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 CLAUDE WILSON, M.D., 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ALPINE CLUB. 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 BY 
 
 ELLIS CARR, 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ALPINE CLUB. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 GEORGE BELL & SONS, .YORK ST., COVENT GARDEN, 
 AND NEW YORK. 
 
 1893.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 TOWARDS the close of last summer I was asked to con- 
 tribute to the All-England Series a practical guide for 
 would-be climbers. In accepting the task I was chiefly 
 influenced by the consideration that many preliminary 
 matters of interest and importance to beginners have 
 hardly received a fair share of attention at the hands of 
 previous writers. 
 
 As it was necessary to limit the size of the book, the 
 length of each chapter required careful consideration ; and 
 it is not without intention that less space has been allotted 
 to matters which can only be learned by actual practice 
 amongst the mountains, than to those which, though of 
 less intrinsic importance, are more easily explained in 
 writing. The fact that the book is addressed to beginners 
 is, I hope, in itself, sufficient to justify some disproportion 
 in the treatment of the more elementary and the higher 
 branches of mountain craft, and to account for the omission
 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 of all reference to mountaineering in snowy ranges beyond 
 the Alps. 
 
 The work has been done entirely in spare moments, and 
 I have had to make the most of a very limited amount of 
 leisure. My best thanks are due to several of my friends 
 and fellow-climbers for their kindly help, and I wish 
 especially to thank Mr. G. H. Morse and Mr. J. H. Wicks 
 for many suggestions and invaluable criticism. I am also 
 deeply indebted to Mr. Ellis Carr for the care, time, and 
 trouble he has expended on the illustrations, which add so 
 much to the interest and value of the book. 
 
 C. W. 
 
 TUNBRIDGE WELLS, 
 May, 1893.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION ... ... ... ... ... i 
 
 II. HISTORICAL ... ... ... ... ... 6 
 
 III. MOUNTAINEERING IN GREAT BRITAIN ... ... 12 
 
 IV. DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING ... ... 21 
 
 V. GUIDES ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 
 
 VI. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ... ... ... 70 
 
 VII. SNOW AND ICE WORK ... ... ... ... 99 
 
 VIII. ROCK-WORK ... ... ... ... ... 114 
 
 IX. CLIMBING WITHOUT GUIDES ... ... ... 129 
 
 X. GUIDE-BOOKS, MAPS, AND LITERATURE ... 137 
 
 XI. HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL ... ... ... 144 
 
 XII. OUTFIT ... ... ... ... ... 165 
 
 GLOSSARY ... ... ... ... ... 195 
 
 INDEX ... ... ... ... ... 203
 
 MOUNTAINEERING, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THERE is a marked feeling prevalent in responsible 
 quarters that the present is a suitable time for emphasizing 
 the fact that mountaineering is a serious matter. Five or 
 ten years ago my first object would have been an attempt 
 to prove, I think with some success, that the dangers in- 
 herent in climbing are not greater than those to which the 
 devotees of other sports, such as hunting, shooting, or 
 yachting, are exposed. Now, however, a prudent writer 
 will better serve the cause he loves by insisting that his 
 favourite pastime shall be treated with at least as much 
 respect as is accorded to the more familiar pursuits just 
 instanced. The halo of mystery, which for so many years 
 surrounded the great mountains, is passing, or perhaps has 
 passed, away ; and, in its place, there reigns a feeling of 
 easy familiarity which is very apt to degenerate into con- 
 tempt. As a result of this, the canons of mountaineering 
 have been more often violated, and the opprobrious term, 
 " Foolhardy idiot ! " so often applied unjustly in the past, 
 has, of late years, been more and more frequently merited. 
 A feeling, in fact, is abroad that liberties may be taken with 
 
 B
 
 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 the mountains, and men of some experience, as well as mis- 
 guided beginners, have run risks for which the term "fool- 
 hardy " is by no means too severe. 
 
 A perusal of the above paragraph might lead an unbiassed 
 critic to conclude that this is not a favourable time for the 
 publication of a book which could, by any possibility, tend 
 to swell the number of Alpine climbers. I trust that I am 
 right in thinking such a critic wrong. Mountaineering is 
 one of the finest and healthiest exercises in the world, and, 
 as such, it must command a continuous supply of recruits : 
 the important point is that those who do enter, and will 
 continue to enter, its lists, should understand the principles 
 which alone make it a justifiable recreation. 
 
 A great change has, of late years, taken place in the 
 character of the best known mountaineering centres, and 
 quiet and secluded villages, once familiar only to the more 
 adventurous tourists, have been converted into colonies of 
 vast hotels, crowded by a class of trippers who rarely travel 
 except by rail. This change has made it more difficult for 
 a would-be mountaineer to secure the help of which he 
 stands in need. A beginner could, in former years, generally 
 obtain both information and advice from men of wide ex- 
 perience and repute at any of the great centres. Now, 
 while he is perhaps more likely than ever to find his way to 
 Grindelwald or Zermatt, there are comparatively few of the 
 older school of mountaineers who care to spend much time 
 at places which have altered so much beneath their eyes. 
 The mountains are, of course, the same, and no doubt, to 
 those who go there for the first time, Grindelwald and 
 Zermatt must always have great attractions ; but they have 
 lost much of their charm for the generation who knew them 
 when they were tiny unsophisticated hamlets, and conse- 
 quently those climbers, whose advice would be most useful,
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 are neither so easily found, nor, if found, so communicative, 
 as was the case in days gone by. The beginner must 
 necessarily fall back upon a class of advisers who are always 
 in evidence at such places, and always ready with advice 
 a class consisting mainly of men who, on the strength of 
 having accomplished a few of the more difficult expeditions 
 with the assistance of good guides, pose as experienced 
 mountaineers, and do not hesitate to recommend beginners 
 to attempt similar excursions without due probation. Such 
 unwise counsel, though occasionally tendered by men who 
 ought to know better, comes as a rule from members of the 
 above category, who, rushing in, both in maxim and in 
 practice, where angels fear to tread, are only too eager to 
 get hold of any one who will listen to their mischievous 
 and boring babble. It will be well, therefore, to cherish a 
 wholesome suspicion of advice offered gratuitously or too 
 freely, and to accept such only as comes from some reliable 
 source. 
 
 It must not be thought, from the somewhat sombre tone 
 which has been adopted, that our pastime is one which we 
 habitually think of with long faces. The great Alps have 
 solemn associations in more than one relation, which few of 
 us are likely to forget ; but, looked at from a more familiar 
 standpoint, Switzerland is simply the playground wherein we 
 find relaxation, pleasure, and health; and, believing that 
 most of those dangers, which we are supposed by some to 
 risk so freely, are avoidable, we endeavour to carry on 
 the pursuit of mountaineering under conditions of safety 
 fairly comparable with those prevailing in other branches of 
 sport. It is not with feelings of dread and gloom that we 
 walk over hidden chasms ; properly roped, with due regard 
 to the condition of the snow and the lie of the crevasses, we 
 are in no danger. " How many crevasses did ye cross on
 
 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 the Col?" asked a worthy Celt one day at Courmayeur. 
 " Would it be more than fifty, think ye ? and a guide's fee is 
 only fifty francs, they tell me. Mon ! it's ridiculously cheap 
 a franc for each time the puir fellow risks his life ! " And 
 so, indeed, it would be, if climbing were what this gentleman 
 supposed. But it is not. In point of danger, mountaineering 
 may be fairly enough compared with yachting ; in each case 
 grave risk may be incurred by the neglect of the precautions 
 which experience has shown to be needful, but in each case 
 it may be reduced by skill and knowledge to a minimum 
 which the conscience admits to be reasonable. The same 
 may be said of many, perhaps of most, sports ; and if, in 
 proportion to the number of its devotees, more accidents 
 have been attributable to mountaineering, this has generally 
 resulted from the unconscious or deliberate neglect of 
 reasonable precautions, or the violation of some of the 
 established rules of the craft. Turn a man loose on a 
 spirited hunter before he is able to ride, or push him into 
 deep water before he has learned to swim, or send him 
 skating before the ice will bear, and we have examples of 
 dangers, by no means inherent in the sports with which they 
 are associated, but which are quite on a par with risks 
 very frequently run in the Alps.* 
 
 To do justice to the charms of mountaineering would 
 require a much more able pen than mine. The pursuit is 
 one which offers to its votaries keener pleasures than they 
 find elsewhere, which leaves enduring memories free from 
 alloy, and which stimulates to the building up of plans for 
 future years, rivalling in fascination the memories of the 
 past. It is a pleasure which may be begun in youth, and 
 enjoyed as long as any capacity for active exercise remains. 
 Much has been written on this theme ; yet I do not think 
 * See p. 22.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 its charms will yield to analysis. Some would attribute the 
 enthusiasm of its devotees to the excitement which moun- 
 taineering is supposed to entail. I submit that excitement, 
 in the ordinary acceptation of the term, is quite inadequate 
 in itself to explain the overpowering fascination of the 
 pursuit : many of the least exciting days are the most en- 
 joyable, and the most exciting ones are sometimes far from 
 pleasant. " Why do you climb, then ? " " What is there in 
 it you enjoy ? " are questions which mountaineers get tired 
 of being asked. They can give no satisfactory answer ; and 
 it is perhaps wiser to reply with a similar question : " Why 
 do you like cricket ?" " Why do you like music?" The 
 answers received are equally applicable to climbing, and, as 
 valid reasons, are equally futile : " Oh, that's quite different." 
 " Because I do." " Because it's such a splendid game." 
 " Because it gives me pleasure." And so on. Some moun- 
 taineers think they have solved the problem by saying, 
 " Because I never feel so well as when I'm climbing ; " and 
 this, no doubt, accounts for more than is at first apparent : 
 but it is not all. Bourrit, more than a hundred years ago, 
 attempted, in quaint language, a somewhat similar explana- 
 tion. Mountaineers, said he, " dprouverent sensiblement les 
 avantages de cet air pur et leger des montagnes qui facilite 
 la marche, qui rend les corps dispos, lexers, et sur tout qui 
 donne une gaietd qui ne vous abandonne jamais." * If we 
 could really secure so phenomenal a result, there would be 
 no need for further eulogy ; but mountaineers, like the rest 
 of the world, are occasionally sad ; and it will perhaps be 
 best, in taking leave of this matter, to merely give expres- 
 sion to a conviction that, after all has been said that can be 
 said, there is an indescribable charm in climbing, which 
 appeals to certain natures. 
 
 * "Nouvelle Description des Glacieres" (1785), p. 154.
 
 MO UNTA1NEER1NG. 
 
 I have spoken of mountaineering as a sport. It is now- 
 adays commonly accepted as such ; though there are some 
 who, like Mr. Ruskin, would compare it to the meanest of 
 athletic recreations,* while there are others who claim that 
 the term " sport " is too frivolous for so dignified a pursuit. 
 Mountaineering, say such, is a branch of travel which, beside 
 offering to those who will see them, glimpses of almost more 
 than worldly beauty, is itself replete with moral teaching 
 and ennobling influence. I confess that I would much rather 
 subscribe to this than to the Ruskinian view ; and, in so 
 doing, I should be in most excellent company. But, after 
 all, for most of us, climbing is a sport, and, in our opinion, 
 the best of sports ; though if we fail to get some lasting 
 good, as well as mere enjoyment, from its pursuit, the fault 
 assuredly lies with us and not with our snowy friends the 
 everlasting hills. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 To give, in the space of a few pages, any outline of the 
 history of mountaineering, would indeed seem a hopeless 
 task, and, in a work of this compass, any attempt at complete- 
 ness would be out of the question. The subject has been 
 dealt with by writers of various nationalities, and all that 
 will be now aimed at is a short account of a few leading 
 incidents. 
 
 In searching for records of ascents in early days, one has, 
 of course, nothing to do with the Biblical references to 
 Ararat and Sinai; and, though ancient and classical literatures 
 * " Sesame and Lilies," p. 74.
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 contain a few allusions to the ascents of minor hills, there 
 would seem always to have been some utilitarian object in 
 view. The earliest record of mountaineering for the love of 
 the thing is only four hundred years old ; and it was not until 
 the latter half of the present century that the pursuit made 
 any real headway. 
 
 It is curious that the first feat of climbing, with any 
 sporting element in it, should have had no interest, so far as 
 we know, for the actual climber. In 1492, King Charles 
 VIII. of France commanded his chamberlain to ascend the 
 Mont Aiguille, near Grenoble, a mountain probably unique 
 in form, having an extensive flat top covered with verdure 
 and very steep rocky walls all round. Although there is a 
 great extent of cliff, there has as yet been discovered but " one 
 well-hidden and intricate way" to the summit, and even 
 this would seem to be impassable without the assistance of 
 either ladders and ropes, such as were used in the first ascent, 
 or the chains which have recently been fixed. Beauprd got 
 up because he was "commanded to," and, having made good 
 use of his opportunity by remaining for a week on the top, 
 came down; and for three hundred and forty years the 
 Mont Aiguille was left alone. Mr. Gardiner has written a 
 most interesting history of this mountain.* 
 
 Conrad Gesner, of Zurich, the celebrated naturalist, was 
 probably the first climber who really loved the exercise. 
 He flourished in the middle of the sixteenth century ; made, 
 in 1555, by special leave of the Lucerne magistrates, the 
 second permitted ascent of Pilatus ; \ and expressed an in- 
 tention " to ascend divers mountains, or at least one, every 
 year, so long as God should grant him life." 
 
 " The true heir of Gesner," says Mr. Coolidge, " was 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xiv. pp. 215-217. 
 
 t Various ascents of Pilatus had been made, but until 1518 the 
 climbers, if caught, were promptly imprisoned.
 
 MO UNTA1NEERING. 
 
 Scheuchzer," who made between 1702 and 1711 "nine ex- 
 tended journeys through his fatherland." * He is better 
 known to English readers than many who preceded or 
 came after him, as his " Itinera Alpina," though rightly 
 regarded as one of the most charming curiosities of Alpine 
 literature, is not excessively rare. 
 
 It was not until the eighteenth century that any snow 
 mountain was ascended, though long before this certain 
 snow passes had been used for religious and trading purposes. 
 " It seems certain," said the late Mr. Wm. Longman, " that 
 before the middle of the sixteenth century many snow passes 
 were traversed which subsequently fell into disuse." f The 
 first snow mountain to be climbed was the Titlis, the ascent 
 being accomplished, in 1739, by a monk of Engelberg, 
 whose name seems to have been lost. This feat does not 
 appear to have borne fruit in stimulating either the moun- 
 taineer himself or others to undertake similar tasks. Next 
 came the Buet, climbed in 1770 by the brothers Jean and 
 Antoine de Luc ; but this ascent was the direct outcome of 
 the interest in the mountains awakened by the visit of 
 Windham and Pococke to Chamounix in 1741. 
 
 William Windham, of Felbrigg, in Norfolk, may, though he 
 never climbed higher than to the " Top of the Mountain," J 
 i.e. the Montanvers, be justly regarded as the father of 
 modern mountaineering. " Had he lived a hundred years 
 later," said the late Principal Forbes, " he must inevitably 
 have been the first president of the Alpine Club." The 
 " Pierre des Anglais," || where Windham's party is supposed 
 
 * " Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide- Books," pp. 13, 14. 
 t Alpine Journal, vol. viii. ; " Modern Mountaineering," p. 43. 
 J "An Account of the Glaciers or Ice Alps in Savoy " (1744), p. 8. 
 North British Review, March, 1865, p. 139. 
 
 || This stone was unfortunately split by a fire lit upon it about forty 
 years ago.
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 to have lunched, is still to be seen, though daily passed 
 unheeded by crowds of tourists. 
 
 The effects of this excursion to Chamounix were 
 marvellous ; and to it may be traced, directly or indirectly, 
 the rise and growth of modern mountaineering. Martel 
 followed, in 1742; then came De Saussure, scientist and 
 explorer; Bourrit, the first artist of the mountains; the 
 de Lues, mountaineers pure and simple ; and Jacques 
 Balmat, the guide who, in 1786, was the first to reach the 
 summit of Mont Blanc. The flame that had been kindled 
 spread, and mountaineers arose in many districts. Mont 
 Ve'lan was ascended by the Prior of the Great St. Bernard, in 
 1779; the Col du G^ant was crossed by Bourrit in 1787 ; 
 the Jungfrau was climbed in 1811 : and the Finsteraarhorn 
 in 1812. During the first half of the present century several 
 high passes were traversed, a few more peaks ascended, and 
 a series of ascents of Mont Blanc were effected, most of 
 which have been described in special monographs. The 
 last of this class was the renowned ascent by Albert Smith, 
 in 1851, and three years later Mr. Justice Wills, then a 
 rising barrister, inaugurated a new era by climbing the 
 Wetterhorn from Grindelwald. 
 
 In the winter of 1857-8, the Alpine Club was founded. 
 Messrs. William and C. E. Mathews, with Messrs. E. S. 
 Kennedy, Chas. Hudson, T. W. Hinchcliff, Alfred Wills, 
 and John Ball, may be named as among those who had 
 more or less share in the formation of the Club an in- 
 stitution which quickly made headway, and which had 
 on its roll, within a year of its inception, nearly a hundred 
 members. 
 
 How mountaineering has developed since then may be 
 faintly indicated by mentioning that, at the present day, 
 all the important peaks in the Alps have been climbed, many
 
 to . MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 of them by several routes ; that Norway and New Zealand, 
 the Caucasus, the Andes and the Himalaya, have all yielded 
 some of their giants to swell the list of conquests ; that the 
 Alpine Club has now upwards of five hundred members, 
 while its Continental followers, founded between 1860 and 
 1880, number collectively between thirty and forty thousand 
 members, all interested in mountaineering, and many of 
 them active climbers. 
 
 Although the Alpine Club has been before the public for 
 five and thirty years, and though more than one writer has 
 devoted some space to a description or criticism of its 
 methods, very curious misconceptions would seem to prevail 
 regarding it. Some suppose that every member must have 
 been up Mont Blanc ; others that any one who ascends the 
 Matterhorn is promptly hunted up and pressed into the Club. 
 Again, there are those who have exaggerated notions as to the 
 difficulty of gaining admission, while- others think that any 
 one can "join" who likes. To correct such impressions 
 can surely do no harm, and I propose, therefore, to devote 
 a few lines to a plain statement as to the constitution and 
 nature of the Club as it exists at present. 
 
 The Alpine Club exists for the mutual benefit of its mem- 
 bers, all of whom are interested in mountaineering. It has a 
 habitat in the neighbourhood of Trafalgar Square, where its 
 meetings are held, and where is situated its excellent library 
 of books, maps, and photographs relating to mountains in 
 all parts of the world. The Club meets, to hear and discuss 
 papers read by members, six times during the year ; it dines 
 in public in December, and in seclusion in June ; it treats 
 its friends once a year to an exhibition of Alpine pictures 
 and appliances; and it publishes the Alpine Journal. 
 Qualification for membership is essentially based upon a 
 true love of mountaineering, but exceptions have been
 
 HISTORICAL. II 
 
 occasionally made, and a few members admitted by reason 
 of their devotion to Alpine art or literature, or their re- 
 searches in matters immediately connected with the moun- 
 tains. The vast majority of the members have, however, 
 entered the Club on what is called a " climbing qualification." 
 There has never been any cut-and-dried rule to the effect 
 that every candidate must have been up so many peaks, or 
 must have been climbing for so many years. The first 
 dispute which ever moved the Club was on the question as 
 to whether a certain definite rule of this sort should be 
 introduced, and it was negatived ; and attempts to revive 
 the same spirit have always been quashed by a majority of 
 voters. As a matter of fact, a large discretion is left to the 
 committee ; and the stringency with which the prerogative 
 has been exercised has varied from time to time, though the 
 general tendency has been towards making the qualification 
 more severe. A candidate for admission to the Club must, 
 as in other clubs, be proposed by a member who knows him 
 personally, and be seconded by another; a list of his 
 expeditions is sent to the secretary, who submits it to the 
 committee, and, if considered eligible from a mountaineering 
 point of view, he is balloted for at a general meeting of the 
 Club. 
 
 With these few lines anent the Alpine Club, this short 
 chapter must be brought to a close. It should not be for- 
 gotten, though, that the bulk of the true history of moun- 
 taineering refers to what has been done during the last forty 
 years, of which almost nothing has been said. The material 
 from which such a history could be written is to be found in 
 the pages of the Alpine Journal, in the publications of 
 foreign Alpine Clubs, and in the many volumes which have 
 emanated from the pens of individual mountaineers. To 
 make a few extracts would be invidious, and to do more
 
 12 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 would be impossible ; as all the space at my disposal will be 
 needed for matter which can, in one way or another, be 
 turned to some practical account. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MOUNTAINEERING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 IT may fairly be questioned whether the term " mountaineer- 
 ing " can be properly applied to the walking and scrambling 
 which are to be enjoyed among the British hills. The word 
 has become, in one sense, almost limited in its application 
 to climbing above the snow-line ; but many of the general 
 principles of mountaineering may be learned in our own 
 islands, and the term is here employed in its older and 
 more general acceptation. 
 
 Mountainous districts are to be found in each of the four 
 divisions of the United Kingdom, and one or other may be 
 reached from any portion of these islands within a day. It 
 is in Scotland that the grandeur, as well as the height and 
 number of the mountains reaches its maximum ; but with 
 the exception of the island of Skye, which will be referred 
 to later on,* the general character of the work in all four 
 countries is practically the same, and what is said of one 
 may be looked upon as applicable to all. 
 
 The little corner of England, known as the " Lake Dis- 
 trict," is unsurpassed for its own peculiar form of beauty. 
 It is comprised within a small area, and could be enclosed 
 by a square having a side of twenty miles. The district can 
 be reached in seven or eight hours from London, in four or 
 five from Edinburgh or Glasgow, and in two or three from 
 Manchester or Liverpool. The one-inch Ordnance map 
 * See p. 19.
 
 MOUNTAINEERING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 13 
 
 represents the country very accurately, four sheets covering 
 the district,* and there are several guide-books which might 
 be praised. Baddeley's and Jenkinson's are probably the 
 two best, and Prior's, as a small one for the pocket, is 
 excellent. There will also be published shortly a guide, by 
 Mr. Haskett-Smith, to the rock climbs of the district ; and a 
 book of this sort, by the first authority on the subject, cannot 
 but be a boon to climbers wishing to make the most of a 
 short holiday. It is to be hoped, however, that it will not 
 tempt untrained beginners into situations which are dan- 
 gerous for any but practised cragsmen. 
 
 It is beyond the scope of the present volume to give any 
 guide-book information as to routes, inns, roads, or paths ; 
 and this chapter is merely concerned with the English hills as 
 a school for mountaineering, and a stepping-stone to things 
 higher. While the majority of pedestrians who visit the 
 Lakes learn little or nothing which would be of use to them 
 elsewhere, there is, nevertheless, much to be learned ; and 
 the man who will go often enough, and trust to his own 
 guiding powers in all seasons and under all conditions of 
 weather, will assuredly gain some practical and useful know- 
 ledge of hill-walking, route-finding, and rock-scrambling, 
 and even of step-cutting and glissading, which will serve 
 him in good stead among any mountains he may visit. To 
 be of any use, though, this knowledge must be the outcome 
 of experience, and all that can be done here is to offer a 
 few hints, in the hope that they may help those who are 
 quite beginners, or who have not acquired sufficient con- 
 fidence in their own powers. 
 
 Some of the advice given in this chapter is quite at 
 variance with what would be sound counsel in the Alps ; 
 
 * New Series one-inch Ordnance Map of England and Wales 
 Sheets 29, 30, 38, 39.
 
 I 4 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 the character of the work being so different that many of 
 the lessons the English hills have to teach are best learned 
 under conditions which would be very dangerous in higher 
 ranges. My general advice, then, is this : go at all seasons, 
 and climb in all weathers ; never take a guide ; pay little or 
 no attention to guide-books during your actual walk ; and, 
 if you cannot find a companion, go alone, but in this case 
 your aspirations must be confined within moderate limits. 
 
 If new to the work, it will be wise, while avoiding high- 
 roads, to rest content with tramps along the tops of the 
 hills ; such walks can be devised in infinite variety, and will 
 be found as full of interest as of beauty. Get off the roads 
 as soon as possible, and look with suspicion on every foot- 
 path, unless you know that it leads in the right direction. 
 When the ground is steep, kick your toes (not necessarily 
 the tips) in going up and your heels in going down ; and, if 
 traversing or descending a slope, do not walk with your 
 alpenstock below you, but hold it with both hands, more or 
 less transversely (see Figs, i and 2), and but little harm will 
 result, even if your feet should slip. Learn to kick steps 
 up, and slide down, every little patch of hard snow you 
 may find, and to run fearlessly, and with ease, down steep 
 grass slopes and screes of loose stones. Use your map and 
 compass frequently in clear weather ; and, when a short 
 halt is called, try by their aid to distinguish the many 
 hills in view ; endeavour also to obtain an insight into the 
 character of the ground around you, by comparing what you 
 actually see with what is delineated on the map. By this 
 means you will become familiar with the use of these aids, 
 and will be better able to employ them with advantage 
 when fog or storm comes on. If by any chance you should 
 get hopelessly lost, simply go down hill, prodding in front 
 with the stick, if dark or foggy, to make sure you walk over
 
 MOUNTAINEERING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 15 
 
 no cliff. In most cases, you will come to a valley in less 
 than an hour, and, by following the stream, some farmhouse 
 will in time be reached ; miles away, perhaps, from where 
 you originally wished to go, but you will be safe. Here 
 may be encountered the greatest danger of the day, in the 
 shape of sheep-dogs, which, however aggressive, will probably 
 retire if you pick up, or even pretend to pick up, a stone. 
 
 Fig. i. RIGHT. 
 
 Fig. 2. WRONG. 
 
 For such a tramp a very small kit is needed. A tweed 
 shooting suit, stout boots with a few nails in the soles, a 
 strong walking-stick or ash alpenstock not more than four 
 feet long, a map, a thoroughly good compass, and a knap- 
 sack or rucksack containing dry flannel shirt and stockings 
 and whatever odds and ends you may require. Slippers 
 can, except at crowded seasons, be borrowed at the inns ; 
 and, if wet through, you can retire to bed, or, perhaps,
 
 16 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 appear in borrowed raiment, much more gorgeous than your 
 own modest attire. 
 
 There is no doubt that to thread one's way in and out 
 among the hills of Cumberland gives self-reliance, and 
 teaches hill-walking and route-finding. It gives, too, a 
 general insight into mountain form and topography, and 
 teaches in the best and safest manner the uses of a map 
 and compass. In using a compass, remember that a knife or 
 an ice-axe may influence the readings, even if not in actual 
 contact with it, and that magnetic rocks are not unknown.* 
 The first source of error can, however, be easily eliminated, 
 and the last, being one of rare occurrence, is, in a fog, practi- 
 cally best ignored. Should the compass appear to indicate 
 wrongly, as may often happen when surrounded by fog, 
 recollect that the probability is much in favour of the fault 
 being yours rather than that of the instrument, as it is easily 
 possible for a man to turn through forty-five, or even ninety 
 degrees, of a circle, unconsciously, in less than a minute. 
 This fact shows the importance of consulting the compass 
 very frequently, and one which can be strapped to the wrist 
 like a lady's watch, f though unfitted for rock-climbs, would 
 be useful on easy ground both at home and in the Alps. It 
 is not too much to say that a climber must learn to trust 
 implicitly to the compass readings ; and my own feeling is 
 that the best and quickest way to gain this confidence is to 
 make a few excursions in thick weather quite alone. Mr. 
 Pilkington prudently advises pedestrians not to ascend out- 
 of-the-way hills without companions : " a knee can easily 
 be twisted or an ankle sprained."! This, no doubt, is true; 
 but still, if one merely walks, eschewing all temptation to 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xiii. pp. 439, 440. 
 
 t See p. 1 80'. 
 
 J "Mountaineering" (Badminton Library), p. 331.
 
 MOUNTAINEERING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 17 
 
 climb rocks, it should be possible with care to avoid all 
 such mishaps. 
 
 In connection with rinding the way in thick weather, a 
 word or two should perhaps be said as to routes marked by 
 cairns. There are several such in the district, and in fog 
 it is often helpful to find the way up or down by this simple 
 means. Always be cautious, and make quite certain that 
 you are on the right route by means of your compass. Two 
 or three cairned routes meet on the top of Scafell Pike, and 
 three such lines converge upon Esk Hause : unless this is 
 known, it is easy to go wrong. Similarly, walls and railings 
 do not always run as might be expected. An apparently 
 easy way from the top of the Pillar Mountain down to 
 Windy Gap is suggested by following the railing ; but the 
 railing does not go to Windy Gap, as those find out who 
 try. 
 
 As soon as a man feels fairly at home among the hills, he 
 may begin to climb the rocks, and it is wise for him in this 
 case to have suitable companions. The work is entirely 
 different, and to many it is more enjoyable than mere walk- 
 ing. Look out at first for steep sides of the hills, especially 
 where the ground is broken : ascend Coniston Old Man 
 from Goat's Water, the Langdale face of Bow Fell, or the 
 Eskdale side of Scafell Pike. From mere scrambles, a man 
 is soon led on to attempting passages which may be more 
 properly called rock-climbs ; and the cliffs of Great End, 
 Mickledore, and the Pillar Rock, offer easy as well as 
 difficult routes. This is work which requires regular moun- 
 taineering boots, well nailed, and it is well to be supplied 
 with a sufficiency of Alpine rope. Beginners had better 
 use this even on fairly easy rocks ; and those who may be 
 called practised cragsmen ought not to leave it behind, for 
 they are not likely to rest long content with the easy ways. 
 
 c
 
 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 The more difficult rock-climbs of the English Lake 
 District are not to be lightly undertaken. They should be 
 attempted only when free from ice, and by a party of care- 
 fully selected mountaineers. There are, no doubt, short 
 bits of difficult rock, up which two good climbers may drag 
 any one without much danger ; but for some of the longer 
 climbs, such as may be found on the Pillar Rock, Scafell, or 
 Dow Crag, there should be no novice in the party. 
 
 A winter visit to the Lakes is a novel experience to many 
 who know the aspect of the country only when the weather 
 is warm and the trees in full leaf. It may reveal the hills 
 sparkling in the beauty of frozen snow, 
 or all may be slush and rain. In any case 
 it is as well to be equipped with a fairly 
 complete Alpine outfit. Gaiters and stout 
 woollen gloves are needed, and it is some- 
 times wise to put a Shetland jersey into the 
 sack along with the provisions. Some 
 climbers take a thick ash walking-stick 
 with a metal head, as being less ostenta- 
 tious than an ice-axe ; but, if there is any 
 considerable amount of hard snow about, 
 a regular axe is more useful. Sometimes 
 the gullies are filled with snow so hard 
 that no impression is made by kicking 
 with heavily nailed boots ; and to ascend 
 them, half an hour of continuous step- 
 cutting may be needed. At other times 
 snow is met with so soft and deep as to 
 make the hill-tops practically inaccessible. 
 
 In North Wales the conditions of mountaineering are 
 quite similar to those just discussed. The Cader Idris 
 region, south of the railway from Bala to Barmouth, has 
 
 MODIFIED AXE FOR 
 BRITISH HILLS.
 
 MOUNTAINEERING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 19 
 
 much of interest to offer; but the grandest scenery and 
 the finest climbing lie within a five-mile radius of the 
 Pen-y-gwryd inn.* Here we have expeditions both easy 
 and difficult, and many excellent rock-climbs, of one to 
 three hours' duration, may be made on the Snowdon ridges 
 alone; the best of all being found on the splendid 
 precipice which forms the north face of Lliwedd, and 
 on the cirque of rocks which shuts in the head of C\vm 
 Glas : these, however, are not places for beginners. The 
 Snowdon district may be reached from Port Madoc, from 
 Llanberis, from Bangor, or from Bettws-y-Coed. It is so 
 near to London, that it has been found possible to dine in 
 town on Saturday evening, lunch on the top of Snowdon 
 on Sunday, and be back at work in London by ten o'clock 
 on Monday morning. 
 
 The Irish hills are known to comparatively few English 
 climbers, but the Macgillicuddy Reeks, f which rise from the 
 west shore of the Lake of Killarney, are, to some of the 
 residents of the Emerald Isle, what the Cumberland and 
 Welsh hills are to us. 
 
 To name, even, the principal ridges and ranges of Scotland 
 would be no easy task. There are many excellent scrambles 
 within the confines of the " Queen's Park," and I have 
 indulged in one of the longest glissades I can remember on 
 the east slopes of Ben Lomond. In many districts both 
 walking and climbing may be had equal to, but not sur- 
 passing, that to be found in England or in Wales. 
 
