
 proximo coloniam Agrippinensem cum equitibus legionis auxiliar- 
 iorumque ingressus imperatorem Vitellium consalutavit. Ann. I. 
 6. 15: Quod postquam Sallustius Crispus particeps secretorum (is 
 ad tribunum miserat codicillos) comperit, etc. H. I. 49. 4: Caput 
 per lixas calonesque confixum laceratumque ante Patrobii tumulum 
 (libertus is Neronis punitus a Galba fuerat) postera demum die 
 repertum et cremato iam corpori admixtum est. Ann. I. 24. i, fol- 
 lowing an account of conspiracy and revolt: Haec audita quam- 
 quam abstrusum et tristissima quaeque maxime occultantem Tibe- 
 rium perpulere etc. Ann. I. 28. 13 : accitur centurio Clemens et si 
 alii bonis artibus grati in vulgus. Hi vigiliis, stationibus, custodiis 
 portarum se inserunt, spem oflferunt, metum intendunt. Ann. I. 35. 
 21 : et miles nomine Calusidius strictum obtulit gladium, addito 
 acutiorem esse. Saevum id malique moris etiam furentibus visum, 
 ac spatium fuit, quo Caesar ab amicis in tabernaculum raperetur. 
 
 There is no essential difference between the examples in 
 the last paragraph and very many others in which the 
 demonstrative or relative appears, still without any prepo- 
 sition or noun, but in other cases than the nominative. 
 
 ACCUSATIVE. Ann. IV. 7. i : Quae cuncta non quidem comi 
 via, sed horridus ac plerumque formidatus, retinebat tamen donee 
 morte Drusi verterentur. Compare Ag. 20. i : Haec primo statim 
 anno comprimendo egregiam famam paci circumdedit, quae vel 
 incuria vel intolerantia priorum baud minus quam bellum timebatur. 
 
 Ann. XIII. 36. 9: Et damno eius exterriti qui subsidium ferre 
 debuerant, sua quisque in castra trepida fuga rediere. Quod gravi- 
 ter Corbulo accepit etc. Compare Ann. I. 28. 2 : nam luna claro 
 repente caelo visa languescere. Id miles rationis ignarus omen 
 praesentium accepit etc. 
 
 Ann. VI. 38. I : Quae duabus aestatibus gesta coniunxi, quo 
 requiesceret animus e domesticis malis ; etc. Compare Ann. XV. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 65 
 
 6. I : Haec plures nt formidine regis et Corbulonis minis patrata 
 ac magnifica extollebant : etc. 
 
 H. I. 6. 11: multi ad hoc numeri e Germania ac Britannia et 
 Illyrico, quos idem Nero electos praemissosque ad claustra Cas- 
 piarum et bellum, quod in Albanos parabat, opprimendis Vindicis 
 coeptis revocaverat etc. Compare H. IV. 46. 10: ceterique per 
 urbem et urbi vicina conquisiti producuntur prope intecto corpore. 
 Eos Mucianus diduci et Germanicum Britannicumque militem, ac 
 si qui aliorum exercituum, separatim adsistere iubet. Illos primus 
 statim adspectus obstupefecerat etc. 
 
 GENITIVE. H. I. 48. 7 : legatum Calvisium Sabinum habuerat, 
 
 cuius uxor mala cupidine visendi situm castrorum in ipsis 
 
 principiis stuprum ansa est. Compare Ann. I. 33. i : Interea 
 Germanico per Gallias, ut diximus, census accipienti excessisse 
 Augustum adfertur. Neptem eius Agrippinam in matrimonio plu- 
 resque ex ea liberos habebat etc. 
 
 H. I. 61. 7: triginta milia Caecina e superiore Germania ducebat, 
 quorum robur legio unaetvicensima fuit. Compare Ann. I. 21. i, 
 after a description of the arrival of some new troops : Horum 
 adventu redintegratur seditio etc. 
 
 Ann. III. 16. 6 : nee ilium sponte extinctum, verum inmisso per- 
 cussore. Quorum neutrum adseveraverim etc. Compare H. II. 
 34. I, after an account of troubles in Otho's forces : Nihil eorum 
 Vitellianos fallebat etc. 
 
 DATIVE. Ann. XV. 10. 15: Coniunx ac filius castello, cui 
 Arsamosata nomen est, abditi etc. Compare H. I. 48. 5: Titus 
 Vinius quinquaginta septem annos variis moribus egit. Pater illi 
 praetoria familia, maternus avus e proscriptis. The following 
 examples form better parallels to this use of the relative than any 
 cases with the demonstrative, and illustrate well the underlying 
 element of repetition : Ann. IV. 28. i : Isdem consulibus miseriarum 
 ac saevitiae exemplum atrox, reus pater, accusator filius (nomen 
 utrique Vibius Serenus) in senatum inducti sunt. Ann. VI. 41. 6: 
 duos colles quos barbari insederant (minori Cadra, alteri Davara 
 nomen est), operibus circumdedit etc. Ann. I. 45. 2: sexagensi- 
 mum apud lapidem (loco Vetera nomen est) hibernantium. Ann. 
 XV. 37. 16 : nisi paucos post dies uni ex illo contaminatorum grege 
 (nomen Pythagorae fuit) in modum sollemnium coniugiorum 
 denupsisset. The connection between the clause containing the 
 dative and the other clause is the same in each of these sentences 
 and furthermore is the same as that expressed by the similar use 
 of the relative. For example, Ann. II. 80. 2 : sed castellum Ciliciae 
 munitum admodum, cui nomen Celenderis, occupat. Even in the 
 case from Ann. XV, in which the word in the dative, which repeats 
 
66 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 an element from the other clause, is only implied by the Pythagorae, 
 attracted into the dative, the relation of clauses is as clear as when 
 expressed by the relative. 
 
 ABLATIVE. Ann. VI. 13. i : Isdem consulibus gravitate 
 annonae iuxta seditionem ventum, multaque et plures per dies in 
 theatro licentius efflagitata, quam solitum adversum imperatorem. 
 Quis commotus incusavit magistratus patresque etc. Compare Ann. 
 XI. 36. 4: nee cuiquam ante pereundum fuisse, si Silius rerum 
 poteretur. Commotum his et pronum ad misericordiam Caesarem 
 perpulere liberti etc. The same connection is expressed by talibus 
 curis exercitiis in Ag. 39. 12. 
 
 Ag. 38. 10: nemo exploratoribus obvius. Quibus in omnem 
 partem dimissis in fines Borestorum exercitum deducit. Com- 
 pare Ann. VI. 36. II : Nee iam aliud Artabano reliquum, quam si 
 qui externorum corpori custodes aderant, suis quisque sedibus 
 extorres, quis neque boni intellectus neque mali cura, sed mercede 
 aluntur ministri sceleribus. His adsumptis in longinqua et conter- 
 mina Scythiae fugam maturavit etc. 
 
 Ann. II. 64. 7: Omnem eam nationem Rhoemetalces tenuerat; 
 quo defuncto Augustus partem Thraecum Rhescuporidi fratri eius, 
 partem filio Cotyi permisit. Compare Ag. 40. 8: eumque libertum 
 in ipso freto Oceani obvium Agricolae, ne appellato quidem eo ad 
 Domitianum remeasse, etc. 
 
 D. 4. 5 : quo laetor magis oblatum nobis iudicem etc. Compare 
 H. I. 72. 15 : Eo infensior populus etc. 
 
 The parallel between clauses with relatives and others 
 with demonstratives is further illustrated by examples in 
 which a substantive is used with the pronoun. The fol- 
 lowing' are selected from a very large number : 
 
 H. II. 26. 2: nam Caecina non simul cohortes, sed singulas 
 acciverat, quae res in proelio trepidationem auxit etc. Compare H. 
 IV. 71. 7: socii ad munia pacis redirent securi velut confecto bello, 
 quod Romanae manus excepissent. Auxit ea res Gallorum obse- 
 quium etc. 
 
 Ann. XIV. 17. 6: Ergo deportati sunt in urbem multi e Nucerinis 
 trunco per vulnera corpore ac plerique liberorum aut parentium 
 mortes deflebant. Cuius rei indicium princeps senatui, senatus con- 
 sulibus permisit. Compare Ann. XL 25. 13 : monendo, secum 
 quisque de se consultaret peteretque ius exuendi ordinis : f acilem 
 eius rei veniam. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 67 
 
 D. 28. 22 : Sic Corneliam Gracchorum, sic Aureliam Caesaris, sic 
 Atiam Augusti praefuisse educationibus ac produxisse principes 
 liberos accepimus. Quae disciplina ac severitas eo pertinebat, ut 
 etc. Compare H. III. 71. 21 : Sic Capitolium clausis foribus 
 indefensum et indireptiim conflagravit. Id facinus post conditam 
 urbem luctuosissimum foedissimumque rei publicae populi Romani 
 accidit etc. 
 
 Ag. 29. I : Initio aestatis Agricola domestico vulnere ictus, anno 
 ante natum filium amisit. Quern casum neque ut plerique fortium 
 virorum ambitiose, neque per lamenta rursus ac maerorem mulie- 
 briter tulit etc. Compare Ag. 38. 17: Et simul classis secunda 
 tempestate ac fama Truculensem portum tenuit, unde proximo anno, 
 
 Britanniae litore lecto omni, reditura erat. Hunc rerum cursum 
 
 ut Domitiani moris erat, fronte laetus, pectore anxius excepit. 
 
 Ag. 22. I : Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentis aperuit, 
 vastatis usque ad Tanaum (aestuario nomen est) nationibus. Qua 
 formidine territi hostes quamquam conflictatum saevis tempestatibus 
 exercitum lacessere non ausi etc. Compare H. III. 41. 10: pudor 
 tamen et praesentis ducis reverentia morabatur, baud diuturna 
 vincla apud pavidos periculorum et dedecoris secures. Eo metu 
 cohortes Ariminum praemittit etc. 
 
 Another group of examples illustrating the fundamental 
 similarity in the use of the relative and the demonstrative 
 consists of cases in which a preposition is used with the 
 pronoun. This again is a very frequent usage, of which 
 the following cases are examples : 
 
 H. II. 86. 5 : Praepositus a Galba septimae legioni scriptitasse 
 Othoni credebatur, ducem se partibus offerens; a quo neglectus in 
 nullo Othoniani belli usu f uit. Compare H. IV. 53. i : Curam 
 restituendi Capitolii in L. Vestinum confert, equestris ordinis virum, 
 sed auctoritate famaque inter proceres. Ab eo contracti haruspices 
 monuere etc. 
 
 Ann. XIV. 55. i, after a speech by Seneca: Ad quae Nero sic 
 ferme respondit etc. Compare Ann. XV. 14. i, after an account 
 of letters sent by Paetus : Ad ea Vologeses nihil pro causa, sed 
 opperiendos sibi fratres Pacorum ac Tiridatem rescripsit etc. 
 
 Ann. III. 69. 4 : Nam a legibus delicta puniri : quanto fore 
 mitius in ipsos, melius in socios, provideri ne peccaretur? 
 Adversum quae disseruit Caesar : etc. Compare Ann XV. 59. 5 : 
 magnamque motae rei famam, quae plurimum in novis consiliis 
 valeret. Nihil adversum haec Neroni provisum. 
 
68 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 Ann. XL 35. 6: Incensumque et ad minas erumpentem castris 
 infert, parata contione militum; apud quos praemonente Narcisso 
 pauca verba fecit etc. Compare G. 2. 21 : mox etiam a se ipsis 
 invento nomine Germani vocarentur. Fuisse apud eos et Herculem 
 memorant etc. 
 
 D. 8. I : Ausim contendere Marcellum hunc Eprium, de quo mode 
 
 locutus sum, et Crispum Vibium non minus notos esse 
 
 etc. Compare Ann. III. 58. 5 : porro, si hi duxissent provincias, cur 
 Dialibus id vetitum? Nulla de eo populi scita, non in libris 
 caerimoniarum reperiri. 
 
 D. 16. 20: vos autem Demosthenem et Hyperidem profertis, quos 
 satis constat Philippi et Alexandri temporibus floruisse, ita tamen 
 ut utrique superstites essent. Ex quo apparet non multo plures 
 quam quadringentos annos interesse etc. Compare Ann. IV. 54. 6: 
 idque quo acrius experiretur, poma ut erant adposita, laudans nurui 
 sua manu tradidit. Aucta ex eo suspicio Agrippinae, et intacta 
 ore servis tramisit. 
 
 H. I. 52. 12: Sed profusa cupidine et insigni temeritate legati 
 legionum Alienus Caecina et Fabius Valens; e quibus Valens 
 infensus Galbae etc. Compare Ann. II. 20. i, after an account of 
 the disposition of the German troops: Nihil ex his Caesari 
 incognitum etc. 
 
 Very many paragraphs which follow a long list of events or 
 some continuous action begin with Inter quae. Ann. I. 12, IV. 
 57, XIV. 22 furnish examples of this usage. With these should 
 be compared Ann. XI. 35. i : Mirum inter haec silentium Claudii 
 etc. D. 39. 13 : unus inter haec dicenti aut alter adsistit, et res 
 velut in solitudine agitur. Interea is often used in just the same 
 way (for example, in Ann. I. 20. i, and IV. 51. i) and the connec- 
 tion with the preceding paragraph is the same in H. II. 61. i, in 
 which case a noun is used : Inter magnorum virorum discrimina. 
 
 Ann. II. 30. 14: Tiberius mancipari singulos actori publico iubet, 
 scilicet ut in Libonem ex servis salvo senatus consulto quaereretur. 
 Ob quae posterum diem reus petivit etc. Compare Ann. XII. 65. 
 I : Ceterum obiecta sunt, quod coniugem principis devotionibus 
 petivisset quodque parum coercitis per Calabriam servorum 
 agminibus pacem Italiae turbaret. Ob haec mors indicta, etc. 
 
 D. 33. 18: nee quisquam percipere tot tam reconditas tamque 
 varias res potest, nisi ut scientiae meditatio, meditationi facultas, 
 facultati usus eloquentiae accedat. Per quae colligitur eandem esse 
 rationem et percipiendi quae proferas et proferendi quae perceperis. 
 Compare Ann. I. 60. i, after a speech by Arminius: Conciti per 
 haec non modo Cherusci, sed conterminae gentes, etc. 
 
 H. II. 49. I. after an account of Otho's methods of arousing 
 enthusiasm : Post quae dimotis omnibus paulum requievit. Com- 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 69 
 
 pare, in a similar situation, Ann. XL 34. i : Crebra post haec fama 
 fuit, etc. 
 
 Further parallels between the use of demonstratives and 
 that of relatives are to be found in such cases as have the 
 pronouns serving as subjects of some one or other of the 
 regularly recognized "subordinate" clauses, such as clauses 
 with postquam or ubi. These examples are not as frequent 
 as those under the preceding heads, but they are very 
 numerous and the following form only a small part of them : 
 
 Ann. VI. 3. 15: delectumque a Seiano, cuius ope dolus Gaio 
 Caesari pararetur. Quod postquam patefactum, prorupere concepta 
 pridem odia etc. Compare H. I. 79. 22: Ibi saevitia hiemis aut 
 vulnerum absumpti. Postquam id Romae compertum, M. Aponius 
 Moesiam obtinens triumphali statua, Fulvus Aurelius et lulianus 
 Tettius ac Numisius Lupus, legati legionum, consularibus orna- 
 mentis donantur etc. 
 
 Ann. I. 55. I : decernitur Germanico triumphus manente bello ; 
 quod quamquam in aestatem summa ope parabat, initio veris et 
 repentino in Chattos excursu praecepit. Compare Ann. XIIL 36. 3 : 
 curam praesidiorum Paccio Orfito primi pili honore perfuncto man- 
 dat. Is quamquam incautos barbaros et bene gerendae rei casum 
 ofFerri scripserat, tenere se munimentis et maiores copias opperiri 
 iubetur. 
 
 Ann. XV. 3. i, following an account of the movements of 
 Vologeses : Quae ubi Corbuloni certis nuntiis audita sunt, legiones 
 
 duas mittit. Compare H. III. 15. i, following an account of 
 
 the soldiers' revolt against Caecina : Ubi haec comperta Antonio, 
 discordes animis, discretos viribus hostium exercitus adgredi 
 statuit etc. 
 
 Ann. VI. 26. 3 : Moriendi consilium cepit. Quod ut Tiberio 
 cognitum, adsidere, causas requirere etc. (The infinitives are 
 historical.) Compare H. II. 78. 9: Sed primo triumphalia et con- 
 sulatus et ludaeicae victoriae decus implesse fidem ominis 
 videbantur : ut haec adeptus est, portendi sibi imperium credebat. 
 
 Finally, the uses of inde and unde furnish interesting par- 
 allels. Like the simple relatives and demonstratives, they do 
 not cover exactly the same field ; the use of inde to denote 
 order in a series or in time, the meaning that we express by 
 "next," is not paralleled in Tacitus by unde; nor, on the 
 
70 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 other hand, is the interrogative use of iinde paralleled by inde. 
 But in the following cases the two are practically inter- 
 changeable. 
 
 Ann. III. 55. 15: Sed praecipuus adstricti moris auctor 
 Vespasianus fuit, antique ipse cultu victuque. Obsequium inde in 
 principem et aemulandi amor validior quam poena ex legibus et 
 metus. Ann. IV. 54. 8: Nee tamen Tiberii vox coram secuta, 
 sed obversus ad matrem non mirum ait, si quid severius in earn 
 statuisset, a qua veneficii insimularetur. Inde rumor parari exitium, 
 neque id imperatorem palam audere, secretum ad perpetrandum 
 quaeri. Ann. IV. 58. 5 : Ferebant periti caelestium iis motibus 
 siderum excessisse Roma Tiberium, ut reditus illi negaretur. Unde 
 exitii causa multis fuit properum finem vitae coniectantibus 
 vulgantibusque ; etc. Ann. VI. 7. 8: Q. Servaeus posthac et 
 Minucius Thermus inducti, Servaeus praetura functus et quondam 
 Germanici comes, Minucius equestri loco, modeste habita Seiani 
 amicitia; unde illis maior miseratio. Ann. VI. 50. 14: Charicles 
 tamen labi spiritum nee ultra biduum duraturum Macroni firmavit. 
 Inde cuncta conloquiis inter praesentes, nuntiis apud legatos et exer- 
 citus festinabantur. Ann. XIII. 9. 12: Atque illi <per> recentem 
 gloriam et inclinatione quadam etiam hostium Corbulonem praetu- 
 lere. Unde discordia inter duces, etc. Ann. XIV. 24. 5 : Ventum 
 dehinc in locos cultos demessaeque segetes, et ex duobus castellis, 
 in quae confugerant Armenii, alterum impetu captum; qui primam 
 vim depulerant, obsidione coguntur. Unde in regionem Taurau- 
 nitium transgressus improvisum periculum vitavit. H. III. 35. 4: 
 et victae legiones, ne manente adhuc civili bello ambigue agerent, 
 per Illyricum dispersae. In Britanniam inde et Hispanias nuntios 
 
 misere. H. IV. 33. 8: Eques prorupit, exceptusque composi- 
 
 tis hostium ordinibus terga in suos vertit. Caedes inde, non proe- 
 lium. Ag. 10. 11: Et est ea facies citra Caledoniam, unde et in 
 universam fama est transgressa, etc. Ag. 21. 6: lam vero princi- 
 pum filios liberalibus artibus erudire, et ingenia Britannorum studiis 
 Gallorum anteferre, ut qui modo linguam Romanam abnuebant, 
 eloquentiam concupiscerent. Inde etiam habitus nostri honor et 
 frequens toga. G. 4. i : Ipse eorum opinioni accedo, qui Germaniae 
 populos nullis [aliis] aliarum nationum conubiis infectos propriam 
 et sinceram et tantum sui similem gentem extitisse arbitrantur. 
 Unde habitus quoque corporum, quamquam in tanto hominum 
 numero, idem omnibus : etc. G. 26. 6 : Nee enim cum ubertate et 
 amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria conserant et prata 
 separent et hortos rigent: sola terrae seges imperatur. Unde 
 annum quoque ipsum non in totidem digerunt species : etc. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 71 
 
 To sum up the results of the comparison between the use 
 of the relative pronoun and that of the demonstrative, the 
 following points seem clear. First, there are very many 
 cases in which the two uses are interchangeable and in which 
 Tacitus uses now one and now the other. Second, the use 
 of a conjunction with the demonstrative is not necessary to 
 give it the same force that the relative has ; in other words, 
 the frequently made statement that et is is equivalent to qui 
 is misguiding, for the demonstrative alone is very often 
 entirely parallel to the relative. Third, there is, in general, 
 no essential difference between the sentence connection 
 established in these two different ways ; in both uses, the 
 fundamental element which establishes the connection is 
 the element of repetition. It is not the purpose of this paper 
 to go into the historical development of any form of sentence 
 connection, but the usage of Tacitus in this particular mat- 
 ter makes it fairly obvious that the various forms of sen- 
 tence connection, grouped here under the head of repetition, 
 all develop from the same original type of connection. 
 Evidently the use of the relative pronoun was more fre- 
 quently employed than the rest and it therefore became 
 a more fixed type of so-called subordinate construction, but 
 there are so very many instances in Tacitus of the parallel 
 use of other forms of repetition that these must also be 
 reckoned with in any study of the means used, even in 
 Latin of a late period, for expressing the relation of one 
 sentence to another. 
 
 g. The foregoing discussion of relatives and demonstra- 
 tives interrupted the classification of the various means used 
 by Tacitus to virtually repeat in the second of two consecu- 
 tive sentences some specific word in the first. There are 
 left two such types : first, the use of a noun in apposition 
 with the subject of the second clause and virtually repeating 
 some noun of the first clause ; second, the use of repetition 
 implied or understood. The first of these is a type used but 
 rarely by Tacitus. It is not uncommon in English : for 
 
72 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 example, Tennyson has (in Lady Clara Vera de Vere) : 
 "The daughter of a hundred Earls, you are not one to be 
 desired." The noun has exactly the same function that a 
 clause would have in the same place — in this case, a conces- 
 sive clause — and its connection with the rest of its own 
 sentence is really more interesting than its reference to the 
 preceding one. Examples from Tacitus are: 
 
 Ann. II. 88. 8: ceterum Arminius dolo propinquorum 
 
 cecidit: liberator hand dubie Germaniae proeliis ambiguus, 
 
 bello non victus. H. I. 49. 16: Dum vigebat aetas, militari laude 
 apud Germanias floruit. Proconsule Africam moderate, iam senior 
 citeriorem Hispaniam pari iustitia continuit, etc. H. III. 62. 9: 
 Ludicro luvenalium sub Nerone velut ex necessitate, mox sponte 
 mimos actitavit, scite magis quam probe. Legatus legionis et fovit 
 Verginium et infamavit; etc. H. I. 73. i: Per idem tempus expos- 
 
 tulata ad supplicium Calvia Crispinilla periculo exempta est. 
 
 Magistra libidinum Neronis, transgressa in Africam ad instigandum 
 
 in arma Clodium Macrum totius postea civitatis gratiam 
 
 obtinuit etc. II. II. 25. 6: Signum pugnae non statim a Suetonio 
 Paulino pediti datum : cunctator natura et cui cauta potius con- 
 silia cum ratione quam prospera ex casu placerent, compleri fossas, 
 aperiri campum, pandi aciem iubebat etc. Ag. 30. 14: nulla iam 
 ultra gens, nihil nisi fluctus et saxa, et infestiores Romani quorum 
 superbiam frustra per obsequium ac modestiam effugeris. Raptores 
 orbis, postquam cuncta vastantibus defuere terrae, iam et mare 
 scrutantur : etc. 
 
 Rather more frequent in Tacitus is the usage almost 
 identical with this, in which an adjective stands in the same 
 way at the beginning of the second sentence fulfilling the 
 function that would more often be filled by a clause. The 
 adjective is often virtually a substantive and therefore equiv- 
 alent to a noun in apposition with the subject of the second 
 sentence. This usage is also not infrequent in English. 
 For example. Genesis XLIX. 4: "Unstable as water, thou 
 shalt not excel." It is perhaps more accurate to say that 
 the adjective is really in agreement with the noun or pro- 
 noun understood. This noun or pronoun if expressed would 
 be like the nouns in the four cases cited above. There is, 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 73 
 
 then, some question as to whether these adjective cases should 
 be included in the present class or grouped with the cases 
 of repetition understood, dealt with in the next paragraph. 
 There is, further, a question as to whether the examples in 
 the present paragraph show the virtual repetition merely of 
 some word of the first clause or add to that word to such 
 an extent that they should be grouped rather with examples 
 of types in which, not a particular word, but an element of 
 meaning, is repeated. But the categories themselves are of 
 little value. Therefore, since these examples all show refer- 
 ence, at least, in the second clause to some definite word in 
 the first and since the adjectives are virtually substantives, 
 they are all grouped together for convenience, under the 
 present head. Examples of the usage with adjectives are 
 the following: 
 
 Ann. IV. 73. 11: Turn tres leves cohortes ac rursum duae, dein 
 tempore interiecto alarius eques inmissus : satis validi, si simul 
 incubuissent, per intervallum adventantes neque constantiam addi- 
 derant turbatis et pavore fugientium auferebantur. H. II. 21. i : 
 Sed primus dies inpetu magis quam veterani exercitus artibus tran- 
 sactus : aperti incautique muros subiere, cibo vinoque praegraves. 
 H. II. 94. 2 : Sibi quisque militiam sumpsere : quamvis indignus, si 
 ita maluerat, urbanae militiae adscribebatur etc. H. III. 31. 6: 
 Gregarius miles futuri socors et ignobilitate tutior perstabat: vagi 
 per vias, in domibus abditi pacem ne tum quidem orabant, cum 
 bellum posuissent. G. 24. 9 : Victus voluntariam servitutem adit : 
 quamvis iuvenior, quamvis robustior, adligari se ac venire patitur. 
 G. 46. 18: Sed beatius arbitrantur quam ingemere agris, inlaborare 
 domibus, suas alienasque f ortunas spe metuque versare : securi 
 adversus homines, securi adversus deos rem difficillimam adsecuti 
 sunt, ut illis ne voto quidem opus esset. 
 
 Occasionally, instead of an adjective, a participle is used 
 in this appositional way. In that case one of two things is 
 true : either the participle has no verbal force and is virtually 
 an adjective, in which case its use is the same as that of the 
 adjectives discussed above, or else it retains its verbal force 
 and is an entirely distinct means of sentence connection, to 
 6 
 
74 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 be discussed later. A single example of each usage will 
 serve to illustrate the distinction : 
 
 Ann. VI. 26. II : Ceterum Agrippinae pernicies, quod vix credibile, 
 Plancinam traxit. Nupta olim Cn. Pisoni et palam laeta morte 
 Germanici, cum Piso caderet, precibus Augustae nee minus inimi- 
 citiis Agrippinae defensa erat. Compare H. V. 21. 14: Et paucos 
 post dies, quamquam periculum captivitatis evasisset, infamiam non 
 
 vitavit. Profectus Novaesium Bonnamque ad visenda castra 
 
 navibus remeabat disiecto agmine incuriosis vigiliis. 
 
 h. Another type of this connection by repetition without 
 the actual use in the second clause of a word which has been 
 already used in the first, is to be found in those cases in 
 which repetition is clearly implied but not expressed. Since, 
 however, there are many cases in which the repetition under- 
 stood is rather repetition of some element of meaning than 
 of a specific word, and since, therefore, the category includes 
 many cases which belong in the next section rather than 
 in the present, the discussion of implied repetition is reserved 
 until the examples of an actual repetition of some element 
 of meaning have been presented. 
 
 3. In the two groups of cases already discussed in which 
 repetition is the connecting element, the examples all had 
 one characteristic in common ; the word in which lay the 
 repetition always repeated either actually or virtually some 
 specific word from the preceding clause and repeated it pre- 
 cisely and in its entirety. The present section contains a 
 different type of cases ; it is no longer an actual word which 
 is repeated but the meaning of some word or group of 
 words in the first sentence is repeated by a single word in 
 the second. This may be done by repeating in a different 
 part of speech the fundamental meaning of some word 
 used in the preceding sentence ; or by using in the second 
 clause a word, usually abstract, which expresses in summary 
 some idea from the first clause ; or finally by employing in 
 the second clause a word which virtually repeats a part only 
 of some noun in the first clause. 
 
Connection Expressed hi the Second Clause. 75 
 
 a. In the cases which fall under the first of these three 
 divisions, the expression of the sentence connection still 
 lies in two words, one in each sentence. But the second no 
 longer repeats the first either literally or by synonym. 
 Instead, it repeats merely the fundamental meaning of the 
 first used in a new way : either the two words are different 
 parts of speech or at least they belong to different classes 
 of the same part of speech ; for example, a collective noun 
 and an abstract. For the sake of convenience the examples 
 are classified according to the parts of speech of the two 
 words which express the connection. These words are 
 italicized. It will be seen from the examples given that 
 the two words need not be built on the same root: when 
 they are, they correspond to the cases of actual repetition; 
 when they are not, they correspond rather to the cases in 
 which a synonym is used. Always, it is the meaning which 
 furnishes the basis for connection. 
 