 Before closing this brief sketch of mountaineering in the 
 British Isles, something must be said of Skye. Those who 
 best know the Black Cuchullins (pronounced Coolins) agree 
 
 * New Series one-inch Ordnance Map of England and Wales. 
 Sheets 94, 106, 119. 
 t One-inch Ordnance Map of Ireland. Sheets 172, 173, 183, 184.
 
 20 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 that they offer finer mountain scenery, richer colouring, and 
 better rock-climbing, than are to be found elsewhere in the 
 United Kingdom ; for they are rugged peaks, with splintered 
 ridges and deep clefts, quite different from the rounded hills 
 found in other parts of these dominions. 
 
 There are two objections to the Island of Skye as a field 
 for mountaineers the time required to reach it, and the 
 fact that there is no centre of operations in the heart of the 
 mountains. Sligachan is distant some twenty-five hours of 
 constant travelling from London, and in distance is as far 
 away as Grindelwald ; further, as it is situated quite at one 
 end of the range, camping out becomes necessary for an 
 attack on some of the remoter summits. A refuge of the 
 Alpine hut order on the shores of Lock Coruisk would be 
 a boon to climbers visiting the island. 
 
 Those who have any thought of visiting Skye, with a view 
 to mountaineering, are recommended to read two admirable 
 papers on the subject, written respectively by Mr. Charles 
 Pilkington * and Mr. Clinton Dent.f The former gentle- 
 man deserves the thanks of all lovers of mountains, in the 
 first place for having enabled them to speak of, as well as to 
 think about, the " Coolin " hills, and secondly for having 
 very largely corrected the defects of the ordnance sheet 
 representing the Skye mountains, and published the result 
 in the shape of an etched map on a two-inch scale. % 
 
 In taking leave of Skye, I say my last words on the 
 subject of climbing in Great Britain. The whole subject 
 may be thought trivial, and possibly out of place in so small 
 a book as this ; and yet I am not alone in believing that 
 frequent visits to the British hills form a very important 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xiii. p. 433. 
 t Ibid., vol. xv. p. 422. 
 
 J This map is sent post free, on receipt of sixpence, by John Hey- 
 wood & Co., Deansgate, Manchester.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 21 
 
 element in the education^ of a mountaineer. It is, I think, 
 a very significant fact that those climbers, whether English 
 or foreign, who have won for themselves the reputation of 
 being good amateur guides, have, in almost every instance, 
 had a great deal of practice among hilly districts below the 
 level of perpetual snow. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 As the art of mountaineering is largely concerned with the 
 avoidance of danger, it will be advisable to obtain, at the 
 outset, a clear idea of the nature of the risks incurred by 
 mountaineers, and the means at their disposal for reducing 
 them to a minimum. 
 
 In the first place, there are a series of so-called minor 
 dangers, such as cuts, bruises, sprains, sunburn, snow-blind- 
 ness, and, worst of all, frost-bite.* These, and kindred 
 subjects, are dealt with in another chapter,f and all that will 
 be needful here is to point out that such mishaps may some- 
 times have grave consequences, and merit, perhaps, a passing 
 mention in connection with the subject of Alpine dangers. 
 
 The real dangers of climbing must be spoken of in very 
 different terms. Alpine accidents are, as every one knows, 
 of only too frequent occurrence. They may eventuate in 
 nothing worse than crippling ; but they frequently, perhaps 
 generally, result in the death, often the absolutely sudden 
 death, of one or more human beings. " There is," says Mr. 
 Cunningham, "something inexpressibly sad in hearing of 
 
 * "Frost-bite," or local freezing, is entered as a minor danger, 
 because it does not primarily endanger life. 
 t Chap. XI.
 
 22 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 those who are in all the heyday of sound health, at the 
 very moment when they are enjoying to the full some of 
 the best and most lasting pleasures nature can give, being 
 suddenly struck down." * Then, again, it is noteworthy 
 that about half the accidents which have marred the history 
 of climbing have proved fatal to the whole party ; and the 
 fact that the carelessness or mistake on the part of one of us, 
 may entail such widespread misfortune and 'distress, should 
 surely stimulate us to do our utmost in avoiding risk ; and, 
 if we do our best, we shall not often be in serious danger. 
 
 While the dangers of mountaineering have been treated 
 of by various writers in various languages, it is to be noted 
 that no two authorities would seem to have adopted precisely 
 the same classification. That there should be a diversity of 
 opinion as to what really constitutes an Alpine danger, and 
 what is to be looked upon as merely an accessory circum- 
 stance, is hardly to be wondered at,- since most accidents 
 have been due to the co-operation of several factors, and 
 authorities may often differ as to the true cause of a cata- 
 strophe. The list of dangers which will be found appended 
 is the outcome of considerable thought, and yet it is probable 
 that it will not meet with the approval of every competent 
 critic. It may be considered too formidable, and perhaps 
 such is really the case ; for the seven headings comprised 
 in the first division might have been omitted altogether, 
 seeing that they refer more to the follies of which mountain- 
 eers have been guilty, than to sources of danger in any way 
 inherent in the sport itself. Self-made dangers are, however, 
 most efficient causes of accidents ; and, as they have been 
 accountable for the loss of many valuable lives, they deserve, 
 in my opinion, a prominent place in any list of this sort 
 which aims at being useful or complete. 
 
 * "The Pioneers of the Alps," p. 47.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 23 
 
 I. Self-made dangers (which should never be incurred) 
 
 Want of training. 
 
 Incompetence of one or more members of a party. 
 
 Two on a rope. 
 
 Climbing alone. 
 
 Dangers connected with the rope (including climb- 
 ing unroped). 
 
 Climbing out of season. 
 
 Climbing in bad weather, or too soon after it. 
 II. Dangers to which all climbers may be exposed, but 
 which can be avoided or provided for 
 
 A Slip (on ice, snow, rock, or grass). 
 
 Bad guiding. 
 
 Falls into crevasses. 
 
 WJC\A 
 
 Falls through cornices. 
 
 Falling seracs and ice-avalanches. 
 
 Snow-avalanches. 
 
 Usually due 
 
 to 
 bad guiding. 
 
 Exposure. 
 III. Dangers which are sometimes unavoidable. 
 
 Sudden storms (including thunder-storms). 
 
 Falling stones. 
 
 It will be noticed that " difficulty " finds no place in the 
 above category ; for, though the non-climbing world is apt 
 to think that difficulty and danger are, when applied to 
 Alpine matters, synonymous, mountaineers are accustomed 
 to draw a very distinct line between the two ; and, before 
 proceeding to discuss in detail the individual items in the 
 preceding list, it may be advisable to draw attention to the 
 recognized distinction between these terms in their relation 
 to mountaineering. Mr. Whymper, speaking on this sub- 
 ject, says, " The line which separates the difficult from the 
 dangerous is sometimes a very shadowy, but it is not an 
 imaginary, one, It is sometimes passed unconsciously, and
 
 24 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 the consciousness that it has been passed is felt too late. 
 But (according to my opinion) if the doubtful line is crossed 
 consciously, deliberately, one passes from doing that which 
 is justifiable to doing that which is unjustifiable, because it 
 is imprudent."* We shall, probably, all agree with Mr. 
 Whymper ; but, whether the line be crossed unconsciously 
 or deliberately, the danger arises from the same source, and, 
 consequently, I am not quite sure that we are right in making 
 a hard-and-fast distinction, though the danger that results 
 from difficulty per se should be extremely rare. Places are 
 occasionally met with where there is an excessively difficult 
 bit of rock to be overcome, so situated that the other mem- 
 bers of the party could hardly hope to check a fall ; and I 
 am not prepared to say that such a risk should never be run. 
 An accident in a place of this kind may be entered under 
 the heading of a " slip," but might suitably be regarded as 
 due primarily to the extreme difficulty of the situation. The 
 disaster on the Meije, in which Dr. Emil Zsigmondy lost 
 his life, a few months after publishing his book on "Alpine 
 Dangers," might not inappropriately be entered under such 
 a head ; though in this case there were several other factors 
 at work. The distinction between difficulties and dangers 
 is, however, a useful one, and I have not entered the former 
 in my list of the latter. 
 
 WANT OF TRAINING. 
 
 Though few, perhaps, would consider want of training, 
 unless want of experience is included, to be a source of 
 danger, I am of opinion that it has played a part in the 
 causation of many accidents. To climb the great peaks of 
 the Alps, a man must be very "fit," and an absence of 
 
 * " Scrambles amongst the Alps," p. 113.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 25 
 
 this fitness may prove a danger in at least three different 
 ways. 
 
 It may produce general exhaustion, which, besides being 
 a possible cause of permanent disease, may occasion a party 
 to travel so slowly that they are overtaken by darkness 
 and obliged to pass the night high above the snow-line a 
 most undesirable experience, attended by many risks. 
 
 Secondly, it may prove dangerous by producing local 
 exhaustion. On slopes of ice and difficult rocks, it is 
 often necessary to maintain a strained attitude for a con- 
 siderable period, and, if the climber is not in good condition, 
 the muscles of the leg or arm may give way and occasion 
 a fall in a very awkward place. There are many who think 
 that the lamentable accident, in which Professor Balfour lost 
 his life, in 1882, may be partly attributed to some such 
 cause as this. 
 
 Lastly, want of training may cause danger by simply pro- 
 ducing that carelessness which is born of fatigue. A man 
 may slip from mere want of care, or he may, more probably 
 and with greater risk, dislodge stones which he would never 
 have done had he been on the qui vive. Exceptionally long 
 days occasionally tire mountaineers even if in the best con- 
 dition; but easy ground is generally reached before the tired, 
 careless feeling overtakes them, and they have a small reserve 
 of energy to call upon if needed. 
 
 Somewhat analogous to the danger due to want of training 
 is that which arises when persons, who are physically unfit 
 for arduous bodily work, undertake the ascent of Alpine 
 peaks. Children, and those who are not physically strong 
 and sound, should content themselves with less severe forms 
 of exercise.
 
 26 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 INCOMPETENCE OF ONE OR MORE MEMBERS 
 OF A PARTY. 
 
 This heading, again, may perhaps be objected to, as the 
 immediate cause of any accident, in which incompetence is 
 operative, is always to be found elsewhere. P'or instance, 
 though incompetence undoubtedly played a part in the 
 terrible accident on the Matterhorn in 1865, the real cause 
 was a slip. In any case, the presence of a weak or doubt- 
 ful member in a party attacking a difficult mountain is 
 always a source of danger; though the other members, 
 if thoroughly competent, would generally be able to hold 
 him up, and the rope should not break, as it did in 
 the historic case just cited. " No chain is stronger than 
 its weakest link. The men are roped together to give 
 the proverb point. As the security of the whole is the 
 protection of each, so, conversely, the false step of one is 
 the jeopardy of all. Too much caution cannot be bestowed 
 on picking your comrades." * 
 
 If it be dangerous to have one incompetent member in a 
 party, it follows that it is more dangerous to have two ; and 
 the maximum risk under this heading is reached when a 
 party of novices venture together, without guides, upon the 
 high snows. 
 
 Two ON A ROPE. 
 
 This is a true cause of accidents, though a slip or some 
 other mishap is needed to give it force. The rule that a 
 party should consist of not less than three on a rope is 
 founded on the theory that if one slips or falls into a 
 crevasse, two can hold him up and pull him out ; whereas 
 one probably could not. The truth of this is plain, and 
 
 * "Dangers of Mountaineering," Temple Bar, Feb. 1878, p. 324.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 27 
 
 most mountaineers have been members of parties where 
 some one has got into trouble which he would hardly have 
 escaped from without the assistance of more than one 
 comrade. It is, I suppose, unanimously acceded that two 
 is an improper number to venture upon snow-covered 
 glaciers ; but there are some mountaineers of exceptional 
 skill who claim that, on rock mountains, two are as good 
 as three, provided both are good climbers. Though two 
 can go more quickly, I must confess that I prefer to be on 
 a rope of three anywhere ; and the places are few where I 
 should recommend a party of four to split up into twos. 
 This is, however, a different matter from two going alone ; 
 as, in the latter case, even if a mountain be found, in the 
 ascent of which there is no element of snow, a slight mishap 
 to one may compel the other to descend alone, leaving his 
 disabled companion exposed and solitary for hours, perhaps 
 until next day. I should have said even less than I have 
 done on this point had not the habit been a growing one ; 
 and, " whatever number is right, two is unquestionably 
 wrong." * 
 
 CLIMBING ALONE. 
 
 Sound reasoning appears to be quite lost on those who 
 seem bent upon climbing alone. They are worse than the 
 kleptomaniac, who knows it is wrong to steal, yet cannot help 
 stealing ; for they know that they are doing wrong, can help 
 it, and still do it. "I suppose," said Mr. C. E. Mathews, 
 in 1882, "that it is an obvious truism that no sane man 
 should undertake an expedition, even of the third or fourth 
 order, unaccompanied by friend or guide ; " * and, at the end 
 of a paper which has since become classical, he most 
 earnestly and eloquently appeals to mountaineers to do 
 * Alpine Journal, voj. xi. p. 8l,
 
 28 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 nothing which could bring discredit on their manly pursuit.* 
 Yet the vagary which, up to that time, had caused eight 
 deaths, has been responsible for at least an equal number 
 since, and the folly goes on unchecked. Were it a very 
 difficult thing to do, one would suppose the practice must 
 be the outcome of a spirit of ostentation. Any one, how- 
 ever and there are plenty such, both amateur and pro- 
 fessional who can lead up and follow down, could, if he 
 liked, go up alone. Let us trust that the true spirit of 
 mountaineering, which in the long run is bound to win the 
 day, may speedily put an end to this unenviable form of 
 distinction. 
 
 DANGERS CONNECTED WITH THE ROPE. 
 
 Some space will be devoted in future chapters to ropes 
 and the manner of using them.f What is needful here is 
 to point out that there are three ways in which danger may 
 arise. 
 
 (a) Climbing tmroped can hardly be said to be a danger 
 connected with the rope ; " unconnected " would be a 
 better word; but it is convenient to name it here. It is 
 obvious that the man who climbs unroped is exposed to 
 most of the dangers which solitary climbers incur. The 
 slips which killed Mr. Elliot on the Shreckhorn, and Dr. 
 Mosely on the Matterhorn, would doubtless have had no 
 serious consequences if these gentlemen had not insisted 
 on being unroped. 
 
 () Improper use of the rope may hamper its beneficent 
 action in a variety of ways. Unless used intelligently, the 
 rope may, indeed, add to the danger ; as, instead of check- 
 ing a slip, it may pull the whole party over, or it may 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xi. p. 85. 
 t See pp. 92, 178.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 29 
 
 displace a loose stone, endangering those below. The 
 climber must learn how to use the rope in various situa- 
 tions, and must remember that, if improperly used, it may 
 become useless or actually mischievous. 
 
 (c} Bad rope. It is astonishing how many accidents 
 have been attributable to the use of rope too thin, too 
 weak, or too old. It is, perhaps, more strange that the 
 number is not still greater, considering the quality which 
 is sometimes used. The English Alpine Club rope is justly 
 prized by the guides, some of whom cling to pieces which 
 have been given to them, and use it for years after it should 
 have been relegated to the clothes-posts. Two years ago 
 I saw a guide with a shocking bit of frayed and worn-out 
 rope on board a Lucerne steamer. I asked him where he 
 lived, and how it was he had not got a better one. He 
 said he came from Engelberg, 'and that it was the best 
 that could be got a piece of Alpine Club rope, which 
 had been given, some twelve years before, to his father, 
 who, on becoming too old for active guiding, had 
 handed it on to him : he had used it that morning in 
 crossing a pass in the Todi district, and was on his way 
 home. 
 
 CLIMBING OUT OF SEASON. 
 
 Later on, when speaking of snow-avalanches, allusion will 
 be made to the accident on the Haut de Cry, in which 
 Joseph Bennen, a guide who had won himself a great name, 
 perished in 1864. Were Bennen alive to-day, he would 
 rarely attack even a second-rate mountain on the last day 
 of February. By such mistakes we learn. Summer is the 
 season for climbing in the Alps ; and, for the great peaks of 
 the central group, there is usually little more than two 
 months available. July, August, and September may be
 
 30 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 said to be the mountaineering months ; but such peaks as 
 I refer to are not often in good condition, except between 
 the middle of July and the middle of September. Minor 
 points, and peaks in warmer districts, may be climbed in 
 June or in October ; but the monarchs of the range pour 
 down avalanches of melting snow all through the first-named 
 month, and have already got their first coat of wintry paint 
 by the beginning of the latter. 
 
 Next to midsummer, probably the best time for 
 mountaineering is mid-winter ; and in the clear, frosty 
 weather, which may last for many weeks at a time, the 
 ascents of many mountains can be accomplished. The 
 snow is often in excellent order, but the days are very 
 short, and there is more danger of frost-bite. 
 
 CLIMBING IN BAD WEATHER, OR TOO SOON AFTER IT. 
 
 The frequency with which bad weather is experienced in 
 the Alps is one of the drawbacks to mountaineering as a 
 sport ; and it is also a serious danger. Few climbers get, 
 annually, more than from three to five weeks in the heart 
 of the mountains ; and, if a good half of this time is, as 
 often happens, spoiled by bad weather and its consequences, 
 the margin left is small, and the long looked-for holiday is 
 over with disappointing results. Many climbers think that 
 August is habitually finer than July. Personally, I have had, 
 on the whole, better luck in July than in August ; but the 
 weather in both months is very apt to be unsettled. It is a 
 mistake to expect too much, and the man who goes out every 
 year will probably find that, out of every four years, he will 
 have one very fine season, one very wet season, and two 
 average ones ; these last may seem but poor at the time, 
 but, on looking back, are found to have yielded fair results.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 31 
 
 The danger which results from climbing in bad weather 
 might be resolved into a number of sub-headings. There 
 is the danger of getting lost, the risk of frost-bite, and the 
 chance that the weather, already bad, may get worse and 
 end in storm. Indeed, the risk can hardly be over-estimated ; 
 and, to deliberately start on an expedition in threatened 
 storm, or when snow is falling, is out of the question. In 
 very good climbing weather, doubtful mornings are, how- 
 ever, not uncommon ; and a start may often be made with 
 the full intention of turning back unless the day improves 
 before real work begins. Early morning mists in the valleys 
 are rather of good than of bad augury, and even drizzling 
 rain may be quite local and precede a perfect day. It must, 
 of course, be understood that starts made, under such con- 
 ditions, are made only as experiments; and nothing but 
 minor expeditions will be persisted in unless the weather 
 actually improves ; whereas, if it gets worse, it is right to turn 
 back even from the easiest mountain climbs. 
 
 Although hill walks abound which can be undertaken at 
 almost any time, mountaineering proper requires not only 
 that the weather be fine or fair, but that it shall have been 
 fine for some days previously ; for, after a fall of snow, the 
 mountains are pouring down avalanches in all directions. 
 What is rain in the valleys is generally snow on the heights, 
 and, with the exception of low passes and mountains of like 
 calibre, new snow means difficulty and danger upon both 
 snow and rock. The question of new snow lying upon old 
 will be discussed later on,* but it may be well to pause here 
 and dwell, for a moment, on the effects produced on rocks. 
 The handholds and the footholds get filled up ; and, as they 
 are not found till the snow is scraped away, the time taken 
 to climb a given piece of rock is trebled. Later, the snow 
 * See p. 44.
 
 32 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 melts under the sun and seems, from below, to have nearly 
 disappeared ; but it has trickled as water into every crevice 
 and over every slab, and next day each crack is found full 
 of hard black ice, and the slabs over which, when dry, one 
 may easily crawl, are coated with a thin but firmly adherent 
 layer of ice. The fatal accidents which have resulted from 
 a slip on rocks have, in many cases, been due to the pre- 
 sence of this "verglas," and it should be carefully avoided, 
 if possible. Several days of fine weather are needed before 
 the high mountains will be in a fit state for mountaineer- 
 ing ; but it is not possible to give any exact rule, because 
 much must depend on the quantity of snow that has fallen, 
 on the amount and direction of the wind, and on sundry 
 other factors applicable in divers situations : south faces, for 
 instance, clearing much more quickly than those which face 
 the north. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the fine weather immedi- 
 ately following a day or two of falling snow is necessarily 
 spent in idleness. Many walks and excursions may be 
 undertaken at once ; and, as a rule, easy passes and not a 
 few of the lower mountains, will be quite fit to climb within 
 two or three days. 
 
 The danger of avalanches when a south or " Fohn " wind 
 prevails will be referred to later ; * fair weather with a south 
 wind is good for nothing but pure rock peaks. The most 
 delightful wind for the mountaineer is the north wind, which, 
 in the Alps, always brings fine weather and good snow. In 
 summer, however, the north wind seldom lasts for many days 
 at a time ; and the best fine-weather wind for lasting is that 
 which comes from the east or the north-east, f 
 
 * See p. 47. 
 
 t The question of turning back in bad weather is discussed on 
 P- 57-
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 33 
 
 A SUP. 
 
 A slip may occur on rocks, snow, ice, or grass ; and it is 
 one of the commonest causes of accidents. It may be the 
 only cause : a slip on ice, or on glazed, or even simply 
 smooth steep rocks, may pull a whole party down ; and this 
 has happened, more often perhaps in cases which have not 
 ended seriously, than in those which have. But a slip has 
 not often been the solitary cause of the fatal results attributed 
 to it Fortunately a slip, if it occurs, does not always entail 
 serious consequences ; for, provided the party be roped, and 
 the rope be properly used, the progress of the fall is quickly 
 stayed, if not actually prevented. Climbing alone, and 
 neglect of one of the rules relating to the use of the rope, 
 are the usual concomitants which help to make a slip 
 disastrous. 
 
 A slip is perhaps to be more dreaded on fairly easy 
 ground than in difficult places where every faculty is strained. 
 Though every precaution should always be taken to nullify 
 the effects of a slip, should it occur, it is fortunately very 
 rare for a competent mountaineer to slip in a place that 
 really matters. 
 
 How, it may be asked, shall a man learn not to slip ? The 
 late Mr. Ball declared that " the quality of surefootedness 
 depends upon two habits, both easily acquired : first, that of 
 lifting the foot well from the ground, and bringing it down 
 at once ; secondly, that of observing the spot on which the 
 foot is to rest." * I am inclined to think that other con- 
 siderations come into play, and that surefootedness is to be 
 learned by a process more analagous to that by which a 
 horseman learns to jump a five-barred gate without falling off 
 his horse. To some it comes easily, and to others with 
 * " The Alpine Guide," Introduction, p. xliii. 
 
 D
 
 34 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 difficulty; while some, perhaps, could never learn to be 
 even fairly safe. Much may be learned by practice and by 
 watching the masterly way in which a good guide goes about 
 his work. 
 
 A greater danger than a true slip is to be found in the 
 fall which may result from the sudden giving way of hand 
 or foothold. In well-cut steps on ice this ought never to 
 occur. On snow, apart from avalanchly conditions, which 
 will be dealt with separately, such a mishap is usually due 
 to bad climbing : the foot has not been well planted, or the 
 body is not erect. On rocks of some kinds it is a very 
 real danger, and there can be few mountaineers of experi- 
 ence who have not seen instances of this which have come 
 perilously near to mishap. On every kind of rock care 
 must be taken to test hand and footholds before trusting to 
 them ; but there are some rotten formations where nothing 
 will bear severe testing, and others, even more treacherous, 
 where a platform which allows one to jump on it, will, after 
 ten minutes quiet standing, suddenly slip away. Even on 
 such rocks real danger may generally be avoided by taking 
 great care and unusual precautions. Such a place I know 
 where a party of three experienced climbers, including one 
 of the best guides in the Alps, took nearly two hours to get 
 over a bit of very bad rock not more than a hundred and 
 twenty feet in length : tons of rock were dislodged, but no 
 harm came. 
 
 A slip upon steep grass is rather a different matter from 
 any of those already discussed. It has often been attended 
 with fatal results; but then, the canons of mountaineering 
 do not ordain that a party shall be roped upon steep grass. 
 On some such places possibly a party ought to rope : 
 certainly they should if they have a novice among them 
 who is timid about standing up; but, as a rule, good
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 35 
 
 climbers should not be in danger if they will only treat the 
 locality with the respect that is its due, and, if it is slippery 
 as well as steep, use the pick- 
 ends of their axes as if on hard 
 snow, or, if needful, cut steps 
 into the soil. Usually, too, the 
 bad bit can be avoided by 
 taking a more or less circuitous 
 route. "Steep grass slopes, with 
 herbage either short and dry, or 
 long and wet or frozen," 
 certainly require great 
 care; but I can hardly 
 agree with Mr. Justice 
 Wills that they are to 
 be classed with sudden 
 storms and falling 
 stones, as being " be- 
 yond human control 
 and occasionally be- 
 yond human fore- 
 sight." * 
 
 BAD GUIDING. 
 
 As the whole 
 question of guides 
 will be discussed 
 fully in the next 
 chapter, all that is 
 now needed is to 
 point out that bad guiding, contrary to the belief of the 
 
 STEEP GRASS.' 
 
 Mountaineering " (Badminton Library), Introduction, p. xix.
 
 36 MOUNTAINEERING, 
 
 uninitiated, is a very fruitful cause of accidents. The popular 
 idea would appear to be that the man who takes a guide 
 would be safe, were it not that mountaineering is a perilous 
 pursuit, hemmed in on all sides by dangers which neither 
 skill nor forethought can avoid. The fact is that bad guides 
 have always been plentiful; and they are, I think, more 
 common now than they have ever been, both in point of 
 actual numbers and in proportion to the good ones. 
 Perhaps the greatest of all obstacles in the way of a 
 beginner's acquiring a sound knowledge of mountaineering 
 is the difficulty he often experiences in securing good 
 guides. 
 
 To those accidents which would seem to be unquestion- 
 ably due to bad guiding, and which it would be difficult to 
 put in any other category, there must be added some which 
 appear under other heads ; and few, I think, will question 
 that most, I do not say all, of the accidents due to exposure, 
 to avalanches, and to breaks through cornices, might be 
 reasonably grouped under this heading. To these must be 
 added a large number of those mishaps which have befallen 
 parties climbing without guides. " One fourth of the 
 accidents occurring between 1882 and 1892 have happened 
 to more or less inexperienced climbers travelling without 
 guides." * While most of these, if not all, were probably 
 due to bad guiding, it must not be forgotten that guideless 
 parties are exposed to all the dangers under discussion. 
 
 FALLS INTO CREVASSES. 
 
 Crevasses will have to be referred to again later on ; f but, 
 as they are a source of danger, something must be said 
 here. 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xvi. p. 22. 
 t See p. 103.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 37 
 
 Fatal accidents have happened from falls into crevasses, 
 both low down where they are visible, and on snow-covered 
 glaciers where they are frequently concealed. Of the first 
 I need say nothing; reasonable care, and an occasional 
 helping hand, ought to render naked glaciers free from risk 
 even for beginners ; though, with a weak party, or in 
 unusually intricate places, it is wise to have recourse to the 
 rope. 
 
 On the higher fields of snow the rope, of course, should 
 always be used ; and if, as is no uncommon thing, one member 
 disappears partly or even overhead into a crevasse, he is soon 
 pulled up again * without any harm resulting. The crevasse, 
 unless indicated by a concavity of the snow, when it may be 
 rounded or crossed with great caution, is probably a narrow 
 one ; and, if crossed transversely, only one member of a party 
 will be over it at a time. Should he fall in, he will almost 
 instinctively hold his axe in such a way as to bridge the 
 crevasse, and, if it is a narrow one, his fall will thus be 
 checked. Great is the danger, however, if a whole party be 
 over the same crevasse at the same time ; and it was to this 
 cause that the accident on the Brouillard Glacier, in 1874, 
 was due. 
 
 If the surface be regular and un broken, how are we to 
 know how the hidden fissures lie ? We cannot always tell, 
 sometimes a chasm at right angles to the rest surprises us 
 but, as a rule, the main-crevasses are fairly parallel, and they 
 lie transversely to the direction of the fall of the land. The 
 zigzag track marked in the diagram on next page shows the 
 proper method in which to cross a snow-covered glacier 
 from side to side (C to D) ; but if it is wished to travel straight 
 up or down, a direct course will obviously be the safest (A to B). 
 In either case only one member of a party is likely to be over 
 * See p. 105.
 
 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 any particular crevasse at once. At the edges of glaciers, 
 where two glaciers meet, or where the ground below the 
 
 ice is hummocky, no 
 such fast rules can be 
 laid down ; but 
 probable lie of 
 
 3 
 
 the 
 the 
 
 crevasses can generally 
 be reasoned out. In 
 any case, however, the 
 surface of the snow 
 must be most carefully 
 scanned for any indica- 
 tions of hidden chasms, 
 and the stock of the 
 axe used freely as 
 a probe. Chamois, 
 though they occasion- 
 ally break through snow 
 bridges, are equal to 
 the best guides in 
 selecting a good route 
 
 DIAGRAM OF SNOW-COVERED GLACIER. CREVASSES ~--- e SHOWS, 
 
 RUN FAIRLY PARALLEL TO THE LINE c-o. and their tracks gene- 
 rally indicate a safe, if a sinuous, course. 
 
 FALLS THROUGH CORNICES. 
 
 Some of the most terrible accidents which have happened 
 in the Alps have been due to this cause, the Lyskamm 
 accident in 1877, in which two travellers and three guides lost 
 their lives, being the most notable. Any ridge of snow may 
 be topped by a cornice which overhangs either a slope of 
 snow or ice or a precipice of rock. They are caused by the
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 39 
 
 action of the wind, and miniature cornices may be seen in 
 England on many a winter's day ; while, in the hilly district 
 of Wales and Cumberland, large ones are freqently formed. 
 
 In the Alps cornices are always present in some well- 
 known situations, while in others they are sometimes 
 present and sometimes absent. A small cornice may be 
 here to-day and gone to-morrow, while long ones, which ex- 
 tend for several hundred yards, break off only in bits, and 
 reform in these places before the rest goes. 
 
 Cornices may be a foot or two broad, or they may be 
 thirty. Masses weighing hundreds of tons may fall spon- 
 taneously, or the addition of only a few stones of weight may 
 be enough to start them. 
 
 As any snow slope which ends above in a ridge, crest, or 
 col, may be found to overhang on the oppostie side, a trav- 
 eller going up such a slope cannot, unless he has been able 
 to reconnoitre, tell whether it overhangs or not. The 
 illustration on next page shows a party in such a position. 
 How are they to tell that the mountain does not slope down 
 on the other side as it does on the side they have ascended ? 
 They cannot know ; but they will be wise to assume that 
 there is a cornice until they have proved that there is not 
 one. 
 
 The greatest temptation to venture upon a possible cornice 
 is met with where some distance of ridge intervenes between 
 the point reached and the top. Suppose that, in the second 
 illustration, a party have reached the point A, some feet 
 below the ridge, and that the slope up which they came is 
 very steep and hard ; the problem before them is whether 
 they can best reach B by traversing the ridge itself, or whether 
 it is wiser to cut steps in the hard slope some litt 1 i distance 
 below the arete, a process probably costing much more time. 
 If the arete is not heavily corniced, the former is the proper
 
 MO UNTA1NEERING.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 route ; and, to find this out, they will anchor themselves and 
 send the leader carefully on to, or over, the ridge to inspect. 
 He must move with great caution, for should he prove to be 
 on a bad cornice which gave way with his weight, some 
 
 \li 
 
 \r 
 
 PROBABLE CORNICE. 
 
 sharp bit of ice might cut the rope ; and, at the best, his 
 comrades would not easily be able to draw him up again. 
 By looking up and down the arete he will generally find out 
 whether there is or is not a cornice ; and, if he can satisfy 
 himself that there is one, or even if he fails to make sure,
 
 42 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 the party must unhesitatingly follow the second and more 
 laborious course. 
 
 If, through bad guiding or mistaken judgment, a party does 
 get on to a cornice, and marches in single file along it, the 
 climbers naturally know nothing of their peril.* Should any 
 one of them hear a crack or see any sign of danger, he will 
 jump to the side which he knows ; and he may, as has hap- 
 pened more than once, hold the whole party up. The risk 
 of all jumping at the same time and sliding down the slope 
 is not great, and even this would give a better chance than 
 going with the cornice. 
 
 FALLING SCRAGS AND ICE AVALANCHES. 
 
 Avalanches have been variously classified, but, for our 
 purpose, it will be sufficient to consider that there are only 
 three kinds. Of one, the enormous spring avalanches which 
 sweep away forests and bury villages, the mountaineer should 
 have no experience : no one should climb at that season. 
 Only two sorts of avalanches interest us as climbers, falling 
 ice and sliding snow : the latter will be discussed in the next 
 section ; our immediate concern is with the former. 
 
 To be on the top of a cornice is to run the risk of falling 
 with an ice-avalanche ; but the danger of falling ice is 
 usually understood to mean that of ice falling from above. 
 This risk is obviously run by any one who ventures under 
 a cornice; secondly by the man who passes along the 
 base of a cliff the top of which is overhung by a pro- 
 jecting fringe of glacier ; and thirdly by the climber who 
 traverses below an unstable serac. The moral is obvious, 
 " Don't go under cornices ; don't go under overhanging 
 
 * For an instance in which a very strong party narrowly essaped 
 destruction in a situation of this kind, see Alpine Journal, vol. vii. 
 p. 300-
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 43 
 
 glaciers ; don't go under toppling Se'racs." Such risks can 
 certainly be avoided ; and yet, were I to add a third to the 
 two dangers which have been classed as unavoidable, it 
 would be that now under discussion. Se'racs are towers or 
 pinnacles of ice, which abound in every considerable ice- 
 fall. Though sometimes square and solid, they are often 
 strangely fantastic in outline and unstable in equilibrium. 
 Not unfrequently mountaineers are obliged to work their 
 way up or down ice-falls ; indeed, the opportunities afforded 
 for the display of skill and guiding power render an ice-fall 
 an attractive element in a climb. Fortunately a sinuous 
 route can usually be found which avoids any obvious risk, 
 but it is not always so : a doubtful serac cannot be rounded, 
 and the gauntlet must be run. If steps have to be made, 
 no time is lost ; if the ground is plain, it is best to run. It 
 is like running across a railway line : unlikely though it be 
 that a train will pass just when you are crossing, there is 
 always a risk ; and I do not think that I shall be contradicted 
 if I say that there are not half a dozen members of the 
 Alpine Club who have not incurred it. The danger is 
 greater in the afternoon than in the early morning, and 
 is vastly increased if the wind has been blowing from the 
 south. 
 
 Although not so frequent an experience as passing among 
 doubtful Se'racs, it is occasionally necessary to traverse under 
 a cornice or other projecting mass of ice. If there is any 
 appearance of imminent insecurity, if there has been a day 
 or two of south wind, or if there is any possibility of 
 rounding the danger, the risk will not be run ; but, when it 
 is the only route, when the wind is north, and when the 
 distance to be traversed is inconsiderable, it is probably 
 a justifiable thing to do. The Wetterhorn, the Grandes 
 Jorasses, and the peaks surmounting the Glacier des Nan-
 
 44 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 tillons occur to me as ascents which are rarely accom- 
 plished without some risk from one or other of the above- 
 named sources. To deliberately cross gullies, down which 
 large avalanches habitually pour, is a different affairaltogether, 
 and can never be right. 
 
 SNOW AVALANCHES (Sliding Snow). 
 
 If the risk from falling ice may be almost classed among 
 the unavoidables, since a mountaineer, unless he only plays 
 at climbing, is almost compelled to run it now and then, 
 the danger from sliding snow is much more insidious, and 
 has resulted much more frequently in disaster. The great 
 risk here is that the snow, on which you are standing, will 
 slide and carry you with it ; and fresh snow, lying a foot or 
 two deep, upon a steep slope of ice or of hard snow, is very 
 apt to slip. Many such avalanches fall over cliffs, or slide 
 into crevasses ; while others, where the slope simply eases 
 off, gradually come to a standstill. Any party of climbers, 
 who happen to be on snow of this kind when it starts 
 moving, or who are unfortunate enough to be in its track, are 
 obviously subjected to the gravest peril ; as, even if they 
 escape the more apparent danger, they may be crushed to 
 death by the snow crowding down from above, as poor 
 Bennen and his companion were in 1864. 
 
 In course of time the new snow slides off, or becomes, 
 through the alternate action of thaw and frost, welded to 
 the subjacent surface. How long this process takes it is 
 difficult to say ; but that which remains after four or five 
 days of fine weather is probably safe. During this period, 
 which must be utilized for small excursions, the danger is at 
 its height. It is common for fresh snow, which in the early 
 morning is in excellent order, to become soft, and in the
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 45 
 
 highest degree "avalanchy," by midday. Such snow may 
 slide spontaneously, or it may be set in motion by the 
 vibrations imparted by climbers who venture upon it. It 
 should be avoided by every possible device ; but, if there 
 is no alternative, there are certain precautions to be taken 
 which vary according to the situation. 
 
 If the subjacent surface is snow, the stock of the axe 
 should be plunged into it as far as possible, and firmly 
 grasped while steps are kicked through the new, and into 
 the old surface beneath : if it be ice, the new snow must be 
 cleared and steps cut Broad snow slopes in this condition 
 will never be ascended, but they are occasionally met with 
 on the way down ; and, if there is no alternative, the safest 
 plan is to walk in long and very narrow zigzags, so that, 
 if the snow slips from being disturbed by some one's foot, 
 the whole party will be above, or able to step above, the 
 line of fracture. Again, it may happen that the only way 
 down is by a gully or couloir floored with ice on which 
 the new snow lies. Here every island of rock and every 
 projecting handhold must be utilized to insure the safe 
 position of at least one member of the party, and the last 
 man, at all events, should coil his rope round any firm pro- 
 jecting point of rock that may present itself. Such couloirs 
 are often best negotiated by clinging fast to one or other 
 wall ; and, if handholds are sufficiently numerous and the 
 snow fairly deep, they may often be descended without 
 much step-cutting (see illustration on next page). If, as 
 sometimes happens, the dangerous slope of avalanchy snow 
 is situated in a position where none of the devices alluded 
 to are applicable, and where, should it slide, the result 
 must be disastrous, it is almost better to spend the night 
 out and descend in the early morning. 
 
 What has been said refers to fresh snow only, but the
 
 4 6 
 
 MO UNTA1NEER1NG. 
 
 i ' i- It 
 
 ._ / i" . ', 
 
 m 
 
 COULOIR. AVALANCHV SNOW.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 47 
 
 south or Fohn wind may render old snow very soft and 
 highly dangerous. It is only needful to mention this fact, 
 as no one will dream of attacking snow mountains when 
 this wind prevails. 
 
 Though it is comparatively easy to tell when it is certainly 
 safe or obviously dangerous, the highest degree of technical 
 knowledge is needed to say whether doubtful snow is really 
 safe enough to venture on or not ; and none but the very 
 best guides approach to infallibility in this respect. Unless 
 one is fortunate enough to have one of those rarce aves In 
 the party, it is well to act always on the cautious side. In 
 descending, stones may be thrown on to the snow in order 
 to see whether they start small avalanches or not. If they 
 do, the place is obviously dangerous ; but it is wise to test 
 with very large ones before concluding that the snow is safe. 
 
 If snow does slip when a party are on it, what are they to 
 do? Should the slope end below in a precipice or crevasse, 
 their only hope is that the subjacent surface may prove to 
 be snow and not ice, as in this case they may be able to 
 stop themselves by plunging the stocks of their axes deep 
 into the snow : this failing, they may, in the case of a 
 crevasse, try, by a jerk of the body, to shoot it. If, on the 
 other hand, the slope eases off, the chances are more in 
 favour of the party being able to extricate themselves. 
 The best plan, in such a case, is to try to keep on the 
 surface, and to right one's self if turned head over heels 
 by the tumultuously moving snow, or by the rope catching 
 round the feet. Some guides think it best to throw away 
 the axes lest they should damage any one. 
 
 EXPOSURE. 
 
 The reader who refers back to the list on page 23, will be 
 reminded that this subject is bracketed with the four preceding
 
 48 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 headings as resulting usually from bad guiding. Crevasse 
 accidents on naked glaciers should be excluded, and, in 
 each class, there have been exceptions where pure bad luck 
 has been largely answerable for the disaster ; but, in each 
 case also, there have been narrow escapes which nothing 
 but sheer good luck has prevented from ending seriously. 
 On the whole, I take it that if we could sum up the disasters 
 and the escapes from all five sources, we should find that 
 at least nine-tenths were the result of bad guiding pure and 
 simple. 
 
 The serious consequences which have so often followed 
 exposure have almost invariably resulted, in the first instance, 
 from spending a night on the mountain-side ; and there are 
 two ways in which bad guiding may be responsible for this. 
 Granted that a given mountain is in good condition, and 
 can be climbed between daylight and dusk, a party may, 
 from missing the best route, get so much delayed that they 
 are overtaken by darkness before reaching easy ground. 
 Again, storms have frequently kept climbers out, and sub- 
 jected them to the risks of exposure ; and, though this may 
 happen occasionally with the best of guides, it will occur 
 much more frequently to the party whose guide does not 
 treat with sufficient seriousness the signs of on-coming bad 
 weather, or who, if suddenly caught, is not guide enough 
 to keep a clear head and make quite the best of a very 
 serious matter. 
 
 Exposure produces very different effects upon different 
 constitutions. Only last year, for example, while Mr. 
 Nettleship succumbed from the effects of one night in a 
 snow cave on the Aiguille du Gouter,* M. Corra and his two 
 guides passed through fifty-six hours of furious storm, with- 
 out food or extra clothing, close to the top of the Pointe 
 * August, 1892.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING, 49 
 
 des Ecrins, escaping with nothing worse than a stiff neck 
 and three or four frost-bitten finger-tips among them, 
 
 It has been by no means an uncommon thing for 
 mountaineers to be benighted ; indeed, in the early days, 
 when climbing was in its infancy, and when the local 
 geography was unknown, it would seem to have been an 
 experience familiar enough to be regarded with equanimity ; 
 and it is still an occurrence which causes but little comment. 
 
 A night on the mountains can never be agreeable ; and, 
 even if the weather is fine and not intensely cold, it may 
 well prove dangerous, unless extra food and clothing have 
 been taken. It is surprising, though, how well the experi- 
 ence is borne by most. Probably the enforced activity which 
 follows, thoroughly warms the body, and prevents the inci- 
 dence of ills which frequently result from much less severe 
 forms of exposure. The risk should, however, always be 
 regarded as a serious one, and it should certainly be looked 
 upon as preventable. Do not climb in bad weather turn 
 back if bad weather comes on ; or, if there is risk from slow- 
 going or from having missed the way, of not being able to 
 get up and down in daylight, leave the top alone. Never 
 waste time : every delay may be serious. 
 
 If a party is so unfortunate as to be benighted, they must 
 make the best of it. To get, if possible, out of the wind is 
 the first thing. On snow, a hole should be dug, or shelter 
 may be found in a shallow crevasse. On rocks, a suitable 
 platform must be found, unless the party is so lucky as to 
 happen upon some " gite," in the shape of a cave or over- 
 hanging rock. Provisions must be eked out carefully, and 
 stimulants are best left alone. Any extra clothing that has 
 been taken will be quickly resorted to : a great point is to 
 be dry, and any dry clothes are of especial service. It is 
 generally recommended that the boots be taken off, and, 
 
 E
 
 So MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 if the stockings are wet, they are better off too : both ruck- 
 sacks and paper will be useful to keep the feet warm. 
 There must be no sleep, and frequent movement is essen- 
 tial ; though no wandering about should be permitted, nor 
 should the party on any account unrope. To sing songs 
 and tell stories would seem to be matters of some importance. 
 
 SUDDEN STORMS (and Thunderstorms). 
 
 Under the present head two sorts of meteorological dis- 
 turbances will be discussed : storms, namely, in which wind, 
 snow, and hail, are the only elements ; and thunderstorms. 
 Both sorts of storm are properly classed among the dangers 
 of climbing which may be unavoidable ; for, though both 
 may gather by degrees, both occasionally break with startling 
 suddenness. " I do not think it possible," says Mr. Justice 
 Wills, "for any one who has not felt it to have any idea 
 what very bad weather means in high places, even in places 
 by no means the highest ; or to imagine the rapidity with 
 which, under unsettled atmospherical conditions, the destruc- 
 tive forces of nature can be raised, and the worst assaults of 
 the elements delivered." * Short of a storm, the wind may 
 rise to such a height that, during the strongest gusts, it may 
 be necessary to lie flat down and cling on to well-planted 
 axes ; and there is little doubt that, in a storm, the force of 
 wind may be sufficient to blow men off a mountain top like 
 bits of paper. Fortunately one has hands ; and, unless on 
 ice, can generally anchor, and probably climb to leeward 
 and there wait Driving, blinding snow or hail may come 
 on with or without a really fierce wind, and more than one 
 party has been lost under such conditions upon the track- 
 less wastes of snow on Mont Blanc. 
 
 * "Mountaineering" (Badminton Library), Intrpduction, p. xhc.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 51 
 
 If the storm is terrific, the object should be to shelter, 
 if possible, while it lasts ; but, unless the atmospheric con- 
 ditions are such as to render locomotion actually perilous, 
 no time should be lost in beating a retreat. How can the 
 way be found in driving snow, with all the tracks obliter- 
 ated ? There are two means at our disposal ; knowledge of 
 the locality, and a map and compass. Guides who know a 
 district are quick enough to recognize any landmark, and I 
 have seen them exercise their ingenuity by shouting till a 
 distant echo told the position of some cliff which should be 
 near. On wastes of snow, however, there may be no land- 
 marks at all; and, in any case, there is no doubt that a 
 compass, in the hands of one who knows how to use it, 
 is often worth a kingdom. Every amateur should be 
 thoroughly grounded in the use of this invaluable little 
 instrument, for few guides understand its indications. 
 Brains, too, may help one here as in other emergencies ; 
 and the general lie of a glacier, with its transverse crevasses, 
 may serve to indicate the route. 
 
 Thunderstorms. Most guides consider that thunderstorms 
 are very dangerous on the tops of peaks and on exposed 
 aretes : low down, on fields of ice or snow, they care little 
 about them. Is their estimate right? Are those who think 
 that thunderstorms in the mountains are always dangerous 
 to be believed ? or are we to agree with Mr. Dent in thinking 
 that their danger has been much overrated, and that, " though 
 very impressive and dramatic, there is nothing very terrible 
 in a thunderstorm in the high regions." * I am not aware 
 that any one has been killed \ by lightning in the high Alps, 
 and yet I cannot but think that, when the air is charged 
 
 * "Mountaineering" (Badminton Library), p. 212. 
 t Zsigmondy ( " Die Gefahren der Alpen," p. 77) cites the case of a 
 certain " Oberstlieutenant " who was thus maimed for life.
 
 52 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 with unstable electricity, and the points of the ice-axes 
 hiss and sparkle, there is a real danger very near, and one 
 against which we can do nothing. In venturing to differ 
 from so eminent an authority, I am, perhaps, influenced by 
 the vivid recollection of a storm I was in some twelve or 
 thirteen years ago, which I always look back upon as an 
 occasion of the gravest danger. In addition to the risk of 
 being killed by lightning, the danger from falling stones was 
 very great. Masses of rock were frequently split from the 
 mountain side, and the continuous whirr of stones flying 
 past our ears was as alarming as the frequent electric shocks 
 we all experienced. Mr. Tuckett's graphic account of his 
 experiences on the Roche Melon * gives a very good idea 
 of what a thunderstorm can be, even on a sub-alpine peak, 
 where accessory elements of danger do not come into play. 
 The question is whether the danger is greater among the 
 mountains than on the plains. I think it is. 
 
 FALLING STONES. 
 
 Falling stones constitute a risk which has been charac- 
 terized by Mr. Leslie Stephen as " the most unavoidable of 
 all Alpine dangers." t There can be no doubt as to the 
 justice of this estimate : a stone falling from above may 
 " knock out the brains " % of one of the party before any one 
 is aware of its vicinity. While this is true enough, it must 
 not be forgotten that two of the most frequent occasions of 
 this risk are avoidable and ought to be avoided. One is to 
 deliberately court danger by climbing in localities where 
 stones are known to fall ; the other the dislodging of loose 
 stones by one member of a party to the risk of those below, 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. vii. p. 191. f Ibid., p. 313. 
 
 $ Ibid., p. 311.
 
 DANGERS OF MOUNTAINEERING. 53 
 
 a matter which will be discussed in the chapter on rock- 
 climbing.* 
 
 Falling stones are naturally most common in gullies, and 
 some gullies are notoriously dangerous in this respect ; 
 they may be plainly recognized by the dirty appearance of 
 the ice, by the screed lines in the snow, or by the barrier 
 of debris at their base. Steep snow slopes, again, at the 
 foot of the cliffs, are frequently scoured by stones. To 
 such places as these an extra risk attaches ; but, except on 
 purely snow mountains and true aretes or ridges, falling 
 stones may be met with anywhere, and they constitute a 
 danger which must be kept in mind even in surroundings 
 which do not seem suspicious. Stones fall more freely 
 when a south wind prevails than when the wind is from 
 the opposite quarter, and they are most of all to be feared 
 when fresh snow and ice are melting. They are of all sizes ; 
 but a comparatively small stone may be as surely fatal as 
 one which weighs a ton. 
 
 Falling stones are now and then met with about day- 
 break ; but it is after the sun has gained some power that 
 they become more numerous. Later on in the day, when 
 the snow has become soft, a stone, which would in the early 
 morning have crossed one's track, may become arrested 
 higher up by plunging into a mass of snow. This chance 
 is, however, more than counterbalanced by the greater 
 number of stones dislodged or liberated by the melting 
 process. 
 
 Among the many fatal accidents that have happened in 
 the Alps it is perhaps a little curious that so few have been 
 due to falling stones ; and, reasoning on this point, some 
 have maintained that the danger is not so great as it is 
 represented to be. Still, the fact remains that deaths have 
 * See p. 1 20.
 
 54 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 been attributable to this cause ; and it is only by good luck 
 that the many, who will assuredly own to having been 
 struck at some time or other in their climbing career, have 
 escaped with nothing worse than a broken rib or a cut head. 
 Often enough but little can be done to guard against any 
 consequences which a falling stone may bring : it hits 
 you, or passes you, before you are aware of the danger. 
 On the other hand, the cry, " Look out ! Stone ! " is familiar 
 to most climbers, and it may need only a little coolness to 
 stand one's ground and let it pass, or successfully to dodge it. 
 
 In concluding this chapter I cannot do better than quote 
 two justly famed aphorisms laid down more than twenty 
 years ago by Mr. Leslie Stephen.* 
 
 I. " There is no mountain in the Alps which may not be 
 climbed by a party of practised mountaineers with good 
 guides, in fine weather and under favourable conditions of 
 the snow, with perfect safety." 
 
 II. "There is no mountain in the Alps which may not 
 become excessively dangerous if the climbers are inexperi- 
 enced, the guides incompetent, the weather bad, and the 
 snow unfavourable." 
 
 These two short sentences condense and crystallize the 
 whole question of mountaineering dangers, and sum up on 
 this matter what must always be the truth. They should be 
 carefully studied by all young beginners ; and those who 
 lay to heart the implied lesson of prudence will rarely run 
 grave risk. 
 
 * " The Playground of Europe," pp. 302, 303.
 
 ( 55 ) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GUIDES. 
 
 HE who would learn the art of mountaineering must learn 
 from guides. Some learn so well that they are able, after 
 due probation, to dispense with professional assistance 
 altogether; but the majority of amateurs of experience, as 
 well as all beginners, are entirely in the hands of their 
 guides ; and it must not be forgotten that the safety of a 
 party may depend, not merely on their having guides, but 
 on their having good ones. 
 
 While the importance of securing good guides is obvious, 
 the difficulty in doing so is by no means sufficiently appreci- 
 ated. A guide is obtained, in whose company two or three 
 excursions are made. There is no mishap, the man has proved 
 pleasant, and in his " book " the beginner writes a eulogistic 
 account, ending up very likely with a few neatly turned phrases 
 enumerating all his virtues, so that the man shuffles off smiling 
 and well satisfied, with his book in one hand and his 
 "Trinkgeld" in the other. The amateur does not reflect 
 that, at this stage of his career, his eulogies are quite worth- 
 less ; and that, while perfectly competent to judge whether 
 the guide is civil or rude, pleasant or disagreeable, he has 
 no right to speak to his qualities as a mountaineer. Such 
 is, however, what very commonly happens ; and very poor 
 guides may consequently present themselves with excellent 
 testimonials. 
 
 Apart from mere beginners, there are many amateurs of 
 considerable experience who can hardly be regarded as
 
 56 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 competent critics, and this is largely the result of a habit, 
 in many ways estimable, of climbing year after year with 
 the same guide. If he is really one of the very best, his 
 good qualities are patent to every employer, be he easily 
 satisfied or severely critical ; and the man who can com- 
 mand such services, though aware that he is exceptionally 
 fortunate, may unconsciously develop an exaggerated notion 
 of the perfections of guides in general. On the other 
 hand, it is common enough for an amateur to become 
 attached to a more or less inferior man, whom he regards, 
 from lack of wider knowledge, as being all that a guide 
 should be ; and one is often surprised to find climbers of 
 three or four years' experience contentedly following in the 
 wake of obviously second-rate guides, of whose failings 
 they are quite ignorant, and from whom they can never 
 learn to be good mountaineers. Such do not know what a 
 good guide really is, and their judgment is consequently 
 worth but little. The inference is that it is desirable to 
 climb with different guides at different times, and so to 
 become acquainted with several, before finally settling on 
 the one to be regularly employed. 
 
 The guides have made the art of mountaineering what it 
 is, and the best of them are much superior to the most 
 experienced amateurs ; while the worst, though inferior to 
 amateurs of only ordinary attainments, are looked up to by 
 beginners, who, very naturally, repose in them implicit con- 
 fidence. It follows that the guide almost always takes the 
 lead, and, if any question should arise, his opinion is 
 generally treated with the respect due to that of an expert. 
 This leads to the consideration of a matter which appears 
 to have been left in a somewhat unsatisfactory state by 
 writers of eminent authority, who are at one in placing the 
 final responsibility as to the general, as distinguished from
 
 GUIDES. 57 
 
 the technical, conduct of an expedition with the traveller 
 and not with the guide. 
 
 The great majority of guides, even the best, have two 
 weak points : they hardly ever understand the uses of a map 
 and compass ; and they do not know, or will not say, when 
 to turn back in case of threatening weather. The first is 
 a fault which education should tend gradually to remove ; 
 the second a responsibility which should, I think, have 
 been always forced upon the guides. This has not been 
 done, and there are, no doubt, reasons why guides have 
 shirked, and amateurs been willing to assume, responsibility 
 in this direction. Failure to complete an ascent may make 
 a pecuniary difference to the guides, who, in the opinion of 
 many, might thus be sometimes tempted to press forward 
 against their better judgment. Again, the weather some- 
 times plays such unaccountable freaks, and the guides are 
 so sensitive about ridicule in case of failure, that they like, 
 should the threatened storm pass over, to be able to say it 
 was the "Herr" who gave the order to retreat. Rightly or 
 wrongly, the decision as to proceeding or returning rests 
 with the traveller; "and it is well this should be kept in 
 mind, as it is probable that lives have been lost from mere 
 ignorance as to where the responsibility lay. 
 
 The beginner will recognize that, in this matter, he may 
 be placed in a position of great difficulty : he is incompetent 
 to form any opinion himself, and he cannot trust to his 
 guide. Fortunately he can be given plain directions. Ask 
 your guide whether you should turn back or not. If he 
 says " No ; at any rate, not yet," there need be no doubt 
 about taking his advice. If, on the other hand, he hesitates, 
 and especially if he turns the responsibility away from him- 
 self by saying, " That is for you to decide, I am prepared 
 to go on if you like ; " then be in doubt no longer : turn
 
 58 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 back at once. After this, should the weather improve, do 
 not regret your decision. In one case out of ten you may 
 have made a mistake, but in the other nine the result will 
 justify the course adopted. 
 
 There are two classes of professionals who accompany 
 travellers above the snow-line in the Alps guides and 
 porters. Porters are paid at a lower rate of tariff, and are 
 often younger men than the guides, being, in fact, the class 
 from which the latter are recruited, though many never 
 reach the higher grade. 
 
 Guides, in all the main districts, hold certificates licensing 
 them to exercise their calling ; and the various bodies which, 
 after more or less examination, grant these diplomas, exercise 
 also a surveillance, actual or nominal, over their licensees. 
 In the Chamonix district there existed, from 1821 until the 
 present year,* a State-regulated " Socie'te' des Guides," which 
 exercised these useful functions, and others of a less desirable 
 nature. It amounted to a trades'-union which aimed at 
 keeping outsiders away, and securing more or less equal 
 work and pay for its members. A traveller, wishing to 
 engage a guide at Chamonix, was obliged, unless coming 
 under the privileges of one of the bye-laws, to take the next 
 man on the roll. The system did not prove satisfactory to 
 travellers, and it is thought to have been operative in pro- 
 ducing the deterioration of Chamonix guides as a class. In 
 the Oberland, each guide merely receives, with his license, 
 the testimonial-book already referred to, in the beginning of 
 which are inserted particulars as to his name, age, height, 
 weight, colour of eyes, hair, etc. In this book the testi- 
 monials of his employers are written, and these are annually 
 inspected by the licensing authorities. Very similar regu- 
 lations prevail elsewhere. 
 
 * "Bulletin Mensuel du Club Alpin Francais," Feb. 1893, p. 29.
 
 GUIDES. 59 
 
 One may generally tell whether a guide is duly certificated 
 or not by referring to the beginning of his book ; but many 
 self-dubbed guides and mere foot-path porters carry books 
 of their own institution, in which they request their em- 
 ployers to write. I was once surprised by having such a 
 book presented to me by a mere child, though a sturdy young 
 ruffian, who had carried a knapsack up the latter part of 
 the Gemmi. On glancing through the book I found one 
 testimonial describing the urchin as a pleasant companion, 
 an experienced mountaineer, and a brave guide, who 
 showed to the best advantage in moments of great peril, 
 and who had earned the lifelong gratitude and esteem of 
 the writer. It was not till I had turned over the page and 
 noticed that it bore the signature of one "Samuel L. 
 Clemens " that I was fully able to appreciate the sarcasm. 
 
 A good guide must possess several distinct qualities, some 
 of which are acquired, while others are largely the result of 
 natural aptitude. Four headings will probably suffice under 
 which to group them. 
 
 1. Personal qualities. 
 
 2. Ability in selecting new routes. 
 
 3. Ability as a leading guide. 
 
 (a) In following a route chosen. 
 
 (b) In actual climbing powers. 
 
 4. Technical knowledge. 
 
 (a) Local (geographical). 
 
 (b) Of snow, ice, and mountaineering principles. 
 
 i. PERSONAL QUALITIES. 
 
 It is unwise to engage any guide for more than a single 
 expedition without knowing what sort of man one has to 
 deal with. Many guides make very charming companions,
 
 60 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 and this fact has led to their being treated, as a class, with 
 great consideration by their social superiors. The process 
 has spoiled some, and cases are not unknown in which 
 climbers, who had engaged a local guide of repute in some 
 remote district, have had all their plans shattered by finding 
 him to be so overbearing and dictatorial that it was impossible 
 to work with him. 
 
 A guide with whom one is to associate for some time 
 must be both honest and agreeable, and, beside possessing 
 those qualities about to be discussed, must have sound 
 judgment and ready resource. The last five words imply a 
 great deal, and it is the possession of these in a greater or 
 less degree which constitutes one of the main differences 
 between good, bad, and indifferent guides. Readiness of 
 resource in case of danger is indeed a matter of the utmost 
 importance, when prompt action, and prompt action only, 
 may mean safety. It is in this attribute more than any 
 other that a first-rate guide shows to the best advantage. 
 
 2. ABILITY IN SELECTING NEW ROUTES, 
 
 This is a quality possessed in great prefection by the best 
 guides. Some, however, good in other respects, are very 
 poor hands in this ; and there are many amateurs whose 
 power of selecting practicable routes is decidedly superior 
 to that of the average guide. To a beginner, who ought to 
 be content with easy and well-known expeditions, this quality 
 in his leading guide is naturally of but little importance ; 
 still, it is well to bear in mind that it is unwise to take a 
 guide away from his own district unless he is known to be a 
 good route-finder, and it may further be remembered that to 
 find a route previously followed or described is quite a dif- 
 ferent thing from selecting an entirely new one.
 
 GUIDES. 61 
 
 Ability in selecting the details of a route is a somewhat 
 different matter, and the power of hitting off a practicable 
 way up difficult and unknown rocks, of threading with 
 certainty and speed an intricate ice-fall, or of crossing fields 
 of broken ndve by the best route, apparently fortelling the 
 position of unseen bridges over crevasses, are some of the 
 attributes appertaining to only the best of guides ; and 
 possibly they unconsciously reason out present probabilities 
 from previous experiences in similar situations. 
 
 3. ABILITY AS A LEADING GUIDE. 
 
 (a) In following a route chosen. 
 
 (b) In actual climbing powers. 
 
 The two sub-headings in this case refer to very distinct 
 qualities which do not necessarily co-exist. I have in my 
 mind a guide who, under the direction of another, accom- 
 plished some of the most brilliant pieces of rock climbing 
 which have ever been effected, but who was hopelessly bad 
 at finding the way. Sent out one day as a sole guide to 
 take a party up a minor peak devoid of snow, a matter of 
 about seven or eight hours, he kept them out till midnight, 
 and they returned to their hotel after an absence of nearly 
 twenty hours without ever having been near the top. 
 
 The ability to keep to a chosen route, or to follow one 
 previously traversed, is a quality which can be greatly im- 
 proved by cultivation ; but the gift in embryo must be 
 already there, and there is little doubt that to excel in this 
 particular requires a man to be more or less what is often 
 termed " a born guide." 
 
 Ability in actual climbing powers implies the possession 
 of various attributes. To be absolutely sure-footed, to avoid 
 displacing loose stones, to be skilful at scaling difficult rocks.
 
 62 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 to cut steps easily and quickly in snow or ice, are some of 
 the chief items : and the man who is good at them all is a 
 good climber; but not necessarily a good guide. 
 
 4. TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 (a) Local (geographical). 
 
 (b) Of snow and ice and of mountaineering principles. 
 Knowledge of field-paths and short cuts, of landmarks, 
 
 and of the minute details of the ordinary excursions, 
 naturally makes a guide of greater service in his own district 
 than elsewhere ; but a really good guide is very quick at 
 picking up geographical and topographical knowledge, and 
 very clever at remembering it. There are a few guides who 
 may be said to know almost every district of the Alps, but 
 many waste a good deal of time in regions with which they 
 are not familiar : and all are less likely to go astray on moun- 
 tains well known to them if surprised by fog or storm. 
 
 A thorough knowledge of snow and ice and mountain- 
 eering principles implies a great deal, and the want of it 
 will easily account for the great number of bad guides. A 
 beginner may, by reading, obtain a fair idea of the general 
 principles of mountaineering, and, if he sees his guide trans- 
 gressing them, he may at once put him down as anything 
 but first rate. On the other hand, he will be unable to form 
 any just estimate of a guide's knowledge of snow or ice work 
 until he has himself gained considerable experience and can 
 no longer be called a novice. 
 
 Having considered briefly the qualities which go to make 
 a good guide, it will be readily understood that the combi- 
 nation of all of them in perfection is a very rare occurrence.
 
 GUIDES. 63 
 
 There are many very good guides though, who are fair in all 
 respects, while excelling in only one or two. 
 
 Alpine literature abounds with references to first-rate, 
 second-rate, and third-rate guides. The division is arbitrary, 
 and not very definite ; still, some such scheme will be of use 
 in helping a beginner to estimate the various grades and 
 qualities of guides, and I append the following classification, 
 in the belief that it may answer the purpose. 
 
 Guides, (a) First-rate. 
 
 (b) Good. 
 
 (c) Indifferent. 
 
 (d) Bad. 
 Porters, i. Good. 
 
 2. Bad. 
 
 (a) I would restrict the term "first-rate" to only the 
 very best. 
 
 These are few in number, probably not more than twenty 
 all told, and few novices can hope to secure their services, 
 as they are generally engaged for months beforehand. Until, 
 however, an amateur has travelled with one or more members 
 of this class, he will not appreciate the marvellous perfection 
 to which every detail of mountaineering art can be carried. 
 
 (b) It is from this class that the beginner must hope to 
 get his leading guide. They are inferior to the first rank 
 only in degree, lacking the neatness of finish so noticeable 
 in the great guides, possessing generally less experience, and 
 being less reliable in cases of great doubt or sudden emer- 
 gency. Still, they are perfectly competent to take the lead 
 and management of any expedition, and a party under the 
 charge of such a guide may certainly be congratulated. 
 
 (c) There are many guides who can only be ranked as in- 
 different They are lacking in most of the qualities necessary 
 for the leader of an expedition, and the only place for which
 
 64 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 one of this class is fitted is that of second guide, in which 
 position he may be only a trifle better than a good porter. 
 Still, many such guides have had considerable experience, 
 and, if an easy expedition is in contemplation, they may 
 acquit themselves with credit and prove useful as substitutes 
 when better guides cannot be found. 
 