 A noun in the second clause may repeat the element of 
 meaning from a verb in the first or vice versa. 
 
 Ann. I. 44. I : Supplices ad haec et vera exprobari fatentes ora- 
 bant puniret noxios, ignosceret lapsis et duceret in hostem : 
 revocaretur coniunx, rediret legionum alumnus neve opses Gallis 
 traderetur. Rediium Agrippinae excusavit etc. Ann. I. 52. i : 
 Nuntiata ea Tiberium laetitia curaque adf ecere : gaudebat oppressam 
 seditionem, sed quod largiendis pecuniis et missione festinata 
 favorem militum quaesivisset, bellica quoque Germanici gloria 
 angebatur. (In this example angebatur really repeats also the sense 
 of ctira in the first clause. After the expression laetitia curaque, 
 the contrast between gaudebat and angebatur could not have failed 
 to be clear, but Tacitus makes it doubly clear by adding a sed.) 
 Ann. XV. 5. 2: misit ad Vologesen, qui expostularent vim pro- 
 vinciae inlatam : socium amicumque regem, cohortes Romanas 
 circumsideri. Omitteret potius obsidionem, aut se quoque in agro 
 hostili castra positurum. H. I. 43. 12 : Piso in f oribus templi truci- 
 
 datus <est.> Nullam caedem Otho maiore laetitia excepisse 
 
 dicitur etc. H. II. 64. 4: atque ibi interfici iussit. Longum inter- 
 fectori visum, etc. H. IV. 59. 7: Nee illi, quamquam ad omne 
 facinus durato, verba ultra suppeditavere, quam ut sacrantenium 
 recitaret : iuravere qui aderant pro imperio Galliarum. G. 9. 3 : 
 
76 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 Pars Sueborum et Isidi sacrificat: unde causa et origo peregrine 
 sacro. parum comperi etc. G. 12. 7: Equorum pecorumque numero 
 convicti muUantiir. Pars miiltae regi vel civitati, pars ipsi, qui 
 vindicatur, vel propinquis eius exsolvitur. G. 27. 6 : Lamenta ac 
 lacrimas cito, dolorem et tristitiam tarde ponunt. Feminis lugere 
 honestum est, viris meminisse. 
 
 A noun or personal pronoun in the second clause may- 
 repeat an element of meaning from an adjective or a pos- 
 sessive pronoun in the first, and z'ice versa. 
 
 Ann. I. 18. 9 : Mea potius caede imbuite manus : leviore flagitio 
 legatum interficietis quam ab imperatore desciscitis. Ann. XVI. 22. 
 15: Huic uni incolumitas tua sine cura, artes sine honore. Pros- 
 peras principis res spernit: etiamne luctibus et doloribus non 
 satiatur? H. III. 50. 12: Ad has copias e classicis Ravennatibus, 
 legionariam militiam poscentibus, optimus quisque adsciti : classem 
 Delmatae supplevere. H. IV. 74. i : Regna bellaque per Gallias 
 semper fuere, donee in nostrum ius concederetis. Nos, quamquam 
 totiens lacessiti, iure victoriae id solum vobis addidimus, quo pacem 
 tueremur; etc. H. V. 5. 15: Corpora condere quam cremare e 
 more Aegypfio, eademque cura et de infernis persuasio, caelestium 
 contra. Aegyptii pleraque animalia effigiesque compositas veneran- 
 tur, ludaei mente sola unumque numen intellegunt : etc. G. 39. i : 
 Vetustissimos nobilissimosque Sueborum Sennones memorant; 
 fides antiquitatis religione firmatur. 
 
 One noun in the second clause may repeat an element of 
 meaning from another noun in the first clause v^ithout 
 referring to the same person or thing. The second noun 
 may be the name of a people, the first the name of the 
 country, as in the following: 
 
 Ag. 13. I, after a discussion of the country Britannia: Ipsi 
 Brifaiuii dilectum ac tributa et iniuncta imperii munia impigre 
 cbeunt, si iniuriae absint; etc. G. 2. i, after a similar discussion 
 of the country Germania: Ipsos Germanos indiginas crediderim etc. 
 
 The second noun may be the name of a people or of a 
 country, the first the name of their leader, as in the following 
 examples : 
 
 Ann. II. 67. 6: Accusatus [sc. Rhescuperis, the Thracian king] 
 in senatu ab uxore Cotyis damnatur, ut procul regno teneretur. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 77 
 
 Thracia in Rhoemetalcen filium, quem paternis consiliis adversatum 
 constabat, inqiie liberos Cotyis dividitur etc. Ann. XIII. 54. 23 : 
 Nero civitate Romana ambos [sc. the Frisian ambassadors] donavit, 
 Frisios decedere agris iussit. H. V. 15. 10: Eius proelii eventus 
 
 utrumque ducem erexit. Civilis instare f ortunae, Cerialis 
 
 abolere ignominiam : Germani prosperis f eroces, Romanos pudor 
 excitaverat. 
 
 The noun of the second clause may be the name of an 
 office, that of the first, the title of the officer, and vice versa, 
 as in the following examples : 
 
 H. II. 45. 5: Postera die missa legatio; nee apud duces 
 
 Vitellianos dubitatum, quo minus pacem concederent. Legati 
 paulisper retenti etc. H. III. 45. 13 : Et cohortes alaeque nostrae 
 variis proeliis, exemere tamen periculo reginam; regnuin Venutio, 
 bellum nobis relictum. 
 
 Far more frequent than the cases of the last three types, 
 which are rare, are those in which the two nouns are names 
 of persons or things belonging to some common and obvious 
 category, as, for example, military terms, or names of philo- 
 sophical sects. A similar usage will be found very common 
 among the cases of connection by contrast, but in the present 
 examples there is no contrast : the two nouns are related 
 solely by their association in a common category. The 
 usage is not very different from that in which all the 
 sentence connection lies in the unity of subject matter ; 
 only in the present instances this unity is to such an extent 
 expressed in single words as to somewhat change the 
 nature of the connections. The following are examples : 
 
 Ann. II. 6. 2 : Silius et Anteius et Caecina f abricandae classi prae- 
 ponuntur. Mille naves sufificere visae properataeque etc. Ann. III. 
 20. 4: postremo baud procul Pagyda flumine cohortem Romanam 
 circumsedit. Praeerat castello Decius impiger manu, exercitus 
 militia et illam obsidionem flagitii ratus. Ann. V. i. 14: Funus 
 eius modicum, testamentum diu inritum fuit. Laudata est pro 
 rostris a Gaio Caesare pronepote, qui mox rerum potitus est. (In 
 this case the terms funus and testamentum are words which would 
 occur in any account of funeral ceremonies. The laudatio funebris 
 
78 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 is another such term, and the expression laudata est pro rostris 
 has exactly the same effect, as far as sentence connection is con- 
 cerned, that the use of the noun would have had.) Ann. XV. 3. 9: 
 Et quia egena aquarum regio est. castella fontibus inposita; quos- 
 dam rivos congestu harenae abdidit. H. II. 95. 3 : Laetum 
 foedissimo cuique apud bonos invidiae fuit, quod exstructis in 
 campo Martio aris inferias Neroni fecisset. Caesae publice victimae 
 cremataeque etc. H. III. 79. 9: Neque omnis eques concors, 
 adiunctis quibusdam, qui nuper apud Narniam dediti fortunam 
 partium speculabantur. Capitur praefectus alae lulianus Flavianus 
 etc. Ag. 12. I : quaedam nationes et curru proeliantur. Honestior 
 auriga, clientes propugnant. G. 23. i : Potui humor ex hordeo aut 
 f rumento in quandam similitudinem vini corruptus : proximi ripae 
 et vinum mercantur. Cibi simplices, agrestia poma, recens fera, aut 
 lac concretum etc. D. 31. 24: Alios fusa et aequalis et ex communi- 
 bus ducta sensibus oratio magis delectat: ad hos permovendos 
 mutabimur a Peripateticis aptos et in omnem disputationem paratos 
 iam locos. Dabunt Academici pugnacitatem, Plato altitudinem, 
 Xenophon iucunditatem etc. 
 
 b. In the cases assembled in the last section the element of 
 meaning was always drawn from a single word and repeated 
 in a single word. There are also cases in which the idea 
 repeated is taken from the general meaning of the sentence 
 and is summed up in a single word in the following sentence. 
 This is a very common usage in Tacitus : usually the word 
 in which lies the repetition expresses nominally the idea 
 expressed by the whole first sentence' and consequently such 
 words are most frequently abstract nouns. The distinction 
 between this class and the last is not great ; it is a question 
 of whether the element of meaning repeated can be definitely 
 located in a single word — as if, for instance, timnit were 
 used in one sentence and timor in the next — or must be 
 sought in the general effect produced by the whole of a 
 sentence — as if, for instance, the timer in the second sen- 
 tence referred to a description in the first of confusion due 
 to fear. Such abstract nouns of feeling occur most fre- 
 quently in this usage. For example, H. II. 54. 7 : Et 
 Coenus quidem raptim in urbem vectus paucos post dies 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 79 
 
 iussu Vitellii poenas luit : senatorum periculum auctum cre- 
 dentibus Othonianis militibus vera esse quae adferebantur. 
 Intendebat formidinem, quod public! consilii facie discessum 
 Mutina desertaeque partes forent. There is no word in the 
 first sentence to which the formidinem can specifically refer. 
 Periculum is the nearest approach to such a word but only 
 in its connotation, not in its exact meaning. There is, how- 
 ever, conveyed by the first sentence a distinct impression of 
 fear and this is gathered up and concretely expressed in 
 the formidinem which thus virtually repeats an element of 
 meaning from the preceding sentence. Further examples 
 are: 
 
 Ann. I. 49. 12 : Truces etiam animos cupido involat eundi in 
 hostem, piaculum f uroris ; nee aliter posse placari commilitonum 
 manes, quam si pectoribus impiis honesta vulnera accepissent. 
 Sequitur ardorem militum Caesar iunctoque ponte tramittit duo- 
 decim milia e legionibus etc. H. IV. 40. 12 : Repeti inde cogni- 
 tionem inter Musonium Rufum et Publium Celerem placuit, 
 damnatusque Publius et Sorani manibus satis factum. Insignis 
 publica severitate dies ne privatim quidem laude caruit. H. III. 10. 
 17: Ubi crudescere seditio et a conviciis ac probris ad tela et manus 
 transibant, inici catenas Flaviano iubet. Sensit ludibrium miles, 
 disiectisque qui tribunal tuebantur extrema vis parabatur. H. I. 
 82. 17 : Atque ilium tribuni centurionesque circumsistunt, abiectis 
 militiae insignibus otium et salutem flagitantes. Sensit invidium 
 miles et compositus in obsequium auctores seditionis ad supplicium 
 ultro postulabat. 
 
 This use is very common with the verb augeo as the main 
 verb of the second clause with the abstract noun as its object. 
 For example : 
 
 H. II. 13. 2: Quippe in acie nihil praedae, inopes agrestes et vilia 
 anna ; nee capi poterant, pervix gens et gnari locorum : sed 
 calamitatibus insontium expleta avaritia. Auxit invidiam praeclaro 
 exemplo femina Ligus. H. V. 10. 9: Pace per Italiam parta et 
 externae eurae rediere : augebat iras, quod soli ludaei non eessissent 
 etc. Ann. I. 36. i: Consultatum ibi de remedio; etenim nuntiabatur 
 parari legates, qui superiorem exercitum ad causam eandem tra- 
 herent: destinatum excidio Ubiorum oppidum, imbutasque praeda 
 
8o Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 manus in direptionem Galliarum erepturas. Augebat metum gnarus 
 Romanae seditionis et, si omitteretur ripa, invasurus hostis etc. 
 
 Other abstract nouns than those of feeling are often used 
 in the same way. Examples are: 
 
 Ann. IV. 27. I : Eadem aestate mota per Italiam servilis belli 
 
 semina fors oppressit. Auctor tumultus T. Curtisius ad 
 
 libertatem vocabat agrestia etc. Ann. IV. 43. 15: Et Segestani 
 aedem Veneris montem apud Erycum, vetustate dilapsum, restaurari 
 postulavere, nota memorantes de origine eius et laeta Tiberio. 
 Suscepit curam libens ut consanguineus. Ann. VI. 45. 2: quod 
 damnum Caesar ad gloriam vertit exsolutis domuum et insularum 
 pretiis. Milieus sestertium in munificentia < ea > conlocatam etc. 
 (This case is interesting because of the ea added by Otto. With 
 the similar cases in mind, no necessity for the ea is felt.) Ann. 
 XVI. 23. 6: Sed crimini dabatur amicitia Plauti et ambitio con- 
 ciliandae provinciae ad spes novas. Tempus damnationi delectum, 
 quo Tiridates accipiendo Armeniae regno adventabat etc. H. II. 
 I. 7: Materia sermonibus senium et orbitas principis et intemper- 
 antia civitatis, donee unus eHgatur, multos destinandi. Augebat 
 f amam ipsius Titi ingenium etc. H. III. 12. 3 : Lucilius Bassus 
 classis Ravennatis praefectus ambiguos militum animos, quod 
 magna pars Delmatae Pannoniique erant, quae provinciae Ves- 
 pasiano tenebantur, partibus eius adgregaverat. Nox proditioni 
 electa, ut ceteris ignaris soli in principia defectores coirent. G. 14. 
 13 : nam epulae et quamquam incompti, largi tamen apparatus pro 
 stipendio cedunt. Materia munificentiae per bella et raptus. G. 45. 
 8 : Matrem deum venerantur. Insigne superstitionis f ormas aprorum 
 gestant etc. 
 
 Another group of words occurring frequently in this use 
 is made up of nouns denoting action, of participles used 
 substantively but with strong verbal force, and of gerunds. 
 A great many such examples occur with causa and these will 
 be treated as special cases below. Examples with other con- 
 structions are : 
 
 Ann. II. 31. 7: feralibus iam sibi tenebris duos ictus in viscera 
 derexit. Ad gemitum conlabentis adcurrere liberti, et caede visa 
 
 miles abstitit. Ann. XII. 50. i: Nam Vologeses contrahit 
 
 copias fratremque Tiridatem deducere in regnum parat, ne qua 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 8i 
 
 pars domus sine imperio ageret. Incessu Parthorum sine acie pulsi 
 Hiberi, urbesque Armeniorum Artaxata et Tigranocerta iugum 
 accepere. H. II. 49. 11: luce prima in ferrum pectore incubuit. 
 Ad gemitiim morientis ingressi liberti servique et Plotius Firmus 
 praetorii praefectus unum vulnus invenere. H. 11. 52. 9: Ita trepidi 
 et utrimque anxii coeunt, nemo privatim expedite consilio, inter 
 multos societate culpae tutior. Onerabat paventium curas ordo 
 Mutinensis arma pecuniam ofiferendo etc. H. III. 8. 3 : simul 
 coloniam copiis validam auferre Vitellio in rem famamque vide- 
 batur. Possessa ipso transitu Vicetia ; etc. H. IV. 2. 10 : Nee 
 cunctatus est Vitellius seque et cohortes arbitrio victoris permittere, 
 et miles infelicia arma baud minus ira quam metu abiecit. Longus 
 deditorum ordo saeptus armatis per urbem incessit etc. 
 
 There is one case in which the colorless word res is used 
 in the second sentence standing for the entire fact stated in 
 the first. H. III. 25. 9 : Eo notabilior caedes fuit, quia filius 
 patrem interfecit. Rem nominaque auctore Vipstano Mes- 
 salla tradam. This is more common in English, as, for 
 example in Genesis 21. 11, when God has told Abraham to 
 cast out the bondwoman: "And the thing was very 
 grievous in Abraham's sight, because of his son." Not very 
 different is the use of opus in two sentences in Tacitus : 
 Ann. XII. 57. I : Sed perfecto spectaculo apertum aquarum 
 iter. Incuria operis manifesta fuit, baud satis depressi ad 
 lacus ima vel media. Ann. XIII. 53. 12, following an 
 account of the attempt to continue Drusus' canal at the 
 mouth of the Rhine : Invidit operi Aelius Gracilis Belgicae 
 legatus, deterrendo Veterem etc. The latter is the better 
 case for in the first the operis refers pretty directly to the 
 iter. 
 
 Two special uses should be noted before leaving this type 
 of repetition. They do not form separate subdivisions, for 
 the cases comprising them fall under the groups already 
 noted. The first is the use of a superlative with the word 
 in the second sentence which contains the element of repe- 
 tition, the second the use of causa with this summary word. 
 Examples of the first use are : 
 
82 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 Ann. I. 65. 17: lUi sanguine suo et lubrico paludum lapsantes 
 excussis rectoribus disicere obvios, proterere iacentes. Plurimus 
 circa aqutlas labor, etc. H. IV. 85. i : At Domitianus Mucianusque 
 antequam Alpibus propinquarent, prosperos rerum in Treveris 
 gestarum nuntios accepere. Praecipua victoriae fides dux hostium 
 Valentinus nequaquam abiecto animo, quos spiritus gessisset, vultu 
 ferebat. H. IV. 11. 7: Nee deerat ipse, stipatus armatis domos 
 hortosque permutans, apparatu incessu excubiis vim principis 
 amplecti, nomen remittere. Plurimum terroris intulit caedes Cal- 
 purnii Galeriani. Ann. 11. 47. 5 : Sedisse immensos montes, visa 
 in arduo quae plana fuerint, effulsisse inter ruinam ignes memorant. 
 Asperrima in Sardinios lues plurimum in eosdem misericordiae 
 traxit : etc. 
 
 Examples of the use with causa are : 
 
 Ann. XVI. 15. 2 : Eo missus centurio, qui caedem eius maturaret. 
 
 Causa festinandi ex eo oriebatur quod Ostorius metum Neroni 
 
 fecerat ne invaderet pavidum semper et repenta nuper coniuratione 
 magis exterritum. H. II. 54. 2 : cum repente Coenus libertus 
 Neronis atroci mendacio universes perculit, adfirmans superventu 
 quartae decumae legionis, iunctis a Brixello viribus, caesos victores ; 
 versam partium fortunam. Causa fingendi fuit, ut diplomata 
 Othonis, quae neglegebantur laetiore nuntio revalescerent. H. V. 
 
 23. I : Civilem cupido incessit navalem aciem ostentandi 
 
 Spatium velut aequoris electum quo Mosae fluminis os amnem 
 Rhenum Oceano adfundit. Causa instruendae classis super insitam 
 genti vanitatem, ut eo terrore commeatus Gallia adventantes inter- 
 ciperentur. H. III. 78. i : Dum haec in partibus Vitellii geruntur, 
 digressus Narnia Vespasiani exercitus festos Saturni dies Ocriculi 
 per otium agitabat. Causa tarn pravae morae, ut Mucianum 
 
 opperirentur. H. III. 38. 11: lUe cubiculum imperatoris 
 
 reserat, filium eius sinu complexus et genibus accidens. Causam 
 confusionis quaerenti, non se proprio metu nee sui anxium, sed pro 
 fratre, pro liberis fratris preces lacrimasque attulisse. Ag. 41. i : 
 Crebro per eos dies apud Domitianum absens accusatus, absens 
 absolutus est. Causa periculi non crimen ullum aut querela laesi 
 cuiusquam, sed infensus virtutibus princeps et gloria viri ac, 
 pessimum inimicorum genus, laudantes. 
 
 The cases in which causa is used alone, with a genitive 
 like these understood, will be taken up later in the chapter; 
 they are made clear by comparison with the present 
 examples. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 83 
 
 c. There are more than a hundred instances in Tacitus 
 in which some word in the second sentence repeats only a 
 part of some noun or noun equivalent in the first. In the 
 majority of these the element of repetition is to be found 
 in some word which specifically expresses the partitive idea 
 by its meaning as, for example, pars, quidani or multi. 
 Very frequently these are found in pairs or else in a series, 
 
 like alii alii, or multi plurcs aUi. The same 
 
 repetition of a part of some noun from the first sentence is, 
 however, frequently expressed by a descriptive relative 
 clause, or an adjective or even a noun. The special words 
 used in this way are listed by Kiihner with the copulative 
 conjunctions ; by Lane they are designated as "other words" 
 denoting connection. It is convenient to illustrate them 
 according to the various words used. 
 
 Pars. The easiest word to understand in this usage but 
 one which occurs only three or four times without a partitive 
 genitive which in itself repeats an element of meaning from 
 the preceding sentence, is pars. A few illustrations of its 
 use with a partitive genitive or its equivalent will make all 
 the cases of the present group much clearer. For example, 
 G. 12. 6: Sed et levioribus delictis pro modo poena: 
 equorum pecorumque numero convicti multantur. Pars 
 multae regi vel civitati, pars ipsi qui vindicatur, vel propin- 
 quis eius exsolvitur. The multae is virtually a repetition 
 from multantur but the connection would be scarcely less 
 clear without it. There is a question whether if the multae 
 were omitted the connection would really lie in the meaning 
 of pars or in the understanding of a partitive genitive ; but 
 on the whole the meaning of pars seems to be sufficiently 
 defined and, in itself, incomplete to make the connection. 
 Two further cases are: Ann. II. 15. 3: hos esse Romanes 
 Variani exercitus fugacissimos, qui ne bellum tolerarent, 
 seditionem induerint ; quorum pars onusta vulneribus 
 terga, pars fluctibus et procellis fractos artus infensis rur- 
 sum hostibus, adversis dis obiciant, nulla boni spe. H. II. 
 
84 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 14. 3 : Duas Tungrorum cohortes, quattuor equitum tur- 
 mas, universam Treverorum alam cum lulio Classico 
 praefecto misit, e quibus pars in colonia Foroiuliensi retenta, 
 ne omnibus copiis in terrestre iter versis vacuo mari classis 
 adceleraret. 
 
 From such cases as the foregoing the ones with pars alone 
 are clear: 
 
 Ann. III. 38. 15 : Coelatae Odrusaeque et Dii, validae nationes, 
 arma cepere, ducibus diversis et paribus inter se per ignobilitatem ; 
 quae causa fuit ne in bellum atrox coalescerent. Pars turbant 
 praesentia, alii montem Haemum transgrediuntur, etc. H. III. 
 63. 5 : et circumdatos Primus Antonius clementer adloquitur : pars 
 Narniae, pars Interamnae subsistere iussi. H. IV. 8. 21 : Haec 
 magnis utrimque contentionibus iactata diversis studiis accipieban- 
 tur. Vicit pars, quae sortiri legates malebat, etc. Ann. I. 4. 6: 
 pauci bona libertatis in cassum disserere, plures bellum pavescere. 
 alii cupere. Pars multo maxima inminentis dominos variis 
 sermonibus differebant etc. 
 
 MuLTi. It is true of multi as of pars and of almost all 
 the following words, that they are very often used in an 
 entirely different way from that under discussion. The 
 object in the present paragraph is to show their use in this 
 particular partitive sense. 
 
 Ann. II. 24. 14: Collecti ea cura plerique : multos Ampsivarii 
 nuper in fidem accepti redemptos ab interioribus redidere; quidam 
 in Britanniam rapti et remissi a regulis. Ann. XIII. 35. 11: 
 Retentusque omnis exercitus sub pellibus, quamvis hieme saeva 
 adeo, ut obducta glacie nisi effossa humus tentoriis locum non prae- 
 beret. Ambusti multorum artus vi frigoris et quidam inter excubias 
 exanimati sunt. H. I. 19. 2 : Et patrum favor aderat ; multi, volun- 
 tate, effusius qui noluerant, medii ac plurimi obvio obsequio, privatas 
 spes agitantes sine publica cura. H. II. 82. 5 : Ipse Vespasianus 
 adire, hortari, bonos laude, segnes exemplo incitare saepius quam 
 coercere, vitia magis amicorum quam virtutes dissimulans. Multos 
 praefecturis et procurationibus, plerosque senatorii ordinis honore 
 
 percoluit ; quibusdam fortuna pro virtutibus fuit. H. IV. 
 
 29. 13 : Ubi sonus molientium aut adpositae scalae hostem in manus 
 dederant, propellere umbone, pilo sequi; multos in moenia egressos 
 pugionibus fodere. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 85 
 
 Plures. This word, being a comparative, has a con- 
 necting element which the preceding words have not had, 
 for comparatives are incomplete in meaning by their nature 
 and necessarily have reference to some other word. This 
 also explains why plures must regularly come in some such 
 series as qiiidam plures alii. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. II. 23. I : Sed aestate iam adulta legionum aliae itinera 
 terrestri in hibernacula remissere : plures Caesar classi inpositas 
 per flumen Amisiam Oceano invexit. Ann. IV. 2>2>- 9'- quia pauci 
 prudentia honesta ab deterioribus, utilia ab noxiis discernunt, plures 
 aliorum eventis docentur. Ann. XIV. 51. 2 : concessitque vita 
 Burrus, incertum valetudine an veneno. Valetudo ex eo coniecta- 
 batur, quod in se tumescentibus paulatim faucibus et impedito meatu 
 spiritum finiebat. Plures iussu Neronis, quasi remedium adhibere- 
 tur, inlitum palatum, eius noxio medicamine adseverabant etc. H. I. 
 28. 5 : isque habitus animorum fuit, ut pessimum facinus auderent 
 pauci, plures vellent, omnes paterentur. It is doubtful whether 
 these cases belong in the present category : except for the first, 
 there is much more contrast than repetition of any part of a pre- 
 ceding word, expressed or unexpressed. 
 
 Alius. Only the cases of alius, partitive, are considered 
 here; that is, the cases in which it is correlative with another 
 alius, or with some similar v/ord. The use of alius alone 
 does not come under the head of repetition but rather of 
 words incomplete in their meaning. 
 
 Ann. I. 14. I : Multa patrum et in Augustam adulatio : alii 
 
 parentem, alii matrem patriae appellandam censebant. H. IV. 
 
 17. 26: proinde arriperent vacui occupatos, integri fessos. Dum alii 
 Vespasianum, alii Vitellium foveant, patere locum adversus 
 utrumque. Ann. I. 76. 11 : Cur abstinuerit spectaculo ipse, varie 
 trahebant; ahi taedio coetus, quidam tristitia ingenii et metu con- 
 parationis, quia Augustus comiter interf uisset. Ann. XIV. 8. 2 : Hi 
 molium obiectus, hi proximas scaphas scandere; alii, quantum 
 corpus sinebat, vadere in mare ; quidam manus protendere ; etc. 
 
 Quidam. This is the word most frequently used in 
 this sort of repetition. 
 
 Ann. XV. 38. 20: Postremo, quid vitarent quid peterent ambigui, 
 complere vias, sterni per agros; quidam amissis omnibus for- 
 
86 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 tunis quamvis patente effugio interiere. Ann. IV. 51. i: 
 
 Interea barbari catervis decurrentes nunc in vallum manualia saxa, 
 praeustas sudes, decisa robora, iacere, nunc virgultis et cratibus et 
 corporibus exanimis complere fossas, quidam pontis et scalas ante 
 fabricati inferre propugnaculis, eaque prensare detrahere et 
 adversum resistentia comminus niti. Ann. III. 46. 13 : sed miles 
 correptis securibus et dolabris, ut si murum perrumperet, caedere 
 tegmina et corpora; quidam trudibus aut furcis inertem molem 
 prosternere etc. H. I. 26. 10: Multa erumpentis seditionis indicia 
 per conscios oppressa : quaedam apud Galbae aures praef ectus Laco 
 elusit etc. Ann. III. 69. 8: Multos in provinciis contra, quam spes 
 aut metus de illis f uerit, egisse : exercitari quosdam ad meliora 
 magnitudine rerum, hebescere alios. Ann. II. 83. 17: Pleraque 
 manent : quaedam statim omissa sunt aut vetustas oblitteravit. 
 Ag. 37. 11: lam hostium, prout cuique ingenium erat, catervae 
 armatorum paucioribus terga praestare, quidam inermes ultro ruere 
 ac se morti offerre. G. 2. 12 : Manno tris filios adsignant, e quorum 
 nominibus proximi Oceano Ingaevones, medii Herminones, ceteri 
 Istaevones vocentur. Quidam, ut in licentia vetustatis, pluris dec 
 ortos plurisque gentis appellationes, Marsos Gambrivios Suebos 
 Vandilios adfirmant etc. In nearly all of these examples of quidam 
 the element of contrast is very strong. Especially in the case of 
 Ag. 27- II. the contrast is more prominent than the repetition: 
 catervae emphasizes the large numbers in the groups which run 
 away from a few opponents ; quidam contrasts with this the indi- 
 viduals who plunge to death into the enemies' ranks. 
 