 (d) The bad guides are, numerically, at least as strong as 
 all the others taken together, and it is self evident that a 
 beginner could not possibly do worse than learn his moun- 
 taineering by following such leaders. Some of them may 
 be expert climbers, but they are bad mountaineers, and 
 they lack the essential qualities in such a degree as to make 
 them very dangerous companions. They are often most 
 plausible, and frequently do as well, financially, as their 
 superiors ; so that it is difficult to estimate them properly. 
 
 When choosing a guide, a beginner should find out all 
 he can, either from the landlord of his hotel, or from older 
 climbers staying in the place ; but, if left to his own resources, 
 he may generally consider that a guide who refuses to leave 
 his own district, or who is shown by his testimonial-book to 
 confine his attention mainly to some three'.or four expeditions, 
 is a man to be avoided. If a man of this sort is engaged 
 by those able to judge, it is either because they can get no 
 other, or because they think his knowledge of these few par- 
 ticular excursions is sufficient to justify them in employing 
 him to make up the complement on the rope over ground 
 with which he is well acquainted. 
 
 With regard to good and bad porters not much need be 
 said. All that is required of a porter is that he should be 
 a fair climber, sure-footed, and able to carry well; and 
 these qualities are not uncommonly found. A bad porter 
 is obviously bad : he shuffles about, requires assistance in
 
 GUIDES. (5 
 
 easy places, and generally refuses to proceed when there is 
 any real difficulty. 
 
 The number of guides required for an expedition is the 
 question which next demands a few words. In the Chamonix 
 district the matter was, until the close of last season, decided 
 by the laws of the Socie'te' des Guides ; but, as a rule, travellers 
 and guides settle it among themselves. The maximum num- 
 ber ever now taken is two guides for each amateur, and a 
 solitary climber will want two guides, or a guide and a porter, 
 for every expedition ; but two companions, who are fair 
 walkers, will never need more than three guides between 
 them, and, after a very little practice, they ought to be able 
 to dispense with the third. Two experienced mountaineers 
 can, if they are prepared to do their share of carrying and 
 step-cutting, travel with a single guide ; while, as has been 
 already said, a stage is reached by some when professional 
 assistance may, if desired, be dispensed with altogether. 
 Whether a couple of friends should take two men or three 
 will depend on their own powers, and on the nature of the 
 intended expedition. No rule can be laid down, but one 
 may probably say that, for their earliest efforts, which should 
 be directed to expeditions both easy and short, two guides 
 should suffice ; while they will be wise to take a third on 
 their first really difficult excursion, and either retain or 
 discard him afterwards as they think best. 
 
 The beginner wanting a guide should do all in his power 
 to make sure of securing a good one, and the leader, once 
 obtained, can be consulted as to what further measures 
 should be taken. Unless, however, the guide engaged is 
 known to bear a high character, his suggestions as to taking 
 further assistance should be received with a little caution, 
 as he may have relatives or friends to whom he will be very 
 willing to do a good turn, $nd who may be bad mountain- 
 
 F
 
 66 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 eers or undesirable companions. In the same connection, 
 a guide's advice as to what expeditions to make may be 
 influenced by the amount of the tariff, and guides, quite as 
 much as travellers, are responsible for the fact of such 
 mountains as the Rothhorn and the Matterhorn being 
 selected by untried beginners without due probation. 
 
 Mountaineering is commonly reported to be a very 
 expensive pastime. Compared with yachting or with 
 hunting it is cheap ; with rowing or with fishing it is dear. 
 A walking tour in the English Lakes costs little enough ; 
 and, railway fares excepted, the same class of thing may be 
 done for much the same money in the Alps. If, however, 
 the best hotels are patronized, more will be spent in Switzer- 
 land : further, if real mountaineering is contemplated, there 
 will be the additional expense of the guides, and this, it is true, 
 may be considerable. It is useless for any one who wishes 
 to become a mountaineer to make only one or two excur- 
 sions in a year : six or eight at least should be aimed at, 
 and a leading guide's account after three or four weeks 
 climbing may amount to anything between ^15 and ^30. 
 Two companions travelling together will, of course, effect a 
 very considerable saving, and it is easy to select mountains 
 to which moderate tariffs are affixed. For instance, a 
 solitary aspirant who hires two guides to take him up Mont 
 Blanc or the Matterhorn will have a guide's bill of &, and, 
 what with his gratuities, provisions, and so on, the single 
 ascent will very likely cost him 12 or ^13 : two com- 
 panions taking a guide and a porter up Monte Eosa, can, 
 on the other hand, complete the expedition for 2 apiece. 
 The tariffs for individual ascents vary considerably, and 
 may be anything from fifteen to a hundred and fifty 
 francs. If the guide-book of the district fails to give the 
 information, the charge for any particular expedition can
 
 GUIDES. 67 
 
 be easily ascertained from the landlord of the hotel, or from 
 the printed list of tariffs in use at most centres. Tariffs 
 are supposed to depend upon the length and difficulty of 
 the expedition, but are not by any means proportionally 
 the same in different districts, while some few ascents have, 
 by their history or tradition, acquired a market value far 
 beyond their deserts at the present time. 
 
 If a guide is engaged for a series of expeditions, it is 
 usual to make an arrangement with him, and this is gene- 
 rally found satisfactory both to guides and to employers. 
 Some guides are exceedingly grasping, and will avail them- 
 selves of a beginner's ignorance to make bargains very 
 favourable to themselves : others again, a class no longer 
 common, have been so single-minded and ingenuous as to 
 accept most inadequate remuneration from those mean 
 enough to take advantage of their simple nature. The 
 arrangement usually made is to pay a guide so much for 
 every mountain ascended, so much for every snow pass 
 crossed, and so much per off-day of idleness or lowland 
 travel. Different guides have different ideas as to their 
 worth, but many of the very best will take fifty francs for a 
 mountain, twenty-five for a pass, and eight to eleven francs 
 per off-day. A young guide wanting an engagement will 
 often go for less than this, and, if a second guide or porter 
 is engaged on the same system, a smaller sum will be 
 offered ; say forty, twenty, and seven for the former, and 
 thirty, fifteen, and six for the latter. Ten francs a day and 
 his keep, whether you use him or not, is, in the Dauphine', 
 the regular charge for a porter if engaged for a week ; and 
 some similar arrangement can generally be made in other 
 districts. 
 
 In some places the hotel-keepers entertain the guides 
 during the season, giving them bed and board free ; while
 
 68 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 in others they charge a pension of one to four francs a 
 day. Hence a guide, who will be satisfied with eight francs 
 per off-day if at home or in any cheap centre, may demand 
 more when travelling or when stationed in what is to him 
 an expensive district. 
 
 It is well when making arrangements with a guide to be 
 very explicit. Let it be clearly understood, for instance, 
 that if you pay ten francs per off-day, the guide is to provide 
 his own board and lodging ; or you may offer seven or eight 
 and say that you will be responsible for these. Again, it is 
 wise to have a clear understanding as to what you are to 
 pay if you traverse a peak, going up from one place and 
 down to another ; or if you combine a peak with a pass, or 
 cross two passes in a single day. Many guides will agree 
 to take the pay for a peak in the first two cases, and that 
 for a single pass in the third, provided it is stipulated for 
 beforehand : otherwise they may demand more. In any 
 case one can give a little extra if the difficulty or fatigue 
 has been excessive. Whatever the details of the arrange- 
 ment made, the main point to bear in mind is that a definite 
 understanding, to include every possible contingency, will 
 be found conducive to general harmony and mutual satis- 
 faction between guides and employers. 
 
 It is always understood that the employer pays all railway 
 and coach fares, and, if an appointment is made to meet 
 anywhere, the engagement begins on the date on which the 
 guide has to leave his home or last employer, and terminates 
 similarly. On mountain expeditions, or when camping out 
 or sleeping in huts, the employer caters for his guides as 
 well as for himself, and, when travelling by road or rail, he 
 will often defray his guide's expenses at the wayside inn or 
 restaurant. 
 
 One word further with regard to money matters : a
 
 GUIDES. 69 
 
 " Trinkgeld " or " pourboire " is always expected, and, unless 
 a traveller is actually dissatisfied, he will always give it 
 Amateurs are more or less generous in this matter, and 
 beginners are often quite at a loss to know what will be a 
 suitable sum to offer. A hint on such a subject must be 
 taken as a hint and nothing more ; but, if a traveller is well 
 satisfied with his guide he will, perhaps, offer five francs for 
 a single expedition, or possibly ten if the guide has " saved 
 his life " half a dozen times ; and, at the end of a successful 
 engagement, a sovereign or two sovereigns, according to its 
 duration and the degree of satisfaction evoked, is usually 
 considered enough. 
 
 Before bringing the present chapter to a close, I may, 
 perhaps, add a hint on the general treatment a guide should 
 receive at the hands of his employer. A guide who is in a 
 traveller's pay is at his master's service all the time, and 
 will make himself useful in many little ways ; besides, he is 
 generally an agreeable companion if company be needed 
 at any time. Still, it is undesirable to spend all one's spare 
 time in guides' society, though it is right to treat them 
 more or less as comrades, and to show them the same 
 kindly and courteous consideration which the best of them 
 always show for us. Some guides, however, have not fine 
 feelings and may be easily spoiled ; and he is no friend to 
 his guide who will permit undue familiarity, or submit to 
 be dictated to on any matters not immediately connected 
 with the conduct of an expedition which may be in hand.
 
 70 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 THERE are a number of more or less incongruous subjects, 
 not easily grouped under any characteristic heading, on 
 which a beginner who proposes to make a few excursions 
 above the snow-line, will require information and advice. 
 To discuss these questions is the aim of the present chapter, 
 and, before proceeding to matters more purely technical, a 
 few words may be said on the general planning of a tour. 
 
 Plans. Individuals differ greatly in their ideas of making 
 plans. One man will take a ticket to Geneva, and allow 
 his subsequent movements to depend upon the chance 
 of meeting a friend or making an acquaintance by the way ; 
 while another will draw up a detailed scheme, and give out, 
 perhaps two months beforehand, that he will " cross the 
 St. Bernard and arrive at Turin on the i6th, in time for 
 dinner, leaving again next morning by the 9.42." Neither 
 of these alternatives can be recommended, but many courses 
 lie between the two extremes. A married man, who takes 
 his wife abroad, will often prefer to settle at some fairly 
 comfortable centre, will engage his rooms beforehand, and 
 make a point, perhaps, of not being away for more than a 
 day or two at a time ; while a pair of young college friends 
 are more likely to decide upon covering a large area of 
 country. Much may be said, indeed, much has been said, 
 in favour of both these "ideals," viz., stopping in one place 
 and moving about ; and there is no occasion to add to the 
 edifying literature which is growing up around the subject : 
 but, in any case, it is a mistake to make plans so inelastic
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 71 
 
 as not to admit of modification should circumstances arise 
 to render this desirable. The advent of bad weather at 
 some particular resort is an incident which often leads to a 
 reconsideration of the programme, and, while avoiding any 
 criticism of the pros and cons, it may be well to emphasize 
 the importance of acting decisively in one way or the other. 
 It is by no means an uncommon experience with many to 
 wait at a mountain inn through some days of fog or rain, 
 only to obtain, after leaving disheartened, fine weather and 
 a glorious view of the mountain group they had waited to 
 explore, while travelling to another district in a carriage, 
 train, or steamboat. Disturbances of weather, due to 
 storms, are often only short lived, but if a steadily falling 
 barometer, with a bad wind and sky, seems to indicate a 
 spell of wet, the best way to economize time is to leave at 
 once, thus utilizing the bad weather for lowland travel, and 
 perhaps finding that the atmospheric disturbance had been 
 quite local. 
 
 Training. It is always well to employ at least two or 
 three days in taking training walks, before undertaking any 
 mountain excursions; and any Swiss guide-book will in- 
 dicate numberless mule-path routes, the scenery of which 
 is nearly equal to anything which the higher snows can 
 show. Start with easy days and make them gradually 
 longer ; go very slowly at first ; beware of short cuts, even 
 if obvious, until you are in good condition ; and carry your 
 knapsack yourself after the first day or two, it is an 
 excellent trainer. 
 
 When first you meet or engage your guide, begin with 
 easy excursions, and take care that they are not too long. 
 Accustom yourself gradually to the air of the higher altitudes, 
 and make sure in harmless places that you are proof against 
 giddiness. This, indeed, is a subject which demands per-
 
 72 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 haps rather more than a passing notice, as a liability to it is 
 considered by many to be an absolute bar to their ever 
 venturing on the mountains. There is no doubt that 
 mountaineers frequently find themselves in places where an 
 attack of giddiness might be followed by very serious con- 
 sequences, and, if the tendency to this affection is really 
 strong, it is unquestionably right to eschew all thoughts of 
 mountaineering. It often happens though that a little 
 practice will overcome this failing, and that the actual 
 predisposition to giddiness is not so great as was at first 
 supposed. 
 
 PROVISIONS FOR MOUNTAIN EXCURSIONS.* 
 
 Discuss this question with your guide, and then order the 
 provisions yourself: do not give him carte-blanche, as 
 beginners so often do. This advice will, I feel sure, be 
 endorsed by all those climbers who have had an extended 
 experience of the professional class, on grounds of prudence 
 as well as of economy. It is no very uncommon experience, 
 for instance, to discover in the hotel bill allusions to sundry 
 half bottles of brandy, for the supply of which no order has 
 been given. A small flask to be kept for emergencies is all 
 that is necessary ; and, with this exception, the less spirits 
 taken the better. 
 
 There are two methods of meeting the commissariat 
 requirements : one, the best, and by far the cheapest, is to 
 take out one's own tinned meat and jam from England,f and 
 merely to purchase bread and accessories from the hotel : 
 the other alternative is to depend for provisions entirely 
 upon local resources. If it is decided to spend the whole 
 of a holiday in crossing passes and traversing peaks, never 
 stopping for more than a couple of nights in the same hotel, 
 * See also " Sleeping Out," p. 80. f See p. 187.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 73 
 
 the latter will be the only available plan, and some, indeed, 
 prefer it on ajl occasions. Cold meat, cheese, honey, and 
 perhaps a fowl are commonly chosen : the first is dry and 
 unappetizing, and the last often adds too severely, by the 
 demand it makes on the muscles of mastication, to the 
 already arduous exertion of the day : in any case it is dear 
 at nine francs. Sardines and cold beef-steak are infinitely 
 better fare, the latter being particularly good, though rarely 
 forthcoming unless ordered beforehand. 
 
 Be careful to take enough bread. It is astonishing what a 
 quantity of bread a party of four will get through in the 
 course of a day ; and guides, as well as amateurs, sometimes 
 miscalculate the amount needed. It is the mainstay of a 
 meal on the mountains, and the potted meats and jam are 
 mainly valuable as " vehicles " for bread. Two kilos 
 (4 Ibs.) among three men is a good allowance for an 
 ordinary day. 
 
 Butter and cheese will generally be included in the 
 list; and, if you have no tins of jam, by all means take 
 some honey, or, at any rate, something sweet : otherwise 
 you will hardly be able to eat as much bread as is 
 desirable. 
 
 Biscuits are easily stowed away in the pockets, and by 
 far the best sort are English made gingerbread nuts. How- 
 ever many of these are taken out, it is very rare for any to 
 be brought back. 
 
 Chocolate is pleasant as a dessert course, and, like biscuits, 
 may be carried in the pocket as a stop-gap between meals. 
 A small supply of Kola biscuits or chocolate should be 
 kept for emergencies, there being no question as to its 
 value in supporting strength and warding off hunger 
 when provisions become scanty and require careful hus- 
 banding.
 
 74 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Raisins are much liked by some climbers, and dried prunes 
 (Fr. pruneaux, Ger. Zwetschen) are useful when the mouth 
 and throat get dry from prolonged trudging over fields of 
 snow. The juicy plums in glass bottles are by far the most 
 pleasant, but, to allay thirst, the dryer they are the better. 
 The right sort can always be obtained at Alpine inns. One 
 chews them for ten minutes before coming to the taste, 
 another twenty before the stone is denuded of its firmly 
 adherent and leathery surroundings, while a further half- 
 hour or more is profitably spent in sucking the stone. Acid 
 lemon drops answer the same purpose and are preferred by 
 some, but, to my mind, they do not last long enough to be 
 of much use. 
 
 The question of what to drink on the mountains is one 
 on which opinions are divided, and the latest fashion would 
 seem to be not to carry anything at all in the way of drink, 
 but to take a few lemons and suck one now and then. 
 Thirst is largely a matter of habit, and the ability to make 
 long excursions with very little to drink is convenient and 
 saves porterage. Still, it is wholesome as well as pleasant 
 to drink at meal times, and, as water is not always to be 
 found, some provision must be made. 
 
 Both cold tea and cold coffee are excellent and thirst- 
 quenching drinks, and the latter deserves more patronage 
 than it gets : it should be made with milk, and a small 
 quantity of sugar may be added if desired. Cold tea is 
 much more often used, but it is rarely made in the most 
 approved manner. It is "infinitely superior when made 
 with cold water instead of hot ; indeed, it is difficult to 
 credit how great the difference is. The relative quantities 
 of tea and water are the same in either case, but in cold 
 water it has to remain soaking for several hours." * 
 
 * " Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 12 (Alpine Journal, vol. xvi.).
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 75 
 
 The beverage most commonly carried is wine, either red 
 or white, and each colour has its advocates. The great 
 advantage is that, while it can be drunk undiluted, it is 
 freely miscible with water, and the addition to this mixture 
 of a little sugar and lemon juice makes a very refreshing 
 and agreeable drink. A suitable cup (Dampfschiff),* should 
 be taken out from England, and a horn spoon or a small stick 
 will be found most useful for the purpose of mixing. Strong 
 " acidulated lemon essence," though not easily procured, is 
 a good substitute for lemon juice, and half a tea-spoonful of 
 this is about equal to the juice of one lemon : its use saves 
 time, trouble, and pain ; for it is no joke to cut and squeeze 
 a lemon after climbing on sharp rocks. 
 
 Whatever the beverage chosen, it is well to take a wine- 
 bottleful per man per day, though this is certainly a liberal 
 allowance. 
 
 It may not be amiss to conclude these remarks by giving 
 a list of all the provisions that are likely to be wanted. Any 
 one can omit what he does not himself require, and a glance 
 at the list may prevent some things from being forgotten. 
 
 Meat. Biscuits. 
 
 Fowl. Gingerbread-nuts. 
 
 Sardines. Kola chocolate or biscuits. 
 
 Tinned Meat. Raisins or prunes. 
 
 Tinned Jam. Sugar. 
 
 Bread. Salt. 
 
 Butter. Lemons or lemon-essence. 
 
 Cheese. Wine. 
 
 Honey. Cold tea or coffee. 
 
 Chocolate. Flask of spirits. 
 
 * See p. 184.
 
 5 6 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 PREPARING FOR A START. 
 
 All preparations for an expedition should, if possible, be 
 completed on the previous day. The provisions must be 
 ordered, and, as far as possible, secured, and, with them, the 
 following articles may be given to the guides to pack : 
 
 Rope. " Dampfschiff." * 
 
 Gaiters. Horn-spoon. 
 
 Shetland jersey. Lantern and candle. 
 
 EARLY START. 
 
 In order to complete any Alpine expedition in a day, it is 
 generally necessary to start very early in the morning. Ex- 
 peditions vary greatly in length, and the time taken depends 
 as much upon the condition of the mountain and the strength 
 of the attacking party, as on the distance to be covered and 
 the difficulties to be overcome. Eleven hours would count 
 as a short expedition, and twenty as a long one; though 
 neither of these figures represent extremes. If the excursion 
 contemplated is short or of moderate length, it will 
 probably be sufficient to start as soon as it is light enough 
 to see ; say, at four o'clock or half-past three ; but, if a long 
 day is anticipated, an earlier start must be made. A very 
 usual hour is two a.m. and occasionally it is requisite to 
 set out at midnight or even before. On such occasions it is 
 generally necessary to proceed by lantern-light, but, if the air 
 be clear and the moon full, there may be no need for 
 artificial illumination. It is always well to be early rather 
 than late, and, in case of divided opinion, to select the earlier 
 hour proposed. 
 
 * See p. 184.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 77 
 
 Whatever time is chosen for starting, an hour earlier . 
 will be fixed on as the time for being called. Do not imagine 
 that less than an hour will suffice for dressing, breakfasting, 
 and preparing for the start : it will not. You may be ready ( 
 yourself in thirty or forty minutes, and perhaps the whole 
 party may be ready ; but the chances are that the provisions 
 will not be, or that something will, at the last moment, be 
 found to be missing. Any little omission or mishap may 
 easily waste ten or fifteen minutes at this hour of the morn- 
 ing. On rising, take special care to avoid making any noise 
 which may disturb others in the hotel ; and, before leaving 
 your room, make quite sure you have forgotten nothing, 
 especially the knitted gloves and spectacles. Carry your 
 boots down in your hands. Nothing will place you in worse 
 odour with other travellers, climbers or non-climbers, than 
 forgetfulness as to the sacred right to undisturbed repose. 
 Practised mountaineers get up as it were by stealth (see 
 illustration facing p. i). 
 
 In connection with the early start, two things may be 
 stated which are, generally speaking, true, but often unknown 
 to beginners. The first is that, while it is advisable to 
 go to bed early before an intended expedition, it really 
 matters little whether you sleep or not. " It is very diffi- 
 cult to free the mind from all excitement on the evening 
 before a grand expedition ; " * and, even if this disturbing 
 element is quite absent, the mere anxiety to obtain sleep is 
 often sufficient to banish it altogether. "The goddess flies 
 most shyly where she is most intensely wooed." f You will 
 be much more likely to get two or three hours of uncon- 
 sciousness if indifferent as to sleep, and there is no occasion 
 for any anxiety at all : some mountaineers start almost 
 
 * Hinchcliff, " Summer Months among the Alps," p. 103. 
 t Tyndall, " Mountaineering in 1861," p. 45.
 
 78 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 habitually without sleeping. It must not be supposed that 
 sleepiness is a condition unknown when actually on the 
 mountains: far from it it is sometimes almost overpowering; 
 but this depends more upon the situation than on the 
 amount of sleep obtained before starting. A long but easy 
 snow slope, a broiling sun, and an entire absence of wind, 
 form a combination of conditions which will act as a power- 
 ful soporific even after a good night's rest. 
 
 The second point relates to the length of Alpine excursions. 
 Many a pedestrian, fatigued perhaps by a walk over the 
 Grimsel or the Col de Balme, thinks that he would be un- 
 able to manage an expedition which would occupy fifteen 
 hours or more. As a rule, he would not find it much more 
 fatiguing : for, I think it may be said that, if one is in fair 
 condition, the time spent before eight o'clock in the morning 
 does not count. In mountaineering the worst of the grind 
 is over before the sun has any power to speak of, and the 
 middle of the day is spent in the invigorating air of the 
 higher Alps. 
 
 MEALS AND RESTS. 
 
 Five meals is the usual number taken in the course of a 
 day's climbing : one before starting, three out-of-doors, and 
 a good dinner in the evening. 
 
 It is of importance to make a fair breakfast before leaving 
 the hotel ; and, as the appetite at two or three o'clock in the 
 morning is generally conspicuous by its absence, it is worth 
 while to find out what can be taken with least aversion. 
 Some take tea or coffee, bread, butter and honey, with or 
 without an egg or omelette. Some again prefer a cup of 
 bouillon or other soup ; while, to those who like it, nothing 
 is pleasanter or better to walk on than a basin of hot bread 
 and milk ("pain-lait").
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 79 
 
 Meals on the mountains are simple in their nature, and all 
 partake of the same general character ; bread, butter, meat, 
 jam, cheese, and chocolate, being the usual constituents. 
 While one member of the party opens tins, another cuts 
 bread, and a third concocts the drink in the big cup. It 
 is very desirable to halt for meals where water is procurable, 
 and this can generally be arranged, except in the case of the 
 midday meal, which is often taken on a summit or elsewhere 
 high up, where water is not likely to be found. 
 
 The first meal " en route " has been dignified by the name 
 of the " second breakfast." It should not be delayed for 
 more than three hours after starting, while some climbers 
 prefer to take it within two hours and a half. Most of the 
 guides can go much longer without feeling the want of food, 
 and, if they do not pull up within three hours, they should 
 be stopped. After this, it does not so much matter, but 
 it is best not to put off the next meal for too long. Be sure 
 after each repast that nothing has been left behind ; and 
 some small article, such as a knife or the horn spoon, is the 
 most likely thing to be forgotten. 
 
 A beginner does not, as a rule, know when he is hungry. 
 He goes plodding on higher and higher, and, after two or 
 three hours, begins to breathe a little quickly and to feel 
 his heart beat ; if he has any definite sensation, beyond one 
 of general discomfort, it is a slight feeling of faintness. He 
 thinks he is getting a little fagged, and very possibly 
 attributes his feeling of renewed freshness and vigour after 
 eating more to the rest than to the food ; but he is wrong. 
 A halt for breakfast should not occupy more than half an 
 hour or forty minutes : on the summit, if it is fine and warm 
 and not too late, an hour or more may very well be spent \ 
 while, on the way down, halts can be indulged in according 
 to the time of day, the distance yet to cover, and the mood
 
 So MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 of the travellers. At mountain meals, on the way up, it is 
 advisable to eat as much as possible; and, as to drinking, 
 I would say, drink as much as you want if you have sufficient 
 with you : the idea that it is advantageous to limit one's 
 drink is very questionable. On the other hand, I am sure 
 it is well to drink nothing between meals, at any rate while 
 going up. A man who drinks at every stream he comes to 
 is always thirsty, but this habit of constant thirst can be 
 cured by the exercise of a little self-control. 
 
 As of drinks, so of rests : one rests at meals, and, often 
 enough, separate halts are needed for putting on or taking off 
 gaiters and rope. On very long snow-slopes it may be wise 
 to call a short " easy " now and then, but otherwise it is best 
 not to stop between meal-times. 
 
 SLEEPING OUT. HUTS, ETC. 
 
 If an expedition is too long to be managed in a single 
 day, the preceding night must be spent either on the moun- 
 tain or close to its base ; and, in the early days of moun- 
 taineering, the highest available chalet, or a camp in the 
 open, was resorted to. Chalets, tents, and sleeping bags are 
 in occasional requisition still, and a cave or overhanging rock 
 is now and then made use of as a " gite ; " but the necessity 
 for camping out in the Alps is growing every year less 
 frequent. There are two reasons for this ; hotels and inns 
 are springing up nearer and nearer to the mountains, and 
 huts, specially designed for the accommodation of travellers 
 contemplating ascents, are being multiplied and improved 
 in nearly every important district. These huts (Cabanes, 
 Refuges, Clubhiitte) are built and maintained by the various 
 Continental Alpine Clubs, and, though they differ consider- 
 ably in detail, they are, as a rule, well suited to supply the
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 81 
 
 want they have been erected to meet. Almost all huts are 
 supplied with cooking-stoves, pot, pans, cups, plates, spoons 
 and forks ; all, too, contain something in the way of a 
 primitive bedstead which usually takes the shape of a 
 broad shelf to accommodate six, eight, or more travellers. 
 A supply of straw for bedding may generally be counted on, 
 and most huts are provided with blankets : occasionally 
 there is a store of firewood. 
 
 The question sometimes arises whether to make use of a 
 hut or not. If the hut is five or six hours from the inn, 
 and the expedition usually occupies some eighteen hours, 
 even when starting thence, there can be no doubt as to the 
 wisdom of making use of the shelter. On the other hand, 
 few would care to do so merely to save two hours out of a 
 total of fourteen. Intermediate cases can be imagined, and, 
 as a matter of fact, are very common. Individual climbers 
 differ greatly in the view they take ; some being always 
 willing to shorten an expedition, while others have a great 
 objection to sleeping out, and never do so unless driven 
 to it. 
 
 If it is decided to sleep in a chalet, hut, or "glte," pre- 
 parations must be made accordingly. An extra porter will, 
 as a rule, have to be engaged, and it will be necessary to 
 ascertain whether the particular hut is supplied with blankets 
 and firewood. If not, blankets must be taken from the hotel, 
 and a halt made at the upper limit of timber to collect fuel. 
 Additional provisions for two meals in the hut must be 
 ordered and packed, together with extra shirt and stockings 
 and a pair of slippers. Tinned soups, taken out from home, 
 will prove most useful ; but, if not supplied with these, some 
 sort of soup can be made from ingredients bought at the 
 hotel. Meat of some kind should be taken for supper, 
 and raw beefsteaks, to be cooked at the hut, can be highly 
 
 o
 
 82 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 recommended. These, with extra bread, butter, jam, sugar, 
 salt, chocolate, wine, tea, and coffee, will complete the list of 
 extra provisions. 
 
 It is well to start fairly early in the day so as to arrive at 
 the hut during the afternoon ; and it is desirable to change 
 the shirt and stockings immediately on arrival, especially 
 if the walk has been warm, placing those taken off to dry 
 in the sun. The straw bedding of the hut may be similarly 
 treated should it prove to be damp, as is often the case. 
 The provisions are next unpacked, and what is wanted 
 for the morrow's expedition is carefully put on one side. 
 Firewood is chopped up, plates are cleaned, and every- 
 thing made ready for the evening meal. The remainder of 
 the afternoon can then be both pleasantly and usefully 
 spent with a map and a telescope, varied by the ascent of 
 such boulders as may be found near at hand. About six 
 o'clock preparations for supper will be made. Soup, sardines, 
 meat and jam, form, with bread and butter, the constituents 
 of a substantial, if a simple, meal ; while for drink perhaps 
 some wine will be mulled. Pipes and music follow; if 
 there is sardine oil the boots are greased therewith ; and 
 at bedtime, eight or nine o'clock, a cup of hot chocolate is, 
 as the advertisements say, " grateful and comforting." The 
 first part of the night is spent in more or less perfect sleep, 
 according to the degree of bodily discomfort experienced, 
 and the extent to which each individual is affected thereby ; 
 and then, about two hours before one actually gets up, the 
 guides begin to strike matches and look at their watches, a 
 process which is repeated at intervals of about fifteen 
 minutes until it is really time to rise. A repeater watch is 
 a pleasant possession at such times, for it must be admitted 
 that, if one is lying awake, the temptation to occasionally 
 ascertain the time is too strong for most natures to resist.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 83 
 
 An alarum watch is said to be useful, and a good one 
 doubtless would be. The only one I have seen belonged 
 to a guide, but it was more remarkable for its magnificent 
 proportions than for its reliability : it never went off at the 
 right time, but used to startle its owner and his companions 
 by making a noise like a rising pheasant at irregular intervals 
 during the following day. 
 
 Breakfast with tea or chocolate is, after once the fire has 
 been lighted and the water boiled, no very lengthy matter ; 
 and, when this is over, there comes the somewhat cold and 
 cheerless duty of washing everything up, and putting the 
 hut generally in a proper state for the reception of the next 
 party. To leave a hut untidy is inexcusable. 
 
 For two or more parties to be on the same mountain at 
 once is always objectionable, except in the case of the 
 easiest expeditions. On rock mountains it is especially 
 dangerous, as, unless the two keep quite close together, 
 there is the risk of those above dislodging stones. If 
 two parties chance to have fixed upon the same peak for 
 the same day, and if, as sometimes happens, this day is 
 likely, in each case, to be their last opportunity, it may be 
 admissible for both to start even for a rock mountain. 
 There must be a good deal of give and take, however, as 
 they must keep together, and, where needful, wait for one 
 another ; so that more than the average amount of time will 
 be taken. This ought, I think, to be regarded as the limit ; 
 and if so, one may say that for more than two parties to 
 deliberately start for the same rock mountain at once is not 
 justifiable : certainly every effort should be made to avert 
 such a contingency. It is difficult in this case to lay down, 
 a rule so strict as those which refer to crossing avalanche 
 tracks, or climbing unroped, but the matter should be re-
 
 84 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 garded in the same light ; and, if some arrangement cannot 
 be arrived at, it is well for one's own safety, if for no other 
 reason, to put up with disappointment and transfer one's 
 energies to another field. When four or five parties start 
 simultaneously for a peak like the Matterhorn, the assumption 
 is that they all consist of inexperienced climbers who have 
 yielded to the advice of grasping guides : otherwise such 
 a state of affairs would indicate an amount of selfishness 
 and folly difficult to credit. With snow mountains the case 
 is different, and, if a mountain like Mont Blanc is in good 
 condition, there is no reason why four or five parties 
 should not follow in each others' wake, if they care to 
 do so. 
 
 To make long expeditions on two or more consecutive days, 
 a man must be in first-rate condition ; and even then few 
 will do it without some reason. While, however, alternate 
 days of activity and rest probably combine the greatest en- 
 joyment with the greatest advantage to health, a threatened 
 change of weather may, among other reasons, make it worth 
 while to climb on two days running. Very few can either 
 enjoy or profit by a third day of hard climbing, and it 
 should not be undertaken without due cause. 
 
 Speed Climbing. The beginner will not have been long 
 at work before he will meet with some one who boasts of 
 the short time he has taken in effecting certain mountain 
 ascents. Now, though it is very desirable to be able to 
 climb quickly as well as safely, and though every effort 
 should be made to acquire a habit of not wasting time by 
 needless deliberation, it should not be forgetten that the 
 ability to go quickly is best reserved for occasions when 
 some advantage will accrue from its exercise ; and that, at 
 all ordinary times, a moderate pace is much to be preferred. 
 The man who habitually races sees but little of the beauties
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 85 
 
 by which he is surrounded, and to boast about the pace is 
 as childish as it is vulgar : a second-rate guide can generally 
 keep up with the quickest amateur. 
 
 Note Taking, Many mountaineers habitually take short 
 notes, with remarks upon the weather, the state of the snow, 
 and the time occupied in each portion of the excursion. 
 The practice does not give much trouble, and the notes are 
 often useful for subsequent reference. 
 
 All new work, whether in the Alps or elsewhere, should 
 be very carefully noted and described at the time, and any 
 ambiguous words, such as "right" and "left," should be 
 studiously avoided, unless the context renders their mean- 
 ing clear beyond possible doubt. 
 
 Sketching and Photography. To be able to bring back 
 pictorial representations of the mountains is most delightful ; 
 and those who have the gift of producing rapid and accurate 
 sketches are indeed to be envied. Something can be done, 
 however, by those who have only a very slight talent for 
 drawing,* and the camera-obscura (10 X 6 X 6 inches), 
 made by Ross and Co. of Bond Street, will enable the 
 merest novice to make accurate sketches. The objection 
 to this, as to photographic apparatus, is the bulk and the 
 weight. Fortunately, this has not deterred mountaineers 
 from carrying their cameras into the very heart of the 
 mountains, and the beautiful photographs, which have 
 added so much to the interest of the more recent ex- 
 hibitions of Alpine pictures, testify to the enthusiasm and 
 energy of many mountaineers. It would be beyond the 
 scope of this volume to enter into the subject of Alpine 
 photography. The matter has been most ably dealt with 
 by Mr. Dent, and beginners, wishing to photograph as well 
 
 * See " Mountaineering " (Badminton Library), chap. xiii. by Mr. 
 H. G. Willink.
 
 86 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 as to climb the Alps, are referred to the last chapter of the 
 "Badminton" volume on Mountaineering. 
 
 Ladies and Mountaineering. Mountaineering is an exer- 
 cise which has great attractions for some ladies, and while 
 the number who climb is on the increase, the fair sex has 
 always supplied some enthusiastic mountaineers since the 
 days when the Alpine Club was in its infancy. It is no part 
 of my business to pass an opinion as to whether ladies 
 should climb ; they do : nor shall I venture to address to 
 them any advice not equally applicable to their brothers. 
 On one subject only would this indeed be possible, and 
 that is in the matter of dress. I am, however, informed 
 that the controversy on the subject of clothes for lady- 
 climbers is still so keenly contested that the recommenda- 
 tion of any plan of costume would be likely to excite great 
 indignation amongst those whose views were ignored or 
 controverted. The matter is probably not yet ripe for final 
 treatment, and, in any case, it would be presumptuous on my 
 part to offer suggestions to the ladies on a subject which 
 every one will allow to be peculiarly their own. 
 
 The considerations which follow refer rather to the 
 mountains themselves and the artifices of actual climbing, 
 than to questions of a more or less preliminary nature, 
 such as those which have just been discussed; and, 
 first of all, it may be pointed out that mountains, though 
 existing in such infinite variety of shape and form, may, 
 from a climber's point of view, be looked upon as presenting 
 two, three, or more faces or sides, separated from each other 
 by an equal number of ridges. The ridges may be rounded 
 and ill-defined, or sharp and narrow, in which case they are 
 called " aretes ; " and the faces may be, in general contour, 
 either flat, convex, or concave; the latter are, however,
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 87 
 
 usually divided irregularly so as to present a series of snow 
 or ice slopes and rock precipices, or are split up by minor 
 ridges into gullies or "couloirs." 
 
 Except in the case of wholly isolated mountains, every 
 peak is connected with its neighbours by one or more of 
 its main ridges, and the lowest point on the ridge between 
 two adjoining summits is often, though improperly, called 
 a " col." * In theory every col is a pass, and in many 
 cases the actuality coincides, though, sometimes, the best 
 route will take one a trifle higher than the actual lowest 
 point. There are many cols which will never be converted 
 into passes, and others which have been so converted but 
 never ought to have been. 
 
 As mountain forms may be classed under a few broad 
 headings,' so may the practice of mountaineering be resolved 
 into three primary actions ascending, descending, and 
 traversing ; and the methods employed in compassing these 
 ends differ according to the nature and steepness of the 
 ground. In walking uphill it is always well to go slowly, 
 with an easy, regular, and, to an onlooker, perhaps a rather 
 clumsy swing. The steeper the ground, the shorter, as a 
 rule, should be the strides, and a zigzag route is, in most 
 places where it is possible, both the quickest and the easiest. 
 When the ground is very steep, be it grass, snow, or rock, 
 the hands will be called into requisition as well as the feet : 
 in the last case they are used directly, in the two former 
 through the medium of the ice-axe. It is here, perhaps, 
 when hands as well as feet are required, that the line may 
 be drawn between walking and climbing. 
 
 In reversing the process, the steepest places, on whatever 
 kind of ground, are only to be safely descended, by turning 
 the face to the mountain, and proceeding as if going down 
 * See Glossary.
 
 88 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 a ladder. It is, however, not common for this mode of 
 progression to be necessary for very long at a time, and 
 generally the more ordinary attitude may be adopted. In 
 descending it is usually best to travel in a straight line, where 
 a zigzag has been employed in the ascent ; and on snow, 
 grass, or " scree " slopes, neither too gentle nor too steep, it 
 is often easier to run than to walk. Unless the gradient is 
 mild enough to enable one to dispense with it altogether, 
 or steep enough to require its use as an anchor, the ice-axe 
 should always be used as a prop or third leg, with the point 
 behind, so as to have the action of a brake. 
 
 Traversing is generally either a difficult or a fatiguing pro- 
 cess. To traverse for some distance on steep snow or grass 
 involves walking on one side of the foot for longer than is 
 pleasant, and, after half an hour or more of this exercise, all 
 the muscles of the body seem to call out for some change of 
 action. Beginners often exhibit a tendency, when traversing 
 on steep ground, to lean towards the mountain. They may 
 indeed have but scant foothold, but a very little reflection 
 will show that this action must throw them more on to the 
 edges of their boots, making a mishap probable, either from 
 a direct slip, or by forcing off the outer edge of a loose 
 foothold. Wherever you are, then, stand upright. Short 
 traverses are often difficult: you ascend a gully, for 
 instance, as far as possible; and, when progress by that 
 avenue is quite barred, a traverse is undertaken to the left 
 or the right. Had the rocks on either side been easy, they 
 would probably have been taken to lower down, so that the 
 likelihood of difficulty being met with becomes clear.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 89 
 
 RECONNOITRING. 
 
 Reconnoitring is no longer an important element in 
 effecting the ascent of those peaks which are found round 
 the well-known mountain centres of the Alps. Beginners 
 are taken up the mountains by guides who know every step 
 of the way ; and, as these have no object in spending their 
 spare time in scanning the surrounding ranges, with a view 
 to selecting routes, the importance of doing so is not 
 apparent. This is to be regretted, as the power of 
 making a critical and useful survey is one which should be 
 aimed at by every one who has any wish to become a 
 competent mountaineer ; and much practice is needed to 
 make such observations of any value. It is well therefore 
 to cultivate the habit of regarding mountains with a view to 
 determining the best line of ascent, and afterwards to 
 compare one's unaided ideas with what has been found to be 
 practically the best. A useful habit may thus be acquired 
 among very well-known mountains which will prove 
 serviceable when unfamiliar regions are approached. 
 
 If it be desired to make the ascent of some untrodden 
 peak, or to force a new way up one previously ascended, 
 advantage will be taken of every other expedition made in 
 the district in order to observe it from as many points of 
 view as possible ; and, in addition, a day, or perhaps two, 
 may be set aside for the special purpose of reconnoitring. 
 The faces, ridges, and couloirs of the mountain are studied, 
 the presence or absence of cornices or overhanging glaciers 
 is noted, and a plausible route, free from obvious danger, 
 selected. The result of such a survey may be a feeling of 
 absolute confidence, or one of great uncertainty; and 
 whether certain places can be surmounted or not is often 
 beyond the powers of even the best guides to say. Tele-
 
 90 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 scopes are helpful in making out the details of the route, 
 but a very great amount of practice is required to interpret 
 properly the impressions they convey. As a good example 
 of this difficulty I may cite a personal experience in Norway 
 some eight or nine years ago.* Examining through a tele- 
 scope a rock face on the opposite side of a valley, we (a 
 party of four) came to the unanimous conclusion that, if we 
 could reach a patch of snow about halfway up, our diffi- 
 culties would be over. The lower rocks appeared to be 
 very smooth, while the upper ones were cut up into terraces, 
 and seemed to offer a natural staircase to the top. Two or 
 three days later, when this peak was attacked, we found that 
 our estimate had been quite wrong. The lower rocks were 
 full of minute irregularities, and did not prove difficult, 
 while the upper ones turned out to be unscalable, though 
 they would have been easy work for a party of giants who 
 could reach some fifteen or twenty feet. The first few 
 terraces were climbed by standing on each other's shoulders 
 and heads, but the higher platforms were too small to allow 
 of any such manoauvres being continued, and, without some 
 such means of counteracting our short stature, the task 
 before us was hopeless. We eventually accomplished the 
 ascent by a long traverse, which led round a corner and on 
 to broken rocks, but not as the result of reconnoitring. 
 This experience might be quoted by any one who wished to 
 prove the uselessness of a telescope in selecting routes : 
 my purpose, however, in introducing it, is to exemplify the 
 difficulties, and show the need of constant practice with this 
 instrument. The man who examines rocks habitually with 
 the same glass, and afterwards tries to climb them, acquires 
 in time an ability to appreciate the real proportions of the 
 objects seen. Nothing but actual trial will finally decide 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xiii. p. 158.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 91 
 
 whether certain rocks are scalable or not, or if a given ice- 
 fall can be threaded ; but the general route to be attempted 
 can always be determined from one or more reconnoitring 
 excursions. 
 
 Number of Climbers in a party. In a previous chapter it 
 has been stated that a mountaineering party should consist 
 of not less than three members ; * it must be added that it 
 seldom comprises more than five. If six persons go together 
 they will generally split into two parties of three each, and 
 the question of two parties attacking the same mountain at 
 once has already been discussed, f 
 
 Three, four, or five may then be regarded as the proper 
 number to take part in a mountaineering expedition, and, 
 while it is difficult to find fault with any of these numbers, 
 it may probably be said that, for practised climbers, three is 
 actually the best. The same will hold good for an incom- 
 petent fumbler; he will be best off between a couple of 
 good guides : but the statement that three is the best number 
 to climb together must always be read in the light of the 
 strength of a party ; and a couple of beginners, active but 
 inexperienced, will be right in engaging not one, but two, or 
 even three guides, % according to circumstances. 
 
 Every additional man tends to make a caravan move 
 more slowly, and this means an increased chance of being 
 benighted ; otherwise it is probable that four, or perhaps 
 five, would be universally regarded as the ideal number to 
 take part in a mountain expedition ; as there is no doubt 
 that, in case of any mishap or illness, compelling one member 
 to stop for an indefinite time, a party of three find them- 
 selves in a very undesirable position; one man being 
 obliged to descend alone for assistance, while the other 
 * See p. 26. t See p. 83. % See p. 65.
 
 92 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 remains with the injured comrade. Never leave a man alone 
 on a mountain. 
 
 Order of going. The order of going is generally a matter 
 of great importance. It may be changed once, perhaps 
 oftener, in the course of a day, and special exigencies some- 
 times arise which render a temporary alteration necessary ; 
 but a couple of rules may be given which are very generally 
 applicable; (i) put the best man first going up and last 
 coming down : and (2) place a weak man between two 
 strong ones. 
 
 Going up, then, the best guide will generally lead, and it 
 is rare for an amateur to get a chance of trying his hand 
 as leader. In descending, however, there will be, in the 
 case of a party consisting of two travellers and two guides, 
 abundant opportunity for practice in choosing the details of 
 a route ; as in this case it is usual for the more experienced 
 amateur to go first, followed by the second guide : the 
 weakest member of the party will thus be placed between 
 the two guides, and the leading guide will of course come 
 last. 
 
 THE ROPE. KNOTS, ETC. 
 
 The rope is the safeguard which alone makes moun- 
 taineering justifiable; its practical value, when properly 
 used, can hardly be overestimated ; and the moral support 
 it affords is of equal value with some of its more demon- 
 strable uses. It is worth while to learn to use the rope to 
 the best advantage, and it may be at once said that this is 
 very far from easy. 
 
 It is not very often that a good rope is strained to any- 
 where near its breaking point, but ropes are chosen in 
 relation to the strain that they will stand, and it is ridiculous 
 to diminish security by tying bad knots. All knots weaken
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 93 
 
 a rope, but some much more than others, and it is therefore 
 foolish to use those which needlessly diminish the strength ; 
 yet almost all guides, and most amateurs, often transgress 
 in this respect. It is not only important to select the 
 best knots, but these should be tied " with the lay " and, 
 "with guides and amateurs alike it is usually a matter of 
 chance whether the knot is tied with or against the lay." * 
 One eighth of a rope's strength may thus be needlessly 
 wasted, even when the right knots are used. It may be 
 questioned whether an attempt to tie every knot " with 
 the lay " would not in most cases result 
 in considerable loss of time ; but it is easy 
 to learn the right knots and to tie them 
 habitually. 
 
 The Double Overhand Knot, in spite of 
 being figured in 1864, only " in order that no 
 one may imitate it"f is still in constant use 
 among guides. It has survived, because, 
 perhaps, it is fit to survive : certainly it is 
 not so bad as was supposed. No one, how- 
 ever, will urge that it is a good knot ; and, if 
 not the best, it should be discarded. This 
 knot, besides unnecessarily weakening the 
 rope, is, though so easy to tie, very difficult 
 to undo after it has been drawn taut when 
 thoroughly wet. So jammed indeed does DOUBLE OVERHAND 
 it frequently get that much time is wasted KNOT - 
 
 in taking it off, and occasionally the problem of untying 
 has proved quite insoluble. 
 
 The Simple Fisherman's Bend is perhaps the best all- 
 round knot for Alpine use, inasmuch as it is applicable, 
 
 * Equipment for Mountaineers, p. 7 ; (Alpim Journal, vol. xvi.). 
 t Alpine Journal, vol. i. p. 325.
 
 94 
 
 MO UNTA1NEER1NG. 
 
 with slight variations in the method of tying, to the three 
 chief cases in which a knot is required, viz. : 
 
 A. For the end loop. 
 
 B. For the middleman loop or loops. 
 
 C. For joining two ropes together. 
 
 For case B this knot is by far the best hitherto discovered, 
 though not theoretically perfect, as it partakes to some 
 
 extent of the nature of 
 a slip-knot. Practically, 
 however, this objection 
 does not arise. 
 
 The diagrams show 
 sufficiently clearly the 
 formation of this knot 
 in cases A and C. In 
 case B it is generally 
 tied by making an 
 ordinary loop in the 
 rope at the point re- 
 quired, and a second 
 loop on the free or 
 running side of the one 
 first formed. It can 
 also be readily made 
 in one operation, as 
 shown by the accom- 
 The rope is turned back on itself, 
 as in fig. i., making 
 two bights ; one of 
 these is then laid par- 
 
 FISHERMAN'S BEND tially acrOSS itS neigh- 
 
 bor joining two ropes.) b()ur as in fig> 2 ^ and 
 
 the knot is completed by drawing the cross-strand in the 
 
 i. ii. 
 
 FISHERMAN'S BEND 
 (For end loop ) 
 
 panying diagrams.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 direction indicated by the hook. Care must be taken, 
 when drawing taut, that the two knots thus formed are kept 
 separate. The loop can be passed over the head and arms 
 of the middle man, and drawn through the first knot to the 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 MIDDLEMAN LOOP. 
 
 Fig. III. 
 
 tightness required. The second knot is then worked down 
 to keep it in place. For cases A and C, the following al- 
 ternative knots have been found in each instance to be as 
 good or better than the Fisherman's Bend. 
 
 The Bowline Knot (in case A) is, with a little practice, 
 easily and rapidly made, and has the advantage in being, of 
 all knots, the most easily untied. It is a little apt to work 
 loose in a long day of intermittent strain, but the loose end 
 bent round the waist strand, as shown in the diagram, will 
 obviate all risk from this source. 
 
 The Double Figure of Eight Knot (in case C, i.e. for joining
 
 9 6 
 
 MO UNTA1NEERING. 
 
 two ropes together) is best, because it is less likely to work 
 loose in a long day's climb. If, however, the ropes have to 
 be joined together for temporary purposes only, the simple 
 
 I 
 
 BOWLINE KNOT. 
 
 Fisherman's Bend is quite as good ; and it should not be 
 often that more than this is called for. 
 
 8 
 
 DOUBLE FIGURE OF EIGHT KNOT.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 97 
 
 One other knot, the Clove-hitch, is useful in occasional 
 situations.* The accompanying diagrams explain them- 
 selves. 
 
 ii. 
 
 CLOVE-HITCH. 
 
 III. 
 
 The care of a rope and the length to be allowed for each 
 person is discussed in another chapter ; f but it may here be 
 said that from fifteen to eighteen feet is, under ordinary 
 circumstances, a suitable length to allow between each pair 
 of men. 
 
 There are many minor points in connection with the use 
 of a rope which will be gradually picked up as experience 
 increases, but one or two cardinal rules must be insisted on 
 as important; and, while nothing but practice will enable a 
 climber to carry them out properly, they must be known or 
 they will not be aimed at. 
 
 Keep the rope taut is a well-known maxim, and, though 
 easily said, is much less easily done. In all situations, how- 
 ever, where there is either danger or difficulty, this rule must 
 
 * See pp. 106-125, 177, 178. t See p. 178. 
 
 H
 
 98 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 be looked upon as of the first importance ; and it is a good 
 habit to regard it as applicable everywhere. It must not be 
 supposed that the rope is always to be at full stretch, but 
 the climbers must keep their distances as well as they can ; 
 and, by holding a small loop of rope in the left hand a suffi- 
 cient amount of play can be obtained without allowing the 
 rope to drag. In places, too, where any member of a party 
 has to wait while another moves, the rope should be paid in 
 or out as the case may be, so that a slip may be promptly 
 checked. 
 
 Never jerk the rope is the second rule, and, while it is of 
 hardly less importance than the last, it is perhaps more 
 difficult to carry out. To jerk the rope on purpose, as many 
 bad guides do, under the impression that they are rendering 
 assistance, is almost criminal, but is easily avoided. It is 
 the unintentional jerks which it requires so much practice 
 to avoid ; and it is in descending ground unequal in its diffi- 
 culties that the greatest care is called for. A good climber 
 will look well after the man in front and the man behind ; 
 and, while doing all he can to keep moving without jerking 
 either of his companions, he will be ready to warn either 
 of them if a jerk seems imminent. A party of good moun- 
 taineers generally manage all this without much speaking ; 
 and, if there is one thing to be said about this matter 
 more likely to be helpful than another, it is that one must 
 remember, after descending any difficult place, to wait for 
 the man behind, as he will be moving slowly over the same 
 difficult ground. 
 
 To the above maxims two more may be added, simple and 
 obvious, yet often disregarded See that the rope does not 
 catch on projections, and, above all, that it does not dislodge 
 loose stones, 
 
 The amateur who wishes to become a skilful climber
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 99 
 
 cannot do better than lay these four rules of the rope to 
 heart, and endeavour, in his early expeditions, to acquire a 
 habit of attending to them ; for they will assuredly serve him 
 in good stead throughout the whole of his mountaineering 
 career ; and in nothing is the difference between a good and 
 bad climber more noticeable than in the attention paid to 
 matters such as these. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 
 
 WHILE the purport of this chapter is to deal with snow 
 and ice, and that of the following one with rock, considered 
 from a climber's point of view, it must be apparent that only 
 a certain amount of information on these subjects can be 
 conveyed by speaking or by writing; and that much of the 
 knowledge, and the whole of the skill, which go to make a 
 mountaineer, can be learned only by practical experience 
 amongst the mountains. 
 
 Snow and ice exist in the Alps in various conditions, and 
 it is well to remember that, though the powdery substance 
 which weighs down the branches of the fir trees is one thing, 
 and the glassy surface on which skaters glide is another, the 
 boundary line between the two is very shadowy ; and that, 
 at high altitudes, snow passes, by slow and imperceptible 
 degrees into ice. The process of making a snowball 
 exemplifies what takes place ; and all ice met with in the 
 Alps has originally fallen as soft snow, and been subse- 
 quently converted into ice by pressure and regelation, or 
 by simple melting and freezing. Snow and ice, then, may 
 be found in all possible consistencies : snow powdery or
 
 ioo MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 granular, liable to be blown about in a wind ; deep soft 
 snow into which one sinks; snow which lets the foot in 
 for an inch or two ; snow as firm to walk on as turf ; snow 
 harder than the last, but in which steps can be kicked ; snow 
 too hard for this ; snow which is almost ice ; honeycombed 
 ice, rotten in consistence ; and finally, solid ice of all degrees 
 of hardness, from that which is only a stage removed from 
 frozen snow, up to ice which is hard black and transparent, 
 like glass or crystal. " The condition of the snow," is a 
 phrase constantly on the lips of mountaineers ; and snow is 
 said to be "good" when hard and firm, and "bad" when 
 soft, powdery, granular, avalanchy, or crusted. Crusted snow 
 is met with when a rapid thaw, succeeded by a sharp frost, 
 follows on a fresh fall, and it presents a surface which, while 
 hard enough to resist a certain amount of pressure, gives like 
 a pie-crust when the weight of the body is thrown upon 
 the foot. Walking under such conditions is exceedingly 
 fatiguing ; but it is still worse when the crust is of irregular 
 strength, sometimes supporting the weight, but as frequently 
 breaking through. In such places it is best for the heaviest 
 member of the party to lead, and he should tread heavily to 
 make sure of breaking the crust. Powdery and granular snow 
 are found at high altitudes when there has been no thaw 
 since a fresh fall : both sorts blow away in a wind, and often 
 present from below the appearance of a little cloud floating 
 away from a slope or ridge, or flying from the summit of a 
 mountain like a long streamer. The expression, " Mont 
 Blanc fume sa pipe," has arisen from an appreciation of the 
 true cause of this appearance, and the phenomenon is one 
 which should not be disregarded. It always means a high 
 wind, and generally a cold one ; a condition which may be 
 fatal to the success of an expedition, and which will certainly 
 introduce an element of danger, even in weather otherwise
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 101 
 
 perfect. Avalanchy snow has been dealt with elsewhere,* 
 and the difficulty of knowing whether snow in certain states 
 is safe to venture on has already been discussed, f I may 
 add here that an equally difficult problem is sometimes 
 presented : Will snow, which is in good enough condition 
 for the ascent, be equally safe for the descent in the after- 
 noon ? If the previous three or four days have been fine, 
 probably it will; but, if the question forces itself on the 
 attention in a prominent manner, it is well to keep a look- 
 out for an alternative route to descend by if need be. 
 
 Ice forms the entire bulk of the lower or naked glaciers, 
 and the substratum of all the great permanent snow fields or 
 upper glacier basins. Above the snow-line J it is covered, 
 as a rule, by snow which has become partially con- 
 solidated by the alternate action of sun and frost. This is, 
 however, not always the case ; and where the angle of incli- 
 nation is steep, ice slopes, bare of snow, are common; more 
 especially late in the season. In couloirs and gullies, more 
 or less sheltered from the sun, ice may be found in large 
 quantities; and this results either from the direct conver- 
 sion of snow into ice, or from the freezing of running water 
 produced by melting snows above. This last cause may 
 give rise to a layer of slippery ice covering a large surface, 
 or to icicles, sometimes of enormous size, hanging from 
 projecting rocks. Icicles are also found depending from 
 cornices, and from the eaves of crevasses. 
 
 The appearance presented by ice differs in various situa- 
 tions ; and while hard ice in couloirs or on rocks frequently 
 looks quite black, the same substance presents, in the interior 
 of crevasses, the most beautiful play of blue and green colour- 
 ing. On the low-lying glaciers, again, the surface of the ice 
 generally looks white, and here it is often honeycombed and 
 * See p. 45. f See p. 47. % See Glossary.
 
 102 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 rotten. Such ice affords good foothold for nailed boots, and, 
 if steps have to be cut in it, a very few blows from the axe 
 will suffice for each. In the daytime there is water in its 
 meshes and on its surface, but every cold night this freezes ; 
 and though, during the day, it may be possible to run over 
 the surface of naked glaciers, any such liberties in the early 
 morning will be likely to result in undignified tumbles. 
 Under such circumstances a very moderate slope is difficult 
 to ascend, unless steps are cut ; but the stones, large and 
 small, frequently found lying on the surface, and apt to slide 
 if trodden on in the daytime, will prove, under just such 
 conditions, to be so firmly frozen to the ice that they may 
 safely be used as steps. 
 
 As already pointed out,* the great majority of Alpine 
 peaks are built up of a series of converging ridges, separated 
 from each other by the intervening sides or " faces ; " and 
 both ridges and faces may consist of snow, ice, or rock, or 
 of a combination of all three. While, broadly speaking, this 
 is true of mountains as a whole, it is to the upper stretches 
 of the higher peaks that it is most obviously applicable. 
 Slightly lower it is common to find that the bases of 
 several of the final peaks converge in large fields of snow- 
 covered ice (called " ne"ve* " or " Firn "),f which fill up the 
 hollows between the mountains, and terminate below in 
 naked glaciers. The pressure of the snow, which falls every 
 winter in enormous quantities on the heights, forces these 
 glaciers ever downwards ; and the result is that, far below 
 the line at which the snow lies, huge streams of ice force 
 their way into the lower valleys and present the appearance 
 so familiar to tourists visiting Chamonix or Grindelwald. 
 These naked glaciers are constantly moving downwards, 
 though the terminal portion or " snout " may, from causes 
 * See p. 86. t See Glossary.
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 103 
 
 which it is beyond my province to discuss, either " advance " 
 or " retreat." 
 
 The rocks of the higher regions are continually dis- 
 integrating, and stones and boulders of all sizes fall upon 
 the surface of glaciers, by which they are carried down- 
 wards. In course of time they either disappear into cre- 
 vasses, accumulate at the edges, forming lateral moraines, 
 or are carried on to the end where they form the terminal 
 moraines. Medial moraines result when two glaciers join 
 and proceed onwards as one stream. Old lateral moraines, 
 from which the glacier has partially receded, are often 
 useful to mountaineers as affording an easy, if a tedious, 
 route, in places where the glacier itself is well-nigh or 
 quite impassable. They vary considerably from a pedes- 
 trian's point of view, but the ridge or crest of many offers 
 good walking. Occasionally old avalanche-snow, lying 
 between the moraine and the mountain-side, affords still 
 better going. 
 
 The aspect presented by the surface of a glacier depends 
 upon the inclination of the ground over which it is moving. 
 If this be level, the glacier's surface will be tolerably 
 smooth, and the few crevasses which exist will be arranged 
 in regular lines. The subjacent ground may, however, become 
 steep or precipitous ; and, as the glacier plunges over, or 
 slides down, an ice-fall results. Here, as might naturally 
 be supposed, a labyrinth of crevasses is met with ; and one 
 result of the irregular cleavage is that towers and pinnacles 
 of ice, called seracs* are formed. These, as they melt or 
 change their positions, owing to the progress of the ice- 
 stream, often become extremely unstable, and masses 
 weighing many tons may fall without a moment's notice. 
 
 Crevasses result from cracks in the glacier due to the 
 * See p. 43.
 
 104 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 unequal tension of its parts. If glaciers did not move, there 
 would be no crevasses ; and while all are to be ascribed to 
 the movement of the ice, three facts may be remembered 
 with regard to their causation. First the most important 
 that the glaciers move downwards over sloping surfaces 
 of varying inclination ; second, that the centre moves more 
 rapidly than the edges ; and third, that the surface moves 
 more rapidly than the deeper portions. Crevasses have 
 been divided into " transverse," " marginal," and " longi- 
 tudinal." * The first has been discussed ; f the second are 
 the result of lateral friction retarding the movements of the 
 ice ; and the last are rare except where a glacier spreads 
 out after passing through a narrow gorge. While it is useful 
 to bear the above facts in mind, it is a mistake to rely too 
 implicitly on what may be expected ; for one is occasionally 
 surprised by an apparent anomaly ; J and a mountaineer, 
 like a mariner, must be constantly 'on the qul vive, and 
 never make the excuse that a crevasse or any other obstacle 
 ought not to have been where it was. 
 
 On naked glaciers the crevasses are visible, and, if not 
 too wide, can be stepped across or jumped. If too broad 
 for this, the edge must be followed until they become 
 narrower, or until a bridge of ice, or one formed by a 
 boulder jammed in the mouth of the chasm, is found. 
 Higher up, where the ice is covered by a layer of snow, the 
 crevasses are either completely or partially concealed ; and, 
 while great chasms or schrunds are often to be seen, their 
 presence, on the other hand, may be merely suggested by a 
 slight depression in the snow, or there may be no indication 
 whatever. The danger of walking unroped over such a 
 surface is obvious, and the rule should be considered abso- 
 
 * Tyndall, " Forms of Water," 8th edition, p. 103, et seq. 
 t See p. 37. \ See p. 38.
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 105 
 
 lute to rope as soon as the neVe* is reached. It must be 
 said though, that, in the very early morning, when the snow 
 is thoroughly hard, there is not so much danger, and con- 
 siderable progress over fields of snow is often made before 
 roping. A first-rate guide may be generally trusted in this 
 matter ; but poor guides are apt to proceed much too far 
 unroped, and it is safest to regard this rule as one which 
 should never be broken. Having put on the rope, the 
 party advances over the snow at right angles to the probable 
 lie of the crevasses; the leader keeping a sharp look-out 
 for any signs of open or hidden chasms, by glancing to the 
 right and to the left, as well as straight in front of him, and 
 probing with his axe to ascertain that the snow, on which 
 he is about to tread, is secure. It is very important, in such 
 places, to step exactly in the leader's footsteps, as his axe 
 will often go through the crust into some hidden pitfall, in 
 which case he will probe again until he finds firm ground. 
 If the second man has allowed his attention to wander, and 
 simply walks straight on, he may fall through into one of 
 the very crevasses which the leader has carefully avoided. 
 In such a case he may disappear to the knee, to the waist, 
 or overhead ; but, except in the last instance, he can gene- 
 rally crawl out by throwing himself forwards on his hands. 
 If he is quite submerged, the rope must be held tight on 
 one side of the crevasse (not both), when he will, with very 
 little help, generally work his way out. Should this plan 
 fail, efforts may be made to pull the unfortunate individual 
 up ; and, if there is any danger of the ice cutting the rope, 
 an axe must be laid lengthways on the edge of the crevasse 
 for it to slide over. If these efforts are not rewarded with 
 success, the problem is indeed serious ; and, though not likely 
 to happen with a narrow crevasse, it may easily occur if any 
 member of a party should, by any chance, fall into one of
 
 ic6 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 the large open schrunds of the upper snow-fields. In such a 
 case, an axe may be driven deep into the snow and the rope 
 tied to it with a clove-hitch : * this will support the man's 
 weight, and give his companions time to examine the 
 situation carefully ; having done which, they must act in 
 accordance with the dictates of reason, and these will vary 
 according to the precise nature of the situation. An extra 
 rope may prove of use and may be employed in more ways 
 than one. If the man in the crevasse can pass a noose 
 of the second rope round his waist, his companions may 
 haul at this, while he himself tries to climb up the rope 
 already fixed to the axe. 
 