 Plerique. a danger in citing cases of plcrique is the 
 inclusion of those in which it does not repeat any part of 
 what has preceded but begins a new idea aUogether. Most 
 of these latter instances are cases of tradunt plerique and 
 the like. The cases of plerique, repeating some element of 
 meaning, are fairly numerous : 
 
 H. IV. 56. I : Haec dicta pariter probataque : de reliquiis 
 Vitelliani exercitus dubitavere. Plerique interficiendos censebant, 
 turbidos, infectos, sanguine ducum pollutos : etc. H. II. 39. 9: Ibi 
 de proelio dubitatum, Othone per litteras flagitante ut maturarent, 
 militibus ut imperator pugnae adesset poscentibus : plerique copias 
 trans Padum agentes acciri postulabant. After a chapter on the 
 honors given to Germanicus — Ann. II. 83 — comes the following in 
 line 17: Pleraque manent; quaedam statim omissa sunt aut vetustas 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 87 
 
 oblitteravit. H. I. 39. 4: cum alii in Palatium rediret, alii Capi- 
 tolium peteret, plerique rostra occupanda censerent, plures tantiim 
 sententiis aliorum contra dicerent etc. 
 
 Pauci. Examples of panel are : 
 
 H. III. 80. i: Eo sucessu studia populi ducta; vulgus urbanum 
 arma cepit. Paucis scuta militaria, plures raptis quod cuique 
 obvium telis signum pugnae exposcunt. H. IV. 2. 12: Longus 
 deditorum ordo saeptus armatis per urbem incessit, nemo supplici 
 vultu, sed tristes et truces et adversum plausus ac lasciviam insul- 
 tantis vulgi inmobiles. Paucos erumpere ausos circumiecti oppres- 
 sere; etc. Ann. I. 21. i: Horum adventu redintegratur seditio et 
 vagi circumiecta populabantur. Blaesus paucos, maxime praeda 
 onustos, ad terrorem ceterorum adfici verberibus, claudi carcere 
 iubet; etc. 
 
 QuisouE with a superlative furnishes numerous cases 
 of this partitive repetition, singling out a group from some 
 body mentioned in the first sentence. 
 
 Ann. III. 44. I : At Romae non Treveros modo et Aeduos, sed 
 quattuor et sexaginta Galliarum civitates descivisse, adsumptos in 
 societatem Germanos, dubias Hispanias, ut mos famae, in maius 
 credita. Optumus quisque rei publicae cura maerebat etc. H. IV. 
 60. 11: Ad quintum fere lapidem coorti Germani incautum agmen 
 adgrediuntur. Pugnacissimus quisque in vestigio, multi palantes 
 occubuere, etc. H. III. 55. 11 : Sed vulgus ad magnitudinem bene- 
 ficiorum aderat, stultissimus quisque pecuniis mercabatur, apud 
 sapientes cassa habebantur, quae neque dari neque accipi salva re 
 publica poterant. 
 
 The Demonstrative Pronouns may be used in the same 
 way. 
 
 Ann. XIV. 8. i : Interim vulgato Agrippinae periculo, quasi casu 
 evenisset, ut quisque acceperat, decurrere ad litus. Hi molium 
 obiectus, hi proximas scaphas scandere; etc. Ann. I. 9. 8: At 
 apud prudentes vita eius varie extollebatur arguebaturve. Hi 
 pietate erga parentem ad arma civilia actum etc. 
 
 A Descriptive Relative Clause sometimes stands for a 
 noun repeating part of another noun or noun equivalent in 
 
88 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 the first sentence. This is not an altogether good division of 
 the present section, for there is ahiiost always some other 
 element of connection, but there are a few good cases. 
 
 H. II. 46. 6: Neque erat adulatio: ire in aciem, excitare partium 
 fortunam furore quodam et instinctu flagrabant. Qui procul 
 adstiterant, tendere manus, et proximi prensare genua, promptissimo 
 Plotio Firmo. Ann. II. 20. 3 : Seio Tuberoni legato tradit equitem 
 campumque ; peditum aciem ita instruxit ut pars aequo in silvam 
 aditu incederet, pars obiectum aggerem eniteretur; quod arduum 
 sibi, cetera legatis permisit. Quibus plana evenerant, facile 
 inrupere, quis inpugnandus agger, ut si murum succederent, gravi- 
 bus superne ictibus conflictabantur. (The use of words in the 
 second sentence actually or virtually repeating others from the first 
 is a prominent factor in expressing the connection in this case.) 
 H. III. I. 3: Illic agitavere, placeretne obstrui Pannoniae Alpes, 
 donee a tergo vires universae consurgerent, an ire comminus et 
 certare pro Italia constantius foret. Quibus opperiri auxilia et 
 trahere bellum videbatur, Germanicarum legionum vim famamque 
 extollebant, etc. (In this case again an element of meaning from 
 the first sentence is virtually repeated in a word — opperire — of the 
 second.) 
 
 With these cases of descriptive relative clauses belong the 
 cases in which sunt qui and similar phrases are used to 
 denote a division of some group already mentioned or 
 implied. These cases are rare because it is usually contrast 
 that is expressed in such phrases and not repetition. The 
 following, however, illustrate the usage: 
 
 Ann. I. 35. 10 : neu mortem in isdem laboribus, sed finem tarn 
 exercitae militiae neque inopem requiem orabant. Fuere etiam 
 qui legatam a divo Augusto pecuniam reposcerent etc. Ag. 26. 12 : 
 Atque ita circumvecti Britanniam, amissis per inscitiam regendi 
 navibus, pro praedonibus habiti, primum a Suebis, mox a Frisiis 
 intercepti sunt. Ac fuere quos per commercia venumdatos et in 
 nostram usque ripam mutatione ementium adductos indicium tanti 
 casus inlustravit. 
 
 An Adjective, usually but not necessarily in the compar- 
 ative or superlative, may single out a part of some group 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 89 
 
 indicated in the first sentence, in precisely the same way as 
 the relative clause. 
 
 H. IV. 67. i: Interea lulius Sabinus turbam in Sequanos 
 
 rapit, conterminam civitatem et nobis fidam; nee Sequani detracta- 
 vere certamen. Fortuna melioribus adfuit: fusi Lingones. H. IV. 
 35. 2: Inpedimenta legionum cum inbelli turba Novaesium missa, 
 ut inde terrestri itinere frumentum adveherent; nam flumine hostes 
 potiebantur. Primum agmen securum incessit, nondum satis firmo 
 Civile. H. III. 16. 12 : Pavidus interim Varus turbae suorum 
 miscetur intulitque formidinem. Pulsi cum sauciis integri suomet 
 ipsi metu et angustiis viarum conflictabantur. G. 43. 10: Ex quibus 
 latissime patet Lugiorum nomen in plures civitates diflfusum. 
 Valentissimas nominasse sufficiet, Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, 
 Elisios, Nahanarvalos. 
 
 Finally, there are a few cases in which the repetition of 
 a part of some noun or noun equivalent is accomplished in 
 A SIMPLE NOUN. This is a rare usage, for nouns that repeat 
 at all, usually either actually or virtually repeat an entire 
 element of meaning. 
 
 Ann. IV. 73. 14: Cethego Labeoni legato quintae legionis quod 
 reliquum auxiliorum tradit. Atque ille dubia suorum re in anceps 
 tractus missis nuntiis vim legionum inplorabat. Prorumpunt quin- 
 tani ante alios et acri pugna hoste pulso recipiunt cohortis alasque 
 fessas vulneribus. H. II. 69. i : Postero die Vitellius senatus 
 legatione, quam ibi opperiri iusserat, audita transgressus in castra 
 ultro pietatem militum conlaudavit, frementibus auxiliis tantum 
 impunitatis atque adrogantiae legionariis accessisse. Batavorum 
 cohortes, ne quid truculentius auderent, in Germaniam remissae, 
 principium interno simul externoque bello parantibus fatis. Reddita 
 civitatibus Gallorum auxilia etc. 
 
 4. There remains for consideration, under the general 
 head of connection by repetition, a considerable number of 
 cases in which the word containing the element of repetition 
 is not expressed but clearly implied by something in the 
 meaning of the second sentence. The fact that the repe- 
 tition is understood rather than expressed would bar these 
 cases from the present chapter if it were not true that 
 
9© Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 there is always something incomplete in the meaning of 
 some word in the second sentence which clearly points 
 to the implied repetition. A transitive verb rouses the 
 expectation of an object to follow. If this object is not 
 expressed, experience teaches us to supply the vacancy by 
 understanding a noun fresh in our minds from the preced- 
 ing sentence. The word causa, when it means "reason," 
 is by itself incomplete ; it cannot be used without implying 
 a genitive or its equivalent to define the meaning. Some of 
 the more obvious forms of implied repetition have been 
 cited for the sake of comparison in the discussion of rela- 
 tives and demonstratives, and, in the last section, it was 
 shown that the use of pars, or quidam or any words express- 
 ing repetition of some part of a preceding element of 
 meaning, to a certain extent implied the genitive of the 
 whole understood with the pars or other word. Those cases 
 were therefore border line cases between the two categories. 
 The cases in the present section are arranged for conveni- 
 ence according to the part of speech that is understood and, 
 in the case of nouns or their equivalents, according to the 
 case understood. 
 
 The instances in which the verb of a sentence is under- 
 stood from the preceding sentence are rare, but they are also 
 very easy to understand. We require a verb to make a 
 sentence ; if there is none expressed we of necessity supply 
 one and the one most natural to supply is the one still in our 
 mind from the preceding sentence. For example, Ann. I. 
 74. 19: Igitur Cn. Piso "quo" inquit "loco censebis, 
 Caesar? Si primus, habebo quod sequar." The second 
 sentence is grammatically incomplete, but as far as the 
 thought is concerned it is perfectly clear, for censebis is as 
 readily understood after primus as though it were expressed. 
 Further examples are : 
 
 Ann. II. 40. 13 : Percontanti Tiberio, quo modo Agrippa f actus 
 esset, respondisse fertur "quo modo tu Caesar." (The respondisse 
 anticipates the connection and the case has already been cited on 
 
Connection. Expressed in the Second Clause. 91 
 
 that account; furthermore the repetition of quo modo is in itself 
 a means of connection. But quo modo is incomplete and clearly 
 implies a repeated verb.) Ann. XVI. 31. 7: Sic gemmas et vestes 
 et dignitatis insignia dedi, quo modo si sanguinem et vitam poposcis- 
 sent. (This case is similar to the last in the incompleteness of 
 quo modo, which here implies dedissem.) H. I. 29. 10: Sextus dies 
 agitur, commilitones, ex quo ignarus futuri, et sive optandum hoc 
 nomen sive timendum erat, Caesar adscitus sim, quo domus nostrae 
 aut rei publicae fato, in vestra manu positum est, etc. (Spooner 
 begins a new sentence with the second quo. Whether this is done 
 or not, the expression quo fato is incomplete and adscitus sim under- 
 stood is a strong element of connection.) H. I. 84. 5: quid aliud 
 quam seditionem et discordiam optabunt? Ne miles centurioni, ne 
 centurio tribuno obsequatur, hinc confusi pedites equitesque in 
 exitium ruamus. Ag. 30. 18: si locuples hostis est, avari, si pauper, 
 ambitiosi etc. G. 19. 11 : Sic unum accipiunt maritum quo modo 
 unum corpus unamque vitam etc. (In this case also, the actual 
 repetition of a word is one means of expressing the connection.) 
 
 When, instead of a verb, a substantive is omitted, it is 
 still as a rule the incompleteness of the second sentence 
 which makes it clear that there is repetition understood ; 
 this is often, however, far less obvious than in the case of 
 the implied verb form. The connection, in cases in which 
 the genitive of a noun is understood, is very simple to under- 
 stand but the element of incompleteness is not always easy 
 to locate. For instance, the cases of an omitted possessive 
 genitive are very clear as far as the relation of sentences is 
 concerned, but the incompleteness of the second sentence is 
 difficult to analyze. H. II. 16. 18, furnishes an example 
 of this : et auxilii inops balneis interficitur ; trucidati et 
 comites. Capita ut hostium ipsi interfectores ad Othonem 
 tulere ; etc. That eorum or some equivalent is understood 
 with capita is evident; just why it is so, is not so clear. 
 Probably the incompleteness is due to the fact that there is 
 no pertinence in the mention of heads except as the heads 
 of these particular people under discussion are meant and 
 therefore the possessive genitive is implied. The part pos- 
 sessed usually has first position in the second sentence and 
 
92 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 the cases are not unlike those in which the repetition of 
 some part of a previously expressed whole is used to make 
 clear the connection. Cases in which parts of the body or 
 such parts of a man as his voice or mind are mentioned in 
 the second sentence after mention of the man in the first, 
 are especially clear. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. XL 38. i : Tunc primum fortunam suam introspexit fer- 
 rumque accepit, quod frustra iugulo aut pectori per trepidationem 
 admovens ictu tribuni transigitur. Corpus matri concessum. H. 
 III. 65. II : Saepe domi congressi, postremo in aede ApoUinis, ut 
 fama fuit, pepigere. Verba vocesque duos testes habebant etc. 
 H. III. 3S. 10: Quidam obvia aspernati verberibus tormentisque 
 dominorum abdita scrutari, def ossa eruere : faces in manibus, 
 quas, ubi praedam egesserant, in vacuas domos et inania templa per 
 lasciviam iaculabantur, etc. Ag. 44. 3 : Quod si habitum quoque 
 eius posted noscere velint, decentior quam sublimior fuit; nihil 
 metus in vultu, gratia oris supererat. 
 
 This is easily extended to the mention of a man's relatives 
 or property, first with such concrete words as filius, frater, 
 bona or libri and including such abstracts as inventus or 
 militia. 
 
 Ann. XII. 18. I : Interea Mithridates nuUo in armis subsidio con- 
 sultat, cuius misericordiam experiretur. Frater Cotys, proditor 
 olim, deinde hostis, metuebatur etc. H. III. 67. 6: XV Kalendas 
 
 lanuarias Palatio degreditur, maesta circum familia; ferebatur 
 
 lecticula parvulus filius velut in funebrem pompam: etc. Ann. XL 
 31. 9: Accusatio tamen apud patres adseveratione eadem peracta, 
 iuravitque Tiberius petiturum se [sc. fuisse] vitam quamvis nocenti, 
 nisi voluntariam mortem properavisset. Bona inter accusatores 
 dividuntur, etc. Ann. IV. 35. ii : Egressus dein senatu vitam 
 abstinentia finivit. Libros per aediles cremandos censuere patres: 
 sed manserunt, occultati et editi. Ann. II. 42. 17: finem vitae sponte 
 an fato implevit. Regnum in provinciam redactum est etc. Ann. 
 XL 27- 10: prorumpit Narcissus denuntiatque centurionibus et 
 tribuno, qui aderat, exsequi caedem : ita imperatorem iubere. 
 Gustos et exactor e libertis Euodus datur. G. 30. i : Ultra hos 
 Ghatti : initium sedis ab Hercynio saltu incohatur etc. 
 
 Often, doubtless, it was a dative instead of a genitive of 
 possession that was understood, as the two following 
 
UNIVEFJSJTY 
 
 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 93 
 
 examples indicate : H. I. 48. 5 : Titus Vinius quinquaginta 
 septem annos variis moribtis egit. Pater illi praetoria 
 familia, maternus aviis e proscriptis. Prima militia infamis 
 etc. H. II. 50. I : Origo illi e municipio Ferentino, pater 
 consularis, avus praetorius ; maternum genus inpar nee 
 tamen indecorum. Pueritia ac iuventa, qualem mon- 
 stravimus. 
 
 More nearly akin to those cases in which a part of some 
 element of meaning in the first sentence is repeated in the 
 second, or those in which a word of related meaning virtu- 
 ally makes repetition, are cases in which, for instance, a 
 tree is mentioned in the first sentence, its branches in the 
 second, a man's death in the first, his will in the second, 
 troops in the first, their leader in the second, or a city in 
 the first, its walls in the second. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. XV. 59. 21 : Obiit abruptis brachiorum venis. Testamentum 
 foedis adversus Neronem adulationibus amori uxoris dedit, etc. 
 H. V. 22. 10 : Romani vulneribus exciti quaerunt arma, ruunt per 
 vias, pauci ornatu militari, plerique circum brachia torta veste et 
 strictis mucronibus. Dux semisomnus ac prope intectus errore 
 hostium servatur : namque praetoriam navem vexillo insignem, 
 
 illic ducem rati, abripiunt. H. V. 6. 13: Lacus neque vento 
 
 inpellitur neque pisces aut suetas aquis volucres patitur. Inertes 
 undae superiecta ut solido f erunt ; etc. H. II. 19. 10 : ceteros 
 Placentiam reduxit minus turbidos et imperia accipientes. Solidati 
 muri, propugnacula addita, auctae turres etc. 
 
 Two cases imply an objective genitive repeated from 
 some word in the first sentence: Ann. IV. 3. 13: Atque 
 
 ilia seque ac maiores et posteros municipali adultero 
 
 foedabat, ut pro honestis et praesentibus flagitiosa et incerta 
 exspectaret. Sumitur in conscientiam Eudemus amicus ac 
 medicus Liviae, specie artis frequens secretis. H. IV. 65. 
 19 : sed coram adire adloquique Velaedam negatum : 
 arcebantur adspectu, quo venerationis plus inesset. 
 
 There are some words which, as has already been noted, 
 from their incomplete meaning imply a genitive of refer- 
 
94 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 ence. Most familiar are the cases of causa. The use of 
 causa with a summary noun — causa fingendi, causa con- 
 fusionis etc., and with a relative or demonstrative, has 
 already been illustrated. These make the cases of causa 
 alone comparatively easy to understand, but the use is infre- 
 quent. The following are all the examples : 
 
 Ann. I. 7. 17 : Literas ad exercitus tamquam adepto principatu 
 misit, nusquam cunctabundus nisi cum in senatu loqueretur. Causa 
 
 praecipua ex formidine, ne Germanicus habere imperium quam 
 
 exspectare mallet. Ann. VI. 49. i : Isdem diebus Sex. Papinius 
 consulari familia repentinum et informem exitium delegit, iacto in 
 praeceps corpore. Causa ad matrem referebatur. Ann. IV. 1.3: 
 Cum repente turbare fortuna coepit, saevire ipse aut saevientibus 
 vires praebere. Initium et causa penes Aelium Seianum etc. Ann. 
 I. 80. 2 : Id quoque morum Tiberii f uit, contionare imperia ac 
 plerosque ad finem vitae in isdem exercitibus aut iurisdictionibus 
 habere. Causae variae traduntur : etc. Ann. XV. ^6. i : Nee multo 
 post omissa in praesens Achaia (causae in incerto fuere) urbem 
 revisit, provincias Orientis, maxime Aegyptum, secretis imagina- 
 tionibus agitans. 
 
 A number of other words are used similarly : 
 
 Ann. XV. 38. i: Sequitur clades omnibus, quae huic urbi 
 
 per violentiam ignium acciderunt, gravior atque atrocior. Initium 
 in ea parte circi ortum, quae Palatino Caelioque montibus contigua 
 est etc. H. V. 2. 3 : ludaeos Creta insula profugos novissima 
 Libyae insedisse memorant, qua tempestate Saturnus vi lovis pulsus 
 cesserit regnis. Argumentum e nomine petitur: etc. Ann. I. 58. 
 10 : ut me et Arminium et conscios vinciret flagitavi : testis ilia nox, 
 mihi utinam potius novissima ! D. 13. 4 : malo securum et quietum 
 Virgilii secessum, in quo tamen neque apud divum Augustum gratia 
 caruit neque apud populum Romanum notitia. Testes Augusti 
 epistulae, testis ipse populus, etc. D. 32. 2;^ : Ergo banc primam et 
 praecipuam causam arbitror, cur in tantum ab eloquentia antiquorum 
 oratorum recesserimus. Si testes desiderantur, quos potiores 
 nominabo quam apud Graecos Demosthenen etc. H. III. 72. 17: 
 Isdem rursus vestigiis situm est, postquam interiecto quadringen- 
 torum quindecim annorum spatio L. Scipione C. Norbano consuli- 
 bus flagraverat. Curam victor Sulla suscepit, neque tamen dedi- 
 cavit: hoc solum felicitati eius negatum. Ann. XIII. i. 10: Haec 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 95 
 
 causa necis. Ministri fuere P. Celer eques Romanus et Helius 
 libertus, rei familiari principis in Asia impositi. H. III. 78. 15, 
 after various accounts of the delay of Vespasian's forces : Haud 
 facile quis uni adsignaverit culpam, quae omnium fuit. Ann. XV. 
 63. 9 : "Vitae" inquit "delenimenta monstraveram tibi, tu mortis 
 decus mavis : non invideo exemplo. 
 
 When a noun in the accusative is understood in the second 
 sentence it is either the direct object of the verb or one of 
 the two objects of a verb regularly followed by two accusa- 
 tives. In these cases the incompleteness in the sense, if the 
 implied word is not assumed, is again altogether evident, for 
 a transitive verb at once leads to the anticipation of its 
 object. Examples are: 
 
 Ann. II. 53. 10 : Hinc ventum Athenas, foederique sociae et 
 vetustae urbis datum, ut uno lictore uteretur. Excepere Graeci 
 
 quaesitissimis honoribus. H. III. 84. 20: Dein in Palatium 
 
 regreditur vastum desertumque, dilapsis etiam infirmis servitiorum 
 aut occursum eius declinantibus. Terret solitudo et tacentes loci; 
 etc. H. I. 60. II : Quies provinciae quamquam remoto consulari 
 mansit : rexere legati legionum, pares iure, Caelius audendo 
 potentior. H. IV. 43. 7 : "Imus" inquit "Prisce, et relinquimus 
 tibi senatum tuum : regna praesente Caesare." G. 32. 7 : Inter 
 f amiliam et penates et iura successionum equi traduntur : excipit 
 filius, non ut cetera, maximus natu, sed prout ferox bello et melior. 
 G. 40. 16 : Mox vehiculum et vestes et, si credere velis, numen ipsum 
 secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant quos statim idem lacus 
 haurit. Ann. XV. 2. 6 : Videbarque contra Vetera f ratrum odia 
 et certamina familiae nostrae penates rite composuisse. Prohibent 
 Romani et pacem numquam ipsis prospere lacessitam nunc quoque 
 in exitium suum abrumpunt. Ann. IV. 34. i : Cremulatus Cordus 
 postulatur, novo ac tunc primum audito crimine, quod editis annali- 
 bus laudatoque M. Bruto C. Cassium Romanorum ultimum dixisset. 
 Accusabant Satrius Secundus et Penarius Natta, Seiani clientes. 
 H. IV. 27. I : Forte navem haud procul castris, frumento gravem, 
 cum per vada haesisset, Germani in suam ripam trahebant. Non 
 tulit Gallus misitque subsidio cohortem etc. Ann. III. 43. 9: 
 Adduntur e servitiis gladiaturae destinati, quibus more gentico 
 continuum f erri tegimen : cruppellarios vocant, inferendis ictibus 
 inhabiles, accipiendis inpenetrabiles. H. III. 47. 14: quin et barbari 
 contemptim vagabantur, fabricatis repente navibus. Camaras 
 
96 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 vocant artis lateribus latam alvum sine vinculo aeris aut ferri 
 connexam ; etc. 
 
 When a noun in the dative is understood in the second 
 sentence, it is regularly the indirect object of the verb, 
 except in the cases already pointed out under the genitive 
 in w^hich a dative of reference or possession may be under- 
 stood. The incompleteness of the second sentence without 
 the implied word is once more quite obvious. 
 
 Ann. VI. 33. S : Quae postquam Artabano cognita, filium Oroden 
 ultorem parat ; dat Parthorum copias etc. H. II. 9. i : Galatiam ac 
 Pamphyliam provincias Calpurnio Asprenati regendas Galba per- 
 miserat. Datae e classe Misenensi duae triremes etc. Ann XII. 
 48. 2 : vocat consilium, docet acta et an ulcisceretur consultat. 
 H. II. 39. 6: miles alacer, qui tamen iussa ducum interpretari quam 
 exsequi mallet. Promoveri ad quartum a Bedriaco castra placuit 
 etc. H. IV. 69. 11: Nondum victoria, iam discordia erat, aliis 
 foedera, quibusdam opes viresque aut vetustatem originis per 
 iurgia iactantibus : taedio futurorum praesentia placuere. 
 
 To complete the collection of cases in which repetition is 
 implied in the second sentence, there should be included 
 examples of the assumption of the subject in the second 
 sentence. This is naturally very frequent in Latin because 
 of the fact that the person is expressed in the ending- of the 
 verb, so that the subject cannot be said to be entirely unex- 
 pressed when it is not actually repeated in noun form. But, 
 by whatever means it is either repeated or suggested, when- 
 ever the subject of two consecutive sentences is the same, 
 there is virtually a case of repetition. "Repetition by means 
 of the verb form" might be a better description of the 
 usage : whatever the name, the element of connection is 
 practically the same as in the preceding cases. Examples 
 of this type of connection, though very numerous indeed, 
 are not altogether satisfactory, because, as a rule, there are 
 other means which contribute materially to the expression 
 of connection, such as the rapidity of the narrative or the 
 summary or inventory nature of the paragraph. The fol- 
 lowing, however, will illustrate the type : 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 97 
 
 Ann. II. 82. 14: Forte negotiatores, vivente adhuc Germanico 
 Suria egressi, laetiora de valetudine eius attulere. Statim credita, 
 
 statim vulgata sunt : etc. Ann. I. 29. i : Drusus incursat 
 
 priora, probat praesentia; negat se terrore et minis vinci etc. Ann. 
 XII. 47. 15: secutaque cum parvis liberis coniunx cuncta lamenta- 
 tione complebat. Diversis et contectis vehiculis abduntur, dum 
 Pharasmanis iussa exquirerentur. H. I. 69. i : Haud facile dictu 
 est, legati Helvetiorum minus placabilem imperatorem an militem 
 invenerint. Civitatis excidium poscunt, tela ac manus in ora 
 legatorum intentant. H. IV. 55. 15 : Sed plurima vis penes 
 Treveros ac Lingonas, nee tulere moras consultandi. Certatim 
 proclamant furere discordiis populum Romanum etc. 
 
 B. 
 
 There has been frequent mention throughout the pre- 
 ceding- sections of connection by means of contrast. In 
 very many cases already cited as examples of other types of 
 sentence connection, it has been noted that the element of 
 contrast was present and aided materially in expressing the 
 relation between consecutive sentences. Kiihner remarks 
 on this use of contrast, but he considers it a purely rhetorical 
 device and tries to show in each case what conjunction is 
 "omitted." It is impossible in the present paper to go into 
 the historical side of the question, and it has already been 
 clearly stated that Tacitus is always rhetorical. At the 
 same time, for the rhetorical efifects at which he aimed, 
 he necessarily used means already familiar in the language. 
 It is therefore reasonable to suppose that connection by con- 
 trast, which is used continually by Tacitus, sometimes sup- 
 ported by further means, sometimes without them, was not 
 a device confined to rhetorical use but a regularly employed 
 means of sentence connection. It is probably much nearer 
 the truth to say that this method is often employed to 
 express the same connection expressed at other times by 
 an adversative conjunction, than to say that when contrast 
 alone is employed, an adversative conjunction is omitted. 
 
 In order that there may be contrast between two words, 
 there must be some association between them. Either they 
 
98 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 must be words which, because of their meaning, belong to 
 some common category, or else their use in the particular 
 context in which they occur must be such as to give them 
 some temporary association. In every case the context 
 will have some influence in making the contrast. The 
 closest approach to words contrasted purely by their mean- 
 ing, aside from any influence of their context, is found in 
 adjectives, especially those positive and negative adjectives 
 formed on the same stem, such as aeqims and iniquus or 
 constans and inconstans. Practically this goes farther: 
 adjectives in the same category, as, for instance, those 
 expressing colour, may be essentially pure contrasts. 
 Such are albiis and niger, or in other categories, plenus and 
 inanis, vetus and novus. Common usage has given to cer- 
 tain other words an almost essential contrast, though origi- 
 nally they had none. Senatus and populiis are of this type. 
 Finally, comparatives and some special words like alius 
 imply by their meaning a certain degree of contrast. The 
 other extreme is to be found in words which, taken by 
 themselves, would suggest no contrast whatever, but to 
 which the context alone adds this element. Such are 
 proper names and innumerable verbs. Between these two 
 extremes there are many cases of words which have in their 
 meaning a certain suggestion of contrast, which, however, is 
 only made evident by the context. Such a contrast has 
 already been cited from Ag. 37. 11: lam hostium, prout 
 cuique ingenium, catervae armatorum paucioribus terga 
 praestare, quidam inermes ultro ruere ac se morti oflferre. 
 There is an element of contrast in catervae and quidam, 
 groups and individuals, but it requires the context to bring 
 this out. 
 
 As a general rule, the contrasted word in the second sen- 
 tence is the first word and very often the rest of the sentence 
 reinforces the contrast. This is naturally more necessary 
 w^hen the contrast is due largely to the context but it is very 
 often the case even in instances of obviously contrasted 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 99 
 
 words. Sometimes the contrast is much more marked in the 
 later parts of the sentence than in the first contrasted word, 
 but, as has already been noted, it is the first element of con- 
 nection which reaches the mind, that suggests the relation 
 of the sentences : the rest reinforce or define the connection. 
 Except for the frequently prominent position of the con- 
 trasted word in the first sentence, either at the beginning of 
 the sentence, or else deliberately displaced from its natural 
 position in order to point the contrast, there is no element 
 of anticipation in the cases of connection by contrast. 
 
 Before taking up the cases in which contrast is the prin- 
 cipal means of expressing the sentence connection, those 
 already discussed, in which contrast was an important fac- 
 tor, should be noted again. Especially in many of the cases 
 of anticipatory connection, contrast is prominent, confirming 
 the connection which was anticipated in the first sentence. 
 In those cases in which licet, sane, the hypothetical impera- 
 tive and (ceterus) appeared in the first sentence, it was the 
 strong contrast, pointed by these particular words or forms, 
 and denoting an exception to some general rule or to some 
 expected line of action, that gave to these sentences their 
 concessive force. In the large group of anticipatory con- 
 nections which follow these special cases (namely, those in 
 which the first clause is negative, the second aflirmative) the 
 underlying connection is that of contrast ; contrast between 
 negative and affirmative, between what is not and what is 
 true. These cases fall under the head of anticipatory con- 
 nection because the statement in the negative, at least after 
 familiarity with the type has been acquired, leads to the 
 expectation of the positive statement to follow, but it is 
 equally true that contrast is the underlying connection. 
 Finally, of the anticipatory connections, the correlatives owe 
 their connective force largely to contrast, marked by the use 
 of special words and anticipatory because those special 
 words fall in pairs so that the use of the first member of a 
 pair leads to the expectation of the second. 
 
loo Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 Contrast will also be found to be prominent in some of the 
 types of connection still to be studied. Cases in which the 
 incompleteness in the meaning of some w^ord in the second 
 sentence makes the connection, frequently depend for their 
 connective force, to a considerable degree, on the element of 
 contrast : this is especially true of the cases of comparatives, 
 of alius, oi (ceterus) and of reliquus. The connections made 
 by adverbs often show very strong contrast. Of the cases 
 of connection expressed in the first sentence with a promi- 
 nent element of contrast, sufficient cases have been given 
 and the presence of the contrast has been pointed out. 
 Examples of the other types in which contrast is a contrib- 
 uting element will be included in the present section. 
 
 I, The most obvious type of contrast, theoretically, but 
 a very rare one, practically, is that in which the contrast is 
 essential in the meanings of two words used, each in one of 
 two consecutive sentences. As stated above, this is strictly 
 confined to positive and negative adjectives formed on the 
 same stem. But there are no cases of these in Tacitus and, 
 practically, it is not so confined, so that I have included 
 numerous adjectives and nouns which to all intents and 
 purposes are essentially contrasted by their meanings. 
 
 Ann. I. 28. 21: Tarda sunt quae in commune expostulantur : 
 privatam gratiam statim mereare, statim recipias. Ann. IV. 36. 12: 
 Nam ut quis destrictior accusator, velut sacrosanctus erat: leves, 
 ignobiles poenis adficiebantur. Ann. I. 67. 8: Quae domi cara, 
 quae in castris honesta, memorat; reticuit de adversis. Ann. XV. 
 48. 10: sed procul gravitas morum aut voluptatum parsimonia; 
 levitati ac magnificentiae et aliquando luxu indulgebat. H. I. 15. 
 19 : Fortunam adhuc tantum adversam tulisti : secundae res acriori- 
 bus stimulis animos explorant, quia miseriae tolerantur, felicitate 
 corrumpimur. H. I. 88. 15: Sapientibus quietis et rei publicae cura; 
 levissimus quisque et futuri improvidus spe vana tumens, etc. 
 H. III. 21. 8: cui iuncta a laevo septima Galbiana patenti campo 
 stetit, dein septima Claudiana, agresti fossa (ita locus erat) prae- 
 munita; dextro octava per apertum limitem, mox tertia densis 
 arbustis intersaepta. H. IV. 24. 9: Aperta odia armaque palam 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. loi 
 
 depelH : f raudem et dolum obscura eoque inevitabilia. Ag. 19. 8 ; 
 Omnia scire, non omnia exsequi. Parvis peccatis veniam, magnis 
 severitatem commodare etc. Ag. 34. 6 : Quo modo silvas saltusque 
 penetrantibus fortissimum quodque animal contra ruere, pavida et 
 inertia ipso agminis sono pellebantur, sic acerrimi Britannorum iam 
 pridem ceciderunt, reliquus est numerus ignavorum et metuentium. 
 G. II. i: De minoribus rebus principes consultant, de maioribus 
 omnes, etc. G. 32. 5 : Sic instituere maiores : posteri imitantur. 
 
 2. At the opposite extreme, from the standpoint of con- 
 trast in the meaning of the words, are those cases in which 
 these words owe all their element of contrast to the context ; 
 the cases in which words are used which by themselves 
 would never be thought of as contrasts at all. The nature 
 of the connection is marked by the usual position of the con- 
 trasted word, namely first in the second clause, and by the 
 frequent arrangement of the two clauses in parallel or 
 chiastic order. A good example is furnished by Ann. 1. 
 74. 22 : patiens tulit absolvi reum criminibus maiestatis : 
 de pecuniis repetundis ad reciperatores itum est. Without 
 the context, the two charges, treason and extortion, would 
 be thought of as similar terms from a common category, 
 but not as contrasted with one another. But the context 
 leaves no doubt of their contrast, which is reinforced by the 
 juxtaposition of the two words and the slight contrast in 
 the verbs. Further examples are : 
 
 Ann. I. 58. 17: Pro iuventa et errore filii veniam precor: filiam 
 necessitate hue adductam fateor. Ann. VI. 28. 5 : Sacrum Soli id 
 animal et ore ac distinctu pinnarum a ceteris avibus diversum con- 
 sentiunt qui f ormam eius effinxere : de numero annorum varia tra- 
 duntur. Ann. XV. 16. 16: Decesserat certamen virtutis et ambitio 
 gloriae, f elicium hominum adfectus : sola misericordia valebat, et 
 apud minores magis. H. I. i. 10: Sed ambitionem scriptoris facile 
 averseris, obtrectatio et livor pronis auribus accipiuntur; etc. H. I. 
 30. 5 : Falluntur quibus luxuria specie liberalitatis inponit : perdere 
 iste sciet, donare nesciet. H. III. 38. 17: Frustra Vespasianum 
 
 timeri, quern tot Germanicae legiones tantum denique terrarum 
 
 ac maris inmensis spatiis arceat : in urbe ac sinu cavendum hostem, 
 
I02 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 etc. H. IV. 17. 24: Libertatem natura etiam mutis animalibus 
 datam, virtutem proprium hominum bonum ; etc. H. V. 9. 3 : Muri 
 Hierosolymorum diruti, delubrum mansit. Ag. 6. 15 : Idem prae- 
 turae tenor et silentium; nee enim iurisdictio obvenerat; ludos et 
 inania honoris medio rationis atque abundantiae duxit, uti longe a 
 luxuria, ita famae propior. Ag. 12. 2: Honestior auriga, clientes 
 propugnant. Ag. 12. 21 : nam in Rubro mari viva ac spirantia saxis 
 avelli, in Britannia, prout expulsa sint, colligi; etc. Ag. 18. 19: 
 Sed ut in subitis consiliis naves deerant: ratio et constantia ducis 
 transvexit. Ag. 44. 11: Opibus nimiis non gaudebat, speciosae 
 contigerant. G. 12. 5: Diversitas supplicii illuc respicit, tamquam 
 scelera ostendi oporteat, dum puniuntur, flagitia abscondi. 
 
 3. Between the two extreme types of contrast illustrated 
 in the last two paragraphs, there are many cases in which it 
 is impossible to say which is the predominant element in 
 suggesting contrast, the meaning of the words in their com- 
 mon use, or the context: both contribute. In these cases, 
 as in nearly all of those in which contrast is the connecting 
 element, the word in the second sentence which expresses 
 the contrast is regularly the first word, and very frequently 
 the word with which it is contrasted is the last in the preced- 
 ing sentence. Ann. I. i. i furnishes a typical example: 
 Urbem Romam a principio reges habuere; libertatem et 
 consulatum L. Brutus instituit. Reges and libertatem et 
 consulatum are not essentially contrasts any more than filiiis 
 and filia, but they probably were, to the Roman mind, in 
 pretty sharp contrast, so that there is a question whether 
 meaning or context establishes the contrast. Further exam- 
 ples are : 
 
 Ann. I. 3. 24: Bellum ea tempestate nullum nisi adversus Ger- 
 
 manos supererat Domi res tranquillae etc. Ann. I. 53. 19: 
 
 cervicemque percussoribus obtulit, constantia mortis haud indignus 
 Sempronio nomine: vita degeneraverat. Ann. I. 72. 11: facta 
 arguebantur, dicta impune erant. Ann. II. 38. 4: singuli numquam 
 exsatiabuntur, res publica deficiet. Ann. XIII. 56. 18: quod 
 iuventutis erat caeduntur, inbellis aetas in praedam divisa est. 
 (Compare Ann. I. 56. 10, for the same contrast.) Ann. XV. 31. 7: 
 apud quos vis imperii valet, inania tramittuntur. (Compare the 
 
Connection Expressed in tJie Second Clause. 103 
 
 contrast of vis and nomen in H. IV. 11. 9, and IV. 39. 7). H. I. 
 16. g: Nam generari et nasci e principibus fortuitum, nee ultra 
 aestimatur: adoptandi iudicium integrum, et si velis eligere, con- 
 sensu monstratur. H. II. 3. 10: Sanguinem arae obfundere 
 vetitum; precibus et igne puro altaria adolentur, etc. H. III. 60. 
 10: Initia bellorum civilium fortunae permittenda: victoriam con- 
 siliis et ratione perfici. H. III. 69. 10 : Sed quod in eius modi 
 rebus accidit, consilium ab omnibus datum est, periculum pauci 
 sumpsere. H. III. 23. 9: Statim confossi sunt eoque intercidere 
 nomina : de facto baud ambigitur. H. V. 6. 7 : ut quisque ramus 
 intumuit, si vim ferri adhibeas, pavent venae; fragmine lapidis aut 
 testa aperiuntur; umor in usu medentium est. Ag. 46. 12: ut 
 vultus hominum, ita simulacra vultus imbecilla ac mortalia sunt, 
 forma mentis aeterna, etc. G. 25. 5 : Verberare servum ac vinculis 
 et opere coercere rarum, occidere solent, etc. 
 
 4. A special group of cases like the preceding is formed 
 by those in which the words contrasted are in certain obvious 
 categories. This fact does not at all change the nature of 
 the connection, but just as, in the repetition cases in which 
 a word repeated a part of another, the fact that the two 
 were in the same obvious category made the connection 
 clearer, so in the present instance, the contrast is more 
 obvious for the same reason. Such categories consist of 
 divisions of the army, seasons of the year, ages, relation- 
 ships, classes of society, geographically associated names, 
 and the like. The cases of military terms are naturally the 
 most numerous in Tacitus : especially frequent are the con- 
 trasts between eques and pedes, and between exercitus and 
 classis. The same influence of word order is evident as in 
 the preceding paragraphs. The following will illustrate this 
 very extensive class : 
 
 Ann. I. 42. IS : nos ut nondum eosdem, ita ex illis ortos si His- 
 paniae Suriaeve miles aspernaretur, tamen mirum et indignum erat. 
 
 Primane et vicensima legiones egregiam duci vestro gratiam 
 
 refertis? Ann. II. 19. 8: Hie pedes adstitit: equitem propinquis 
 lucis texere etc. H. II. 83. 5 : sed legio sexta et tredecim vexilla- 
 riorum milia ingenti agmine sequebantur. Classem e Ponto Byzan- 
 tium adigi iusserat, etc. H. IV. 2. 9: praemissi Ariciam equites, 
 
I04 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 agmen legionum intra Bovillas stetit. H. IV. 33. 6: id solum ut 
 in tumultu monuit, subsignano milite media firmare: auxilia passim 
 circumfusa sunt. Ann. IV. 67. 9: Caeli temperies hieme mitis 
 obiectu montis, quo saeva ventorum arcentur; aestas in favonium 
 obversa et aperto circum pelago peramoena ; etc. Ann. VI. 33. ii: 
 
 cum aestas impediret, quia fiatibus etesiarum implentur vada: 
 
 hibernus auster revolvit fluctus pulsoque introrsus freto brevia 
 litorum nudantur. H. I. 84. 20: Nationes aliquas occupavit 
 Vitellius, imaginem quandam exercitus habet, senatus nobiscum est; 
 etc. H. IV. 83. 26: irent simulacrumque patris sui reveherent, 
 sororis relinquerent. H. V. 4. 6: bos quoque immolatur, quoniam 
 Aeg}'ptii Apin colunt. Sue abstinent memoria cladis, quod ipsos 
 scabies quondam turpaverat. cui id animal obnoxium. H. V. 8. 4: 
 Ad fores tantum ludaeo aditus, limine praeter sacerdotes arce- 
 bantur. G. 6. 2 : Rari gladiis aut maioribus lanceis utuntur : hastas 
 vel ipsorum vocabulo frameas gerunt angusto et brevi ferro, etc. 
 G. 6. 5 : Et eques quidem scuto f rameaque contentus est, pedites et 
 missilia spargunt, etc. G. 23. 4: sine apparatu, sine blandimentis 
 expellunt famem. Adversus sitim non eadem temperantia. G. 35. 
 I : Hactenus in occidentem Germaniam novimus : in septentrionem 
 ingenti flexu recedit. 
 
 5. Another special class of connections by contrast com- 
 prises the cases in which the names of persons, either as 
 individuals or as groups, are contrasted. These are not at 
 all different from the other cases in which the context made 
 the contrast : they are merely a rather extensive group of 
 such cases. In sense, the names are regularly the subjects 
 of their clauses ; grammatically, they are often dependent 
 on prepositions. Examples are: 
 
 Names OF Individuals. Ann. I. 46. 8: An Augustum fessa aetate 
 totiens in Germanias commeare potuisse: Tiberium vigentem annis 
 sedere in senatu, verba patrum cavillantem? Ann. XIII. 20. 7: 
 Fabius Rusticus auctor est, scriptos esse ad Caecinam Tuscum 
 codicillos, mandata ei praetoriarum cohortium cura, sed ope Senecae 
 dignationem Burro retentam : Plinius et Cluvius nihil dubitatum de 
 fide praefecti referunt etc. H. I. 77. i : Sic distractis exercitibus ac 
 provinciis Vitellio quidem ad capessendam principatus fortunam 
 bello opus erat, Otho ut in multa pace munia imperii obibat, etc. 
 H. IV. 9. 3 : Eam curam consul designatus ob magnitudinem oneris 
 et remedii difficultatem principi reservebat : Helvidius arbitrio 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 105 
 
 senatus agendum censuit. Ag. 46. 18: nam multos veterum velut 
 inglorios et ignobilis oblivio obruit: Agricola posteritati narratus 
 et traditus superstes erit. G. 9. i : Deorum maxime Mercurium 
 colunt, cui certis diebus humanis quoque hostiis litare fas habent. 
 Herculem ac Martem concessis animalibus placant. 
 
 Names of Groups, Especially Nations. Ann. XII. 32. 8: Et 
 Brigantes quidem, paucis qui arma coeptabant interfectis, in reliquos 
 data venia, resedere : Silurum gens non atrocitate, non dementia 
 mutabatur, quin bellum exerceret castrisque legionum premenda 
 foret. H. IV. 29. 11: Apud Germanos inconsulta ira: Romanus 
 miles periculum gnarus ferratas sudes, gravia saxa non forte 
 iaciebat. H. V. 5. 17: Aegyptii pleraque animalia effigiesque 
 compositas venerantur, ludaei mente sola unumque numen intelle- 
 gunt: etc. Ag. 31. 7: Nata servituti mancipia semel veneunt, atque 
 ultro a dominis aluntur: Britannia servitutem suam quotidie emit, 
 quotidie pascit. Ag. 31. 17: Brigantes femina duce exurere 
 coloniam, expugnare castra, ac nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, 
 
 exuere iugum potuere : nos integri et indomiti ostendamus 
 
 quos sibi Caledonia viros seposuerit. G. 36. 5 : Ita qui olim boni 
 aequique Cherusci, nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur : Chattis victori- 
 bus fortuna in sapientiam cessit. G. 46. I : Hie Suebiae finis. 
 Peucinorum Venedorumque et Fennorum nationes Germanis an 
 Sarmatis adscribam dubito, etc. 
 
 Names Used with Prepositions. Ann. IV. 25. 6: aderant semi- 
 somnos in barbaros, praepeditis Numidarum equis aut diversos 
 pastus pererrantibus. Ab Romanis confertus pedes, dispositae 
 turmae etc. H. II. 26. 16: Apud paucos ea ducis ratio probata, in 
 vulgus adverso rumore fuit. H. V. 5. 6: Separati epulis, discreti 
 cubilibus, proiectissima ad libidinem gens, alienarum concubitu 
 abstinent; inter se nihil inlicitum. Ag. 45. 8: Nero tamen sub- 
 traxit oculos suos iussitque scelera, non spectavit: praecipua sub 
 Domitiano miseriarum pars erat videre et aspici. 
 
 6. There are a number of words which are frequently- 
 used in the second of two consecutive sentences and which, 
 by their meaning, express a contrast with something in the 
 first sentence. Aside from certain adverbs, which will be 
 discussed in the next section, these words are alius, 
 (ceterus) and reliquus. It is largely through the incom- 
 pleteness of their meaning that these words tend to turn the 
 thought toward the preceding sentence and they will there- 
 
io6 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 fore be discussed again in a later section. At the same 
 time, they very frequently serve to mark the contrast 
 between two sentences, and such instances only will be 
 illustrated here. With the contrast there is very often 
 present a decided element of repetition — repetition of a part 
 of some element of meaning in the first sentence. Ann. III. 
 63. 4 illustrates this well : Consules super eas civitates, quas 
 memoravi, apud Pergamum Aesculapii conpertum asylum 
 rettulerunt: ceteros obscuris ob vetustatem initiis niti. The 
 civitates refers to a large number of Greek cities, including 
 Pergamum, that have sent legates to the Roman senate to 
 plead for the preservation of asylums which they maintained. 
 Pergamum, therefore, and ceteros both repeat a part of the 
 collective idea which is summarily expressed in civitates. 
 At the same time there is, between the two, strong contrast 
 which depends largely for its expression on the meaning of 
 the ceteros, reinforced, to be sure, by the contrast between 
 conpertum and obscuris. Further examples are : 
 
 Ann. V. 6. 4: Versa est fortuna, et ille quidem, qui collegam et 
 generum adsciverat, sibi ignoscit: ceteri, quern per dedecora fovere, 
 cum scelere insectantur. Ann. XIV. 12. 7: ac sibi causam periculi 
 fecit, ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit. (This case is inter- 
 esting because of the rhetorical device in the second clause which 
 makes it at first doubtful whether it is a good instance of contrast. 
 As a matter of fact, the two clauses are not squarely contrasted 
 when their meaning as wholes is considered. But Tacitus makes 
 use of ceteris, which leads to an expectation of contrast in order 
 to make the conclusion of the clause more striking because of its 
 unexpectedness.) Ann. XV. 42. 10: Neque enim aliud umidum 
 gignendis aquis occurrit quam Pomptinae paludes : cetera abrupta 
 aut arentia etc. H. III. 55. 9: his tributa dimittere, alios immuni- 
 tatibus iuvare, etc. H. III. 77. 10: Sex Liburnicae inter primum 
 tumultum evasere, in quis praefectus classis Apollinaris; reliquae 
 in litore captae, aut nimio ruentium onere pressas mare hausit. 
 H. IV. 2. 4 : Is pecuniam f amiliamque e principis domo quasi 
 Cremonensem praedam rapere : ceteri modestia vel ignobilitate ut 
 in hello obscuri, ita praemiorum expertes. H. IV. 4. 12: Eaque 
 omnia Valerius Asiaticus consul designatus censuit: ceteri vultu 
 manuque, pauci, quibus conspicua dignitas aut ingenium adulatione 
 exercitum, compositis orationibus adsentiebantur. G. 25. 3: Fru- 
 
Coimcction Expressed in tlic Second Clause. 107 
 
 menti modum dominus aut pecoris aut vestis ut colono iniungit, et 
 servus hactemis paret: cetera domus officia uxor ac liberi exse- 
 quuntur. G. 25. 10: Ibi enim et super ingenuos et super nobiles 
 ascendunt: apud ceteros impares libertini libertatis argumentum 
 sunt. 
 
 The cases of alius deserve special attention, because alius 
 is regularly contrasted with a definite group of words: 
 either another alius, forming the familiar correlative pair, 
 
 alius alius, or else plerique, multi, sunt qui, pars, 
 
 quidam, or some similar word. These have already been 
 noted under that type of repetition in which only part of an 
 element of meaning is repeated, and all of them are used in 
 that way. But even when so used there is also present a 
 strong element of contrast between the clauses in which 
 these words occur. Often the contrast is present without the 
 repetition. So regularly is some one of these words used in 
 one sentence and alius in the next that the use in one sen- 
 tence of multi, plerique and the like, nearly always suggests 
 a sentence with alius to follow and so becomes an anticipa- 
 tory means of connection. Although the cases with alius 
 in the second sentence are the familiar type, (ceterus) is 
 sometimes used in the same way and not infrequently the 
 various words cited above are used to make contrast with 
 each other without either alius or (ceterus) in the pair or 
 series. The following examples illustrate the usage : 
 
 Ann. I. 29. 13 : vocatos Vibulenum et Percennium interfici iubet. 
 Tradunt plerique intra tabernaculum ducis obrutos, alii corpora 
 extra vallum abiecta ostentui. Ann. I. 80. 4: Causae variae tra- 
 duntur: alii taedio novae curae semel placita pro aeternis serva- 
 visse, quidam invidia, ne plures fruerentur; sunt qui existiment, ut 
 callidum eius ingenium, ita anxium iudicium; etc. Ann. III. 19. 7: 
 dum alii quoquo modo audita pro conpertis habent, alii vera in 
 contrarium vertunt, et gliscit utrumque posteritate. Ann. III. 38. 
 18: Pars turbant praesentia, alii montem Haemum transgrediuntur, 
 ut remotos populos concirent; plurimi ac maxime compositi regem 
 urbemque Philippopolim, a Macedone Philippo sitam, circumsidunt. 
 Ann. XL 10. 18: Multi ad Gotarzen inclinabant, quidam ad Meher- 
 daten prolem Phraatis, obsidio nobis datum : dein praevaluit 
 
io8 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 Gotarzes. Ann. XIV. 9. 2: sunt qui tradiderint, sunt qui abnuant. 
 Ann. XIV. 23. 7 : Barbari, pro ingenio quisque, alii preces offerre, 
 quidam deserere vicos et in avia digredi ; ac f uere qui se speluncis et 
 carissima secum abderent. Ann. XV. 6. i : Haec plures ut f ormidine 
 regis et Corbulonis minis patrata ac magnifica extollebant : alii 
 occulte pepigisse interpretebantur etc. H. IV. 2. 15: Paucos erump- 
 ere ausos circumiecti oppressere ; ceteri in custodiam conditi, nihil 
 quisquam locutus indignum, et quamquam inter adversa, salva 
 virtutis fama. H. IV. 62. 7: Alii nulla dedecoris cura pecuniam 
 aut carissima sibimet ipsi circumdare, quidam expedire arma telisque 
 tamquam in aciem accingi. Ag. 40. 20: adeo uti plerique, quibus 
 magnos viros per ambitionem aestimare mos est, viso aspectoque 
 Agricola quaererent famam, pauci interpretarentur. 
 
 7. Finally, adverbs are used either to express or to make 
 obvious the contrast between two sentences. The general 
 subject of connection by means of adverbs and adverbial 
 phrases will be discussed in a later section : at present only 
 those containing- an element of contrast are under consider- 
 ation. This element of contrast is to be found sometimes 
 in the meaning of the adverb itself, as in contra, sometimes 
 in the pairing of two contrasted adverbs, as in hie, illic, some- 
 times in clauses introduced by such conjunctions as ut^ cum, 
 or uhi and having the same effect as adverbs. The second 
 type is the most frequent. Of the first type, the cases with 
 contra are obvious : 
 
 Ann. III. 10. I : Postera die Fulcinius Trio Pisonem apud con- 
 sules postulavit. Contra Vitellius ac Veranius ceterique Germani- 
 cum comitati tendebant, nullas esse partis Trioni; etc. Ann. VI. 8. 
 9: Illius propinqui et adfines honoribus augebantur; ut quisque 
 Seiano intimus, ita ad Caesaris amicitiam validus : contra quibus 
 infensus esset, metu ac sordibus conflictabantur. H. II. 10. 10 : Sed 
 propria vi Crispus incubuerat delatorem fratris sui pervertere, 
 traxeratque magnam senatus partem, ut indefensum et inauditum 
 dedi ad exitium postularent. Contra apud alios nihil aeque reo 
 proderat quam nimia potentia accusatoris : etc. H. II. 22. 7 : 
 Legionarius pluteis et cratibus tectus subruit muros, instruit 
 aggerem, molitur portas : contra praetoriani dispositos ad id ipsum 
 molares ingenti pondere ac fragore provolvunt. G. 39. 11 : Adicit 
 auctoritatem fortuna Semnorum : centum pagi iis habitantur. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 109 
 
 magnoque corpore efficitur ut se Sueborum caput credant. Contra 
 Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: etc. 
 
 It is noticeable in these cases with contra that the essential 
 contrast is quite independent of the adverb, which serves 
 merely to make it obvious. Contrasted names, words in the 
 same category, use of alius — these in themselves form the 
 connection, and the influence of the contra is superficial. 
 The same will be seen in the following cases of ex diverso 
 and e contrario: 
 
 H. II. 5. 4, at the close of a description of Vespasian : prorsus, 
 si avaritia abesset, antiquis ducibus par. Mucianum e contrario 
 magnificentia et opes et cuncta privatum modum supergressa 
 extollebant; etc. H. III. 54. 3: Quippe confitenti consultantique 
 supererant spes viresque: cum e contrario laeta omnia fingeret, 
 falsis ingravescebat. H. III. 73. 2: Quippe Vitellianus miles neque 
 astu neque constantia inter dubia indigebat: ex diverso trepidi 
 milites, dux segnis et velut captus animi non lingua, non auribus 
 competere, etc. H. IV. 16. 7 : Ubi insidiae parum cessere, ad vim 
 transgressus Canninefates, Frisios, Batavos propriis cuneis com- 
 ponit : derecta ex diverso acies baud procul a flumine Rheno et 
 obversis in hostem navibus, quas incensis castellis illuc adpulerant. 
 
 In the one case in which the adverb alitcr is used to 
 express the connection, it does not, like contra, merely 
 emphasize the contrast, but by itself expresses it. The case 
 is H. IV. 59. 16: Classicus corruptissimum quemque e 
 deditis pergere ad obsessos iubet, veniam ostentantes, si 
 praesentia sequerentur : aliter nihil spei, famem f errumque 
 et extrema passuros. The aliter itself expresses the contrast 
 with the si clause in the first sentence, though it is reinforced 
 by the contrast in veniam and nihil spei. (The adversative 
 relation of the clauses in the last part of the quotation is 
 noticeable, expressed by the contrast between spei with the 
 negative on the one hand, and famem etc., on the other, the 
 common construction of the two clauses assisting in the 
 connection.) Aliter is used to reinforce another means of 
 connection in Ann. XV. 68. i : Proximum constantiae exem- 
 
no Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 plum Sulpicius Asper centurio praebuit, percontanti Neroni, 
 cur in caedem suam conspiravisset, breviter respondens non 
 aliter tot flagitiis eius subveniri potuisse. Finally, in D. 32. 
 2, aliter is repeated, but still from its meaning- marks con- 
 trast : aliter utimur propriis, aliter commodatis. 
 