 A good deal of winding backwards and forwards is often 
 needed on snow-covered glaciers ; for sound bridges must 
 be found, and all crevasses should be crossed at right angles 
 to their length. The course is more likely to be sinuous in 
 descending, as the snow in the afternoon is soft, and fewer 
 bridges are safe. Sometimes a jump may save a consider- 
 able detour, and, if the landing-place is lower than the take- 
 off, it may be easy enough. It must not be forgotten 
 though that both lips of a crevasse are apt to be corniced 
 by eaves of snow, and these must be allowed for if a jump 
 is resorted to. Sometimes a bridge of snow, not safe to 
 walk upon, may be crossed by crawling upon the hands 
 and knees, or by sprawling, and moving like a lizard ; the 
 idea being to spread the weight over a larger surface. On 
 the descent the same kind of place may be shot with a 
 slide. In this case the leader will slide down flat on his 
 back, while his companions are anchored above, in case he 
 should go through ; and the rest will follow in turn. Unless 
 a bridge seems fairly safe, a slide should not be attempted ; 
 and, in any doubtful case, the lightest member of a party 
 * See p. 97.
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 
 
 may be sent first, as being more easily extricated in case of 
 a mishap. 
 
 Many peaks rise abruptly from fields of neVe", and, where 
 the steep slope of snow or ice joins the more level glacier 
 below, one, or possibly two, schrunds of altogether unusual 
 proportions, both as to length and breadth, may be expected. 
 These are called bergschrunds, and above them it is not 
 common to find any crevasses at all. Bergschrunds are 
 crossed like other crevasses, by bridges, which are gene- 
 rally to be found, though often enough only after some 
 search. Occasionally, however, especially at the end of a 
 hot summer, no way across exists ; and a party may have 
 to turn back baffled. Coming downhill, a bergschrund 
 will always be expected at the foot of every steep slope of 
 snow or ice, and of every snow couloir which ends below 
 by joining a snow-field. In such cases (in the descent of a 
 pass, for example) it is, of course, quite necessary to get 
 across; and, if no bridge can be found, a big jump may be 
 needful. This must not be attempted unless a safe landing 
 place in soft snow is assured ; and if, as is not unfrequently 
 the case with bergschrunds, the lower edge lies almost 
 vertically below the upper one, each member of a party 
 may be let down separately at the end of the rope. Those 
 who have gone before may be able to make a landing-place 
 for the last man to jump on to ; but, if the height is too 
 great, he must thrust his axe deeply into the snow, and, 
 passing the rope round it, slide down ; the rope is easily 
 pulled after him, but the axe is lost. 
 
 Having dealt with naked and snow-covered glaciers, the 
 moraines and crevasses which are associated with them, it 
 remains to say a few words of the upper portions of the 
 mountains, where these are left behind, and where other 
 features claim attention. Here ice and snow exist on slopes
 
 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 CROSSING A BERGSCHRUND (A LAST RESOURCE).
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 109 
 
 and in couloirs, as aretes and as cornices. In couloirs a 
 watch must always be kept for falling stones; and, if a couloir 
 is an obvious or a noted stone-shoot, it should not even be 
 crossed without good reason, and is best avoided altogether.* 
 Snow and ice slopes may terminate above at the base of the 
 cliffs, may emerge upon more or less level plains, or may end 
 in aretes, which may or may not be corniced. The danger 
 of cornices has already been dilated upon,f and it cannot be 
 too strongly emphasized ; while of aretes there is not much 
 to say. The idea of walking along a narrow snow ridge, 
 with precipitous slopes of hard frozen snow descending for 
 many hundred feet upon each side, is rather alarming to the 
 reader of Alpine travels. The actuality is found to be easy, 
 and enjoyable, even by those who may never feel at home 
 among the more difficult situations encountered by moun- 
 taineers. An arete of ice is rather a different thing, and, 
 though short ones have often to be traversed when thread- 
 ing an ice-fall, it is rare to have to walk for any great dis- 
 tance along one. A high wind would render an ice-arete 
 impassable, and a snow one will, under like conditions, be 
 generally skirted to leeward. 
 
 The mode of progression adopted on snow and ice 
 depends upon two factors ; the inclination of the slope and 
 the consistence of the snow. If the surface is fairly level, 
 ordinary walking is all that is called for ; but, as the angle 
 increases, it will be found more and more difficult to walk 
 without either kicking or cutting steps. It is needless to 
 say that it is quicker work to kick than to cut them, and 
 that this method will be employed until the snow becomes 
 too hard. The leader makes the steps, and those who 
 follow should place their feet carefully, so as to be secure, 
 and to avoid damaging the steps. When the snow is soft the 
 * See p. 53. t See p. 38.
 
 I io MOUNTAINEERING 
 
 step is less likely to break away if the foot be driven home 
 with some force and kept quite stationary till it is with- 
 drawn. The axe will generally be used as a lateral prop ; 
 for most slopes are ascended by a zigzag, so that the posi- 
 tion of the body is convenient for its use in this way. If, 
 however, the slope is very steep, it is best to use the axe as 
 an anchor, and which end of the head to employ for this 
 purpose depends again upon the hardness of the snow. In 
 hard ice little or no grip can be got even with the pick ; 
 and, if the place is one where a slip would prove serious, 
 small handholds should be cut. On the other hand, if 
 the snow is deep and soft, more purchase is obtained by 
 thrusting the stock of the' axe as far as possible into the 
 snow just above. 
 
 The actual matter of cutting steps is one which will 
 not concern the beginner, as this work will be done by 
 his guides. It is well though to 'acquire the art ; and 
 practice may be obtained on off-days on naked glaciers, and 
 on steep patches of hard avalanche snow, such as are often 
 to be found quite low down. A good step-cutter is able to 
 use the axe either right- or left-handed with equal effect, 
 and this is a point to be remembered when practising. 
 Another point to bear in mind is that step-cutting, like 
 rowing, is apt to blister unused hands, and it is consequently 
 wise to moderate one's zeal in the early days of a holiday. 
 The fatigue attending the process is not very great, pro- 
 vided the work is properly done, and a little practice under 
 the direction of an expert is worth more than a chapter 
 of verbal instruction. The methods employed differ accord- 
 ing to the consistence of the snow or ice, but, speaking 
 generally, the " blade " * of the axe-head should be used for 
 snow, and the "pick" for ice; and the following points 
 * See p. 174.
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 
 
 in 
 
 should be borne in mind. ' (i) The blow should be 
 delivered with a swing of the body as well as of the 
 arm ; (2) the floor of the step should slope inwards rather 
 than outwards ; (3) the steps should not be too far apart ; 
 
 (4) they should be made with due regard to the fact that 
 they are to be used for alternate feet, and very often too 
 that they will be wanted later in the day for the descent ; 
 
 (5) the turning step of a zigzag should be an extra large one. 
 In snow, just too hard for kicking, steps may be " scraped " 
 
 with the corner of the axe-blade, and one stroke 
 will generally suffice for each ; in harder snow 
 they must be "cut." In ice the pick is used, 
 and from two or three to perhaps a hundred 
 strokes * may be needed to make a good step, 
 according to the hardness of the ice and the 
 position of the operator in relation to the step. 
 To cut steps transversely across a very steep 
 slope or wall of hard ice is the most difficult 
 and tiring process of all, and a dozen such 
 steps may cost nearly an hour's work. If an 
 ice-slope or couloir ends below in a cliff, or if, 
 from any other cause, a slip would almost cer- 
 tainly be fatal, unusual care and pains must 
 be taken to make exceptionally good steps ; and 
 one out of every five or six, at least, should be 
 of the " soup-plate," or even of the " coal- SHOWS PART 
 scuttle" order, large enough to hold both 
 feet easily. In such a place, as in all positions 
 of exceptional difficulty or danger, only one member of 
 the party will be moving at a time ; and, if the others stand 
 perfectly upright in the larger steps, and keep the rope taut, 
 
 * "Mountaineering" (Badminton Library), p. 170: " A good guide 
 has been known to take seventy strokes to fashion a step." 
 
 OF AXE USED 
 IN SCRAPING 
 STEPS.
 
 112 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 they will have a very fair chance of stopping a slip, even 
 while traversing an ice-slope. In crossing a gully of no 
 great width, it is sometimes best to unrope the middle man, 
 and let the leader cut right across. When he is safe on the 
 other side he can untie, and the rope be drawn back for the 
 second man to use. Thus only one member of the party 
 will be crossing at a time; and his safety, in case of a 
 slip, will be the more sure if the last man hitches the rope 
 round some projection. This method often saves time, 
 as the steps need not be so large as when made to allow 
 for a possible pull on the rope ; but its main advantage lies 
 in the shorter time during which each member of the party 
 is exposed to the risk of falling stones. 
 
 One more mode of progression needs to be alluded to, 
 and that is applicable only in descending. Glissading, or 
 sliding downhill upon the snow, is an exhilarating and 
 delightful form of motion, but one. which climbers rarely 
 get enough of. Snow, to glissade upon, must not be too 
 soft, and, while steep enough to slide on, not too steep. It 
 must, moreover, be in. such a position that it is certain there 
 will be no mishap, even if the glissader should tumble or 
 be unable to stop himself; and what is said of a single 
 glissader applies equally to a roped party. Thus, such 
 couloirs and snow slopes as are almost sure to end below 
 in bergschrunds, must not be descended in this way, even 
 though the base be in sight and no crevasse visible ; and, 
 as the slopes of snow-covered glaciers will rarely be safe, a 
 glissade on them must never be indulged in, unless sanc- 
 tioned by a good guide. On the other hand, patches of 
 old winter avalanche snow, such as are often found at the 
 side of a moraine, are excellent for the purpose, and many 
 other slopes are available which cannot very clearly be de- 
 fined. The hardness and steepness of the slope are points
 
 SNOW AND ICE WORK. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 which affect a glissader, after he has selected a suitable place. 
 A gentle slope may be thus descended even if of ice, while 
 a very steep one must be soft enough to admit of kicking 
 steps in. The glissader stands with his knees straight, 
 his feet flat on the surface, and his axe behind him as a 
 break, its point cut- 
 ting into the snow. 
 By more or less 
 pressure upon this 
 he can regulate his 
 pace with great 
 nicety, so that he 
 can either come to 
 a standstill, or allow 
 himself to travel at 
 great speed. Should 
 the pace become too 
 great in spite of a 
 firm pressure on the 
 axe, a still greater 
 amount of break 
 power is gained by 
 raising the toes and allowing the heels to cut deeply into 
 the snow. If the slope eases off, or the snow gets too soft, 
 a standing glissade becomes impracticable; but a further 
 slide may sometimes be enjoyed by sitting down and thus 
 distributing the weight over a greater surface ; and a still 
 gentler slope of soft snow can be utilized by lying quite 
 flat upon the back. Should the slope again become steeper, 
 it is easy to resume the standing posture without stopping. 
 Glissading is very largely a matter of education ; but, while 
 it comes easily to some, others are, to the end of their 
 climbing days, remarkably timid and clumsy. 
 
 STANDING GLISSADE.
 
 114 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 In bringing this chapter to a close, I should like to 
 emphasize a rooted opinion of my own to the effect that 
 the term "Snow-craft" includes a good deal of knowledge 
 which is practically incommunicable. In all kinds of 
 occupations, experience teaches many lessons which can 
 be analysed and clearly understood ; but, in addition to 
 these, lessons of no less importance are learned, the value 
 of which may be thoroughly appreciated, but which even 
 experts are unable to formulate or to account for. An angler 
 may judge, and rightly, that this or that, is a likely pool for 
 a good fish, and yet be unable to give a satisfactory reason, 
 or to communicate his power of judgment to a beginner; 
 and, in like manner, an Alpine guide may conclude that 
 one of two couloirs will prove in better condition than 
 the other, without being able to account for his belief. No 
 doubt, even in relation to snow and ice, what used to be 
 called a " guide's instinct," is becoming more and more 
 reducible to definite and orderly knowledge; but I think 
 that the term, while not strictly accurate, must be looked 
 upon as still representing a practical reality, though time 
 and experience are gradually restricting the limits of its 
 application. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ROCK-WORK. 
 
 To award to rock-climbing its proper place in relation to 
 mountaineering in general would be a very easy matter, were 
 it not that, within the last year or two, some writers have 
 apparently aimed at dissociating the sister arts of climbing 
 upon rock and snow. It is true enough that those who
 
 ROCK-WORK. 115 
 
 are fascinated by the rocks are inclined to devote too much 
 attention to the exercise which brings them most pleasure ; 
 but a like remark applies to the devotees of ice and snow, 
 and it is surely obvious that both branches of the sport 
 require and merit an equal share of attention. 
 
 There are, amongst the guides, plenty of excellent rock- 
 climbers who are certainly ignorant as to snow ; and there 
 are others who, although very good men on ice, are nervous 
 about venturing upon difficult rocks. Neither class can be 
 called sound mountaineers, and a good climber, be he 
 amateur or professional, should feel equally at home on 
 both. Many excellent mountaineers exist, however, who, 
 though capable cragsmen, are unequal to the task of leading 
 up the more difficult bits of rock which sometimes threaten 
 to prevent climbers from reaching their goal. To be able 
 to scale such places is a very desirable quality, and a pro- 
 perly constituted party should include at least one really 
 expert rock-climber. 
 
 The kinds of rock met with in the Alps, or indeed in 
 any range of mountains, may be considered from two points 
 of view, the geologist's and the mountaineer's. It would 
 be wrong to say that a knowledge of geology can be of no 
 service to climbers, for certain classes of rock present certain 
 peculiarities, and knowledge that the general formation of 
 a mountain group is one of slate, limestone, or granite will 
 convey a very fair idea of the class of climbing likely to be 
 met with. So much indeed do these classes of rock differ, 
 that a man, though a good climber on hard rocks, may yet 
 be quite at sea on crumbly slate. Again, the dip of stratified 
 mountains may indicate the best side from which to attack 
 an untried peak, or may suggest that the loose stones likely 
 to be met with will be fairly stable or the reverse. This 
 class of knowledge, however, is not of much assistance in
 
 1 16 MO UNTA 1NEER1NG. 
 
 actual climbing. Most rock-climbers know nothing whatever 
 of geology ; and the learned geologist must begin at the very 
 foot of the ladder, should he wish to become a mountaineer. 
 From a climber's point of view, rocks may be divided 
 into firm rocks and rotten rocks ; rocks with good holds 
 and rocks with bad holds ; rocks snow-covered and rocks 
 ice-covered. The last two characteristics refer to what is 
 called " condition ; " and, just as good and bad condition 
 have special meanings when applied to snow,* so have they 
 when rocks are spoken of; " good condition " meaning, in 
 this relation, freedom from ice, snow, or water. Any rocks 
 which are firm and do not break away are called "good 
 rocks ; " in contradistinction to " bad " or rotten ones. 
 Handholds and footholds are spoken of collectively as 
 " holds " and when these are firm and plentiful, the rocks 
 are said to be " easy." On " difficult " rocks the holds are 
 scanty, or are so small, or so awkwardly situated, that it 
 requires considerable skill to make use of them. Smooth 
 sloping slabs, with little or no holds, are called in French 
 " plaques," and in German " platten." If these lie nearly 
 flat and horizontal, they can, of course, be crossed by 
 walking ; if vertical, they are unscalable ; but, at various 
 angles, they may often be climbed or crossed by methods 
 depending on the slope and the position in which they lie. 
 "Glacier-worn rocks" are always smooth, the projections 
 from the surface having been worn away. They may present 
 cracks or holds of the pigeon-hole variety ; but they are 
 frequently very difficult, and often impossible, to climb. In 
 Ascending a peak by a new route, it should never be for- 
 gotten that there may be great difficulty in passing from the 
 rocks on to the ice ; the glacier has very likely, at some 
 previous time, stood higher than at present, and the lower 
 * See p. 100.
 
 ROCK- WORK. 117 
 
 rocks may be polished and perhaps impassable. This 
 point should be decided by careful reconnoitring before 
 entering upon such an undertaking ; while, if a rock pass is 
 to be crossed by a route unknown to the guides, it should 
 be borne in mind that there may be only one, and that not 
 an easily found, way off the rocks ; and inquiries from local 
 sources often save much time and uncertainty. 
 
 Glacier-worn rocks are apt to prove even more difficult 
 than they look ; but, as already pointed out,* great care 
 must be exercised in forming an opinion from any but a 
 very close inspection ; and, with regard to rocks in general, 
 the opposite is, perhaps, more likely to be true. It 
 would be easy to give numerous examples of mountains 
 pronounced impossible by competent authorities, which 
 have eventually proved to be climbable; none, however, 
 could be more to the point than the case of the two 
 northernmost peaks of the Aiguilles d'Arves. In 1864, 
 Messrs. A. W. Moore, Horace Walker, and Edward 
 Whymper, with Michel Croz and Christian Aimer crossed 
 the col between these peaks, and only gave up the idea 
 of trying to scale one or other of them because the whole 
 party agreed that both were obviously impossible. " Aimer 
 and Michel," said the late Mr. Moore, f " were strongly 
 opposed " to making any actual attempt on the rocks, while 
 Mr. Whymper tells us that Aimer " volunteered the informa- 
 tion that a thousand francs would not tempt him to try it" % 
 In spite of this decision, arrived at by such eminent climbers, 
 both peaks have been ascended from this col, and neither 
 has been found to present any unusual difficulties. 
 
 * See p. 90. t " The Alps in 1864," p. 12. 
 
 J " Scrambles amongst the Alps," p. 184. 
 
 It is only fair to add that Aimer was the first guide to reach both 
 of these summits ; though one had been previously climbed, probably 
 by a local chamois-hunter. Alpine Journal, vol. viii., pp. 69, 72.
 
 Il8 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 With regard to rocks which are thinly covered by ice or 
 snow, something has already been said;* and but little 
 climbing will be deliberately undertaken when these un- 
 favourable conditions exist. Still, bad weather may come 
 on during the descent, and the rocks then become either 
 glazed or snow-covered in an incredibly short space of 
 time. All that can be said about climbing in such a case 
 is that extraordinary care must be taken, and that progress 
 must necessarily be very slow. Generally only one man 
 will move at a time, and a spare rope, if available, will be 
 freely used. 
 
 Rocks take the shape of gullies, slopes, walls, and ridges. 
 Gullies, free from ice and snow, frequently afford excellent 
 climbing, and, if wide, are often easy; those which are 
 narrow and steep are called " chimneys," and the climbing 
 in these may be very difficult. Sometimes the upper part 
 of a gully is cut off from the lower by a vertical cliff which 
 is called a " pitch," and this very frequently is most difficult 
 to surmount, and at times is quite impossible. Slopes and 
 walls of rock are met with in climbing the face of any rock 
 mountain, and, while they differ so widely as to scarcely 
 admit of any generalized description, they often afford very 
 first-rate climbing. Rock aretes or ridges yield some of 
 the most interesting climbing possible ; if the rock is firm, 
 and the holds good, the work, though easy, is very exhila- 
 rating ; and in no other situation is such perfect immunity 
 enjoyed from risk of falling stones. Sometimes deep and 
 cleanly cut gaps are met with on aretes, and these may 
 cause much trouble to the climber; again, great teeth or 
 towers called " gendarmes " are not uncommon. It is not 
 very easy to determine when and by whom this word was 
 first used, but it was doubtless some guide who first likened 
 * See p. 31,
 
 ROCK-WORK. 119 
 
 a rock tower, forbidding further progress by the direct route, 
 to an officer of the law. The term has been scouted by 
 Alpine writers as ridiculous and objectionable ; but it is 
 convenient to have some word for these rock-teeth, and the 
 term has now got firm hold. " Gendarmes " often consist 
 of hard smooth rock, with cleanly cut sides ; and, while it is 
 occasionally possible to climb right over them, they are, as 
 a rule, more easily skirted, though this is often far from 
 being an easy task. It is probable that the tops of many 
 gendarmes are inaccessible, but when they present them- 
 selves on the very summit of peaks they are generally found, 
 however unpromising in appearance, to yield to a determined 
 onslaught. The northern summit of the Aig. des Charmoz 
 consists of a broken ridge of " ten pinnacles." * All of 
 them would, if they occurred lower down on the arete, be 
 called gendarmes, and all have been climbed. It has been 
 stated that rock aretes sometimes offer easy climbing, 
 and the ordinary routes up Monte Rosa or the Fin- 
 steraarhorn present examples of this class. Much more 
 difficult work is, however, found on such peaks as the 
 Gabelhorn and Rothhorn; while sometimes, notably in 
 the Mont Blanc district, aretes may be found to be quite 
 impossible, being literally studded with formidable gaps 
 and gendarmes. 
 
 Having thus briefly discussed, from a climber's point of 
 view, the various kinds of rock and the forms which they 
 assume, it is time to pass on to the methods adopted in 
 rock climbing. Generally speaking, it may be said that 
 rocks are climbed by means of the hands and feet; but 
 there is hardly any portion of the body which cannot be of 
 service in certain situations. To any one who is anything 
 of an athlete, good rocks with plenty of holds are easy 
 * Kurz, " Climber's Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc," p. 94.
 
 120 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 work, the climbing being affected by the hands and feet 
 alone, both being used in perfectly natural positions. A 
 mere beginner may climb with ease upon such rocks, but 
 this must not be mistaken for really good rock climbing. 
 The differences are in reality great, and to some of them 
 attention may well be drawn. It is probable that the 
 beginner's movements are too spasmodic, that he uses his 
 hands too much and his feet too little, that he does not 
 test the holds sufficiently, that he jerks the rope both in 
 front and behind, that he is never quite certain of not 
 slipping, that he would be pulled over if one of his com- 
 panions fell, and, last but not least, that he dislodges loose 
 stones with his hands, with his feet, and with the rope. 
 Great practice is required to overcome these faults, but 
 progress will be much more quickly made if they are borne 
 in mind. 
 
 The foot should never be put down or lifted suddenly ; 
 the first precaution makes sure that the hold, which is to be 
 utilized, is secure, before the whole weight of the body 
 is thrown upon it ; and a neglect of the latter accounts 
 for quite half the loose stones dislodged. A beginner will 
 be wise to count his proficiency as a rock climber not so 
 much in relation to his agility, as to his power of climbing 
 hour after hour on average rocks without dislodging stones. 
 This is a matter requiring care more than anything else, 
 and it is quite astonishing what extraordinary care can do 
 in the way of permitting movement among unstable rocks, 
 which only seem to want a touch to start them. This degree 
 of attention is not often demanded for long at a time ; but 
 care must always be taken, and any laxness is almost sure 
 to eventuate in stones being dislodged. Except in occasional 
 places, which are but seldom met with, spasmodic movement 
 is invariably bad climbing; it increases the danger arising
 
 ROCK- WORK. 121 
 
 from loose stones, and jeopardizes the security of the whole 
 party ; for a missed hold is sure to result in a fall, and an 
 accidental jerk on the rope is not so likely to be successfully 
 withstood. 
 
 The tendency to rely too much on the hands is very 
 natural, and is common to almost all beginners. If really 
 good handholds are plentiful, the rocks are easy, and are 
 specially suitable for inexperienced climbers to select. The 
 educational value of practice in such places is, however, 
 somewhat marred by one fact; namely, that the obvious 
 security afforded by such holds favours the idea that there 
 cannot be much safety without them, and leads to more 
 and more reliance being placed upon the hands. Various 
 anomalous kinds of handhold are met with upon more 
 difficult rocks ; for instance, finger-tip holds, side-holds, 
 and holds facing downwards all requiring knack, practice, 
 and training ; but the use of ordinary handholds on good 
 rock is easily mastered, and it is to acquiring the power of 
 using the feet properly that the attention of a beginner 
 requires more especially to be directed. Many of the 
 easier rock mountains could be climbed, except here and 
 there, without using the hands at all ; and, while an attempt 
 to do this would be anything but good mountaineering, this 
 mode of progression may advantageously be practised on 
 boulders in the valleys. Beginners often take long to learn 
 that really good foothold should render a climber inde- 
 pendent of handhold on any but the steepest rocks, and 
 that the importance of learning to use the feet to the best 
 advantage can hardly be exaggerated. Sloping slabs, with 
 or without ledges, are, if not too steep, generally most safely 
 climbed or traversed by boldly walking over them ; and, 
 while good handhold should never be despised, it is a 
 mistake to lean towards the mountain, and thus throw more
 
 122 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 weight on to the edge of the boot, for the sake of any but 
 really first-rate hold. 
 
 Another point in the use of the feet in climbing rocks, is 
 that, in approaching any bit of difficult rock, it is very 
 necessary to carefully consider with which foot the first step 
 should be taken : a mistake in such a case may turn a 
 fairly easy passage into one of great difficulty, or may even 
 render it impossible. On difficult rocks both handhold 
 and foothold may be scanty, and, while much experience 
 is required to ensure the best use being made of what there 
 is, considerable training is needed before the tips of the 
 fingers and the toes can be trusted to support a portion of 
 the body's weight, for more than a few seconds at a time. 
 Sometimes a man may get into an awkward position and 
 find that it is difficult to move either up or down : he has 
 perhaps very poor hold for the hands, and is standing on 
 the tips of his toes. In such a case, if not in good training, 
 his legs will be very apt to become affected with a quite 
 uncontrollable form of trembling ; and, if seized by a feeling 
 of nervousness, this condition will be aggravated. Such a 
 position should rarely occur ; for a leader ought to be 
 sufficiently experienced to be able both to gauge his own 
 powers, and to select a route on which he can cer- 
 tainly either advance or retreat ; while those who come 
 after should be able to follow, either with or without a 
 helping push or pull. Still, most climbers have experienced 
 this unpleasant sensation, and from no cause more fre- 
 quently than from starting a difficult passage with the wrong 
 foot. It is in such positions that the moral support of the 
 rope is most keenly felt, and this has doubtless prevented 
 many a slip. 
 
 On difficult rocks alone is it that parts of the body other 
 than the hands and feet ought to be called into requisition.
 
 ROCK-WORK. 123 
 
 The knee, it is true, may often be used for a long step even 
 on easy rocks, but it is only where hand and foothold are 
 wanting that the climber discovers how many portions of 
 the human frame are adaptable to the exigencies of moun- 
 taineering. The back, the knees, the elbows, the shoulders, 
 and even the head and the nape of the neck, may 
 occasionally prove necessary in climbing a difficult chimney 
 or crack. 
 
 It has been stated that ordinary rock-work is effected 
 wholly by means of the hands and feet, and so it is ; but 
 there is another element which must not be forgotten, and 
 that is balance. Skating is, of all sports, the one in which 
 balance reigns supreme ; but it is hardly too much to say 
 that there is, in climbing, almost as much scope for the 
 cultivation of this quality. It is when changing from one 
 foothold to another that the greatest call is made upon the 
 balancing faculty; and, just as spasmodic movement is 
 avoided by acquiring the ability to balance the body in all 
 sorts of positions, so is balancing power gained by a fixed 
 determination to move steadily, deliberately, and not in 
 jerks. 
 
 The ascent of rocks sometimes makes demands which 
 cannot be met by the unaided effort of any single man ; the 
 holds being, for a time, too far apart to be made use of even 
 by the tallest. In such cases, those below can often render 
 most effectual service to the leader ; and if a foothold low 
 down is all that is needed, it can generally be supplied by 
 the hands of a comrade. Again, the spike of the axe thrust 
 into tiny cracks affords most excellent foothold ; while the 
 axe-head may prove useful to give a push to a man above 
 who would otherwise be out of reach. Sometimes the 
 leader will stand on the shoulders or head of the second 
 man, so as to bring some hold within reach of his hands ;
 
 124 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 and, in very exceptional cases, he may climb up over a 
 pyramid of two men, the one standing on the other. This 
 last mano3iivre will, however, very rarely be resorted to, 
 and never unless starting from an ample platform. Stones 
 with ropes tied to them are sometimes thrown so as to 
 catch in cracks, and ropes are occasionally slung over 
 projecting rocks a few feet out of reach. Weights attached 
 to strong twine have been thrown over projections within 
 stone-shot, the line being used to pull a rope over some 
 distant knob ; and rockets have been employed, with more 
 plausibility than success, in the hope of extending the 
 range of such proceedings. In any case in which a rope is 
 fixed to aid in the ascent of a difficult bit of rock, a few 
 knots tied in it, at intervals of two or three feet, give more 
 effective handhold : they cannot often be used, however, as 
 they would generally interfere with the fixing or unfastening 
 of the rope; and, as a matter of fact, this manoeuvre is 
 rarely employed except in the descent of a short but per- 
 pendicular cliff which will have to be ascended later in the 
 day. 
 
 In ascending rocks, the ice-axe is frequently a hindrance, 
 and it is usual to sling it from the wrist or arm by a loop.* 
 In some places, however, it is still a serious encumbrance, 
 and sometimes all the axes belonging to the party are left 
 behind for the last man to bring or send up. In most cases 
 he will be able to bring them with him, as a friendly pull 
 from above will render him less dependent upon his own 
 efforts ; but occasionally they must be drawn up separately, 
 and for this purpose a spare rope will be let down, or the 
 last man can untie and send the axes up, waiting for the 
 rope to be returned for his own use. It is well to know 
 how this business can best be managed, as the axes are often 
 * Seep. 177.
 
 ROCK-WORK:. 
 
 125 
 
 clumsily tied, resulting in the occasional loss of one or 
 
 more. If there is rope enough, they should not be tied at 
 
 the end of it, but in the middle, so as to 
 
 leave as much guiding cord as possible 
 
 below ; for the bottom man can most 
 
 easily steer them and prevent the heads 
 
 from catching in cracks. The axes should 
 
 be tied together in a sheaf with a knot 
 
 below the heads and another near the 
 
 spikes; and, while a clove-hitch* is the best 
 
 for the last-named purpose, a simple bend 
 
 is all that is needed for the first. A 
 
 common practice, in the ascent of rock 
 
 peaks, is to leave the axes above the 
 
 upper level of snow and ice, to be picked 
 
 up again on ^the way down. One axe at 
 
 least should, however, always be taken to 
 
 the summit, as an unexpected patch of ice 
 
 is often met with. 
 
 In the descent of rocks which are at all 
 steep or difficult, the climber's face should 
 always be turned to the mountain ; and in 
 almost every position which really requires 
 the hands to be used as well as the feet, 
 this is the workmanlike attitude to adopt, 
 be inserted into cracks which will not take the heels, and 
 the handholds and footholds used in going down are pre- 
 cisely the same as those employed in the ascent. To 
 descend with the back to the mountain is, in any but easy 
 places, dangerous as well as clumsy; for the eyes cannot 
 see where the feet are being placed, and no grip can be got 
 which would be of much use in case of a strain on the rope. 
 * See p. 97. 
 
 SHEAF OF AXES. 
 
 The toes can
 
 126 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Even if the proper method is adopted, there are many short 
 bits of rock where any sudden pull might prove serious ; 
 and it is in descending rocks, more than anywhere else, 
 that extreme care is needed not to jerk the rope.* 
 
 To go down is, generally speaking, easier than to go up, 
 and if it is found that any given part of a mountain takes 
 longer in the descent, it is either due to the place being in 
 worse condition in the afternoon, to the party being a weak 
 one, or to the rocks being unusually difficult. When hand 
 and foothold are very scanty and very small, the descent may, 
 indeed, be more difficult than the ascent, and special measures 
 may sometimes be resorted to. A jump must never be risked, 
 unless the landing-place is obviously good, and it is precisely 
 in such places that a spare rope is so useful for the last 
 man : doubled round a firm knob of rock it may safely be 
 used as a banister, or even to slide down on ; and, if no 
 firm projection is to be found, a " piton " \ may be em- 
 ployed. Such a proceeding is objected to by some as being 
 hardly fair climbing; but it is a safeguard in case of a 
 possible slip, and, what is equally important, it often saves 
 time. In arranging a spare rope, care must be taken to 
 make sure that it cannot possibly slip off the projection 
 over which it is hitched, and also that it can be easily 
 detached by pulling one of the ends. If badly arranged, 
 it may get jammed by the pull in some narrow crack, to 
 the great annoyance of the last man, who will have to return 
 to loosen it. In such a case it is bad mountaineering to cut 
 it and leave an end hanging, both on the score of waste, 
 and also because the loose end may prove dangerous to a 
 subsequent party, who may mistake it for a "fixed" rope,J 
 and make use of it as such. No rope should ever be left, 
 unless designedly fixed in a way which neither wind nor 
 * See p. 98. t See p. 181. J See below.
 
 ROCK-WORK. 127 
 
 weather can loosen. Some prominence has been given to 
 this matter of the extra rope ; but, while it is well to 
 appreciate its use, I do not wish to convey the impression 
 that it is a device which should often be found necessary. 
 
 In many gullies, and in other difficult places on well-known 
 mountains, ropes have been fixed by previous climbers ; 
 and the Matterhorn, the Aiguille du Geant, the Aiguille du 
 Dru, and the Meije may be named among peaks which 
 are more or less " roped." These ropes add an element of 
 danger to the mountains, as they are often too old and 
 rotten to be really trustworthy ; they are objectionable also 
 upon another score, namely, that they do not, as is the case 
 when a spare rope is used, merely add to the safety and 
 expedition of the descent, but, by making the ascent easy, 
 they degrade the mountains and have a demoralizing effect 
 by teaching mountaineers to be slovenly. To take away 
 ropes already placed in difficult positions would be to 
 assume considerable responsibility; and, unless done by 
 some properly constituted authority, such an act would be 
 most officious ; but it is earnestly to be hoped that the fine 
 rock pinnacles of the Alps which still retain, even among 
 experts, the name of being difficult, will not be dethroned 
 from their legitimate position by a process so unnecessary 
 and so unsportsmanlike. 
 