 Two other adverbs belong in the present category : nunc, 
 used in an adversative sense, and rursus, meaning "on the 
 other hand." This use of nunc is like that of vi>v 8e in Greek, 
 to contrast what is actually true with some contrary to fact 
 condition expressed in the preceding clause. This condition 
 has a certain anticipatory force because of the incomplete- 
 ness of its meaning as it stands alone. Ag. 34. i furnishes 
 a good example: Si novae gentes atque ignota acies con- 
 stitisset, aliorum exercituum exemplis vos hortarer : nunc 
 vestra decora recensete, vestros oculos interrogate. The 
 nunc expresses the contrast between the state of affairs as 
 they really are and the theoretical state suggested in the si 
 clause of the first sentence. Further examples are : 
 
 Ann. II. 71. 3: Si fato concederem, iustus mihi dolor etiam adver- 
 sus decs esset, quod me parentibus liberis patriae intra iuventam 
 praematuro exitu raperent: nunc scelere Pisonis et Plancinae inter- 
 ceptus ultimas preces pectoribus vestris relinquo etc. Ann. XL 6. 
 7: Quodsi in nullius mercedem negotia agantur, pauciora fore: 
 nunc inimicitias, accusationes, odia et iniurias foveri, ut quo modo 
 vis morborum pretia medentibus, sic fori tabes pecuniam advocatis 
 ferat. Ann. XIII. 21. 12: Nam Domitiae inimicitiis gratias agerem, 
 si benevolentia mecum in Neronem meum certaret : nunc per con- 
 cubinum Atimetum et bistrionem Paridem quasi scaenae fabulas 
 componit. H. I. 16. i : Si inmensum imperii corpus stare ac librari 
 sine rectore posset, dignus eram a quo res publica inciperet : nunc 
 eo necessitatis iam pridem ventum est, ut nee mea senectus conferre 
 plus populo Romano possit quam bonum principem. H. I. 37. 24: 
 Minore avaritia ac licentia grassatus esset T. Vinius, si ipse 
 imperasset: nunc et subiectos nos habuit tamquam suos et viles ut 
 alienos. 
 
 Rursus has no phrase like the contrary to fact condition 
 which regularly anticipates it. It merely marks two exist- 
 ing facts as being in contrast with each other. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. m 
 
 Ann. XL 28. 8: Subibat sine dubio metus reputantes hebetem 
 Claudium et uxori devinctum multasque mortes iussu Messalinae 
 patratas : rursus ipsa f acilitas imperatoris fiduciam dabat, si atro- 
 citate criminis praevaluissent, posse opprimi damnatam ante quam 
 ream; etc. H. II. 94. 2: Sibi quisque militiam sumpsere : quamvis 
 indignus, si ita maluerat, urbanae militiae adscribebatur ; rursus 
 bonis remanere inter legionarios aut alares volentibus permissum. 
 
 The two remaining types of contrast expressed by 
 adverbs or by adverbial phrases are hardly distinct groups, 
 for each case listed under them belongs to one or another 
 of the first three groups of adverbial connection. They all 
 have, however, a superficial resemblance to each other due 
 to the expression of the contrast by means of contrasted 
 adverbs in the one case, contrasted clauses with the same 
 effect as adverbs in the other. In such a case as H. I. 68. 5, 
 the adverbs are contrasted almost entirely by their meaning: 
 hinc Caecina cum valido exercitu, inde Raeticae alae cohoct- 
 esque et ipsorum Raetorum inventus, sueta armis et more 
 militiae exercita. In other instances the context has more 
 or less influence in causing the contrast. Only a few other 
 cases of these contrasted adverbs are given because the 
 usage has been illustrated already with other parts of 
 speech. 
 
 Ann. I. 61. 14: Et cladis eius superstites, pugnam aut vincula 
 elapsi, referebant hie cecidisse legatos, illic raptas aquilas etc. 
 Ann. XII. 63. 10 : Unde primo quaestuosi et opulenti ; post mag- 
 nitudine onerum urguente finem aut modum orabant etc. H. III. a. 
 21 : Duae tunc Pannonicae ac Moesicae alae perrupere hostem : 
 nunc sedecim alarum coniuncta signa pulsu sonituque et nube ipsa 
 operient ac superfundent oblitos proeliorum equites equosque. Ag. 
 12. 2 : Olim regibus parebant, nunc per principes f actionibus et 
 studiis distrahuntur. Ag. 12. 17: tarde mitescunt, cito proveniunt; 
 etc. G. 33. I : luxta Tencteros Bructeri olim occurrebant : nunc 
 Chamavos et Angrivarios inmigrasse narratur, etc. G. 34. i : 
 Angrivarios et Chamavos a tergo Dulgubnii et Chasuarii cludunt 
 aliaeque gentes baud perinde memoratae, a fronte Frisii excipiunt. 
 
 A few examples will be sufficient also to illustrate the use 
 of contrasted clauses to express the same sort of connection 
 
112 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 that is expressed by the adverbs just cited. The element of 
 contrast does not depend at all on the type of clause used 
 but on the meaning of words or phrases in the clauses. 
 Examples are: 
 
 Ann. IV. i8. ii : Nam beneficia eo usque laeta sunt, dum 
 videntur exsolvi posse: ubi multum antevenere, pro gratia odium 
 redditur. Ann. IV. 31. 20: Eius operae memor Tiberius, sed alia 
 praetendens, exilium deprecatus est: quo minus senatu pelleretur 
 non obstitit. Ann. IV. 34. 27: Namque spreta exolescunt: si 
 irascare, adgnita videntur. Ann. XIV. 55. 11 : Et tua quidem erga 
 me munera, dum vita suppetet, aeterna erunt: quae a me habes, 
 horti et faenus et villae, casibus obnoxia sunt. H. I. 79. 10: Nihil 
 ad pedestrem pugnam tam ignavum : ubi per turmas advenere, vix 
 ulla acies obstiterit. H. IT. 47. 6 : Civile bellum a Vitellio coepit, et 
 ut de principatu certaremus armis, initium illinc f uit : ne plus quam 
 semel certemus, penes me exemplum erit : etc. H. IV. 57. 13 : 
 Nunc hostes, quia molle servitium ; cum spoliati exutique fuerint, 
 amicos fore. H. IV. 75. 5 : si Cerialis imperium Galliarum velit 
 ipsos finibus civitatium suarum contentos ; si proelium malit, ne id 
 quidem abnuere. 
 
 c. 
 
 In the chapter that dealt with connections expressed in 
 the first of two consecutive sentences, a number of words 
 like dico were cited which were incomplete words and which 
 led the reader, with his background of experience, to antici- 
 pate a clause or sentence to follow. These words were 
 comparatively few. There are a great many more which 
 are just as incomplete, but which lead the reader, again 
 because of his background of experience, to turn his 
 thought not forward but backward, to the clause preceding 
 the one in which they stand. This is not an altogether sat- 
 isfactory category because rarely is the incompleteness of 
 a word in the second clause the sole element of connection, 
 so that it is difficult to illustrate the group with simple 
 examples. It is often almost impossible to say whether 
 connection lies in the incompleteness of a word or in the 
 implied repetition from the preceding sentence of a word 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 113 
 
 to complete its meaning. This is a minute and perhaps not 
 a valuable distinction, except to make clear that some 
 words, probably by virtue of their frequent use, have actu- 
 ally within their own meaning- an incompleteness which 
 forces the reader to refer to what has preceded if he is to 
 grasp the sense. In such cases reference is regularly to the 
 whole preceding sentence, but even when this is not so, the 
 element of incompleteness plays an important part in estab- 
 lishing the connection. For example, in H. III. 33. i, the 
 following phrase comes directly after the account of the 
 fall of Cremona: Quadraginta armatorum milia inrupere. 
 Undoubtedly Cremonae or urbi or some equivalent expres- 
 sion is more or less distinctly understood with the verb 
 inrupere. But equally without doubt, there is an incom- 
 pleteness in the verb inrupere which makes this easier. It 
 is perhaps nearer the truth to say that, in the case of 
 inrumpo and other verbs used similarly, they were at first 
 used regularly with an expressed object, and that, when 
 they came to be used absolutely, an object was instinctively 
 supplied in thought. This explanation suits better the use 
 of such verbs as sequor. For example, Ann. I. 50. 10: 
 Caecina cum expeditis cohortibus praeire et obstantia sil- 
 varum amoliri iubetur : legiones modico intervallo sequun- 
 tur. Even though sequuntur is considered to be used 
 absolutely, it is almost impossible not to supply uncon- 
 sciously an eum. 
 
 There are in this group, cases of the two types of verbs 
 cited above — those compounded with ad, con or in and 
 regularly followed by a dative, and those simple verbs like 
 sequor which, also by their meaning, imply a reference to 
 what has preceded; also there are cases of comparatives 
 and words which imply comparison, such as alius; and of 
 adverbs which express sequence or in other ways refer 
 tacitly to the preceding clause. 
 
 I. The connection expressed by the verbs compounded 
 with ad, con and so forth, approaches more closely the 
 
114 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 cases in which repetition is understood than do the other 
 types in the present section : that they are really on the 
 border line between the two usages will be clear from a 
 few examples in which the same verb is used now with 
 actual, now with implied repetition, and again with com- 
 paratively little of the element of repetition, depending for 
 the expression of connection on the incomplete meaning of 
 the verb by itself. 
 
 Repetition of some one of the regular types occurs in the 
 following : 
 
 Ann. XVI. 17. 17: exsolvit venas, scriptis codicillis, quibus 
 grandem pecuniam in Tigellinum generumque eius Cossutianum 
 
 Capitonem erogabat, quo cetera manerent. Additur codicillis 
 
 se quidem mori nullis supplici causis etc. Ann. XIV. 26. 10: At 
 plerique superbiam Parthorum perosi datum a Romanis regem male- 
 bant. Additum ei praesidium mille legionarii etc. H. II. 91. 16: 
 nihil novi accidisse respondit, quod duo senatores in re publica 
 dissentirent ; solitum se etiam Thraseae contra dicere. Inrisere 
 plerique impudentia aemulationis ; etc. 
 
 With such cases, the following are comparable ; for 
 almost the same element of repetition is present, only it is 
 implied instead of being expressed. 
 
 Ann. I. 24. 5 : Et cohortes delecto milite supra solitum firmatae. 
 Additur magna pars praetoriani equitis etc. (Cohortibus is readily 
 understood.) Ann. VI. 47. 5: Dein multorum amoribus famosa 
 Albucilla, cui matrimonium cum Satrio Secundo coniurationis indice 
 fuerat, defertur inpietatis in principem; conectebantur ut conscii et 
 adulteri eius Cn. Domitius, Vibius Marsus, L. Arruntius. H. III. 
 86. 5 : studia exercitus raro cuiquam bonis artibus quaesita perinde 
 adfuere quam huic per ignaviam. Inerat tamen simplicitas ac 
 liberalitas, quae, ni adsit modus, in exitium vertuntur. 
 
 Even in such examples as those just cited the incomplete- 
 ness of the verb meaning has an influence in making the 
 connection clear although repetition is distinctly implied. 
 In the following cases the proportion of influence is 
 reversed, the element of repetition becoming more obscure : 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 115 
 
 H. IV. 70. 8: Atque interim unaetvicensima legio Vindonissa, 
 Sextilius Felix cum auxiliariis cohortibus per Raetiam inrupere; 
 accessit ala Singularium, excita olim a Vitellio, deinde in partes 
 Vespasiani transgressa. Praeerat lulius Briganticus sorore Civilis 
 genitus etc. (This case is interesting because of the two instances 
 of the present type of connection. The accessit is the better 
 example because praeerat, referring so obviously to ala in the pre- 
 ceding sentence, shows much more of the element of repetition.) 
 Ann. I. 19. 10, after the indirect quotation of a speech by Blaesus : 
 Adclamavere ut filius Blaesi tribunus legatione ea fungeretur etc. 
 Ann. II. 70. 7: Componit epistulas, quis amicitiam ei renuntiabat: 
 addunt plerique iussum provincia decedere. Ann. XII. 8. 3 : Calvina 
 soror eius Italia pulsa est. Addidit Claudius sacra ex legibus Tulli 
 regis piaculaque apud lucum Dianae per pontifices danda etc. Ann. 
 XI. 9. 4: Nee enim restitere Armenii, fuso qui proelium ausus erat 
 Demonacte praefecto. Paululum cunctationis attulit rex minoris 
 Armeniae Cotys, versis illuc quibusdam procerum etc. D. 17. 10; 
 Statue sex et quinquaginta annos, quibus mox divus Augustus rem 
 publicam rexit; adice Tiberii tres et viginti etc. Ag. 22. 3: Qua 
 formidine territi hostes quamquam conflictatum saevis tempestati- 
 bus exercitum lacessere non ausi ; ponendisque insuper castellis 
 spatium fuit. Adnotabant periti non alium ducem opportunitates 
 locorum sapientius legisse etc. H. III. 46. 9 : lamque castra 
 legionum excindere parabant, ni Mucianus sextam legionem 
 opposuisset, Cremonensis victoriae gnarus, ac ne externa moles 
 utrimque ingrueret, si Dacus Germanusque diversi inrupissent. 
 Adfuit, ut saepe alias, fortuna populi Romani etc. Ann. XIII. 16. 
 8 : f rigida in aqua adf unditur venenum, quod ita cunctos eius artus 
 pervasit, ut vox pariter et spiritus raperentur. Trepidatur a cir- 
 cumstantibus etc. Ann. II. 33. 3 : decretumque ne vasa auro solida 
 ministrandis cibis fierent, ne vestis serica viros foedaret. Excessit 
 Fronto ac postulavit modum argento, supellectili, f amiliae : etc. 
 Ann. II. 72. 5 : Neque multo post extinguitur, ingenti luctu 
 provinciae et circumiacentium populorum. Indoluere exterae 
 nationes regesque etc. Ag. 39. i : Hunc rerum cursum quamquam 
 nulla verborum iactantia epistulis Agricolae auctum, ut Domitiano 
 moris erat, fronte laetus, pectore anxius excepit. Inerat conscientia 
 derisui fuisse nuper falsum e Germanis triumphum etc. (This 
 example is not good because of the obvious implication of an ei in 
 the second sentence. This is true of all the examples in which 
 forms of inesse are used.) Ann. I. 77. 4: Actum de ea seditione 
 apud patres dicebanturque sententiae, ut praetoribus ius virgarum 
 in histriones esset. Intercessit Haterius Agrippa tribunus plebei 
 etc. H. III. 31. 20: Sed ubi Caecina consul incessit, exarsere 
 
ii6 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 victores: superbiam saevitiamque etiam perfidiam obiectabant. 
 
 Obstitit Antonius datisque defensoribus ad Vespasianum dimisit. 
 Ann. III. 2. 3 : Igitur tribunorum centurionumque umeris cineres 
 portabantur; praecedebant incompta signa, versi fasces; etc. 
 G. 43. 13 : Apud Naharvalos antiquae religionis lucus ostenditur. 
 Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu etc. (This is another case in 
 which the element of repetition predominates, as it does in most 
 of the cases with verbs compounded with prae.) Ann. III. 30. 7: 
 
 Atque ille Maecenatem aemulatus sine dignitate senatoria 
 
 multos triumphahum consulariumque potentia anteiit, diversus a 
 veterum instituto per cultum et munditias copiaque et afluentia luxu 
 propior. Suberat tamen vigor animi etc. Ann. XIV. 20. 17, after 
 an account of murmurings against innovations of Nero: Quid 
 superesse, nisi ut corpora quoque nudent et caestus adsumant easque 
 pugnas pro militia et armis meditentur? 
 
 One case with a verb compounded with ah furnishes a 
 
 parallel to these: Ann. III. 2. 11 : Consules et sen- 
 
 atus ac magna pars populi viani conplevere, disiecti et ut 
 cuique libitum flentes : aberat quippe adulatio etc. 
 
 It is perfectly clear from the preceding- cases that no dis- 
 tinct line can be drawn between cases in which an element 
 of repetition expresses the connection and others in which 
 it is expressed by the incomplete meaning of a verb. Both 
 elements are present in all the cases although one is some- 
 times more prominent, sometimes the other. To a certain 
 extent the two are really nothing more than different ways 
 of looking at the same thing. For the examples cited above 
 are special cases of connection by implied repetition, in 
 which certain verbs have been for so long regularly used 
 without an expressed object that the object is only vaguely 
 understood and the verb itself comes to have a connecting 
 force by virtue of its general reference to the preceding 
 clause. But when this usage is thus developed it is prac- 
 tically a new means of expressing connection, though often 
 showing clearly its close relation to the other. 
 
 Of the same sort is the connection expressed by sequor. 
 If this verb were less often used absolutely, the object 
 would always be expressed or implied. As it is, the abso- 
 lute use is so common that there is only a vague understand- 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 117 
 
 ing- of an object; there is, rather, a general reference to 
 what has preceded. One example in which the object was 
 pretty clearly implied has already been quoted. Others, in 
 which this is not so, are: 
 
 Ann. III. 52. I, a paragraph opening: C. Sulpicius D. Haterius 
 consules sequuntur. Ann. I. 58. 11: testis ilia nox, mihi utinam 
 novissima ! Quae secuta sunt, defleri magis quam defendi possunt. 
 Ann. XIV. 18. 11: Nero probata Strabonis sententia, se nihilo 
 minus subvenire sociis et usurpata concedere rescripsit. Sequuntur 
 virorum inlustrium mortes etc. H. III. 2. 27: lam reseratam 
 Italiam, impulsas Vitelii res audietis. luvabit sequi et vestigiis 
 vincentis insistere. 
 
 Such cases are not at all numerous. A special interest 
 attaches to them because of the idea of sequence which 
 the meaning of the verb always gives, and this throws 
 some light on the nature of the connection which they 
 express. The example from Ann. III. 52. i, C. Sulpicius 
 D. Haterius consules sequuntur, might be expressed : Tunc 
 consules C. Sulpicius D. Haterius fiebantur, or Proximi con- 
 sules C. Sulpicius D. Haterius erant. The sense and the 
 relation with what preceded would be the same. This is 
 further illustrated by Ag. 21. i : Sequens hiems saluberri- 
 mis consiliis absumpta. 
 
 The use of respondeo and other verbs or verbal phrases 
 with similar meaning is slightly different. These too must, 
 because of their meaning, refer to something that has pre- 
 ceded, but when verbs of this type are used, it is no longer 
 the omission and tacit understanding of an object which 
 gives rise to the element of connection but this is inherent 
 in the meaning of the verb or verbal phrase itself. A verb 
 meaning "to answer" cannot be used without suggesting 
 something to which answer is made. This might, however, 
 be readily expressed, by ei, ctii, illis, ad id and the like as 
 the case might demand, and Ann. XIV. 55, i, has such an 
 expression : Ad quae Nero sic ferme respondit etc. So 
 even these cases are not without a suggestion of repetition. 
 Examples are: 
 
ii8 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 Ann. II. 30. 16: Ob quae posterum diem reus petivit domumque 
 digressus extremas preces P. Quirinio propinquo suo ad principem 
 mandavit. Responsum est ut senatum rogaret. Ann. II. 46. 20: 
 misitque legates ad Tiberium oraturos auxilia. Responsum est non 
 iure eum adversus Cheruscos arma Romana invocare, qui pugnantis 
 in eundem hostem Romanes nulla ope iuvisset. D. 10. 33 : medi- 
 tatus videris etiam elegisse personam notabilem et cum auctoritate 
 dicturam. Sentio quid responderi possit etc. H. IV. 21. 3: cunctos 
 qui aderant in verba Vespasiani adigit mittitque legatos ad duas 
 legiones, quae priore acie pulsae in Vetera castra concesserant, ut 
 idem sacramentum acciperent. Redditur responsum : neque pro- 
 ditoris neque hostium se consiliis uti; etc. Ann. II. 65. 12: 
 Thraciaque omni potitus scripsit ad Tiberium structas sibi insidias, 
 praeventum insidiatorem ; simul bellum adversus Bastarnas 
 Scythasque praetendens novis peditum et equitum copiis sese firma- 
 bat. MoUiter rescriptum, si fraus abesset, posse eum innocentiae 
 fidere. Ann. I. 76. 3 : Igitur censuit Asinius Gallus ut libri 
 Sibullini adirentur. Renuit Tiberius, etc. 
 
 2. The word in which Hes the element of incompleteness 
 may be, instead of a verb, either an adjective or adverb in 
 the comparative degree. The fact of its being in the com- 
 parative shows by itself that the first sentence is thought 
 of when the second is written ; it is a tacit reference to the 
 first. At the same time, it is as true in the present class 
 as in the preceding that almost always there is present 
 an element of repetition, usually implied but sometimes 
 expressed: in the case of a comparative adjective, some 
 noun of the first sentence is understood with it even if none 
 is expressed ; in the case of an adverb, some verb. A very 
 simple case of implied repetition with a comparative is fur- 
 nished by Ann, XIII. 39. 5 : et Corbulo, ne inritum bellum 
 traheretur utque Armenios ad sua defendenda cogeret, 
 excindere parat castella, sibique quod validissimum in ea 
 praefectura, cognomento Volandum, sumit; minora Cor- 
 nelio Flacco legato et Insteio Capitoni castrorum praefecto 
 mandat. Castella is obviously understood with the minora 
 and in this particular case there is distinct contrast (between 
 validissinwni and minora) as well; this is frequent because 
 of the meaning of the comparative. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 119 
 
 The cases in which the comparative stands in agreement 
 with a noun which virtually repeats some element of mean- 
 ing from the first sentence, are really a special type of 
 repetition in which this element of incompleteness plays a 
 part. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. III. 43. I, after a description of a revolt among two German 
 tribes other than the Aeduans : Apud Aeduos maior moles exorta, 
 quanto civitas opulentior et comprimendi procul praesidium. H. I. 
 37. 22: Septem a Neronis fine menses sunt, et iam plus rapuit Icelus 
 quam quod Polycliti et Vatinii et Tigellini perdiderunt. Minora 
 avaritia ac licentia grassatus esset T. Vinius, si ipse imperasset: 
 etc. H. II. 3. I : Conditorem templi regem Aeriam vetus memoria, 
 quidam ipsius deae nomen id perhibent. Fama recentior tradit a 
 Cinyra sacratum etc. H. III. 53. 11: Casum Cremonae bello 
 inputandum : maiore damno, plurium urbium excidiis veteres 
 civium discordias rei publicae stetisse. H. I. 67. i, following the 
 account of Valens' depredations : Plus praedae ac sanguinis per 
 Caecinam haustum. H. V. 21, i, following the account of two 
 doubtful attacks : Plus discriminis apud Grinnes Vadamque. 
 
 There is often scarcely less of the element of repetition 
 in the use of the neuter plural of a comparative standing 
 for a noun ; this is clear from the following examples : 
 
 H. III. 24. 8: Haec, ut quosque accesserat; plura ad tertianos, 
 veterum recentiumque admonens etc. H. II. 47. 15 : Nee diu 
 moremur, ego incolumitatem vestram, vos constantiam meam. 
 Plura de extremis loqui pars ignaviae est. Ann. I. 13. 7: M' Lepi- 
 dum dixerat, capacem sed aspernantem, Galium Asinium avidum 
 et minoram, L. Arruntium non indignum et, si casus daretur 
 ausurum. De prioribus consentitur, pro Arruntio quidam Cn. 
 Pisonem tradidere; etc. Ann. III. 63. 6: ceteros obscuris ob 
 
 vetustatem initiis niti. Nam Zmyrnaeos oraculum Apollinis 
 
 Tenios eiusdem carmen referre Propiora Sardianos : Alex- 
 
 andri victoris id donum. Ann. I. 52. 4 : Rettulit tamen ad senatum 
 de rebus gestis multaque de virtute eius memoravit, magis in 
 speciem verbis adornata quam ut penitus sentire crederetur. 
 Paucioribus Drusum et finem Illyrici motus laudavit, sed intentior 
 et fida oratione. D. 5. 34, after a long speech : Plura de utilitate 
 non dico, cui parti minime contra dicturum Maternum meum 
 arbitror. 
 
I20 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 The use of plures in contrast with pauci and similar 
 words to repeat part of some group already mentioned or 
 implied, has already been treated under the section on repe- 
 tition. There is, however, in the usage this same compara- 
 tive element ; therefore a few further examples are given 
 here: 
 
 Ann. III. 34. i: Paucorum haec adsensu audita: plures obturba- 
 bant, etc. H. III. 6. 16: Et fuere qui se statim dederent: plures 
 abrupto ponte instanti hosti viam abstulerunt. H. III. 61. 6: Missus 
 extemplo Varus cum expedita manu paucos repugnantium inter- 
 fecit; plures abiectis armis veniam petivere. H. V. 13. 6: Quae 
 pauci in metum trahebant: pluribus persuasio inerat antiquis 
 sacerdotium litteris contineri etc. 
 
 In a few cases, adjectives in the superlative have the same 
 incompleteness if taken without reference to the preceding 
 sentence : 
 
 Ann. XV. 68. i, after the account of the death of Seneca and 
 Subrius Flavus : Proximum constantiae exemplum Sulpicius Asper 
 centurio praebuit, etc. Ann. VI. 42. i, after the reports of other 
 states : Plurimum adulationis Seleucenses induere, etc. Ann. XV. 
 60, I, after the account of Piso's death: Proximam necem Plautii 
 Laterani consulis designati Nero adiungit, etc. H. III. 29. i : 
 Acerrimum tertiae septimaeque legionum certamen ; etc. 
 
 The following examples of the similar use of adverbs 
 show the same predominance of repetition and contrast in 
 the verbs of the sentences : 
 
 Ann. I. 43. I : Cur enim primo contionis die ferrum illud, quod 
 pectori meo infigere parabam, detraxistis, o improvidi amici? 
 Melius et amantius qui gladium offerebat. (The fact that the verb 
 is implied in a general way from the first sentence is an important 
 element in the connection in this case.) Ann. III. 69. 4: Nam a 
 legibus delicta puniri : quanto fore mitius in ipsos, melius in socios, 
 provideri ne peccaretur? H. I. 16. 19: Nero a pessimo quoque 
 semper desiderabitur : mihi ac tibi providendum est, ne etiam a 
 bonis desideretur. Monere diutius neque temporis huius, et 
 impletum est omne consilium, si te bene elegi. H. IV. 8. 4: Nihil 
 evenisse, cur antiquitus instituta exolescerent aut principis honor in 
 cuiusquam contumeliam verteretur; sufficere omnes obsequio. Id 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 121 
 
 magis vitandum, ne pervicacia quorundam inritaretur animus novo 
 principatu suspensiis, etc. Ann. XII. 17. 2: Quod aspernati sunt 
 victores, quia trucidare deditos saevum, tantam multitudinem cus- 
 todia cingere arduum : belli potius iure caderent, datumque militi- 
 bus, qui scalis evaserant, signum caedis. Ann. XIII. 55. 15 : Solem 
 inde suspiciens et cetera sidera vocans quasi coram interrogabat, 
 vellentne contueri inane solum : potius mare superf underent 
 adversus terrarum ereptores. H. IV. 56. 3 : vicit ratio parcendi, ne 
 sublata spe veniae pertinaciam accenderent : adliciendos potius in 
 societatem. H. II. 88. 12 : In urbe tamen trepidatum praecurrenti- 
 bus passim militibus ; forum maxime petebant, cupidine visendi 
 locum, in quo Galba iacuisset. 
 
 The following- cases of this same usage, having a nega- 
 tive with both adverbs and adjectives, are no different but 
 serve as further illustrations : 
 
 Ann. II. 34. 7, following the account of Piso's angry departure 
 from the senate : Haud minus liberi doloris documentum idem Piso 
 mox dedit vocata in ius Urgulania etc. Ann. I. 68. i, after an 
 account of the Romans' indecision : Haud minus inquies Germanus 
 spe, cupidine et diversis ducum sententiis agebat etc. Ann. XIII. 
 I. 12: Ab his proconsuli venenum inter epulas datum est apertius, 
 
 quam ut fallerent. Nee minus properato Narcissus ad mortem 
 
 agitur etc. Ann. i. 19. i, after a speech by Blaesus: Aggerebatur 
 nihilo minus caespes iamque pectori usque adcreverat, cum tandem 
 pervicacia victi inceptum omisere. 
 
 3. The words alins, (ccterus) and reliquus have already 
 been discussed as they appear in several special uses. The 
 very prominent element of contrast in their meaning makes 
 them conspicuous cases of connection by means of con- 
 trast. But even in the examples which show prominent con- 
 trast in these words, there is an underlying incompleteness 
 in their meaning which by itself turns the attention to what 
 has preceded just as do certain verbs like respondeo and 
 adjectives in the comparative degree. In many cases this 
 incompleteness of meaning is the chief element of connec- 
 tion although there is probably always some suggestion of 
 contrast. The examples noted in the first chapter, in which 
 alius or (ceterus) stood in the first sentence and established 
 
122 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 a connection with the second by anticipation, illustrate well 
 the incompleteness of meaning- in these words. By them- 
 selves they are unsatisfactory, and when there is nothing 
 in the preceding- sentence to point their meaning, the mind 
 instinctively looks forward and retains the words until 
 something- in the following clause completes the connection 
 thus anticipated. In the following examples there is 
 always something in the first sentence to which the alius 
 or (ceterus) refers, but which is not anticipatory: the 
 first clause or sentence is quite complete in itself. As 
 in the cases with comparatives, there are frequently with 
 the incomplete words, nouns either actually or virtually 
 repeated from the preceding sentence: 
 
 H. II. 74. 6 : tertiam legionem, quod e Suria in Moesiam transisset, 
 suam numerabat; ceterae lUyrici legiones secuturae sperabantur 
 etc. H. V. II. 18, after an account of the outer walls of Jerusalem 
 (using muri) : Alia intus moenia regiae circumiecta, conspicuoque 
 fastigio turris Antonia, in honorem M. Antonii ab Herode appellata. 
 H. V. 22. 5 : Prima caedes astu adiuta : incisis tabernaculorum 
 funibus suismet tentoriis coopertos trucidabant. Aliud agmen tur- 
 bare classem, inicere vincla, trahere puppis ; etc. Ag. 34. 8 : sic 
 acerrimi Britannorum iam pridem ceciderunt, reliquus est numerus 
 ignavorum et metuentium. G. 25. 3 : Frumenti modum dominus aut 
 pecoris aut vestis ut colono iniungit, et servus hactenus paret : 
 cetera domus officia uxor ac liberi exsequuntur. 
 
 When no noun is expressed the connection is marked less 
 by repetition and more by the incompleteness of the alius, 
 (ceterus) or reliquus. Contrast is still prominent. 
 
 Ann. IV. 21. 10: Quod ut atrocius vero tramissum; ceterorum, 
 quae multa curnulabantur, receptus est reus, neque peractus ob 
 mortem opportunam. Ann. IV. 51. 17: Et proxima sponte 
 incolarum recepta : reliquis, quo minus vi aut obsidio subigerentur, 
 praematura montis Haemi et saeva hiems subvenit. Ann. XIV. 35. 
 8: Adesse tamen deos iustae vindictae; cecidisse legionem, quae 
 proelium ausa sit; ceteros castris occultari aut fugam circumspicere. 
 Ann. XV. 50. 8: Natalis particeps ad omne secretum Pisoni erat, 
 ceteris spes ex novis rebus petebatur. H. II. 91. 18: Inrisere 
 plerique inpudentiam aemulationis ; aliis id ipsum placebat, quod 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 123 
 
 neminem ex praepotentibus, sed Thraseam ad exemplar verae 
 gloriae legisset. H. IV. i. 11 : nee deerat egentissimus quisque e 
 plebe et pessimi servitiorum prodere ultro dites dominos, alii ab 
 amicis monstrabantur. H. IV. 81. 7: precebaturque principem, ut 
 genas et oculorum orbes dignaretur respergere oris excremento. 
 Alius manum aeger eodem deo auctore, ut pede ac vestigio Caesaris 
 calcaretur, orabat. Ag. 11. 17; Quod Britannorum olim victis 
 evenit: ceteri manent, quales Galli fuerunt. G. i. i: Germania 
 
 omnis a Gallis fluminibus, a Sarmatis montibus separatur : 
 
 cetera Oceanus ambit, etc. G. 13, 6 : Insignis nobilitas aut magna 
 patrum merita principis dignationem etiam adulescentulis adsignant: 
 ceteri robustioribus ac iam pridem probatis adgregantur, nee rubor 
 inter comites adspici. 
 
 Two more adjectives are used a few times by Tacitus 
 with this same connective force by virtue of their meaning. 
 These are par and similis and the examples of their use are 
 as follows : 
 
 Ann. I. SZ- 6: Imperium adeptus extorrem, infamem et post 
 interfectum Postumum Agrippam omnis spei egenam inopia ac tabe 
 longa peremit, obscuram fore necem longinquitate exilii ratus. Par 
 causa saevitiae in Sempronium Gracchum etc. Ann. XIII. 39. 23 : 
 Et imbelle vulgus sub corona venumdatum, reliqua praeda victori- 
 bus cessit. Pari fortuna legatus ac praefectus usi sunt, etc. Ann. 
 III. 36. 13, after a speech of Gaius Cestius : Haud dissimilia alii et 
 quidam atrociora circumstrepebant, etc. D. 2>7- 34 : Plures tamen 
 bonos proeliatores bella quam pax ferunt. Similis eloquentiae con- 
 dicio. G. 45. 30: Suionibus Sitonum gentes continuantur. Cetera 
 similes uno differunt, quod femina dominatur etc. 
 
 Further examples of words whose incompleteness of 
 meaning- furnishes the connection between their own sen- 
 tence and the preceding one, will be found in the section 
 following, on connections made by means of adverbs. They 
 are not essentially different from the cases of incomplete 
 words noted in the present section ; but because the adver- 
 bial connectives were more fixed, like the conjunctional, 
 they are all grouped together and the various types of 
 connection used with them are noted in each case. 
 
124 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 It is clear from the examples quoted already and also 
 from those with adverbs quoted in the next section, that 
 this present means of connection, lying in the meaning of 
 some particular word, incomplete by itself, requires almost 
 always some further means to reinforce it. This does not, 
 however, mean that there is no such type of connection: 
 in many cases, the fact that the words whose meaning is 
 incomplete in itself are adjectives, makes at least implied 
 repetition almost necessary ; in the cases with verbs like 
 respondeo there is less use of supplementary means of con- 
 nection. There are plenty of such cases and plenty of the 
 others in which the supplementary means are far from 
 prominent, to establish the type. The cases with such 
 adverbs as interim or ultra, alias or ex diver so, deinde or 
 postremum will make it more obvious. 
 
 The use of adverbs and of adverbial phrases to express 
 connection between sentences is not fundamental. There 
 are almost always present some underlying means of con- 
 nection such as repetition or contrast or rapidity of narra- 
 tive, which the adverbs serve only to supplement. In this 
 the adverbs are like the conjunctions : they are called into 
 use to point connections which, in the written language, 
 are not clear, but (again like the conjunctions) they come 
 to be used in many cases where they are not absolutely 
 necessary or even necessary at all, so that in Tacitus they 
 are in themselves a fixed means of connection as are the 
 conjunctional uses. Since this is so, it is convenient to 
 group all the adverbial uses together and point out in each 
 case the underlying connection which the adverb or adver- 
 bial phrase supplements. The adverb itself is more nearly 
 the sole connective force in the cases of those adverbs, 
 noted in the last section, whose meaning, as they stand 
 alone, is incomplete. For example, Ag. 5. 8, following the 
 
Connection Expressed hi the Second Clause. 125 
 
 notice of Agricola's first service in Britain: Non sane alias 
 exercitatior magisque in ambiguo Britannia fuit etc. The 
 connection is made in the alias and only slightly reinforced 
 by the use of the word Britannia, which is repeated from 
 some few sentences back. In a case with turn, on the other 
 hand, the adverb merely points out a connection really clear 
 without it; as in H. I. 11. 2: ita visum expedire, provin- 
 ciam domui retinere. Regebat tum Tiberius Alex- 
 ander, eiusdem nationis. The implied object of regebat, 
 repeated from the preceding sentence, makes the connection 
 clear without the additional tum. 
 
 Of the various types of adverbs used in Tacitus, there 
 are first of all those which merely mark the progress of 
 the narrative, usually employed in the more obscure of those 
 cases in which the rapidity or clearness of the narrative 
 alone would ordinarily make the connection. These may 
 be either literally temporal, like primum, deinde and the like, 
 used in narrative, or figuratively so in the cases in which 
 these adverbs are used to mark the progress of an argu- 
 ment. Second, there are the demonstrative adverbs whose 
 connective force is essentially that of repetition. Third, there 
 are the adverbs whose meaning is incomplete without refer- 
 ence to what has preceded, such as interim, insuper, ultra, 
 cetera, alias, or pariter. Fourth, there are adverbial phrases. 
 These are for the most part temporal, taking such form 
 as vesperescante die, isdem consulibus or eo tempore. But 
 there are a number, such as haud aliud, ex diverso and the 
 like, which depend for their connective force on the incom- 
 pleteness of their meaning. These various phrases do not 
 form a class by themselves but are classified with the simple 
 adverbs of similar type. Finally, there is a small group of 
 adverbs which are used to mark sentences in some way 
 explanatory of the preceding ones. These are certe, nimi- 
 rum, quippe, scilicet, and sine dubio. They do not in them- 
 selves make connection, but emphasize or point out the 
 explanatory nature of the sentence in which they stand. 
 The use of adverbs is comparatively familiar, nearly as 
 
126 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 much so as that of conjunctions. Few cases are therefore 
 cited except in support of particular points. 
 
 I. The first group of adverbs and adverbial phrases com- 
 prises those which express formally the connection which is 
 felt in a rapid narrative ; in other words, mark the progress 
 of the narrative without being absolutely essential to the con- 
 nection. Numerous examples were given in the first chapter 
 in which the rapidity of the narrative was the sole means 
 of sentence connection and in which this was adequate. 
 In the present group the essential element of connection is 
 not changed ; precision is added. In English, the sentence, 
 "First he went down stairs, next opened the door, then 
 went out," is not very different from "He went down 
 stairs, opened the door, and went out." There is this dif- 
 ference between the two, that in the first the succession of 
 events is formally and accurately expressed, in the second 
 it is not. And with adverbs used to a great extent even 
 when they are not necessary, a further difference is felt; 
 the sentences without adverbs suggest greater rapidity of 
 narrative. Examples of this use of adverbs are : 
 
 Ann. II. 69. 3 : Hinc graves in Pisonem contumeliae, nee minus 
 acerba quae ab illo in Caesarem intentabantur. Dein Piso abire 
 Suria statuit. Mox adversa Germanici valetudine detentus, ubi 
 recreatum accepit votaque pro incolumitate solvebantur, admotas 
 hostias, sacrificalem apparatum, festam Antiochensium plebem per 
 lictores proturbat. Turn Seleuciam degreditur, opperiens aegritu- 
 dinem, quae rursum Germanico acciderat. Ann. II. 52. 2 : Is 
 natione Numida, in castris Romanis auxiliaria stipendia meritus, 
 mox deserter, vagos primum et latrociniis suetos ad praedam et 
 raptus congregare, dein more militiae per vexilla et turmas com- 
 ponere, postremo non inconditae turbae, sed Musulamiorum dux 
 haberi. H. III. 61. 5: Per eos cognitum est Interamnam proximis 
 campis praesidio quadringentorum equitum teneri. Missus extemplo 
 Varus cum expedita manu paucos repugnantium interfecit; plures 
 abiectis armis veniam petivere. Ann. XI. 22. 15 : Creatique primum 
 Valerius Potitus et Aemilius Mamercus sexagensimo tertio anno 
 post Tarquinios exactos, ut rem militarem comitarentur. Dein 
 gliscentibus negotiis duo additi, qui Romae curarent: mox dupH- 
 catus numerus, stipendiaria iam Italia et accedentibus provinciarum 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 127 
 
 vectigalibus : post lege Sullae viginti creati supplendo senatui, cui 
 iudicia tradiderat. (The post in this example is of another type of 
 adverb, that in which the meaning by its incompleteness forces a 
 reference to the preceding sentence.) H. I. 38. 12: Aperiri deinde 
 armamentarium iussit. Rapta statim arma etc. Ag. 8. i, following 
 the notice of Agricola's appointment to the command of the twen- 
 tieth legion : Praeerat time Britanniae Vettius Bolanus etc. Ag. 
 II. IS: Nam Gallos quoque in bellis floruisse accepimus; mox 
 segnitia cum otio intravit, amissa virtute pariter ac libertate. G. 37. 
 19: nee impune C. Marius in Italia, divus lulius in Gallia, Drusus 
 ac Nero et Germanicus in suis eos sedibus perculerunt: mox 
 ingentes Gai Caesaris minae in ludibrium versae. Inde otium, 
 donee occasione discordiae nostrae et civilium armorum expugnatis 
 legionum hibernis etiam Gallias adfectavere; ac rursus inde pulsi 
 proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi sunt. 
 
 Of the many adverbial phrases expressing- time, some 
 belong- to the present category. Others, in which repeti- 
 tion or incompleteness of meaning plays the chief part in 
 making the connection, fall under the following sections. 
 Those included in the present category are the ones which 
 express the time at which the action of the verb takes place 
 and so mark the progress of the narrative as did the adverbs 
 above. Frequently these phrases are in the ablative absolute 
 construction. They may refer to long stretches of time and 
 express dates, or to shorter periods and mark the time of 
 day and the like. Occasionally in such an expression as 
 fine anni there is a slight element of repetition. Examples 
 are: 
 
 Ann. II. 12. 12 : Penitus noscendas mentes, cum secreti et incus- 
 toditi inter militaris cibos spem aut metum proferrent. Nocte 
 coepta egressus augurali per occulta et vigilibus ignara, comite uno, 
 contectus umeros ferina pelle, adit castrorum vias etc. Later in 
 line 14 of the same paragraph : Tertia f erme vigilia adsultatum est 
 castris etc. H. II. 44. 5 : Vedium Aquilam tertiae decumae legionis 
 legatum irae militum inconsultus pavor obtulit. Multo adhuc die 
 vallum ingressus clamore seditiosorum et fugacium circumstrepitur. 
 H. II. 49i 9: Vesperescante die sitim haustu gelidae aquae sedavit. 
 Tum adlatis pugionibus duobus cum utrumque pertemptasset, 
 alteram capiti subdidit. Et explorato iam profectos amicos, noctem 
 quietam, utque adfirmatur, non insomnem egit: luce prima in 
 
128 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 f errum pectore incubuit. H. III. 19. i, after an account of a battle : 
 Inumbrante vespera universum Flaviani exercitus robur advenit. 
 Ann. III. 30. I : Fine anni concessere vita insignes viri L. Volusius 
 et Sallustius Crispus. Ann. VI. 31. i : C. Cestio M. Servilio con- 
 sulibus nobiles Parthi in urbem venere, ignaro rege Artabano. Ann. 
 XIII. 31. I : Nerone iterum L. Pisone consulibus pauca memoria 
 digna evenere etc. H. I. 90. i : Pridie idus Martias commendata 
 patribus re publica reliquias Neronianarum sectionum nondum in 
 fiscum conversas revocatis ab exilic concessit, etc. (Compare, for 
 dates H. III. 67. 6, and H. IV. 53- 5-) H. IV. 39. i: Kalendis 
 
 lanuariis in senatu legatis exercitibusque ac regibus laudes 
 
 gratesque decretae ; etc. Ag. 24. i : Quinto expeditionum anno 
 nave prima transgressus ignotas ad id tempus gentis crebris simul 
 ac prosperis proeliis domuit ; etc. Ag. 29. i : Initio aestatis 
 Agricola domestico vulnere ictus, anno ante natum filium amisit. 
 
 2. The second ^roup of adverbial connections consists 
 of those w^hich express the connection by means of some 
 type of repetition. These are chiefly the demonstrative 
 adverbs and the phrases containing- demonstrative words, 
 but the group also includes numerous adverbial phrases 
 marking some definite time and depending for connective 
 force on repetition, as, for example, die senatus. The regu- 
 larly recognized "subordinate" clauses of time with cum, 
 ubi, quotiens and the like, are also illustrated in the present 
 paragraph because of the fact that the large majority of 
 such clauses show repetition of one type or another. This 
 does not refer of course to their relation to their so-called 
 main verb but to the preceding sentence. The demonstra- 
 tive adverbs occurring in Tacitus are hie, hue, hinc, adhuc, 
 dehinc, hactenus, posthac, eo, eoqiie, adeo, ideo, postea, 
 interea, inde, delude, perinde, proinde, ita, illic, illuc, ibi, 
 sic, totidem, utrimque, utrobique. The adverbial phrases 
 are too numerous to cite; they include such phrases as 
 ad id tempus, eadem node, isdem diebus or usque eo. This 
 usage is very frequent indeed. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. II. 69. I : At Germanicus Aegypto remeans cuncta, quae 
 apud legiones aut urbes iusserat, abolita vel in contrarium versa 
 cognoscit. Hinc graves in Pisonem contumeliae, nee minus acerba 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 129 
 
 quae ab illo in Caesarem intentabantur. G. 28. 6: Igitur inter 
 Hercyniam silvam Rhenumque et Moenum amnes Helvetii, ulteriora 
 Boii, Gallica utraque gens, tenuere. Manet adhuc Boihaemi nomen 
 etc. Ann. IV. 74. 8: Non illi tamen in urbem aut propinqua urbi 
 degressi sunt; satis visum omittere insulam et in proximo Cam- 
 paniae aspici. Eo venire patres, eques, magna pars plebis, etc. 
 Ann. VI. 32. I : Cupitum id Tiberio : ornat Phraaten accingitque 
 paternum ad fastigium, destinata retinens, consiliis et astu res 
 externas moliri, arma procul habere. Interea cognitis insidiis Arta- 
 banus tardari metu, modo cupidine vindictae inardescere. Ann. XI. 
 24. 26: Ac tamen, si cuncta bella recenseas, nullum breviore spatio 
 quam adversus Gallos confectum : continua inde ac fida pax. 
 Ann. XII. 22. 10: proin publicatis bonis cederet Italia. Ita quin- 
 quagiens sestertium ex opibus immensis exuli relictum. Ann. XIV. 
 4. I : Placuit sollertia, tempore etiam iuta, quando Quinquatruum 
 festos dies apud Baias freouentabat. Illuc matrem elicit, etc. Ann. 
 XV. 57. 3: At illam non verbera, non ignes, non ira eo acrius 
 torquentium, ne a femina spernerentur, pervicere, quin obiecta 
 denegaret. Sic primus quaestionis dies contemptus. H. I. 27. 12 : 
 Ibi tres et viginti speculatores consalutatum imperatorem ac pauci- 
 tate salutantium trepidum et sellae festinanter impositum strictis 
 mucronibus rapiunt; totidem ferme milites in itinere adgregantur, 
 
 etc. H. II. 21. 13: Vitelliani pluteos cratesque , Othoniani 
 
 sudes et inmensas lapidum ac plumbi aerisque moles expedi- 
 
 unt. Utrimque pudor, utrimque gloria et diversae exhortationes etc. 
 H. IV. 28. 2: Ille, ut cuique proximum, vastari Ubios Treverosque, 
 et aliam manum Mosam amnem transire iubet, ut Menapios et 
 Morinos et extrema Galliarum quateret. Actae utrobique praedae, 
 infestius in Ubiis, etc. Ann. VI. 27. 13, after an account of the 
 death of Aelius Lamia : Obiit eodem anno et M'. Lepidus, de cuius 
 moderatione atque sapientia in prioribus libris satis conlocavi. Ann. 
 XI. II. i: Isdem consulibus ludi saeculares octingentesimo post 
 Romam conditam, quarto et sexagensimo, quam Augustus ediderat, 
 spectati sunt. Ann. XII. 28. 7 : decretusque Pomponio triumphalis 
 honos, modica pars famae eius apud posteros, in quis carminum 
 gloria praecellit. Per idem tempus Vannius Suebis a Druso Caesare 
 inpositus pellitur regno, etc. Ann. XV. 35. i : Eius munus fre- 
 quentanti Neroni ne inter voluptates quidem a sceleribus cessabatur. 
 Isdem quippe illis diebus Torquatus Silanus mori adigitur, quia 
 super luniae familiae claritudinem divum Augustum abavum fere- 
 bat. Ag. 28. I : Eadem aestate cohors Usiporum memorabile 
 
 facinus ausa est. Ag. 41. i : Crebro per eos dies apud Domitianum 
 absens accusatus, absens absolutus est. 
 
130 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 A number of adverbial phrases depend for the expression 
 of connection on other types of repetition than that with a 
 demonstrative. This is not ordinarily direct repetition of 
 a word from the preceding sentence, but a word either 
 repeats some element of meaning from what has pre- 
 ceded, or else actually repeats a particular word from 
 some distance back in the narrative. The phrase may be 
 merely an expansion of a simple ablative of time, as is the 
 case with die niiptiarum or fine anni, or it may be an abla- 
 tive absolute, one of the words being a repetition from what 
 has preceded. These have all been treated as examples of 
 repetition, which is their fundamental element of connection, 
 but as phrases they have adverbial force and are therefore 
 further illustrated here. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. III. II. 9: Haud alias intentior populus plus sibi in princi- 
 pem occultae vocis aut suspicacis silentii permisit. Die senatus 
 Caesar orationem habuit meditato temperamento. Ann. V. il. i : 
 Exitu anni aucta discordia consulum erupit. (Cf. eius anni prin- 
 cipio in Ann. XIII. 34. 9, and fine anni in Ann. III. 30. i, IV. 61. i, 
 VI. 14. I, etc. etc.) Ann. XII. 8. i : Die nuptiarum Silanus mortem 
 sibi conscivit etc. Ann. XIII. 2. 15 : Decreti et a senatu duo 
 lictores, flamonium Claudiale, simul Claudio censorium funus et 
 mox consecratio. Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus 
 est etc. (Compare with these cases, the use of eo die cited in the 
 last section and such an expression as die pacta in Ann. XV. 28. 11; 
 also the cases on the border line between the present category and 
 the following one: postera luce (Ann. XVI. 27. i), proximo senatu 
 (H. IV. 44. i) and the like. They are all alike in having present 
 in them in one form or another the element of repetition.) Ann. XVI. 
 6. I : Post finem ludicri Poppaea mortem obiit etc. Ann. II. 2. i : 
 Post finem Phraatis et sequentium regum ob internas caedes venere 
 in urbem legati a primoribus Parthis etc. Ann. II. 22. i, following 
 the account of a Roman victory: Laudatis pro contione victoribus 
 Caesar congeriem armorum struxit etc. Ann. III. 55. i, following 
 the quotation of Caesar's letter : Auditis Caesaris litteris, remissa 
 aedilibus talis cura ; etc. Ann. III. 26. 14: Sed praecipuus Servius 
 Tullius sanctor legum fuit, quis etiam reges obtemperarent. Pulso 
 Tarquinio adversum patrum factiones multa populus paravit tuendae 
 libertatis et firmandae concordiae etc. (This last case is perhaps the 
 most doubtful. There is certainly no actual repetition. The sense 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 131 
 
 is clear only as the name of Tarquinius is necessarily associated with 
 the mention of the other kings : Romulus has been named, then 
 Numa, Tullus, Ancus and finally Servius Tullius. The temporal 
 connection is clear but it is due to association rather than to real 
 repetition.) 
 
 Very frequently the recognized time clauses with cum, 
 dum, postquam, quotiens, ubi and ut, serve to express the 
 connection between two sentences. Sometimes there is very 
 little to support this connection as in G. 14. i, following- an 
 account of the young German's first assuming arms : Cum 
 ventum in aciem, turpe principi virtute vinci, turpe comi- 
 tatui virtutem principis non adaequare. There is little in 
 this sentence outside of the purely temporal connection in 
 the cum clause, except it be the use of terms all in the same 
 category, to connect it with the one preceding. On the 
 other hand, the very next paragraph, also introduced by a 
 temporal clause, opens with a strong contrast to reinforce 
 the connection : Quotiens bella non ineunt, non multum 
 venatibus, plus per otium transigunt. The prevailing means 
 of connection in such clauses is repetition, as in Ann. I. 68. 
 6: Igitur orta die proruunt fossas, iniciunt crates, summa 
 valli prensant, raro super milite et quasi ob metum defixo. 
 Postquam haesere munimentis, datur cohortibus signum 
 cornuaque ac tubae concinuere. In the understood subject 
 of the haesere and more concretely in the munimentis there 
 is repetition. Further examples are: 
 
 H. III. 33. 16 : Per quadriduum Cremona sufficit. Cum omnia 
 sacra profanaque in ignem considerent, solum Alefitis templum 
 stetit ante moenia, loco seu numine defensum. G. 21. 7: Quem- 
 cumque mortalium arcere tecto nefas habetur; pro fortuna quisque 
 apparatis epulis excipit. Cum defecere, qui modo hospes fuerat, 
 monstrator hospitii et comes ; proximam domum non invitati adeunt. 
 H. II. 41. 6: Caecina dimissis tribunis revectus in castra datum 
 iussu Fabii Valentis pugnae signum et militem in armis invenit. 
 Dum legiones de ordine agminis sortiuntur, equites prorupere ; etc. 
 H. III. 83. I : Aderat pugnantibus spectator populus, utque in 
 ludicro certamine, hos, rursus illos clamore et plausu fovebat. 
 Quotiens pars altera inclinasset, abditos in tabernis aut si quam in 
 
132 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 domum perfugerant, erui iugularique expostulantes parte maiore 
 praedae potiebantur : etc. Ann. VI. 42. 4: Et quotiens Concordes 
 agunt, spernitur Parthus : ubi dissensere, dum sibi quisque contra 
 aemulos subsidium vocant, accitus in partem adversum omnes 
 valescit. G. 36. 2 : idque iucundius quam tutius fuit, quia inter 
 inpotentes et validos f also quiescas : ubi manu agitur, modestia ac 
 probitas nomina superiori sunt. H. IV. 71. 24: Paulum morae in 
 adscensu, dum missilia hostium praevehuntur : ut ventum in manus, 
 deturbati ruinae modo praecipitantur. (The last three examples 
 rely on contrast for their real connection : the temporal clause 
 merely furnishes the mechanical framework. The contrast lies in 
 particular words, as for example, Concordes and dissensere. These 
 cases have been more fully discussed in the section on contrast.) 
 
 3. A third group of adverbial connectives corresponds to 
 the class of words vi^hich are incomplete in their meaning- 
 as they stand alone and which therefore in use turn the 
 attention back toward what has preceded for the sake of 
 completing the meaning. They are really a special division 
 of that class and therefore need only to be illustrated. The 
 adverbs so used are alias, aliqui, aliter, cetera, circa, circum, 
 contra, desuper, insiiper, interim, pariter, porro, post, rur- 
 sum, rursiis, simul, ultra. The following adverbial phrases 
 belong to this group by virtue of their meaning: e con- 
 trario, ex diverse, medium omne tempus, secutis diebiis. 
 Comparative adverbs like nihilominus belong also to this 
 group and such phrases as postera die are on the border line 
 between this and the preceding type. Examples are : 
 
 Ann. III. Ti. 9, after an account of the arrangements for Piso's 
 trial : Haud ahas intentior populus plus sibi in principem occultae 
 vocis aut suspicacis silentii permisit. Ann. IV. 69. 11: Properata 
 inde accusatio, missisque ad Caesarem litteris ordinem fraudis 
 suumque ipsi dedecus narravere. Non alias magis anxia et pavens 
 civitas, reticens adversum proximos; etc. Ann. II. 38. 14: Dedit 
 tibi, Hortale, divus Augustus pecuniam, sed non conpellatus nee ea 
 lege, ut semper daretur. Languescet alioqui industria, intendetur 
 socordia, etc. H. IV. 59. 16: Classicus corruptissimum quemque e 
 deditis pergere ad obsessos iubet, veniam ostentantes, si praesentia 
 sequerentur: aliter nihil spei, famem ferrumque et extrema 
 passuros. G. 17. i : Tegumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 133 
 
 spina consertum: cetera intecti totos dies iuxta focum atque ignem 
 agunt. Ann. I. 63. 14: Angustus is trames vastas inter paludes 
 
 cetera limosa, tenacia gravi caeno aut rivis incerta erant; 
 
 circum silvae paulatim adclives, etc. Ann. III. 31. 11: Pro 
 Corbulone aetas, patrius mos, studia seniorum erant: contra 
 Mamercus Scaurus et L. Arruntius aliique Sullae propinqui nite- 
 bantur. Ann. IV. 48. 9: alii castra Romana adpugnarent, non spe 
 capiendi, sed ut clamore, telis suo quisque periculo intentus sonorem 
 alterius proelii non acciperet. Tenebrae insuper delectae augendam 
 ad formidinem. D. 18. 13: Nee quaero quis dissertissimus : hoc 
 interim probasse contentus sum non esse unum eloquentiae vultum, 
 etc. Ann. VI. 8. 18: tibi summum rerum iudicium di dedere, nobis 
 obsequi gloria relicta est. Spectamus porro quae coram habentur 
 etc. H. IV. 46. 25: Isque finis ilia die. Paucis post diebus adlo- 
 quentem Domitianum firmati iam excepere : spernunt oblatos agros, 
 militiam et stipendia orant. Ann. I. 25. 4: lUi quotiens oculos ad 
 multitudinem rettulerant, vocibus truculentis strepere, rursum viso 
 Caesare trepidare; etc. Ann. I. 18. 5: alio vertunt, atque una tres 
 aquilas et signa cohortium locant; simul congerunt caespites, 
 exstruunt tribunal, quo magis conspicua sedes foret. H. II. 76. 15: 
 cessisti etiam Galbae imaginibus: torpere ultra et polluendam 
 perdendamque rem publicam relinquere sopor et ignavia videretur, 
 etc. H. II. 5. 5, after a description of Vespasian : Mucianum e 
 contrario magnificentia et opes et cuncta privatum modum super- 
 gressa extollebant, etc. H. III. 72- 2: Quippe Vitellianus miles 
 neque astu neque constantia inter dubia indigebat: ex diverse 
 trepidi milites, dux segnes etc. H. IV. 62. i : Legio sexta decuma 
 cum auxiliis simul deditis a Novaesio in coloniam Treverorum 
 transgredi iubetur, praefinita die, intra quam castris excederet. 
 Medium omne tempus per varias curas egere etc. Ann. II. 16. 2: 
 Is medius inter Visurgim et colles, ut ripae fluminis cedunt aut 
 prominentia montium resistunt, inaequaliter sinuatur. Pone tergum 
 insurgebat silva, etc. Ann. XIII. 27. 15 : Nee multo post ereptus 
 amitae libertus Paris quasi iure civili, non sine infamia principis, 
 cuius iussu perpetratum ingenuitatis iudicium erat. Manebat nihilo 
 minus quaedam imago rei publicae. Ann. XI. 38. 5 : Nee ille quae- 
 sivit, poposcitque poculum et solita convivio celebravit. Ne secutis 
 quidem diebus odii gaudii, irae tristitiae, ullius denique humani 
 adfectus signa dedit etc. 
 