 Having dealt with the various methods employed in the 
 ascent and descent of rocks, it remains to say a few words 
 about traversing. In traversing any rocks too steep and 
 too difficult to be walked across, the body must face the 
 mountain as in climbing up or down. Moderately good 
 holds both for hands and feet are needed, or else there 
 must be thoroughly good hold for either the one or the 
 other. It is easy to edge along a shelf as broad as a 
 mantelpiece without any handhold at all; or again, if
 
 128 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 there is excellent handhold, the body can be slung along 
 for a short distance without any steps for the feet. In 
 difficult traverses, as elsewhere, only one man should move 
 at once, and sometimes it is wise to throw or hitch a spare 
 rope over some projection higher up, so as to afford support 
 when hand and foothold are scanty or unsafe. 
 
 It has been pointed out that a beginner may climb rocks 
 with ease, and yet that this by no means necessarily implies 
 good climbing : further, a thoroughly unsafe mountaineer may 
 even earn the reputation of being a brilliant climber. In what 
 then does really good rock-climbing consist ? In answering 
 this question the thoughts naturally turn to those guides 
 who are most expert in this particular branch, and of such it 
 may be said that, while some are very brilliant cragsmen, 
 others are not ; and yet, those who work slowly but surely 
 up difficult rocks are as good climbers as their more showy 
 compeers. All, however, climb safely, smoothly, with de- 
 liberation, and with finish. The last term, though not easy 
 to define, denotes a quality which should be aimed at by 
 every mountaineer. Dash is very pretty if successful, but it is 
 neither safe nor sound, and it quickly departs as years roll 
 by ; whereas careful, steady rock-climbing depends on a 
 basis of slowly acquired skill, admits of improvement 
 through a couple of decades, and is only gradually lost as 
 age creeps on and joints become less supple.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CLIMBING WITHOUT GUIDES. 
 
 IT is perhaps doubtful whether a chapter with the above 
 heading should find any place in a volume which is avowedly 
 addressed to beginners ; but, in my opinion, no book on 
 mountaineering would, at the present date, be complete 
 without some allusion to a branch of the sport which has, 
 of late years, assumed so prominent a position. Further, 
 some information on the subject may perhaps be of interest, 
 and may also prove useful, even to beginners, if it serves to 
 impress upon them the desirability of not wasting their 
 opportunities of perfecting themselves in the art of moun- 
 taineering. 
 
 The era of modern mountaineering may, as already 
 stated, be said to date from the ascent of the Wetterhorn 
 from Grindelwald, in 1854; * and it was only a year later 
 that the foundation stone of the development with which 
 the present chapter deals was laid by Messrs. Chas. Hudson 
 and E. S. Kennedy, who were the leading spirits of a party 
 which effected, in 1855, "an ascent of Mont Blanc by a 
 new route and without guides," f an achievement which 
 must certainly rank as one of the finest performances of 
 the decade to which it belongs. In the sixties, Mr. A. G. 
 Girdlestone was an enthusiast in the same direction, and 
 during these years he made more than seventy expeditions 
 without guides. J Mr. Girdlestone's success was, however, 
 
 * See p. 9. 
 
 f "Where there's a Will there's a Way," Hudson and Kennedy, 
 1856. 
 
 I "The High Alps without Guides," by the Rev. A. G. Girdlestone, 
 1870. 
 
 K
 
 130 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 of a doubtful nature, the risks he ran were great, and many 
 of the difficulties he encountered were avoidable ; so that 
 when, in 1870, Mr. F. Crawford Grove invited the Alpine 
 Club to "pronounce an opinion against mountaineering 
 without guides," * it is hardly to be wondered that the club 
 should have virtually accepted the proposition which he so 
 ably laid before it. Between 1870 and 1880 Mr. F. 
 Gardiner, with Messrs. Chas. and Lawrence Pilkington, com- 
 menced to practise unaided the art they had so well and 
 so carefully learned, and the ascent of the Meije by these 
 gentlemen in 1879 f has, in all probability, done more than 
 any other single event towards dispelling the idea that 
 amateur mountaineers are by nature, and must ever remain, 
 so inferior to professionals as to be reckoned either criminal 
 or insane if they undertake guideless expeditions above the 
 snow-line. 
 
 Since 1880 many notable ascents have been accomplished 
 by parties, both English and foreign, consisting of amateurs 
 alone ; and the view expressed by Mr. Dent, in 1885, \ to 
 the effect that the level of the best amateur climbing was 
 approximating much more closely to that displayed by good 
 guides, has come to be virtually accepted. 
 
 Englishmen engaging in sports generally do so with a 
 hope that they may excel; and while, in any branch of 
 athletics, the majority soon find that they can never expect 
 to exceed mediocrity, there are always a few who, supple- 
 menting natural aptitude by persevering practice, gradually 
 work their way into the front rank. Mountaineering has 
 proved no exception to the rule, and while no one has 
 contended that any amateur can ever hope to equal in 
 skill and technical knowledge the very pick of the profes- 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. v. p. 96. f Ibid., vol. ix. p. 411. 
 
 J Ibid., vol. xii. p. 289.
 
 CLIMBING WITHOUT GUIDES. 131 
 
 sionals, it is not too much to say that there are a few 
 amateur climbers who have shown themselves possessed of 
 qualities which would ensure for them an honourable 
 position when compared with the general run of " good," if 
 not of " first-rate," guides.* 
 
 No beginner should start climbing with the idea that he 
 may one day wish to dispense with the assistance of guides ; 
 but this ought not to prevent him from learning all he can 
 about mountaineering. Lest this warning be thought super- 
 fluous, I may add that there are, as a matter of fact, a large 
 number of climbers who are content to simply follow in 
 their leaders' steps, without attempting to improve them- 
 selves except in a few of the minor details of the art. This 
 attitude may result from a lack of enthusiasm, but is often 
 the outcome of an erroneous idea to the effect that the 
 " guiding instinct " is quite unattainable, and consequently 
 not worth striving after. Many sports are taught by pro- 
 fessionals ; and the best amateur cricketers or golfers, for 
 instance, have generally had the advantage of careful coach- 
 ing by men who, in addition to being accomplished players, 
 possess also the power or knack of imparting their knowledge 
 to others. In mountaineering the case is different; the 
 guides are paid to do the work and not to teach the art ; 
 and an amateur can therefore only learn from them by 
 observing their methods, and picking out the salient points 
 for himself. This is a process requiring some natural talent 
 and much attention ; but something is gained when the fact 
 is appreciated that a climber may do more than merely 
 walk behind the guides, and do as he is told ; that he may, 
 in fact, learn from them the art of mountaineering. 
 
 It is not given to every amateur, however painstaking and 
 assiduous, to become capable of satisfactorily replacing a 
 * See Classification of Guides, p. 63.
 
 132 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 guide, even upon minor occasions ; but all may develop 
 into reasonably good mountaineers if they will do their 
 best. Without taking pains, though, this modest result 
 will not be achieved, and no climber, however brilliant, 
 can ever be a right and proper person to take the lead, 
 in even a very easy expedition, unless he has made a liberal 
 use of his brains, as well as of his limbs, during his moun- 
 taineering apprenticeship. "But," says Mr. Dent, in the 
 paper already alluded to, " in the course of eight or ten 
 seasons, when he (the amateur) has climbed perhaps thirty 
 or forty of the higher peaks, or traversed the same number 
 of passes, then if he has not learned enough of the Alpine 
 craft to make himself something of a mountaineer in the 
 real sense of the word, it is because he has never tried to 
 develop the art in himself, never given any real attention to 
 it, and never recognized that there was anything he might 
 learn." * 
 
 Under what circumstances may the practice of climbing 
 without guides be regarded as justifiable ? The answer 
 must depend upon the class of work contemplated ; but, in 
 the case of Alpine expeditions proper, the following con- 
 ditions should generally be fulfilled. 
 
 1. The party should consist exclusively of practised 
 mountaineers who have climbed (preferably together) in the 
 Alps for several seasons with good guides. 
 
 2. Every member of such a party must be a safe, as well 
 as an experienced, climber; and each should be able to 
 take his share of the work, whether as leader, step-cutter, 
 or porter. 
 
 3. Every member should have been accustomed to act 
 successfully as his own guide in all weathers among hilly 
 districts below the snow-line. 
 
 * Alpine Journal, vol. xii. p. 295.
 
 CLIMBING WITHOUT GUIDES. 133 
 
 Provided the above requirements are complied with, there 
 is no reason why a party, consisting of three or four friends, 
 should not, if they wish it, select some quiet district, where 
 the excursions are neither long nor difficult, and gradually 
 proceed to more arduous undertakings. Still, it cannot be 
 too strongly insisted upon that the majority of amateurs 
 should never aim at accomplishing the more ambitious 
 expeditions without the assistance of guides, and further, 
 that these should not be attempted by amateurs qualified to 
 climb alone except under quite perfect conditions. 
 
 To offer any hints to those mountaineers of some years' 
 standing who may think of venturing upon guideless ex- 
 peditions would be quite beyond the scope of these pages ; 
 but one or two secondary matters, on which amateurs often 
 hold erroneous opinions, may perhaps be briefly discussed 
 with advantage. It is probably not too much to say that 
 the majority of amateur climbers think they would never 
 be able to cut steps for an hour or two at a time, that they 
 would never be able to dispense with porters at least to 
 carry the sacks, and that they would never be able, even in 
 fine weather, to equal the guides in hitting off the same 
 route when descending as had been followed in the ascent. 
 From what has been already said I feel I am in no danger 
 of being accused of making light of guiding capacity, but 
 minor matters such as these are, in reality, well within the 
 reach of most amateurs of sound physique. Step-cutting is 
 largely a knack, and is not excessively fatiguing ; and, while 
 guideless parties act wisely in replacing heavy articles by 
 light ones whenever this is possible, weight-carrying is, after 
 all, mainly a question of training, and after the first few 
 days the weight of a knapsack is hardly noticed. With 
 regard to the " guiding instinct " displayed in finding the 
 same route down, it may be said that this depends primarily
 
 134 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 upon the fact that it was the guide who, in the first instance, 
 selected the line of the ascent ; a process involving both the 
 intentional and unconscious noting of any little landmarks 
 on the way. The last man going up is not under the same 
 necessity of remarking the precise line taken, and, unless 
 he has trained himself to scrutinize all the details of a route, 
 he will, when leading down, be very likely to mistake the 
 way ; his mistakes will, however, be promptly corrected by 
 the leader, now descending last, be he amateur or pro- 
 fessional. During the ascent, the last man should, of course, 
 try to note the route himself; and if there is fog or mist, or 
 even any uncertainty in the weather, it is well for him to 
 spend his time, while waiting for those in front to progress, 
 in building small cairns, when materials are available, in any 
 places where a mistake in the descent would seem likely to 
 be made. 
 
 In bringing this chapter, and with it that portion of this 
 book which deals with the practical elements of moun- 
 taineering, to a close, it may be serviceable to briefly 
 summarize the rules of climbing. These should be kept in 
 mind by those who engage in any Alpine expeditions, but 
 amateurs who climb without guides should lay them more 
 especially to heart, and the present is perhaps a not unsuit- 
 able place to introduce them. I am not aware that any writer 
 has hitherto thought it necessary to recapitulate, in the form of 
 a series of definite rules, those injunctions which lie scattered 
 though the numerous books, pamphlets, and papers, which 
 deal with Alpine accidents and Alpine dangers ; but the 
 canons of mountaineering cannot, in my opinion, be too 
 strongly insisted upon, or too clearly defined ; and, as my 
 excuse for a step which to some may seem bold, and to 
 others unnecessary, I propose to quote a short passage from 
 a letter written by Mr. Leslie Stephen to the editor of the
 
 CLIMBING WITHOUT GUIDES. 135 
 
 Alpine Journal in 1875. " I hold," said he, " that we can 
 best promote Alpine climbing by enforcing with all our 
 power a code of rules which will make it a reputable pursuit 
 for sensible men." * Such a code the following will, I 
 trust, prove to be ; and, while it cannot be maintained that 
 all the rules are of equal importance, not one of them 
 should ever be consciously broken without a just and 
 sufficient reason. 
 
 CODE OF RULES. 
 
 1. Begin your mountaineering career with short and easy 
 expeditions, and progress only by degrees to those which 
 are longer and more difficult. 
 
 2. Get gradually into training, and be sure you are in 
 proper condition before undertaking any arduous or difficult 
 excursion. 
 
 3. Never join a party which is insufficiently guided ; and 
 remember that guides, who may be all that can be desired 
 for easy excursions, are not necessarily competent to under- 
 take the conduct of more ambitious enterprises. This 
 rule will, of course, apply equally to those who do, and 
 those who do not, secure the assistance of professional 
 guides. 
 
 4. Never climb any mountain if it is in bad condition. 
 This rule should prohibit all cases of climbing out of season, 
 or in bad weather.f It should also minimize the chance of 
 venturing upon avalanchy snow. 
 
 5. Turn back if bad weather overtakes you, especially if 
 there is any threatening of storm. The application of this 
 rule often hinges upon a question of judgment, but bear in 
 mind that it is your duty to turn back unless you can justify 
 
 * Alpine Journal^ vol. vii. p. 313. t See p. 30.
 
 136 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 both to yourself at the time, and to others subsequently, a 
 decision to the contrary.* If in doubt ', turn back. 
 
 6. Never climb with less than three on a rope. 
 
 7. Use the best rope, f and make sure, by frequent 
 inspection, that it is in good condition. 
 
 8. Put the rope on as soon as you reach the lower limit 
 of the ne've', or sooner, should you meet with difficulty. 
 
 9. Keep the rope taut, but never jerk it. 
 
 10. Avoid passing under cornices, avalanche tracks, and 
 seracs ; and avoid all couloirs known to be raked, or 
 obviously raked, by falling stones. If the accomplishment 
 of some ascent should hinge upon making some short 
 passage involving risk from one or other of these sources, 
 the question must be debated, and the expedition only 
 persisted in if deemed justifiable after due deliberation. 
 
 11. Refrain from venturing upon any rock mountain if 
 more than one other party is likely to- be climbing it on the 
 same day4 
 
 12. Never, by want of care, dislodge, either with hand, 
 or foot, or with the rope, a single loose stone which could 
 by any possibility injure any one below. 
 
 13. In all places where there is especial danger of a 
 slip, or where a slip would be necessarily disastrous, only 
 one member of a party should move at a time. The rest 
 must anchor themselves as well as possible, and keep 
 the rope taut, paying it in or out, and hitching it when 
 practicable round some firm projection. 
 
 14. Be sufficiently clad, and take with you on the moun- 
 tains a supply of extra clothing suitable to the expedition in 
 contemplation. 
 
 15. Take sufficient provisions, and consider the chances 
 of being benighted. 
 
 * See p. 57. t See p. 176. % See p. 83.
 
 GUIDEBOOKS AND MAPS. 137 
 
 16. Start early, and allow a considerable margin of day- 
 light beyond the time expected to be taken. 
 
 17. Look upon every delay as important, and never 
 waste time. 
 
 1 8. Always be careful. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 GUIDE-BOOKS, MAPS, AND ALPINE LITERATURE. 
 GUIDE-BOOKS. 
 
 IT would not be easy to say how many general guide-books 
 to Switzerland exist. Their name is legion, and their 
 number is ever on the increase ; so I shall content myself 
 with referring to three. 
 
 The two great rival guide-books published in English are 
 " Murray " and " Baedeker," and both are very good. 
 Murray devotes considerably more space to the history and 
 institutions of the various localities, to out-of-the-way routes 
 and by-ways, and to matters more purely Alpine; while 
 Baedeker " is particularly strong as regards the fre- 
 quented tourists' roads and paths," and is " unsurpassed for 
 minute practical details," "so that a prudent traveller 
 wishing really to study the country should provide himself 
 with both." * 
 
 Murray's Handbook was published first in 1838 ; and, 
 while it always aimed at setting and maintaining a high 
 standard of excellence, the i6th edition (1879), the first 
 published in two volumes, was a decided advance on those 
 which preceded it; and the i8th (1891) again makes con- 
 * Coolidge, "Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books," p. 77.
 
 138 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 siderable strides under the editorship of the Rev. W. A. B. 
 Coolidge, a gentleman whose knowledge of the Alps is 
 probably unique. 
 
 Baedeker was, when first published, in 1844, avowedly 
 founded on Murray ; but the obligation, though doubtless 
 of great importance in the early editions, has become less 
 and less conspicuous in the later ones, each publisher 
 apparently aiming at a different ideal. Baedeker gradually 
 outstripped Murray in popularity; but the latter is now 
 once more coming to the front. The fact that Baedeker 
 is not increased in bulk by the admission of advertise- 
 ments, has no doubt often led travellers to select it in 
 preference to its rival ; but the device of dividing the 
 book into two volumes has enabled Murray to make his 
 guide more handy for the pocket, in spite of sixty pages of 
 advertisements. The latest edition of Baedeker (the i4th) 
 was issued in 1891. 
 
 There would be no occasion to name any other general 
 guide-book to Switzerland, were it not for the existence of 
 a very excellent one which comes under quite a different 
 category. Murray is published at los. and Baedeker at 8*., 
 whereas " Paterson's Guide to Switzerland," originally issued 
 at is. but now (yth edition, 1892) at is. 6d., is handy and 
 portable, and exceedingly good for the money. 
 
 Of guide-books written especially for mountaineers, the 
 " Alpine Guide," by the late Mr. John Ball, the first pre- 
 sident of the Alpine Club, and originally published in three 
 volumes (1863, 1864, and 1868) is the only book of its 
 kind. It possesses the great advantage of being a book 
 which is always pleasant to read; and from its pages a 
 student can very easily obtain a good idea both of the early 
 history of modern mountaineering and of the general topo- 
 graphy of the Alps. The Alpine Club has undertaken to
 
 GUIDE-BOOKS AND MAPS. 139 
 
 issue a revised edition of this admirable work, and it is to 
 be hoped that this will prove worthy both of the book and 
 of the Club. 
 
 In 1 88 1, Mr. W. M. Conway published a local mountain- 
 eering guide-book which he called " The Zermatt Pocket- 
 Book;" and so useful did this prove to be, that several 
 pocket guide-books of the same class have since appeared. 
 They are books which interest mountaineers, and moun- 
 taineers only ; noting, in a definite order, every peak and 
 every pass on each successive ridge, and giving concise 
 information as to all routes followed up to the date of 
 publication. The Zermatt Pocket-Book went out of print, but 
 it has reappeared, enlarged and brought up to date, in two 
 volumes (the " Central " and " Eastern " Pennine Alps). 
 Guide-books of this class will probably, in time, be written 
 on each of the important districts of the Alps ; and seven 
 have already been published by T. Fisher Unwin, under 
 the title of " Conway and Coolidge's Climbers' Guides " * ', 
 "The Central Pennine Alps," by W. M. Conway (1890); 
 "The Eastern Pennine Alps," by W. M. Conway (1891); 
 "The Lepontine Alps/' by W. M. Conway and W. A. B. 
 Coolidge (1892); "The Central Alps of Dauphiny," by 
 W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Perrin (1892); 
 "The Chain of Mont Blanc," by Louis Kurz (1892) ; " The 
 Mountains of Cogne," by George Yeld and W. A. B. 
 Coolidge (1893); "The Adula Alps of the Lepontine 
 Range," by W. A. B. Coolidge (1893). 
 
 MAPS. 
 
 The maps of the higher Alps used by mountaineers are 
 principally those published by the Governments in whose 
 territories the mountains lie. These maps are by no means 
 * Price IOJ. each.
 
 140 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 of equal merit, but they are the best that can be got, and 
 some of them leave nothing to be desired. 
 
 The Swiss Government issues two maps, the " Dufour " 
 on a scale of -J-QOTFOO ( J i m ^ e to an i ncn )> and the 
 " Siegfried " which, so far as the Alps are concerned, is on 
 a scale of - 6 -orciw The l atter is the newer map, and is 
 almost perfect, but both deserve to be very highly praised. 
 Beyond the frontier General Dufour's map is not to be 
 trusted ; and the Siegfried map stops at the boundary line. 
 
 The Italian Government also publishes two maps on 
 similar scales ( 100 | 000 and 5^0-5). The latter should be 
 chosen by those who propose to visit the Italian Alps. 
 
 For the Austrian mountains, the best map is that 
 
 published by the Austrian Government on a scale of 
 i 
 
 7 5.000' 
 
 The French Alps stand somewhat differently. The 
 Government map (g-o7Vo~o) ' s tne one which must be chosen 
 by wanderers among the Maritime Alps, or in any out-of- 
 the-way district; but, for the two great groups of French 
 mountains there are special maps which are superior. 
 
 The Mont Blanc Massif is important in the history of 
 Alpine chartography, and is especially interesting to 
 Englishmen, as it was the late Professor Forbes who drew 
 the first tolerable map of the chain, and the late Mr. A. 
 Adams-Reilly, who, in 1865, completed the work which 
 Forbes had begun, and published a most artistic, and, 
 considering the time and means at his disposal, a most 
 accurate map of the district. This beautiful little map 
 (scale so.oou") is, unfortunately, no longer obtainable, as it 
 has been allowed to fall out of print ; the reason no doubt 
 being that Mieulet's map of the Massif of Mont Blanc was 
 published in the same year (1865) by the French War 
 Office, and is, on the whole, better. This map has the
 
 GUIDE-BOOKS AND MAPS. 141 
 
 advantage of being on a larger scale (^orgTo)* but it does 
 not include that portion of the chain which is in Swiss 
 territory, nor quite the whole of the western end. This is 
 the map most used by mountaineers, and, though inaccurate 
 in places, it is the best obtainable. Another map of the 
 same district by the French Architect, Viollet-le-Duc, is 
 very pretty to look at, but very far from reliable. The 
 scale is .jo-ciTo' A new map of the chain, just completed 
 by M. Imfeld, has been highly praised by competent 
 authorities, and it is to be hoped that it will soon be 
 published. 
 
 The Central Alps of Dauphins' have been mapped by 
 their indefatigable lover, Mr. H. Duhamel, and a corrected 
 edition of this map has been published in England by Fisher 
 Unwin to range with the series of " Climbers' Guides." It 
 forms a small atlas not larger than a leather pocket-book, 
 and this arrangement, together with the fact that the sec- 
 tional maps overlap one another, renders it, in spite of its 
 small scale (Yoo!o~oo~) one f ^ ie ^ est ma P s hitherto offered 
 to the mountaineering fraternity. 
 
 Other special districts in the Austrian and Italian Alps 
 have been made the subject of special maps; but, with the 
 exception of Mr. Reilly's map of the Italian Valleys of the 
 Pennine Alps (scale -gorWo)' an( * Mr- Yeld's map of the 
 Eastern Graians (oY7o^o)>* tnev do not > so ^ ar as * know, 
 exceed in merit the various Government maps already 
 alluded to. 
 
 Finally, " The Alpine Club Map of Switzerland" must be 
 alluded to. It was originally published in four sheets on a 
 
 * This map, which is founded on the Italian Government Map, 
 originally appeared in the Alpine Journal for May, 1886 (vol. xii. p. 
 509). A corrected edition, a copy of which accompanies the Climbers' 
 Guide to "The Mountains of Cogne," appeared first in the Alpine 
 Journal Tor May, 1893 (vol. xvi. p. 400.
 
 142 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 scale of 2 s o* 00 (1874). An enlarged map in eight sheets 
 ( sca l e faoiooo) was i ssue d in 1881, under the title of "The 
 Enlarged Alpine Club Map of the Swiss and Italian Alps." 
 These maps give a good general idea of a large portion of 
 the great chain of the Alps, but the scale is too small, and 
 they are not of much real service to mountaineers. 
 
 ALPINE LITERATURE. 
 
 A few words on the literature of mountaineering may 
 prove acceptable to those who, with newly awakened 
 interest in the mountains, are as yet unaware of the ex- 
 istence of an extensive and fascinating Alpine literature. 
 Ten or fifteen years ago there was a good deal of difficulty 
 in finding those mountaineering books which were out of 
 print. Conditions are altered now, and volumes, which had 
 to be sought for here and there, are collected by several 
 booksellers. They are consequently more easily procurable, 
 if at more " appreciative " prices ; and any one can easily 
 obtain a bookseller's catalogue which will give an idea both 
 of the extent of Alpine literature and the cost of becoming 
 a collector. 
 
 A useful list of Alpine books is to be found in Murray's 
 Handbook for Switzerland,* and a " fairly complete Alpine 
 bibliography" in Mr. Coolidge's book on "Swiss Travel and 
 Swiss Guide-Books." f 
 
 I shall here content myself with giving a list of twenty 
 books ; confining myself to English authors only, and not 
 naming more than one book by any one writer. Some of 
 these books are easily obtained, while others are rarely 
 procurable, even at the fancy prices they always command ; 
 
 * i8th edition, p. 39. t Appendix, B ; 241 numbers.
 
 GUIDE-BOOKS AND MAPS. 143 
 
 but the twenty would form a very fine nucleus upon which 
 to build an Alpine library. 
 
 1. The Alpine Journal^ by members of the Alpine Club. 
 1 6. vols. London Longmans, 1863-1893. Continued 
 quarterly. 
 
 2. Badminton Library volume on " Mountaineering," by 
 C. T. Dent and seven other members of the Alpine Club. 
 Longmans, 1892. 
 
 3. Bonney, T. G., " Outline Sketches in the High Alps 
 of DauphineV' London, Longmans, 1865. 
 
 4. Coleman, E. T., "Scenes from the Snow Fields." 
 London, Longmans, 1859. 
 
 5. Coolidge, W. A. B., "Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide- 
 Books." London, Longmans, 1889. 
 
 6. Cunningham, C. D., and Abney, W. de W., "The 
 Pioneers of the Alps." London, Sampson Low, 1887 ; 2nd 
 edition, (altered), 1888. 
 
 7. Dent, C. T., "Above the Snow Line." London, 
 Longmans, 1885. 
 
 8. Forbes, Jas. D., " Travels through the Alps of Savoy, 
 and other parts of the Pennine Chain." Edinburgh 
 and London, Black, 1843. 
 
 9. Freshfield, D. W., "Italian Alps." London, Long- 
 mans, 1875. 
 
 10. George, Rev. H. B., " The Oberland and its Glaciers, 
 Explored and Illustrated with Ice-Axe and Camera." Lon- 
 don, Bennett, 1866. 
 
 11. Gilbert, J., and Churchill, G. C., "The Dolomite 
 Mountains." London, Longmans, 1864. 
 
 1 2. Hinchcliff, T. W., " Summer Months among the Alps." 
 London, Longmans, 1857. 
 
 13. King, Rev. S. W., "The Italian Valleys of the 
 Pennine Chain." London, Murray, 1858.
 
 144 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 14. Moore, A. W., "The Alps in 1864." Privately 
 printed in 1867. 
 
 15. "Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers," by members of the 
 Alpine Club. 2 series, 3 vols. London, Longmans, 1859, 
 and 1862. 
 
 1 6. Smith, Albert, " The Story of Mont Blanc." Lon- 
 don, Bogue, 1853. 
 
 17. Stephen, Leslie, "The Playground of Europe." 
 London, Longmans, 1871. 
 
 18. Tyndall, John, "Hours of Exercise in the Alps." 
 London, Longmans, 1871. 
 
 19. Whymper, Edward, " Scrambles amongst the Alps." 
 London, Murray, 1871; a second edition (altered), "The 
 Ascent of the Matterhorn," do., 1880. 
 
 20. Wills, Alfred, " Wanderings among the High Alps," 
 London, Bentley, 1856. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 
 
 As the pursuit of mountaineering is occasionally attended 
 by serious, and frequently by slight, deviations from health, 
 a chapter with the above heading may, perhaps naturally, 
 be expected in a book of this description. It is obviously 
 important that all climbers should know how to deal with 
 frost-bite, snow-blindness, and minor accidents ; and, as 
 such matters as sun-burn and blistered feet, though in 
 themselves trivial, may waste time and cause extreme dis- 
 comfort, a little knowledge as to their prevention and 
 treatment is desirable.
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. -45 
 
 MOUNTAIN SICKNESS. 
 
 This name embraces a variety of symptoms which differ 
 somewhat in different individuals, but some of them are 
 familiar enough to a very large proportion of mountaineers. 
 The condition is especially liable to be developed in the 
 course of the first long mountaineering expedition of each 
 year, and it is popularly supposed to be due to the rarity of 
 the air. There is no doubt that this is a factor not to be 
 lost sight of, and the diminution of atmospheric pressure at 
 heights of twelve and fifteen thousand feet above the sea 
 must produce considerable effects ; still, it may be said that, 
 so far as the Alps are concerned, the liability to mountain 
 sickness is purely a question of training. 
 
 The first symptom of this complaint, which almost 
 invariably develops during the ascent, is a feeling of faintness 
 and breathlessness, accompanied probably by some palpita- 
 tion of the heart and throbbing of the arteries, so that 
 slow pace, with frequent halts, becomes necessary. Severe 
 headache and intense nausea may shortly supervene, and 
 the attack may terminate in vomiting and complete 
 prostration. 
 
 The older writers on mountain ascents used to describe 
 symptoms of a far more alarming nature; and bleeding 
 from the nose, mouth, and ears would appear to have been 
 occurrences by no means rare. We can hardly suppose 
 that all these phenomena were, like the dragons so care- 
 fully described and depicted by Scheuchzer,* mere illusions ; 
 but these incidents are, nowadays, not more common 
 on the mountains than they are upon the plains, and no 
 more need be said about them. 
 
 * "Itinera Alpina," pp. 366 to 397.
 
 146 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Individuals differ greatly in their liability to mountain 
 sickness, some enjoying almost perfect immunity, whilst 
 others never, in spite of careful training, get through the 
 first week of a climbing season without a severe attack. It 
 is very unusual for any one to suffer more than once in 
 one season ; and, if an attack does not yield to frequent 
 halts, it can almost always be cured by turning round and 
 descending. Various forms of treatment have been advo- 
 cated, based upon various theories of causation, and perhaps 
 the most curious is one recommended a few years ago by 
 a learned professor (I wish I could give the reference) who, 
 attributing the symptoms to ansemia of the brain, recom- 
 mended mountaineers who suffered thus to stand upon 
 their heads. This gentleman had put his theory into 
 practice upon the slopes of Mont Blanc : he would have 
 found more difficulty in doing so on many of the steeper 
 peaks. 
 
 SNOW-BLINDNESS. 
 
 The term snow-blindness refers to two separate con* 
 ditions. (i) An acute inflammation of the surface of the 
 eyes, and (2) a loss of sight dependent upon inflammatory 
 changes in the deeper parts. The two may exist separately 
 or may be combined in varying degrees. In the affection, 
 as commonly met with, the superficial inflammation is the 
 predominating element. The symptoms are the following : 
 pain in the eyes with a feeling of grit or sand under the 
 lids ; great intolerance of light ; and varying degrees of 
 imperfection of vision. These symptoms are associated 
 with a bloodshot state of the eyes, perhaps some gluing 
 together of the lids, and copious flow of tears. If nothing 
 is done, the condition will probably last for some days, and
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 147 
 
 may result in defective sight and weakness of the eyes, 
 which only disappear after some weeks or months. I am 
 not aware that any permanent blindness has ever resulted. 
 
 Snow-blindness is due to the over-stimulating action of 
 the sun's rays when reflected from the surface of the snow. 
 The effect is much more intense in summer than in winter, 
 is greatly aggravated by freshly fallen snow, and is rarely 
 produced except at considerable elevations. Individuals 
 differ greatly in their susceptibility to this condition, and 
 practice does not seem to confer protection upon those 
 who are easily affected. I have seen one of the oldest 
 and best of Alpine guides laid up for three or four days 
 from having made one short excursion without coloured 
 glasses, and again mere beginners who were able to travel 
 over glacier passes, sprinkled with fresh snow, without 
 suffering more than slight discomfort either at the time 
 or afterwards. The number of people who are liable 
 to the condition is, however, much greater than that of 
 their more fortunate confreres ; and it is right for every one 
 to take precautionary measures. 
 
 Snow-blindness may be prevented by protecting the eyes 
 by means of coloured spectacles or goggles.* Green, blue, 
 and neutral tint are the colours most generally used, and the 
 last-named colour is by far the best. The glasses should 
 be worn on the snows whenever the sun is shining, and it 
 is well to remember that the presence of fog or mist by no 
 means obviates the necessity for wearing them, unless it is 
 thick enough to prevent the sunshine from diffusing through. 
 Those climbers who are especially susceptible to this, or 
 to other inflamed conditions of the eyes, are also advised not 
 to remove their glasses even when climbing rocks at any 
 considerable elevation. 
 