 4. The adverbs of the group that is left have less con- 
 nective power in their meaning- than any of the others. 
 Certe, niminim, quippe, scilicet, serve rather the purpose of 
 
134 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 italics in English: they emphasize the word with which 
 they are used and in so doing- bring out strongly some con- 
 trast which is already present without the addition of the 
 adverb. Further than this, they regularly mark the clause 
 in which they stand as explanatory in some way of a state- 
 ment, either uncertain or unusual, in the preceding sentence. 
 They vary in the tone which they give to the clause: 
 scilicet generally suggests an ironical, quippe a serious 
 tone. The same points are true also of sane and sine dubio, 
 but these words dififer from the rest in one point: they 
 do not always mark their clause as explanatory of, or in 
 any way related to, the preceding sentence but rather as 
 being connected with the following sentence. This is not, 
 however, a totally different usage. Just as alius must refer 
 to some clause outside its own, and, if the mind has nothing 
 to which to refer it in what has preceded, forces it to antici- 
 pate the following clause or sentence, so sane and sine diihio 
 have the same anticipatory force, first when their clause can- 
 not refer to what has preceded, and then, when this usage is 
 familiar, even when it might do so. Emphasized contrast 
 is always the fundamental connecting element. The antici- 
 patory use of these words has been discussed in the second 
 chapter. It remains to illustrate the usage in which these 
 adverbs mark their own sentences as explanatory of the 
 preceding. Ann. XIV. 59. 4: Sunt qui alios a socero nun- 
 tios venisse ferant, tamquam nihil atrox immineret; doc- 
 
 toresque sapientiae constantiam opperiendae mortis 
 
 pro incerta et trepida vita suassisse. Repertus est certe per 
 medium diei nudus exercitando corpori. In this case the 
 assumption of the subject has considerable influence, but 
 the certe gives the tone to the clause and makes the sort 
 of connection between the clauses plain. Ann. VI. 2. 8: 
 Nam principem orabat deligere senatores, ex quis viginti 
 sorte ducti et ferro accincti, quotiens curiam inisset, salutem 
 eius defenderent. Crediderat nimirum epistulae subsidio 
 sibi alterum ex consulibus poscentis, ut tutus a Capreis 
 urbem peteret. As will be seen later, the tense of crediderat 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 135 
 
 in itself sugfgests the explanatory nature of the second 
 clause. The nimirum only serves to mark this. 
 
 Quippe is used more frequently by Tacitus and in more 
 various ways than the other similar adverbs and it therefore 
 requires more examples. Ann. I. 32. i : Nee legatus 
 obviam ibat: quippe plurium vaecordia constantiam exem- 
 erat. Here as above it is the explanatory pluperfect which 
 is marked by the adverb. Ann. I. 70. 16: Pernoctavere 
 
 sine utensilibus baud minus miserabiles quam quos 
 
 hostis circumsidet : quippe illic etiam honestae mortis usus, 
 his inglorium exitium. The demonstrative illic is empha- 
 sized by quippe. Ann. VI. 27. 15: Neque nobilitas diutius 
 demonstranda est : quippe Aemilium genus fecundum bono- 
 rum civium, etc. In this example a general statement is 
 pointed by a particular example and quippe shows that the 
 second clause is such a particular clause, explaining the 
 first. Ann. XI. 26. 2 : cum abrumpi dissimulationem etiam 
 
 Silius urguebat: quippe non eo ventum, ut senectam 
 
 principis opperirentur. This is a purely explanatory clause 
 marked by quippe. Ann. XII. 36. 7: et Caesar dum suum 
 decus extollit, addidit gloriam victo. Vocatus quippe ut ad 
 insigne spectaculum populus : etc. In this case the quippe 
 marks an explanatory sentence expressing the cause of the 
 
 preceding one. Ann. XV. 3. i: legiones duas sub- 
 
 sidium Tigrani mittit, occulto praecepto, compositius cuncta 
 quam festinantius agerent: quippe bellum habere quam 
 gerere malebat. This quippe clause also marks its sentence 
 as giving the reason for the first one. The connection 
 would not be more clear if enim were used. Ann. XV. 29. 
 2 : Ille de nobilitate generis multum praefatus, cetera 
 temperanter adiungit: iturum quippe Romam laturumque 
 novum Caesari decus, etc. This is a case of the beginning 
 of indirect discourse clearly anticipated. But quippe is 
 used to mark the second clause as indubitably an explana- 
 tory one. 
 
 Scilicet is not unlike quippe except that it has a more 
 prevailingly ironical suggestion. Ann. VI. 23. 3: Con- 
 
136 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 sultusque Caesar an sepeliri sineret, non erubuit permittere 
 ultroque incusare casus, qui reum abstulissent, antequani 
 coram convinceretur : scilicet medio triennio defuerat tern- 
 pus subeundi iudicium consulari seni, tot consularium par- 
 enti. Ann. IV. 61. 4: monimenta ingeni eius baud perinde 
 retinentur. Scilicet impetu magis quam cura vigebat; etc. 
 Ann. XI. 24. 23 : At cum Sennonibus pugnavimus : scilicet 
 Vulsci et Aequi numquam adversam nobis aciem instruxere. 
 The use of sane with reference to the preceding clause 
 is also often like quippe. Ann. XII. T^y. 12: Atque illi 
 
 vinclis absoluti Agrippinam quoque isdem quibus 
 
 principem laudibus gratibusque venerati sunt. Novum 
 sane et moribus veterum insolitum, feminam signis Roma- 
 nis praesidere: etc. H. I. 9. 7: In Britannico exercitu 
 nihil irarum. Non sane aliae legiones per omnes civi- 
 lium bellorum motus innocentius egerunt. Ann. Ill, 70, 6: 
 Non enim debere eripi patribus vim statuendi neque tantum 
 maleficium impune habendum. Sane lentus in suo dolore 
 esset : rei publicae iniurias ne largiretur. This last case is 
 a good illustration of the more common and more important 
 use of sane — the anticipatory. Whether it also marks the 
 entire second sentence as explanatory of the first is perhaps 
 more doubtful. 
 
 Among the identifying signs of a subordinate sentence, 
 Hermann (K. Z. 33. (1895): Parataxis) notes change of 
 person, change of mode and change of tense. Expressed 
 in more general terms, these are the functional changes in 
 the verb, and, disregarding the term "subordinate," they 
 are all found expressing sentence connection, the relation 
 of one sentence or clause to another, in Tacitus. As Her- 
 mann says, the connection by means of a change of person 
 is rarely sufficient in itself to show the relation to each 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 137 
 
 other of two sentences ; it is regularly used with some other 
 means. It is also true that none of these three types of 
 changes are used alone by Tacitus to any considerable 
 extent. Almost invariably they are supported by some of 
 the means already cited. It is this type of sentence con- 
 nection that has been chiefly studied to gain an understand- 
 ing of parataxis in its narrower sense, and it is this type 
 which is of especial interest for the historical study of the 
 ut clauses, for example. But Tacitus is not the author in 
 whom to look for examples of the usage, for it is a compar- 
 atively early one. The relations which are expressed by 
 these verb changes are so general and various that, in the 
 development of the language, precision was given in each 
 case by the adoption of further means to indicate the par- 
 ticular relation in the particular instance. For this type of 
 connection earlier and less formal Latin must be studied; 
 Plautus is both, and furnishes an especially good field for 
 the study. But there are a few examples even from Tacitus 
 to be cited. 
 
 I. CHANGE OF PERSON. Ordinarily when there is 
 a change in the person of the verb, the subject is expressed 
 with the second verb, and this in itself introduces the chief 
 element of connection. To such an extent is this true that 
 in the cases in which the subject remains the same and is 
 unexpressed, that fact in itself becomes a guide to the con- 
 nection hardly different from the repetition of the subject. 
 In cases, however, in which a verb in the first person is 
 inserted parenthetically, the change of person distinctly 
 marks the connection. The cases of this in Tacitus are : 
 
 D. 15. 4: cum neminem hoc tempore oratorem esse con- 
 
 tenderes parem antiquis, eo, credo, audacius, quod malignitatis 
 opinionem non verebaris, etc. D. 26. 31 : veritus credo, ne multos 
 offenderet, si paucos excerpsisset. D. 37. 25 : Non, opinor, Demos- 
 thenem orationes inlustrant, quas adversus tutores suos composuit, 
 etc. D. 33. 11: nee tu puto abnues et hi significare vultu videntur. 
 H. II. 76. 20: Splendidior origine quam nos sumus, fateor, sed et 
 Nero nobilitate natalium Vitellium anteibat. Ag. 10. 18: Sed mare 
 
138 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 pigrum et grave remigantibus perhibent ne ventis quidem perinde 
 attoUi, credo quod rariores terrae montesque, causa ac materia 
 tempestatum, et profunda moles continui maris tardius impellitur. 
 G. 2Z- 7- Maneat, quaeso, duretque gentibus, si non amor nostri, 
 at certe odium sui etc. 
 
 Even when a slight additional element of connection is 
 added by introducing a conjunction, the change of person 
 is still the leading element : 
 
 D. 17. I : Sed transeo ad Latinos oratores, in quibus non 
 Menenium, ut puto, Agrippam, qui potest videri antiquus, nostrorum 
 temporum disertis anteponere soletis, etc. D. 21. 5 : ipse mihi 
 Calvus, cum unum et viginti, ut puto, libros reliquerit, vix in una 
 et altera oratiuncula satis facit. D. 25. 2: neque enim diu contra 
 dicendum est Apro, qui primum, ut opinior, nominis controversiam 
 movit, tamquam parum proprie antiqui vocarentur, quos satis con- 
 stat ante centum annos fuisse. 
 
 The change of person is also one of the chief indications 
 of the sentence connection in those instances in which a 
 clause of personal explanation in the first person is inserted 
 in the narrative. This may be thrown in parenthetically in 
 the midst of a sentence or form by itself a separate sentence. 
 In either case, it regularly explains Tacitus' reasons for 
 some statement or his hesitancy to vouch for them. 
 Examples are : 
 
 Ann. IV. 34. 25 : sed ipse divus lulius, ipse divus Augustus et 
 tulere ista et reliquere, baud facile dixerim, moderatione magis an 
 sapientia. Ann. XIV. 59. 12: cuius aspectu (ipsa principis verba 
 
 referam) cur, inquit Nero (text ends abruptly.) D. 18. 25: 
 
 rursusque Ciceronem a Calvo quidem male audisse tamquam solu- 
 tum et enervem, a Bruto autem, ut ipsius verbis utar, tamquam 
 
 fractum atque elunibem. D. 32. 19: ut nunc curcumcisa et 
 
 amputata, sine apparatu, sine honore, paene dixerim sine ingenui- 
 tate, quasi una ex sordidissimis artificiis discatur. D. 34. 7 : ita ut 
 altercationes quoque exciperet et iurgiis interesset utque sic dixerim, 
 pugnare in proelio disceret. Ann. III. 65. i, after an account of 
 the opinions of Apronius and Tiberius : exsequi sententias baud 
 institui nisi insignes per honestum aut notabili dedecore etc. Ann. 
 IV. 31. 20: Eius operae memor Tiberius, sed alia praetendens, 
 exilium deprecatus est: quo minus senatu pelleretur non obstitit 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 139 
 
 Pleraque eorum, quae rettulli quaeque referam, parva forsitan et 
 levia memoratu videri non nescius sum: etc. H. II. 36. 6: Dein 
 Flavium Sabinum consulem designatum Otho rectorem copiis misit, 
 quibus Macer praefuerat, laeto milite ad mutationem ducum et 
 ducibus ob crebras seditiones tam infestam militiam aspernantibus. 
 Invenio apud quosdam auctores, pavore belli sen fastidio utriusque 
 principis dubitasse exercitus etc. 
 
 The change of person has some influence also in express- 
 ing the connection at the beginning- of a direct quotation, or 
 in a directly quoted dialogue. This influence is not great, 
 because of the strength of the other elements of connection 
 always present, but it is undoubtedly present in such cases 
 as the following: 
 
 Ann. IV. 8. 18: Quibus adprensis 'patres conscripti, hos' inquit 
 'orbatos parente tradidi patruo ipsorum etc' Ann. VI. 6. i : Insigne 
 visum est earum Caesaris litterarum initium; nam his verbis 
 exorsus est: 'quid scribam vobis, patres conscripti, aut quo modo 
 scribam aut quid omnino non scribam hoc tempore, di me deaeque 
 peius perdant, quam perire me cotidie sentio, si scio.' Ann. XIV. 
 42. 9 : Ex quis C. Cassius sententiae loco in hunc modum disseruit : 
 'Saepe numero, patres conscripti, in hoc ordine interfui, cum con- 
 tra instituta et leges maiorum nova senatus decreta postularentur, 
 etc' H. I. 36. 16: pro vallo castrorum ita coepit. 'Quis ad vos 
 processerim, commilitones, dicere non possum etc' Ag. 29. 16: 
 Calgacus apud contractam multitudinem proelium poscentem in 
 hunc modum locutus fertur: 'Quotiens causas belli et necessitatem 
 nostram intueor, etc' 
 
 Especially is this means useful in pointing the connection 
 in those quotations in which the anticipation is doubtful, 
 as in the following: 
 
 Ann. I. 28. 14: Hi vigiliis, stationibus, custodiis portarum se 
 inserunt, spem offerunt, metum intendunt. 'Quo usque filium 
 imperatoris obsidebimus?' H. III. 81. 7: Obviae fuere et virgines 
 Vestales cum epistulis Vitellii ad Antonium scriptis : eximi supremo 
 certamini unum diem postulabat ; etc. Ag. 33. 15 : f ortissimi 
 cuiusque voces audiebam : 'quando dabitur hostis, quando acies ?' 
 .Veniunt, e latebris suis extrusi, etc. (The last case is especially 
 good as having two changes, the second one in particular furnish- 
 
14° Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 ing a strong element of connection. In both the cases in this 
 example the tense changes are also important and will be discussed 
 later.) 
 
 In some of the cases of the following paragraphs the 
 change of person will be found as a subsidiary means of 
 connection by the side of connection by tense or mode. In 
 such a case as Orabant pimiret noxios (Ann. I. 44. i) it is 
 of considerable importance, but the modal change is the most 
 prominent and the examples will therefore be cited in that 
 connection. 
 
 2. CHANGE OF TENSE. The simplest type of the 
 change of tense, because of the frequency with which it is 
 made use of by Tacitus, is that from a narrative tense, 
 either imperfect or perfect, to the pluperfect, for the pur- 
 pose usually of introducing an explanation. The pluper- 
 fect tense has always the sort of incompleteness in its 
 meaning which has already been noted in certain words 
 like alius; but in the pluperfect tense it is an incomplete- 
 ness due to the time idea. If something had happened, it 
 necessarily implies that something did happen or zvas hap- 
 pening to which the first something was precedent. This 
 is so far true that if the pluperfect tense can refer to no 
 action already described, it necessarily anticipates one to 
 be described, again a parallel to the use of alius. This last 
 type, however, regularly has in Tacitus a cum or other 
 conjunction with the second verb to make the connection 
 perfectly clear, as in D. 14. i : Vixdum finierat Maternus, 
 concitatus et velut instinctus, cum Vipstanus Messalla cubi- 
 culum ingressus est, etc. Other examples of the anticipa- 
 tory use of the pluperfect are : 
 
 Ann. II. 8. i : lamque classis advenerat, cum praemisso commeatu 
 et distributis in legiones ac socios navibus fossam, cui Drusianae 
 
 nomen, ingressus Oceanum usque ad Amisiam flumen secunda 
 
 navigatione pervehitur. (This example is one of the most doubtful 
 from the point of view of anticipation, for the pluperfect might 
 have reference to what has preceded : the cum is really needed here 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 141 
 
 to mark the connection.) Ann. IV. 64. i : Nondum ea clades 
 exoleverat, cum ignis violentia urbem ultra solitum adfecit, deusto 
 monte Caelio ; etc. Ann. VI. 25. i : Nondum is dolor exoleverat, 
 
 cum de Agrippina auditum voluntate exstinctam, etc. D. 42. 
 
 I : Finierat Maternus, cum Messalla : 'Erant quibus contra dicerem, 
 erant de quibus plus dici vellem, nisi iam dies esset exactus.' 
 
 In all of the foregoing cases the relation has been alto- 
 gether one of time. The change from pluperfect to perfect 
 or imperfect may also express other relations, such as the 
 adversative or causal, but these too are regularly marked 
 by a conjunction or other familiar sign of connection, and 
 the succession of time is a very prominent factor. For 
 example : 
 
 Ann. I. 56. 18: Fuerat animus Cheruscis iuvare Chattos, sed 
 exterruit Caecina hue illuc ferens arma; et Marsos congredi ausos 
 prospero proelio cohibuit. H. IV. 18. 19: Nudaverat sinistrum 
 cornu Batavorum ala transfugiens statimque in nos versa. Sed 
 legionarius miles, quamquam rebus trepidus, arma ordinemque 
 retinebat. Ann. III. 2. i : Miserat duas cohortes Caesar, addito ut 
 magistratus Calabriae Apulique et Campani suprema erga memo- 
 riam filii sui munia fungeretur. Igitur tribunorum centurionumque 
 umeris cineres portabantur ; etc. H. III. 69. i : Praevenerat rumor 
 eiurari ab eo imperium scripseratque Flavins Sabinus cohortium 
 tribunis, ut militem cohiberent. Igitur tamquam omnis res publica 
 in Vespasiani sinum cecidisset, primores senatus et plerique eques- 
 tris ordinis omnisque miles urbanus et vigiles domum Flavii Sabini 
 complevere. Ann. XIV. 45. 8: Censuerat Cingonius Varro ut 
 liberti quoque, qui sub eodem tecto fuissent, Italia deportarentur. 
 Id a principe prohibitum est, etc. H. V. 12. 5 : Providerant condi- 
 tores ex diversitate morum crebra bella: inde cuncta quamvis 
 adversus longum obsidium; etc. Ann. XV. 16. 16: Decesserat 
 certamen virtutis et ambitio gloriae, felicium hominum adfectus: 
 sola miser icordia valebat, et apud minores magis. (In this case 
 contrast is the auxiliary means of connection; the tense change is 
 more important than in the preceding cases. In the following 
 example, it is still more so.) H. I. 20. 2: Bis et viciens miliens 
 sestertium donationibus Nero effuderat: appellari singulos iussit, 
 decuma parte liberalitatis apud quemque eorum relicta. (The more 
 nearly the tense change comes to being the one means of expressing 
 the connection, the more nearly does the pluperfect, which has 
 nothing preceding it to which it can refer, become an anticipatory 
 means of connection.) 
 
142 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 The following are examples of the more ordinary change 
 from a simple past tense to a pluperfect; sometimes the 
 subject remains the same in the second verb and is therefore 
 not expressed; otherwise it is regularly expressed. 
 
 Ann. III. 45. 7 : Duodecimum apud lapidem Sacrovir copiaeque 
 patentibus locis apparuere. In fronte statuerat ferratos, in cornibus 
 cohortes, a tergo semermos. Ann. IV. 44. 4: Domitium decoravit 
 pater civili bello maris potens, donee Antonii partibus, mox Caesaris 
 misceretur. Avus Pharsalica acie pro optumatibus ceciderat. Ann. 
 IV. 74. 2: Neque senatus in eo cura, an imperii extrema dehonest- 
 arentur: pavor internus occupaverat animos, cui remedium adul- 
 atione quaerebatur. Ann. VI. 8. 5 : f atebor et f uisse me Seiano 
 amicum, et ut essem expetisse, et postquam adeptus eram laetatum. 
 Videram collegam patris regendis praetoriis cohortibus, mox urbis 
 et militiae munia simul obeuntem. Ann. XV. 16. 14: Maesti 
 manipuli ac vicem commilitonum miserantes ne lacrimis quidem 
 temperare; vix prae fletu usurpata consalutatio. Decesserat cer- 
 tamen virtutis et ambitio gloriae, f elicium hominum adfectus : sola 
 misericordia valebat, et apud minores magis. (This case is repeated 
 here to show the difficulty in some instances in saying whether the 
 pluperfect refers to what has preceded or to what follows. In this 
 case both the change to the pluperfect from the single past tense 
 and also the change from the pluperfect to the imperfect make con- 
 nection.) H. I. 67. 4: Initium bello fuit avaritia ac festinatio una- 
 etvicensimae legionis ; rapuerant pecuniam missam in stipendium 
 castelli, quod olim Helvetii suis militibus ac stipendiis turbantur. 
 H. II. 8. 17: Gliscentem in dies famam fors discussit; Galatiam 
 ac Pamphyliam provincias Calpurnio Asprenati regendas Galba 
 permiserat. H. II. 65. 13: Non idem Trebellio Maximo honos: 
 profugerat Britannia ob iracundiam militum etc. H. II. 72. i : 
 Non ultra paucos dies quamquam acribus initiis coeptum mendacium 
 valuit. Extiterat quidam Scribonianum se Camerinum ferens etc. 
 H. III. 75. I : Hie exitus viri baud sane spernendi. Quinque et 
 triginta stipendia in re publica feeerat, domi militiaeque clarus. 
 H. III. 84. 27 : laniata veste, foedum spectaculum, ducebatur, multis 
 increpantibus, nullo inlacrimante : deformitas exitus misericordiam 
 abstulerat. Ag. 9. 10: ubi officio satis factum, nulla ultra potestatis 
 persona; tristitiam et adrogantiam et avaritiam exuerat. Compare 
 the use with interim to mark the time relation: Ag. 40. 11 : Tradi- 
 derat interim Agricola successori suo provinciam quietam tutamque. 
 
 A second important tense change which occasionally 
 serves in Tacitus to express sentence connection is that 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 143 
 
 from a past tense to a present. This is used regularly in 
 such cases as have stated in the second sentence the result 
 of the action described in the first ; it is an aid to the under- 
 standing- of this relation which is often sufficiently clear 
 to be left practically without expressed connection. A good 
 example is H. I. 40. 5 : Othoni tamen armari plebem 
 nuntiabatur ; ire praecipites et occupare pericula iubet. 
 The relation between the two sentences is that which we 
 often express in English by using "therefore" to introduce 
 the second clause. The change to a present tense is not 
 necessary : iussit would be equally in place. Ordinarily the 
 present is said to be that of vivid narrative. This is no 
 doubt true, but the change to such a present from the past 
 tense indicates at the same time the antecedent or causal 
 relation of the first clause to the second. Further examples 
 are: 
 
 Ann. II. 25. I : Sed fama classis amissae ut Germanos ad spem 
 belli, ita Caesarem ad coercendum erexit. C. Silio cum triginta 
 peditum, tribus equitum milibus ire in Chattos imperat; etc. H. II 
 76. 18: Abiit iam et transvectum est tempus, quo posses videri con- 
 cupisse : conf ugiendum est ad imperium. H. III. 29. 12 : Ceteri 
 trepidis iam Vitellianis seque e vallo praecipitantibus perrupere. 
 Completur caede quantum inter castra murosque vacui fuit. H. III. 
 36. 10: Plus apud socordem animum laetitia quam cura valuit. 
 Multa cum exsultatione in urbem revectus frequenti contione 
 pietatem militum laudibus cumulat ; etc. H. IV. 34. 13 : unde maior 
 indici fides, simul vastatione incendiisque flagrantium villarum 
 venire victorem exercitum intellegebatur. In conspectu castrorum 
 constitui signa fossamque et vallum circumdari Vocula iubet: 
 depositis inpedimentis sarcinisque expediti certarent. H. IV. 35. 13 : 
 Non erat dubium, quantum in regressu discriminis adeundum foret 
 frumentatoribus onustis perculsisque. Addit exercitui suo Vocula 
 mille delectos e quinta et quinta decuma legionibus apud Vetera 
 obsessis, indomitum militem et ducibus infensum. H. V. 23. i : 
 Civilem cupido incessit navalem aciem ostentandi : complet quod 
 biremium quaeque simplici ordine agebantur; etc. 
 
 The change from a present tense to a future or the 
 reverse occurs mainly in the type of cases already noted 
 
144 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 in which an imperative virtually expresses a condition or 
 a concession, and is followed by a sentence with a future 
 verb expressing what will happen as a result of the 
 condition or in spite of the concession. Such a case 
 was Ann. II. 71. 17: Ostendite populo Romano divi 
 Augusti neptem eandemque coniugem meam, numerate sex 
 liberos. Misericordia cum accusantibus erit, fingentibusque 
 scelesta mandata aut non credent homines aut non ignoscent. 
 As was said in the discussion of such examples in the sec- 
 ond chapter, the hypothetical nature of the imperative in 
 the first sentence anticipates the second, but not until the 
 change of tense is made in this second sentence is the rela- 
 tion altogether clear. H. IV. yy. 20, furnishes another 
 good case: Ite, nuntiate Vespasiano vel, quod propius est, 
 Civili et Classic©, relictum a vobis in acie ducem : venient 
 legiones, quae neque me inultum neque vos impunitos 
 patiantur. The imperative obviously does not express a 
 command which the speaker expects to have carried out. 
 It is hypothetical and this in itself leads to an expectation 
 of something to follow which shall make clear the point 
 of the imperative. But until the future tense is expressed 
 in the second sentence, there is doubt as to whether this 
 sentence will be adversative or equivalent to a protasis. In 
 English there is the construction: Do so if you wish, but 
 don't make it known. And there is also the construction: 
 Do so if you wish, and you will suffer. In the same way 
 in Latin, an adversative clause with strong contrast or with 
 sed might follow the imperative sentence or, as in these 
 cases, a future tense expressing the inevitable result of 
 the action suggested in the imperative. The other exam- 
 ples have already been cited and need not be repeated: 
 one case of the reverse order of sentences will be sufficient : 
 Ag. 15. 16: Recessuros, ut divus lulius recessisset, modo 
 virtutem maiorum suorum aemularentur. This use of 
 modo marks a slightly different type of imperative: it is 
 no longer hypothetical but is still not a real command. It is 
 an exhortation or plea not an order given with assurance 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 145 
 
 of its being obeyed. Otherwise the relation between the 
 two sentences is the same as in the other examples. 
 
 Finally, the effect of tense changes in indirect discourse, 
 changes from the tense of the verb of saying to that of 
 the infinitive, have a distinct force in expressing the rela- 
 tion between the two. The mode, of course, expresses the 
 general relation and is therefore the more prominent and 
 important syntactically, but the tense is just as necessary to 
 an understanding of the precise sense relation between the 
 clauses. The use of the various tenses in this way is too 
 familiar to require illustration, but examples may be found 
 in the chapter on anticipation. 
 
 3. CHANGE OF MODE. The change from an indica- 
 tive to an infinitive is one of the most familiar types of 
 sentence connection. In the case of the complementary 
 infinitive there is little trace of the two verbs ever having 
 formed separate clauses so that the connection is extremely 
 close. This is not so true of the infinitive of indirect dis- 
 course, which stands regularly in a distinct clause or sen- 
 tence, depending primarily on the change of mode to 
 express the relation. There is also regularly present a cer- 
 tain degree of anticipation, as was shown in the first chapter. 
 Both infinitive uses are too familiar to require illustration. 
 
 The changes from indicative to subjunctive show a 
 greater variety. Those very familiar cases in which a 
 conjunction or particle is employed to mark the connection 
 and really becomes the expression of connection, are 
 omitted. The majority of the cases remaining consist of 
 commands or exhortations or prayers expressed in the 
 subjunctive after various sorts of verbs of saying. In case 
 the verb is one of mere saying without any idea of ordering, 
 exhorting or beseeching, the change of mode is the main 
 connecting force, aside from the general anticipation in all 
 verbs of saying. Examples of this type are few : 
 
 Ann. II. 17. 6: exclamat irent, sequerentur Romanas aves propria 
 legionum numina. Ann. II. 26. 17: Simul adnectabat, si foret adhuc 
 
146 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 bellandum, relinqueret materiem Drusi fratris gloriae, etc. Ann. 
 XI. 15. 11: Factum ex eo senatus consultum, viderent pontifices 
 quae retinenda firmandaque haruspicum. Ann. XL 36. i : Solus 
 Mnester cunctationem attulit, dilaniata veste clamitans aspiceret 
 verberum notas, reminisceretur vocis, qua se obnoxium iussis 
 Messalinae dedisset ; etc. Ann. XII. 63. 3 : redditum oraculum est, 
 quaererent sedem caecorum terris adversam. Ann. XIII. 27. 13 : 
 Haec sententia valuit, scripsitque Caesar senatui, privatim expend- 
 erent causam libertorum, quotiens a patronis arguerentur : in com- 
 mune nihil derogarent. Ann. XIV. 22. 13 : Ergo permotus his Nero 
 componit ad Plautum litteras, consuleret quieti urbis, seque prava 
 dififamantibus subtraheret: etc. Ann. XV. 17. 11: At Vologesis ad 
 Corbulonem missi nuntii, detraheret castella trans Euphraten 
 amnemque, ut olim, medium faceret. 
 
 More often, the verb of the first sentence has in its mean- 
 ing an idea of ordering, exhorting or beseeching and so 
 more specifically anticipates the imperative or hortatory 
 verb of the second. The following cases furnish examples : 
 
 After Verbs of Commanding. H. II. 46. 4: bonum haberet ani- 
 mum iubebant: etc. (The change of person has some influence in 
 this case.) Ann. IV. 25. 13: Differtur per manipulos, Tacfarinatem 
 omnes, notum tot proeliis, consectentur : non nisi duce interfecto 
 requiem belli fore. Ann. XIII. 15. 7: ubi Britannico iussit exsur- 
 geret progressusque in medium cantum aliquem inciperet, etc. Ann. 
 XIV. 38. 14 : Simul in urbem mandabat, nullum proeliorum finem 
 exspectarent, nisi succederetur Suetonio, etc. Ann. XV. 3. i : 
 
 legiones duas mittit, occulto praecepto, compositius quam 
 
 festinantius agerent: etc. (The regular change of tense is notice- 
 able.) 
 
 After Verbs of Urging, Advising, Warning. Ann. I. 35. 20: 
 quidam singuli propius incedentes, feriret hortabantur; etc. Ann. 
 II. 26. 6: Sed crebris epistulis Tiberius monebat rediret ad decretum 
 triumphum: satis iam eventuum, satis casuum. Ann. XI. 34. 4: 
 Instabat quidem Narcissus aperiret ambages et veri copiam faceret 
 etc. Ann. XII. 25. 3 : stimulabat Claudium, consuleret rei publicae, 
 Britannici pueritiam robore circumdaret etc. Ann. XIII. 9. i : 
 Ceterum uterque ad Vologesem regem nuntiis monebant, pacem 
 quam bellum mallet datisque obsidiis solitam prioribus reverentiam 
 in populum Romanum continuaret. H. I. 39. 4: cum alii in Pala- 
 tium rediret, alii Capitolium peteret, plerique rostra occupanda 
 censerent, etc. H. IV. 20. 6: Cunctantem legatum milites perpu- 
 lerant, fortunam proelii experiretur. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 147 
 
 After Verbs of Asking, Begging, Praying. Ann. I. 44. i : Sup- 
 plices ad haec et vera exprobari fatentes orabant puniret noxios, 
 ignosceret lapsis et duceret in hostem : etc. Ann. III. 10. 6 : 
 petitmnque est a principe cognitionem exciperet. Ann. III. 36. 14: 
 precabanturque Drusum daret ultionis exemplum, donee accitam 
 convictamque attineri publica custodia iussit. Ann. XV. 11. ii: 
 missis iterum ad Corbulonem precibus, veniret propere, signa et 
 aquilas et nomen reliquum infelicis exercitus tueretur: etc. Ann. 
 XV. 63. 3 : rogat oratque temperaret dolori neu aeternum susciperet, 
 sed in contemplatione vitae per virtutem actae desiderium mariti 
 solaciis honestis toleraret. H. I. 65. 12: nee iam secreta exhortatio, 
 sed publicae preces : irent ultores, excinderent sedem Gallici belli : 
 etc. H. IV. 64. 10: Sed ut amicitia societasque nostra in aeternum 
 rata sint, postulamus a vobis, muros coloniae, munimenta servitii, 
 detrahatis etc. 
 
 There are in Tacitus only four cases of a finite verb fol- 
 lowing licet and one of necesse est; all are marked by a 
 change from the indicative to the subjunctive. It is notice- 
 able that of these, three are in the Dialogus and one in 
 the Agricola. 
 
 Ann. XIV. 55. 13 : Ac licet multa videantur, plerique haudqua- 
 quam artibus tuis pares plura tenuerunt. Ag. 32. 5 : nisi si Gallos 
 et Germanos et (pudet dictu) Britannorum plerosque, licet domina- 
 tioni alienae sanguinem commodent, diutius tamen hostes quam 
 servos, fide et adfectu teneri putatis. D. 9. 5: Licet haec ipsa et 
 quae deinceps dicturus sum aures tuae, Materne, respuant, cui bono 
 est, si apud te Agammemnon aut lason disserte loquitur? D. 13. 
 3 : Licet illos certamina et pericula sua ad consulatus evexerint, 
 malo securum et quietem Virgilii secessum, etc. D. 30. 7: <prius> 
 referam necesse est animum ad earn disciplinam, qua uses esse eos 
 oratores accepimus, etc. 
 
 Regular indirect questions are of course marked by a 
 change of mode but in Tacitus they always have one of the 
 regularly recognized interrogative particles, adverbs or 
 pronouns to make clear the sentence connection. On the 
 other hand, there are a great many double questions in 
 Tacitus in which the connection between the verb of saying 
 or asking and that which forms the first member of the 
 double question, is marked entirely by change of mode. 
 
148 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 The two members are connected by an but this really acts 
 only on the second verb of the double question: before it 
 is reached the connection is already clear as far as the other 
 verb in the second sentence is concerned. When the verb 
 of saying or asking is delayed till after the others, then the 
 an has more connective force with the first subjunctive, but 
 there are many examples of the other type, with the verb 
 of asking first and the sentence connection lying in the 
 change of mode. 
 
 Ann. I. so. 6: consultatque, ex duobus itineribus breve et solitum 
 sequatur an impeditum et intemptatum eoque hostibus incautum. 
 Ann. III. 12. 12: Simulque illud reputate, turbide et seditiose 
 tractaverit exercitus Piso, quaesita sint per ambitionem studia mili- 
 tum, armis repetita provincia, an falsa haec in maius vulgaverint 
 accusatores, quorum ego nimiis studiis iure suscenseo. Ann. V. 6. 
 6: Miserius sit ob amicitiam accusari an amicum accusare, baud 
 discreverim. Ann. XII. 20. 2 : dubitavit tamen, accipere captivum 
 pacto salutis an repetere armis rectius foret. H. I. 69. i : Haud 
 facile dictu est, legati Helvetiorum minus placabilem imperatorem 
 an militem invenerint. H. III. 77. 17 : Ipse lauream gestae pros- 
 pere rei ad fratrem misit, percontatus statim regredi se an perdo- 
 mandae Campaniae insistere iuberet. H. IV. 60. 15 : Simulata ea 
 fuerint an retinere saevientes nequiverit, parum adfirmatur. G. 46. 
 I : Peucinorum Venedorumque et Tennorum nationes Germanis an 
 Sarmatis adscribam dubito, etc. D. 32. 3 : longeque interesse 
 manifestum est, possideat quis quae profert an mutuetur. 
 
 Finally, there is one striking case in the Agricola, in 
 which the manuscript reading furnishes an example of con- 
 nection purely by change of mode. It is Ag. 43. 6 : nobis 
 nihil comperti adfirmare ausim. The context shows that this 
 cannot mean simply, "I would dare affirm that I have found 
 out nothing." It- must mean, "I have found out nothing 
 such that I would dare affirm this (i. e. the statement that 
 Agricola was poisoned.)" Editors have supplied a quod, 
 a nee or (most frequently and following Wex) an ut. As 
 the text stands the sense is clear and the sentence furnishes 
 a striking example of connection expressed by change of 
 mode. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 149 
 
 The change from a participle to some true verb form and 
 vice versa is the last verbal change that expresses sentence 
 connection. The change itself establishes only the most 
 general relation, which is rendered more accurate by various 
 means : contrast or repetition occurs very frequently, and 
 always the tense of the participle, especially if there is a tense 
 change between participle and verb, is very important. The 
 use of the ablative absolute comes under this group, but the 
 chief factor in establishing sentence connection, when this 
 construction is used, is repetition, and examples have been 
 given under that head. When the participles are used as 
 pure adjectives, they no longer fall imder the present cate- 
 gory. It remains to illustrate the numerous cases in which 
 the change from participle to verb is the chief connective 
 force. Even in these examples the continuance of the same 
 subject serves to reinforce the connection, and the usage is 
 sufficiently familiar to require but few examples. 
 
 Ann. I. zt4. 14 : Secuti exemplum veterani hand multo post in 
 Raetiam mittuntur, specie defendendae provinciae etc. Ann. II. 
 69. 8: Tnm Seleuciam degreditur, opperiens aegritudinem, quae 
 rursum Germanico acciderat. Ann. III. 11. i : Atque interim 
 Drusus rediens Illyrico, quamquam patres censuissent ob receptum 
 Maroboduum et res priore aestate gestas ut ovans iniret, prolate 
 honore urbem intravit. Ann. XIII. 46. 7: Sed accepto aditu 
 Poppaea primum per blandimenta et artes valescere, imparem 
 cupidini se et forma Neronis captam simulans ; etc. Ann. XV. 60. 
 3: Raptus in locum servilibus poenis sepositum manu Statii tribuni 
 trucidatur, etc. H. I. 45. 5: Nee aspernabatur singulos Otho, 
 avidum et minacem militum animum voce voltuque temperans. H. 
 II. 51. 2: Ad Verginium versi, modo ut reciperet imperium, nunc 
 ut legatione apud Caecinam ac Valentem fungeretur, minitantes 
 orabant: etc. H. II. 86. 5: Praepositus a Galba septimae legioni 
 scriptitasse Othoni credebatnr, ducem se partibus offerens; etc. 
 H. III. 16. 8: Hortatus suos ut magno animo capesserent pugnam, 
 diductis in latera turmis vacuum medio relinquit iter, quo Varum 
 equitesque eius reciperet; etc. H. III. 65. 11: Saepe domi con- 
 gressi, postremo in aede Apollinis, ut fama fuit. pepigere. H. IV. 
 46. 6 : Ingressus castra Mucianus, quo rectius stipendia singulorum 
 spectaret, suis cum insignibus armisque victores constituit, modicis 
 inter se spatiis discretos. H. V. 16. 12: Proprios inde stimulos 
 
15° Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 legionibus admovebat, domitores Britanniae quartadecumanos appel- 
 lans ; etc. H. V. 17. i : Nee Civilis silens instruxit aciem, locum 
 pugnae testem virtutis ciens : stare Germanos Batavosque super 
 vestigia gloriae, cineres ossaque legionum calcantes. H. V. 22. i : 
 Profectus Novaesium Bonnamque ad visenda castra, quae hiema- 
 turis legionibus erigebantur, navibus remeabat disiecto agmine, 
 incuriosis vigiliis. G. 3. i : Fuisse apud eos et Herculem memorant, 
 primumque omnium virorum fortium ituri in proelia canunt. (It 
 is usually difficult to tell whether the future participle has adjectival 
 or verbal force. Such a case as the present has a decidedly verbal 
 use.) 
 
 F. 
 
 Special attention is often devoted to the purely paren- 
 thetical sentences or clauses — those interjected into the 
 midst of another sentence — because from such clauses 
 developed some of the more fixed types of connection such 
 as relative clauses, for example. Such parenthetical sen- 
 tences do not really form a class by themselves. Neces- 
 sarily the connection with the sentence in which they stand 
 is expressed within themselves, for their nature as inter- 
 jected clauses precludes any anticipation. But the expres- 
 sion of this connection is very varied and all of the cases 
 of parenthesis fall under one or another of the classes of 
 connection already discussed; they are illustrated under 
 those various classes. For convenience they are given here 
 in summary with the type of connection pointed out. 
 
 The parenthesis contains a demonstrative pronoun which 
 expresses the connection : Ann. I. 6. 15 : Quod postquam 
 Sallustius Crispus particeps secretorum (is ad tribunum 
 
 miserat codicillos) comperit, monuit Liviam etc. (In 
 
 this case the change of tense to the pluperfect is an added 
 means of connection.) Ag. 14. 4: Quaedam civitates Cog- 
 idumno regi donatae (is ad nostram usque memoriam fidis- 
 simus mansit), vetera ac iam pridem recepta populi Romani 
 consuetudine, ut haberet instrumenta servitutis et reges. 
 
Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 151 
 
 The parenthesis contains a demonstrative adverb, either 
 adeo or tantum: Ann. XII. 42. 13: Inter quae praecipuus 
 propugnator eius VitelHus, vahdissima gratia, aetate ex- 
 trema (adeo incertae sunt potentium res) accusatione cor- 
 ripitur, deferente lunio Lupo senatore. H. III. 57. i : 
 Sed classem Misenensem (tantum civiHbus discordiis etiam 
 sing-ulorum audacia valet) Claudius Faventius centurio per 
 ignominiam a Galba dimissus ad defectionem traxit, fictis 
 Vespasiani epistulis pretium proditionis ostentans. 
 
 The parenthesis contains a demonstrative word like 
 uterque or an adjective in the comparative degree which 
 has the same force, because it picks out one of two things 
 already mentioned in the other sentence: Ann. VI. 41. 6: 
 duos collis, quos barbari insederant (minori Cadra, alteri 
 Davara nomen est) operibus circumdedit etc. 
 
 The parenthesis contains a noun or demonstrative in the 
 dative, virtually repeating a noun from the other sentence: 
 Ann. I. 45. 2: sexagensimum apud lapidem (loco Vetera 
 nomen est) hibernantium. 
 
 This dative of reference may be unexpressed but plainly 
 understood : Ann. XV. 36. i : Nee multo post omissa in 
 praesens Achaia (causae in incerto fuere) urbem revisit, etc. 
 
 The parenthesis contains a noun virtually repeated from 
 the other sentence and serving as subject of the verb of 
 the parenthesis: H. II. 24. 7: Ad duodecimum a Cremona 
 (locus Castrorum vocatur) ferocissimos auxiliarium inmi- 
 nentibus viae lucis occultos componit: etc. Ag. 22. 2: 
 vastatis usque ad Tanaum (aestuario nomen est) nationi- 
 bus. In this case the noun nomen may be a predicate nom- 
 inative after est of which the subject is then understood 
 from the preceding noun Tanaum. Similar cases are: H. 
 IV, 15. 11: Statimque accitis Frisiis (transrhenana gens 
 est) duarum cohortium hiberna proxima occupatum Oceano 
 inrumpit. Ag. 7. 2 : Nam classis Othoniana licenter vaga 
 dum Intimilium (pars Liguriae est) hostiliter populatur, 
 matrem Agricolae in praediis suis interfecit, etc. If the 
 
152 Connection Expressed in the Second Clause. 
 
 subject of these verbs is understood, then they fall in the 
 next group rather than in the present. 
 
 The subject of the verb in the parenthesis is assumed 
 from the other sentence : H. II. 88. 6 : Incuriosos milites — 
 vemacula utebantur urbanitate — quidam spoliavere, abscisis 
 furtim balteis an accincti forent rogitantes. 
 
 The parenthesis may be purely explanatory, the connec- 
 tion lying in the use of words naturally associated with 
 some in the other sentence. H. IV. 64. 11: postulamus a 
 
 vobis Romanos omnes in finibus vestris trucidetis 
 
 (baud facile libertas et domini miscentur) : etc. 
 
 Such clauses very frequently in Tacitus are marked by 
 the use of qitippe: Ann. XIII. 19. 19: Qui laetus oblatis 
 (quippe inter Agrippinam et Domitiam infensa aemulatio 
 exercebatur) Paridem histrionem, libertum et ipsum Domi- 
 tiae, impulit ire propere crimenque atrociter deferre. 
 
 Such explanatory parentheses may give details of the 
 general statement of the other clause, and in this case they 
 regularly assume either the subject or object of their verb 
 from the first sentence: Ann. II. 6. 17: ad Gallicam ripam 
 latior et placidior adfiuens verso cognomento (Vahalem 
 accolae dicunt), mox id quoque vocabulum mutat Mosa 
 flumine. Ann. II. 40. 8: Ille e clientibus duos (quidam 
 milites fuisse tradunt) diligit etc. 
 
 The parenthesis contains a substantive adjective in apposi- 
 tion with the entire first sentence : H. IV. 12. 9 : Nee opi- 
 bus (rarum in societate validiorum) adtritis viros tantum 
 armaque imperio ministrant, etc. (With this should be com- 
 pared the use of a substantive adjective and a supine, very 
 rare in Tacitus: H. IV. 84. 14, and H. V. 6. 10: minim 
 dictu. H. III. 56. I : prodigiosum dictu. Ann. I. 35. 20 : 
 credibile dictu.) 
 
 The parenthesis may show a change of person, marking 
 a personal explanation by the author, often accompanied by 
 a change of tense from present to future, or by a change 
 of mode, as in the cases in which the so-called potential 
 subjunctive is used. Ann. IV. 34. 25 : sed ipse divus lulius, 
 
Conclusion. X53 
 
 ipse divus Augustus et tulere ista et reliquere, baud facile 
 dixerim, moderatione magis an sapientia. Ann. XIV. 59, 
 12: cuius aspectu (ipsa principis verba referam) cur, inquit 
 
 Nero (text incomplete.) 
 
 Finally, the parentbesis contains a verb by itself, inter- 
 jected to mark the personal attitude of the author: D. 37. 
 25 : Non, opinor, Demosthenem orationes inlustrant, quas 
 adversus tutores suos composuit, etc. H. II. 76, 20 : Splen- 
 didior origine quam nos sumus, fateor, sed et Nero nobili- 
 tate natalium Vitellium anteibat. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The results of the foregoing investigation of sentence 
 connection in Tacitus are several. First, Tacitus does not 
 at all confine himself to the use of conjunctions for express- 
 ing the relation of one sentence to another. Second, the 
 means which he does employ are very numerous and varied, 
 and in a single case of two consecutive sentences several 
 means of expressing the relation between them are often 
 used. Third, when the sentence connection is, for some 
 reason, perfectly obvious, it is often not expressed by any 
 specific means. Fourth, the distinction between a subor- 
 dinate and an independent sentence is not sharply marked. 
 Subordination of one sentence to another in meaning does 
 not coincide with the regularly recognized type of gram- 
 matical subordination, but may be expressed also by numer- 
 ous other means. Fifth, a particular means of expressing 
 the connection between two consecutive sentences may 
 stand in either the first or second and is occasionally divided 
 between the two. When it stands in the first there is usually 
 some additional element of connection in the second. 
 
 Of the means used by Tacitus to indicate the connection 
 between consecutive sentences, the most frequent are repeti- 
 tion, contrast, the use of conjunctions and of adverbs, the 
 
154 Conclusion. 
 
 use of words whose meaning is incomplete except by refer- 
 ence to either the preceding or the following sentence, func- 
 tional changes in the verb, anticipation by the use of a 
 projective word or by the use of a very general phrase or 
 of a negative statement when a positive is to be expected. 
 All of these methods have many different types. The use 
 of conjunctions and adverbs does not appear to be funda- 
 mental but usually accompanies or makes use of other more 
 fundamental means. In order to make clear the way in 
 which Tacitus ordinarily makes use of these various means 
 of connection, one or two paragraphs should be analyzed 
 throughout. 
 
 Ann. I. 21 : Horum adventu redintegratur seditio, et vagi 
 circumiecta populabantur. Blaesiis paucos, maxime praeda 
 onustos, ad terrorem ceterorum adfici verberibus, claudi 
 car cere iubet; nam etiam turn legato a centnrionibus et 
 Optimo quoqiie manipularium parebatur. I Hi obniti trahen- 
 tibus, prensare circumstantium genua, ciere modo nomina 
 singidorum, modo centuriam quisque cuius manipularis erat, 
 cohortem, legionem, eadem omnibus inminere clamitantes. 
 Simul probra in legatum cumulant, caelum ac deos obtes- 
 tantur, nihil reliqui faciunt quo minus invidiam misericor- 
 diam metum et iras permoverent. Adcurritur ab universis, 
 et carcere effracto solvunt vincula desertoresque ac rerum 
 capitalium damnatos sibi iam miscent. 
 
 The connection with the preceding chapter is at once 
 established by the demonstrative horum, a type of repeti- 
 tion; this is supported by the use of redintegratur which 
 implies a description of the former seditious actions, and 
 by reditio which is also virtually a repetition from the pre- 
 ceding chapter. The sentence as a whole vaguely antici- 
 pates some details to follow, because alone it is of such a 
 general character. These details begin in the next clause 
 which is further connected by an et and by the implied repe- 
 tition of the subject of populabantur with which vagi 
 agrees. Blaesus, at the beginning of the next sentence, is 
 
Conclusion. 155 
 
 repeated from the second paragraph preceding and here 
 stands in contrast to the subject of populabantur. The 
 change of mode in adfici and claiidi mark their connection 
 with the sentence in which they stand ; the relation between 
 them is made clear partly by the rapidity or practical coin- 
 cidence of the two actions and partly by their common 
 mode in contrast to that of the iubet. The conjunction nam 
 makes clear the relation of the next sentence which might 
 not be altogether clear without it, although the change of 
 tense in parehatiir and the meaning of the clause indicate 
 that it is explanatory. This connection is further supported 
 by the adverb of time and by the legato which virtually 
 repeats Blaesus. Another case of the demonstrative forms 
 the next connection and in the meaning of trahentibus there 
 is an implied repetition from the adfici vulneribus, claudi 
 carcere of the preceding sentence. The infinitives are his- 
 torical and the connection between them is clear from the 
 rapidity of the narrative. The relation of the inminere to 
 the rest of the sentence is not clear until the clamitantes is 
 read : then the change of mode is plain and the connection 
 also. The use of the participle in clamitantes is quite sufii- 
 cient to connect it with the rest. Simul, the first word in 
 the following sentence, is one of the adverbs incomplete 
 in itself which of necessity refers to something that has 
 preceded or is to follow. Here, it refers to the last sentence 
 and establishes the connection with it. Rapidity of narra- 
 tive is again taken advantage of in this sentence to con- 
 nect the three verbs in the present indicative, and the rela- 
 tion of the permoverent clause to the faciunt is made clear 
 by the change of mode and by the use of the relative, 
 another type of repetition. Adcurritur is one of the verbs 
 whose meaning is incomplete without reference to the pre- 
 ceding sentence and this fact accounts for the connection : 
 that to which they all run up, is the scene already described. 
 The coordinating conjunction et is employed to connect 
 the second part of this sentence with the first, but here 
 again the conjunction is not necessary, for the narrative is 
 
156 Conclusion. 
 
 sufficiently rapid to make the connection clear and the 
 assumed subject of solvunt taken from the universis is a 
 further guide. The participial use in the ablative absolute, 
 carcere effracto, is the next connective and this is followed 
 by another conjunction, -que, of which the same thing is 
 true that was said of the preceding et. 
 
 H. IV. 7p; Nee in longum quies militi data. Orabant 
 auxilium Aggrippinenses offerebantque uxorem ac sororem 
 Ciz'ilis et filiam Classici, relicta sibi pignora societatis. 
 Atque interim disperses in domibus Germanos trucidaverant ; 
 unde metus et iustae preces invocantium, antequam hostes 
 reparatis viribus ad spent vel ad ultionem accingerentur. 
 Namque et Civilis illuc intenderat, non invalidus flagran- 
 tissima coJiortium suarum integra, quae ex Chaucis Frisiis- 
 que composita Tolbiaci in finibus Agrippinensium agebat: 
 sed tristis nuntiiis avertit, deletam cohortem dolo Agrippi- 
 nensium, qui largis epulis vinoque sopitos Germanos, clausis 
 forihiis, igne iniecto cremavere; simul Cerialis propero 
 agmine subvenit. Circumsteterat Civilem et alius metus, 
 ne quarta decuma legio adiuncta Britannica classe adflic- 
 taret Batavos, qua Oceano ambiuntur. Sed legionem fer- 
 restri itinere Fabius Priscus legatus in Nervios Tungrosque 
 duxit, eaeque civitates in deditionem acceptae: classem 
 ultro Canninefates adgressi sunt maiorque pars navium 
 depressa aut capta. Et Nerviorum multitudineni, sponte 
 commotam ut pro Romanis belluni capesseret, idem Can- 
 ninefates fudere. Classicus quoque adversus equites Novae- 
 sium a Ceriale praemissos secundum proelium fecit: quae 
 modica, sed crebra damna famam victoriae nuper partae 
 lacerabant. 
 
 The first thing noticeable in this paragraph, as compared 
 to the one from the Annals, is that there is much greater 
 use of conjunctions: the number is decidedly large, but 
 it will be seen that several of them are supplementary rather 
 than essential means of connecting the sentences. In 
 the first sentence of all it is a conjunction nee which fur- 
 
Conclusion. 157 
 
 nishes the connection with the preceding paragraph, but 
 had non been used, the relation of this sentence to what 
 went before would be equally clear. The last paragraph told 
 of the completion of a victory over the enemy, and although 
 the term quies is not used nor anything said about the rest 
 following the victory, the idea of the completion of the 
 fighting makes it have practically the same effect as actual 
 repetition. This is strengthened by the use of the word 
 militi which is virtually repetition. The sentence as a whole 
 is clearly anticipatory: the vague statement and especially 
 the use of the negative plainly suggests an explanation to 
 follow. The second sentence, therefore, has no formally 
 expressed connection. The -que which joins the two verbs 
 of this second sentence is here a real means of connection 
 and the only one beyond the continuance of the same sub- 
 ject; the relicta in the final clause is little more than an 
 adjective but in so far as it has verbal force the change 
 to a participle is the connecting element. In the next sen- 
 tence the atque is quite superfluous : the interim too, 
 although, like the conjunction, it serves to add precision, 
 really adds little to the connection expressed by the change 
 of tense in tnicidaverant. The relative unde furnishes the 
 formal connection in the sentence that follows and later a 
 second clause is connected by a change of mode and ante- 
 quam; an ablative absolute inserted in this clause illustrates 
 participial connection. The heaping up of words to express 
 sentence relation is well illustrated in the words that follow. 
 The conjunction namqiie, the et meaning "also," the repe- 
 tition of Civilis, the demonstrative illuc and the change of 
 tense in intenderat, to denote an explanation, all furnish 
 elements to the connection. An ablative absolute, a relative 
 and a change in tense in agebat are the means employed 
 in the rest of this sentence as far as the colon. Then 
 the adversative sed marks a relation which the sense of 
 the word avertit, in contrast with what has preceded and 
 assuming an object also from the first part of the sentence, 
 really expresses without the conjunction. Two ablative 
 
158 Conclusion. 
 
 absolutes are here connected by the rapidity or coincidence 
 of the actions they describe, and the final clause of the sen- 
 tence depends largely on the incomplete meaning of sub- 
 venit, reinforced by the adverb siniiil, itself incomplete in 
 meaning except as it refers to the previous clause. Change 
 to the pluperfect tense, repetition in Civilem, et, meaning 
 "also," and alius by its incompleteness when it stands alone, 
 all contribute to make the relation of the next sentence 
 clear. The alius metus is also anticipatory by virtue of its 
 vagueness so that the change of mode and the particle ne 
 only determine the particular kind of clause to follow : its 
 general nature was known already. A relative qua and 
 the assumed subject of the verb ambitmtur are the last 
 expressed connections in the sentence. The following sed 
 is largely superfluous : legionem is repetition and the sense 
 of the sentence furnishes the adversative idea without the 
 sed. The same is true of the -que in eaeque. The demon- 
 strative is sufficient. Classem is repetition and in contrast 
 with legionem; later on in the sentence another conjunc- 
 tion, -que, is used when really the maior pars navium is 
 virtually repetition from the classem and the -que is there- 
 fore unnecessary except from a stylistic point of view, to 
 avoid the monotony of many short sentences. This can 
 also be said of the following et: the demonstrative idem and 
 the repetition of Canninefates are quite sufficient to express 
 the relationship of the sentences. The remaining means 
 employed in the paragraph are a participle, a change to the 
 subjunctive mode with an ut; the repetition of Classicus 
 plus a quoque; a participle ; a relative ; a participle. 
 
 These two chapters, chosen at random, are sufficient to 
 show the variety of the sentence connections in Tacitus. 
 The history of these should be traced back as far as pos- 
 sible in earlier and less rhetorical Latin to obtain an indica- 
 tion as to their origin and as to how fundamental each one 
 is, and to what extent available for and actually used by 
 the other writers of Latin. 
 
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