 * Seep. 185.
 
 I 4 8 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 If by any chance the glasses get lost or mislaid, it is 
 always worth while to paint the lower eyelids and upper 
 part of the cheeks with any dark-coloured pigment. Lamp- 
 black can often be improvised by collecting the smoke 
 from wax-matches on the lantern windows or on a watch 
 glass, and transferring it to the face with the finger. Burnt 
 cork would answer the purpose. If a glass is broken, an 
 efficient substitute is a piece of card or wood in which a fine 
 horizontal slit is cut. * 
 
 If the affection has actually become developed, active 
 measures must be taken, and in severe cases a darkened 
 room will be needful. Generally, however, the condition 
 subsides very rapidly under appropriate treatment. This 
 consists in the introduction beneath the lids, as often as 
 the pain demands it, of a few drops of a solution of cocaine, 
 which may be advantageously combined with some as- 
 tringent. The following is a good prescription, Hydro- 
 chlorate of cocaine, 1 2 grains ; chloride of zinc, \ grain ; 
 water, ounce. In order to effectively apply this solution, 
 the eyes should be shut, the tears wiped away, and the 
 head thrown well back. A small quantity of the fluid may 
 now be dropped into the hollows on each side of the nose. 
 As soon as the eyes are opened, the fluid will gain entrance, 
 and a momentary smart will be quickly followed by great 
 relief. 
 
 If no cocaine is procurable, a solution of lunar caustic 
 or sulphate of copper (one grain of either to two table- 
 spoonfuls of water) may be used if obtainable ; and this 
 treatment may be associated with a darkened room and 
 cold-water compresses applied to the eyes, the two last- 
 named measures being applicable even in a hut. 
 
 * " Mountaineering," (Badminton Library), p. 57.
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 149 
 
 SUN-BURN. 
 
 Sun-burn is caused by, and occurs under, the same con- 
 ditions as snow-blindness. Those persons most susceptible 
 to the one affection are, however, not necessarily particularly 
 subject to the other. The condition is one which may 
 involve much pain and discomfort, and it is astonishing 
 how much needless suffering is experienced by novices 
 from want of a little knowledge on this subject. A couple 
 of pedestrians are persuaded to leave the mule-paths and 
 to cross the Strahleck or the Col du Ge'ant. Preparations 
 are made with some elaboration: ice-axes, gaiters, and 
 goggles are purchased, guides chartered and provisions 
 ordered; but no one thinks much about sun-burn. The 
 excursion is made on a brilliant day, and the neVe 7 is 
 perhaps found to be covered with a sprinkling of fresh 
 snow. The climbers feel their cheeks burning a little 
 during the day, but in the evening the pain becomes acute 
 sufficient very likely to keep them awake most of the night ; 
 and next morning the unfortunate sufferers find themselves 
 objects of both pity and repulsion, with their faces swollen 
 and blistered to an almost incredible degree. Those who 
 engage in rowing and sailing know something about sun- 
 burn, but the effect of a powerful sun reflected from the 
 surface of the high snows, is much stronger than where 
 water is concerned. Fair people suffer more than dark 
 ones, and those whose faces are unprotected by mous- 
 tache or beard more than those who do not shave. If 
 climbing is persisted in, a certain degree of toleration is, 
 ere long, acquired, and the guides soon get a skin 
 which is proof against the effects of the sun. Practised 
 amateurs, though rarely acquiring the complete immunity
 
 150 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 enjoyed by well-seasoned guides, are careful about sun-burn, 
 and each has his specific remedy which is a sure and 
 certain preventative or cure. Ointments and powders 
 are the two sheet-anchors, and while " Toilet Lanoline " 
 is one of the best ointments that can be used, a bland 
 dusting-powder made by Curtis of Baker St., and sold 
 under the name of " Pasma " is one of the best powders, 
 and is, for irritable skins, much to be preferred to ordinary 
 violet or starch powder.* 
 
 Much may be done in the way of prevention, but it may 
 be well to consider, first of all, what treatment is best if the 
 mischief is already done. Different devices are found to 
 suit different skins, but a traveller who has completed an 
 Alpine expedition, without taking any precautions whatever, 
 may be advised to bathe his face with the hottest water 
 he can bear before retiring to bed, to dry it carefully, and 
 then to dredge it well with " pasrha ; " or, if this is not 
 at hand, with fuller's earth, violet powder, or flour ; another 
 plan is to apply zinc ointment freely. Great relief is 
 quickly experienced and sleep procured, while the inflam- 
 mation, instead of proceeding to the formation of angry 
 blisters, quickly declines. 
 
 It is always well for any one who burns easily to carry 
 out some such treatment after a day upon the snows, but 
 the real necessity for them should be obviated by the 
 adoption of proper precautionary measures. In the first 
 place it is wise for those with fair complexions to refrain 
 from washing the face before starting in the early morning. 
 The feeling of discomfort arising from neglected ablutions 
 soon wears off, and the precaution is one worth taking. 
 When the higher snows are reached, two or three plans may 
 be adopted. Most ladies, and some men, put on masks or 
 * See List of Addresses, p. 189.
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 151 
 
 veils; others smear their faces with vaseline, cold cream, 
 or toilet lanoline ; some again merely dust powder on their 
 faces whenever they stop for a meal (it adheres to any part 
 that is beginning to burn) ; while others use powder super- 
 imposed on grease. The most delicate and easily burned 
 of all skins may be perfectly protected by smearing it with 
 a stiff white paste made according to the following formula : 
 R. zinci oxidi, grs. 160; ess. rosae alb., q. s. ; cerse alb., 
 grs. 80 ; vaselini pur., ad. 51! ; M. ft. ung. 
 
 The lips deserve a word of special mention. They often 
 get chapped and cracked, and some ointment is almost 
 needful to keep them moist and pliable. Good lip-salve 
 is not procurable everywhere, but it can be obtained from 
 Curtis and from many other good chemists. It is the best 
 application for the purpose; and, as a little goes a long 
 way, it may conveniently be carried in the small " impression 
 boxes " used for impressions of seals, and obtainable from 
 the heraldic stationers. 
 
 FROST-BITE. 
 
 Frost-bite means the local freezing of a part of the body. 
 The condition is one which occurs in the extremities, and, 
 while the nose and the ears have often been attacked, it is 
 the fingers and the toes which mountaineers have to be 
 especially careful about. 
 
 Three degrees of frost-bite are recognized by surgeons, and 
 to explain these the fingers may be taken as examples. 
 
 i. The tips of the fingers gradually lose the feeling of 
 discomfort and cold which has been experienced, and 
 become numb and almost devoid of sensation. They may 
 be pallid or slightly livid. This is a condition which most 
 people have experienced in England on frosty days, and the
 
 152 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 sharp tingling pain which accompanies returning sensation 
 is consequently familiar to almost every one. Without 
 passing beyond this first degree, the condition may go 
 much further than is common at home, and in this case 
 the pain accompanying reaction is more severe and more 
 prolonged. 
 
 2. In the second degree of frost-bite the skin is, in 
 parts, quite destroyed, and, in the course of a day or two, it 
 rises in blisters containing blood-stained fluid ; subsequently 
 it peels off, leaving a raw surface beneath. This condition 
 may result in perfect recovery or in more or less permanent 
 injury. 
 
 3. The third degree of frost-bite is that in which not 
 only the skin, but the whole of the subjacent flesh, and even 
 the bone, is quite disorganized and destroyed : that is to 
 say, the third degree of frost-bite corresponds to what is 
 called mortification or gangrene. More might be said on 
 this subject ; but, as it is a state of affairs which urgently 
 calls for the advice and assistance of a surgeon, I need not 
 dilate upon it further. 
 
 All three degrees of frost-bite may exist together in 
 different parts of the same hand, and, during the first day or 
 two, it may be quite impossible to determine what degree 
 will be reached, or how much of the hand will be involved. 
 
 A mild degree of frost-bite has been experienced by most 
 Alpine climbers, but it is usually recognized whilst on the 
 mountain, and a brisk rubbing with snow generally restores 
 the circulation. In bad weather, when an hour or two of 
 difficult rock-climbing is still necessary to complete the 
 descent, the fingers are very likely to be frost-bitten; for 
 there is of necessity continuous exposure, coupled with hard 
 work for the hands, at a time when their lowered vitality 
 renders them unfit to resist the effects of local injury. A
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 153 
 
 night spent out in some exposed situation is perhaps the 
 commonest cause of frost-bitten toes. It is important 
 to know that a low temperature is by no means the sole 
 cause of frost-bite, and one or more of the following factors 
 will usually be found associated with it. 
 
 1. Feeble health. This should, while it lasts, be regarded 
 as a bar to mountaineering ; * and only those of sound con- 
 stitution should ever undertake long or arduous excursions. 
 
 2. Insufficient clothing. In this connection it should not 
 be forgotten that an extra jersey or cardigan jacket, worn 
 on the body, may prevent frost-bite of the fingers and toes. 
 
 3. Wind. This is a most powerful factor in producing 
 frost-bite ; and, in intense cold, every effort should be made 
 to get to leeward. 
 
 4. Damp and wet. The importance of keeping dry 
 cannot be over-estimated. Wet gloves are worse than no 
 gloves when it is freezing ; and, if benighted, wet stockings 
 as well as boots should be removed.! 
 
 5. Pressure and local injury. The pressure of tight or 
 frozen boots interferes with the circulation to the toes, and 
 so becomes important ; while, in rock-climbing, the scratches 
 and bruises, to which the hands are subjected, lower the 
 vital powers of resistance. 
 
 The treatment of frost-bite may resolve itself into very 
 simple measures which produce the desired result in a very 
 few minutes, or may be a most serious and tedious process, 
 demanding constant care and attention extending over 
 weeks or months. In all but the slighter varieties a 
 surgeon's advice must be, if possible, obtained; but, in 
 every case, treatment should be commenced as soon as 
 possible, and no time lost in waiting for a doctor to be 
 found. 
 
 * See p. 25. t See p. 49.
 
 154 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Friction with snow is the time-honoured and established 
 remedy, and, on the mountain, it is readily had recourse to. 
 In the case of the fingers, an equally good plan is to rub 
 them through the hair, or on the clothes, if these are dry. 
 The friction must be prolonged, but not too energetic. At 
 an hotel snow is probably not readily procured, but friction 
 may be applied with sponges or flannel dipped in cold 
 water. After rubbing for some time, the fingers should be 
 wrapped in cotton wool, or, failing this, in flannel. Another 
 method of treatment, but not nearly so good, is to immerse 
 the frozen parts in very cold water, the temperature of 
 which is very gradually raised to slightly tepid (not quite 
 cold), and to leave them soaking for hours at a time. In 
 some districts the guides place great reliance on prolonged 
 soaking in white wine, while in others great benefit is 
 believed to be obtainable from dipping the frozen parts into 
 slightly warm glue. Neither plan has much to recommend 
 it from a scientific point of view. Blisters may be pricked, 
 and the contents pressed out. For the rest, the diet should 
 be light, and alcohol should, if the frost-bite is more than 
 very slight, be altogether avoided. Anything likely to pro- 
 duce a too rapid reaction should be carefully abstained 
 from, as this will most likely be accompanied by inflam- 
 mation and perhaps by mortification. Avoid using -warm 
 water : avoid holding the part to the fire : avoid the use of 
 warmed flannel or wool : avoid all pressure, and too energetic 
 friction ; and, if bandages are used to keep the wool in place, 
 let them be very loosely applied.
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 155 
 
 EXHAUSTION. 
 
 A member of a mountaineering party may, from physical 
 infirmity, from want of training, from temporary indisposi- 
 tion, or from other causes, arrive at his hotel in a state of 
 great exhaustion. Such a person should be looked on, for 
 the time being, as an invalid, should be put to bed, and 
 fed on small quantities of easily digestible food. After a 
 good night's rest he will probably be able to resume an 
 ordinary diet ; but he is, at first, quite unable to digest a 
 heavy meal, and a plate of soup, followed by a tiny bit of 
 chicken, or by some dry biscuits and a glass of champagne, 
 will form a suitable repast. Biscuits, and some milk and 
 soda water, may be placed by the bedside, so that he can 
 help himself if awake during the night. 
 
 Exhaustion, whilst still on the mountains, must be met 
 by frequent short halts, and such assistance as can be 
 rendered. Small quantities of food, and especially pre- 
 parations of kola,* will be of service, but stimulants should 
 only be resorted to if there is a good prospect of reaching 
 some shelter in a reasonably short time, or at any rate 
 before nightfall. 
 
 RELIEF EXPEDITIONS, EXPOSURE, ACCIDENTS. 
 
 Mountaineers may at times be called upon to join 
 expeditions sent out for the purpose of discovering, and if 
 need be relieving, some party of climbers whose return to 
 their hotel has been unduly delayed. Many search expedi- 
 tions have been prematurely and somewhat officiously 
 organized, and the fact of a party failing to return by night- 
 * See pp. 73, 188.
 
 156 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 fall is not, in itself, sufficient justification for the formation 
 of one. If, however, the party were a weak one, the 
 weather exceptionally bad, or the peak well known to 
 be dangerous or in bad condition, the matter is some- 
 what different, and a caravan consisting largely of guides 
 may perhaps be despatched ; while in cases where there is 
 positive ground for fearing that some mishap has occurred, 
 there need be no doubt as to the proper course to pursue. 
 No amateur should join such an expedition unless he is 
 himself a competent mountaineer and able to dispense with 
 assistance of every kind : otherwise he will be of more 
 hindrance than service. Subject, however, to these limita- 
 tions, no climber will fail to offer his services, if he thinks 
 that his presence can be of any use. 
 
 An expedition of this kind may prove, after all, to be 
 uncalled for, or it may find- that there is no longer any help 
 to be rendered ; but it should be well supplied with extra 
 ropes and other facilities for carrying an injured person, 
 with food, and with first-rate brandy ; and it should be ready 
 to do anything that may be required of it. There is 
 not room, without unduly extending this section, for 
 special hints which must vary so much in different circum- 
 stances, but the possibility of mistaking apparent for actual 
 death must be alluded to, as a man may be apparently frozen 
 without being actually dead. Any one can feel whether the 
 pulse is beating, and, if it is not, the heart-beat may be felt 
 or listened for. As long as there is any evidence whatever 
 of life, every effort should be made to restore animation, 
 and gentle but continuous friction of the limbs towards the 
 trunk is of use in restoring the circulation. The main effort 
 may possibly have to be concentrated on performing artificial 
 respiration. This may be done by following the subjoined 
 directions. Lay the patient flat upon his back, with his
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 
 
 157 
 
 shoulders slightly raised on a roll of clothing, so as to allow 
 the head to hang well back. Kneel, with the patient's 
 head between your knees ; and, grasping the arms just 
 above the elbows, draw them upwards, with a slight outward 
 inclination, so as to almost meet above the head; then, 
 after a pause of about two seconds, bring them down again 
 to the sides of the chest, against which they should be 
 firmly pressed. After a pause of three or four seconds 
 the process should be repeated, and it may be needful 
 to persevere with it for an hour or more. 
 
 Cuts, bruises, sprains, or fractures, may possibly have to 
 be dealt with in a temporary manner ; and, while axes and 
 ropes may, in one way or another, be utilised for splints or 
 litters, handkerchiefs, neckties, and boot-laces, may serve the 
 purpose of bandages. A broken or dislocated limb cannot 
 be used, and a sprained one ought not to be, so that in any 
 accident involving an 
 injury to a limb, it is 
 safest to try and get the 
 sufferer home without 
 permitting him to use 
 the injured member. 
 In all such cases a sur- 
 geon's advice should be 
 obtained as soon as 
 possible; and more ex- 
 plicit directions as to the 
 management of broken 
 limbs would hardly be Flg> r> 
 
 of service here. Every one should know, however, how to 
 arrest haemorrhage from a cut, and it is pitiful to think what 
 simple measures would have saved the life of poor Peter 
 Egger, who perished from loss of blood below the Bergli
 
 158 
 
 MO UNTA1NEERING. 
 
 hut, in 1881.* If the bleeding be from a cut on the head 
 or on the body it can often be stopped by the application of 
 
 ice ; or, if this fails, by 
 direct pressure with 
 the finger or thumb 
 upon the bleeding 
 point, a means by 
 which it is almost 
 always possible to stop 
 it. In the case of a 
 limb the same methods 
 are available, but it is 
 often easier to apply 
 pressure to the artery 
 between the bleeding 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 point and the heart. If a handkerchief be tied loosely 
 round the thigh, or round the arm above the elbow, and 
 
 tightened by twisting it with a 
 stick, pocket-knife, or pencil- 
 case, (Figs, i and 2) it will 
 quickly arrest bleeding from any 
 point beyond. There is no 
 object in continuing the twisting 
 after the bleeding has ceased, 
 but the requisite amount of pres- 
 sure must be maintained by 
 fixing the tourniquet in some 
 way. Bleeding from the hand 
 or forearm may also be stopped 
 by bending the elbow strongly 
 and keeping it in position with 
 which binds the wrist tightly to the 
 Alpine Journal^ vol. x. p. 421. 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 a handkerchief
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 159 
 
 shoulder (Fig. 3). This plan acts by making a kink in 
 the artery at the elbow. 
 
 SPRAINS. 
 
 A mountaineer may twist a knee or sprain an ankle or 
 wrist. These accidents are not so common in climbing as 
 might be expected, but they sometimes occur. Mr. Dent 
 makes a very pertinent remark in the Badminton volume 
 on " Mountaineering," * to the effect that " a man will 
 never sprain his ankle when he expects that he may do so 
 at any moment." The fact is not sufficiently known that 
 when the muscles are on the alert a sprain is most unlikely ; 
 and that, consequently, steep slopes of loose boulders may 
 be rapidly descended with very little fear of this mishap. 
 On a mountain path though, or in any other situation where 
 the ground is so easy as to allow the attention to wander, a 
 false step may easily eventuate in a sprain, and a few words 
 on sprains may consequently be of use. 
 
 The word " sprain," unlike " fracture " or " dislocation," 
 is a word with a very indefinite meaning. The two latter 
 terms refer to distinct injuries, but a sprain may mean any- 
 thing from a slight twist, accompanied by no structural 
 damage worth naming, to a severe injury involving the 
 laceration of nerve fibres, blood vessels, muscles, and 
 ligaments. One can hardly wonder, therefore, that, while 
 some sprains are well in a couple of days, others require 
 prolonged rest and treatment which may extend over several 
 weeks. It is often impossible, even for a surgeon, to tell, 
 at first, what the exact degree of the injury is, and it is 
 consequently always wise to treat each sprain, at the outset, 
 as if it were one of some severity. If it is found that, in 
 * Page 98.
 
 160 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 the course of two or three days, the joint is practically well, 
 it may safely be surmised that no very great damage has 
 been done ; but, whatever the nature of the injury, much time 
 will be gained by appropriate treatment resorted to without 
 delay. 
 
 The first point with regard to the treatment of any 
 sprained joint is not to move it. If the accident occurs far 
 from home it may be necessary to make use of the limb ; 
 but if near at hand, no attempt at walking or hobbling 
 should be made. The victim should allow himself to be 
 carried or otherwise helped indoors, and his garments 
 should be removed with the greatest care, so as not to 
 move the injured part. When the joint is free from clothes, 
 treatment should be commenced at once. " Every moment 
 lost makes a serious difference." * 
 
 The popular methods of treating sprains with arnica or 
 vinegar are quite ineffectual except in the case of such 
 slight injuries as would soon get well without any treatment 
 at all. The only agencies of any real value are rest, heat, 
 pressure, rubbing, and cold. Massage should rarely be 
 attempted except under the direction of a surgeon, and 
 pressure can, unfortunately, hardly be properly applied 
 by untrained hands. Cold is easy of application but is 
 powerful for harm as well as for good ; so that heat and rest 
 are the two agencies which may be most confidently recom- 
 mended. The ankle is the joint most likely to have suffered 
 injury, and, if it can be placed in hot water before there is 
 any swelling to speak of, a great point will have been gained. 
 The water should be as hot as can be borne, and fresh 
 should be gradually added, as it can be tolerated. After 
 about half an hour's soaking the limb may be taken out of 
 the water and gently dried. It may then be very gently 
 
 * " Sprains," by C. W. Mansell Moullin, M.D., F.R.C.S., p. 96.
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 161 
 
 rubbed for a few minutes from the toes towards the knee, 
 with a slight but firm stroking movement ; and afterwards 
 it should be packed in cotton-wool, lightly bandaged on, 
 and raised on a pillow, to which it should be tied with 
 handkerchiefs, so as to keep it elevated and prevent move- 
 ment when asleep. The hot-water treatment may be con- 
 tinued twice a day for two or three days, and, if there is 
 no medical opinion to be got as to the period when move- 
 ment may be attempted, the patient must feel his way by 
 very careful experiments, and only allow himself to use 
 the limb when he feels certain he can do so with impunity. 
 A really bad sprain will quite spoil a holiday, and, if there 
 is no marked improvement in the course of four or five 
 days, the best thing to do is to go home, keeping the joint 
 as much as possible at rest, and then to have it properly 
 attended to. 
 
 BLISTERS ON HANDS AND FEET. 
 
 Blisters on the hands are not among the common ills of 
 climbing; but they may result from step-cutting.* Their 
 treatment requires no special notice ; but gloves may prevent 
 them, or, at any rate, allow blistered hands to be used. 
 
 Blisters on the feet are a serious trouble, and may put 
 an end to all walking for the best part of a week. Several 
 precautions can be taken in the way of guarding against 
 them, and no amount of trouble should be considered ex- 
 cessive in the case of a person whose feet blister easily. The 
 first essential is to have thoroughly good thick stockings, 
 and absolutely comfortable boots. As an extra precaution, 
 socks or thin stockings may be worn under the thick ones, 
 or thick felt soles may be slipped into the boots, f These 
 * See p. no. t Seep. 170. 
 
 M
 
 162 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 measures will almost certainly prevent all blisters, but 
 two other popular preventatives are useful, and may be 
 employed advantageously, especially if the feet feel sore. 
 To rub the skin with spirit tends to harden it, and to 
 thoroughly soap the insides of the stockings lubricates them, 
 and so tends to minimize the effects of friction. 
 
 If blisters have developed, they may be pricked with 
 a large needle or with the point of a sharp knife, and 
 the fluid squeezed out. In the case of a large blister 
 on the sole or the heel, absolute rest for a few days is 
 necessary, but a small one may be covered with soap-plaster 
 spread on moleskin, and this may be applied over the 
 loose skin. If the skin is much torn, it should be carefully 
 cut away, and the plaster applied to the tender surface 
 beneath ; but in this case, rest is the proper course. Zinc 
 ointment can be applied locally, or chamois-lard (Gemse- 
 schmaltz) may be melted on with a~ candle. The last is 
 a plan much recommended by many of the guides : it 
 serves as a protection, but probably collodion brushed a 
 few times over the surface with a paint brush, so as to form 
 a good film, would do much better. When walking is 
 again contemplated, all of the above named precautions 
 should be adopted. 
 
 SORE HANDS AND FEET. 
 
 Rock-climbing often gives rise to cuts and bruises on 
 the hands. This is especially the case when the hands 
 are wet and the rocks sharp or of rough grain, and under 
 such conditions the fingers may become so painful as to 
 render another day of rock-climbing almost impossible. In 
 such a case a pair of old dogskin riding-gloves are very 
 useful, and all but the most difficult rocks can be climbed
 
 HINTS MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. 163 
 
 without taking them off. A single day of stiff scrambling 
 will generally ruin a pair. A supply of old glove-fingers 
 will prove useful for more localized injuries, and, as an 
 application to the sore places themselves, nothing is better 
 than collodion or zinc ointment. Care must be taken to 
 get all grit and dirt out of cuts, and for this purpose 
 poultices may be sometimes needed. A pair of fine scissors 
 will be found useful to clip off any loose projections, and 
 to trim the skin around the nails, as this is very liable to 
 " start " in climbing, as in other forms of exercise. 
 
 Sore feet are common enough ; but, apart from blisters, 
 they seldom prevent a mountaineer from climbing. Sore 
 places on the front of the ankle, and on the back of the 
 heel, just where the Achilles tendon joins the bone, 
 generally result from defective boots. They may be 
 dressed with zinc ointment spread on rag, and, though they 
 make walking a very painful process for the first half-hour 
 after starting, they need not be looked upon as a bar to 
 exercise. Sores or tender places, if small, may sometimes 
 be protected by ring-shaped felt corn-plasters. 
 
 Long tramps upon the highway make the feet swollen, 
 painful, and tender, and this condition may extend up- 
 wards above the ankle. Hot- water soaking at night and 
 cold-water soaking in the morning are useful remedies, 
 and the addition of a little common salt to the water 
 is perhaps helpful. If the feet are much swollen, it is 
 well to raise the foot of the bedstead by placing its legs 
 on blocks or books, so as to slightly elevate the feet, and 
 thus allow gravity a share in removing the fluids which 
 give rise to the swelling. This general foot-sore condition 
 is rare except from road walking ; and, as mountaineers 
 seldom walk when they can drive, they do not often suffer 
 from it.
 
 164 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 CRAMP. 
 
 Cramp may be suffered from on the march, or in the 
 night. When in good training it is not likely to develop, 
 so that it should not prove a danger by appearing suddenly 
 while on difficult rocks or ice. The spasmodic condition 
 of the cramped muscles must be overcome by forcibly 
 bending the joint in the opposite direction, followed by the 
 vigorous application of friction. 
 
 INFLAMED THROAT. 
 
 An inflamed condition of the throat is not uncommonly 
 experienced by climbers, especially before they are in very 
 good training. The uvula is apt to swell, and the whole 
 throat may feel very uncomfortable. The condition is 
 troublesome, but subsides within a day or two. A gargle 
 of salt and water (a tea-spoonful to a tumbler) is useful. 
 Smoking tends to aggravate. 
 
 MOUNTAIN DEAFNESS. 
 
 A word on this matter may possibly be of interest. The 
 partial deafness which is so often experienced by climbers 
 when descending from the heights, and which generally dis- 
 appears from each ear separately with a pop, is due to the 
 imprisonment, in the middle ear, of the rarified mountain air. 
 When the denser air of the valley reaches the ear from the 
 throat, an event which is likely to happen when swallowing 
 or blowing the nose, a little crack is heard, and sounds, 
 previously unnoticed, become distinct. 
 
 Climbers are, of course, not exempt from maladies and
 
 OUTFIT. 165 
 
 injuries which cannot be laid to the charge of the moun- 
 tains. Of these I can say nothing, and must make no 
 exception even in the case of those minor ills to which 
 travellers generally are liable. This chapter has already 
 exceeded the space I had originally allotted to it, and must 
 be confined to matters which are strictly within its proper 
 scope. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OUTFIT. 
 
 THERE is perhaps no branch of mountaineering lore in 
 which a climber of experience can be of more use to a 
 beginner than in the matter of equipment. During the 
 last thirty years mountaineers have found out, little by 
 little, the precise nature of their requirements, and how 
 these may best be met ; but, until very recently, the large 
 amount of information acquired by individual climbers had 
 never been collected or recorded. The committee of the 
 Alpine Club were so sensible of this state of things that 
 they appointed, in the spring of 1891, a sub-committee, 
 to inquire into the matter ; with the result that the " Re- 
 port of the Special Committee on Equipment for Moun- 
 taineers " was published as a supplement to the n6th 
 number of the Alpine Journal, in May, 1892. No pains 
 were spared to make this complete, every member of the 
 club being invited to contribute to, and finally to criticise, 
 a provisional report ; so that there is now an authoritative 
 monograph before the public, which may be purchased
 
 1 66 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 either with the above-named number of the Alpine Journal 
 (Longman and Co., zs.) or separately.* 
 
 Since the issue of this report the Badminton volume on 
 mountaineering has appeared, containing, as might be 
 expected, a carefully written section on the same subject ; 
 and there are, therefore, ample opportunities for beginners 
 to make themselves acquainted with details which, until 
 a year ago, had to be gradually accumulated by personal 
 experience. 
 
 An ordinary pedestrian can procure, at any of the main 
 Alpine centres, everything he will actually need, should he 
 unexpectedly decide upon making a glacier excursion ; but 
 those who visit the Alps with the express intention of climb- 
 ing are recommended to provide themselves with most of 
 their requirements before leaving home. 
 
 Some of the articles which will be alluded to may be 
 bought anywhere ; but others, being of the nature of 
 specialities, are only procurable at certain places, and a list 
 of addresses, where reliable things may be obtained, will be 
 found at the end of the chapter, f 
 
 CLOTHES. 
 
 Coat, waistcoat, knickerbockers, hats and caps, shirts, 
 stockings, boots, boot-nails, rubber shoes, slippers, anklets, 
 gaiters, gloves, knitted-waistcoat, muffler, waterproof coat. 
 
 Climbing clothes should be made entirely of wool. A 
 flannel shirt, stout stockings, and a knickerbocker suit of 
 tweed, suggest themselves as appropriate, and are worn by 
 most climbers. The point to be remembered in ordering 
 
 * Apply, enclosing seven stamps, to the Assistant Secretary, Alpine 
 Club, 8, St. Martin's Place, Trafalgar Square, 
 t See p. 189.
 
 OUTFIT. 167 
 
 is that the linings and pockets should be made of some 
 woollen material : the Jaeger Co. make a suitable stuff for 
 this purpose, and tailors should be told to use this, or some 
 light flannel. Cotton linings are objectionable for more 
 reasons than one, but the mere question of comfort is quite 
 enough to secure their rejection after once the all-wool 
 system has been tried. Some climbers have had clothes 
 made altogether of flannel, and a dark grey flannel-cloth 
 can be bought which is, in many respects, admirable ; 
 nothing is so warm, and nothing is so cool ; nothing is so 
 light, and nothing dries so quickly. The objection to 
 flannel is that it does not wear well, being easily frayed and 
 torn upon rocks. A tolerably thick tweed, neither too 
 finely nor too coarsely woven, fulfils most requirements, 
 and its power of resisting wet may be greatly increased by 
 dipping it, before being cut, into a solution of alum. I 
 have never tried clothes thus treated, but am told that 
 the process makes no difference to the comfort. The 
 same clothes are destined to be worn both in great heat 
 and great cold ; and, though a medium thickness is no doubt 
 best, it is wise to run the risk of being over- rather than 
 under-clad. In ordering clothes, some odd scraps for 
 patches must not be forgotten. 
 
 Coat. A Norfolk jacket answers very well. It should 
 be well supplied with pockets ; nine or ten are not too 
 many, and all should be made to button. The inside breast- 
 pockets ought to be large enough to take a folded map ; and 
 four outside pockets below the band, lined with mackintosh, 
 are most useful. Two of these (the back ones) may be 
 kept exclusively for the gloves, so that, when wet, they can 
 be kept away from other things. Waterproof pockets must 
 be turned inside out when the coat is dried. The collar of 
 the coat, when turned up, should be fastened by a tab
 
 168 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 buttoning under the throat. Similar tabs should be placed 
 on the wrists, so that the sleeves may be fastened quite 
 tight : these should be opposite the thumb, that is, well in 
 sight when the coat is on, as they are easily torn off if placed 
 underneath. The belt should be let into the coat, and not 
 be merely passed through loops. 
 
 Waistcoat. Little need be said, but do not be persuaded 
 that a wearer of a Norfolk jacket requires no waistcoat. 
 Have four pockets outside, and one or two inside with flaps 
 to button : this is the safest place for bank-notes and 
 cheques, which should be enclosed in an oiled-silk case to 
 keep them dry. 
 
 Knickerbockers are preferred by most amateurs to trousers, 
 but, as is the case with golfers, the reverse is the rule 
 among professionals. Two cross-cut or side pockets, 
 two revolver pockets, and one or two fobs, are useful, all 
 made to button, and all, of course, together with the 
 waistband and any lining used, should be made of woollen 
 material. The ordinary cloth strap at the knee is apt to 
 let the stockings slip down, and some prefer a broad 
 box-cloth band to button: this may be external, as in 
 ordinary riding knickerbockers, or turned in, as recom- 
 mended in the Equipment Committee's report.* In any 
 case box-cloth is the best material for a strap, as tweed is 
 liable to fray, and leather becomes hard and stiff after being 
 wet. Some climbers eschew braces and rely upon a strap 
 and buckle at the back, while others object to any tightness 
 round the waist. 
 
 Hat. In the history of many sports, cricket, hunting, 
 and skating, for example, a period has arrived when it 
 was considered "de rigueur" to wear a tall hat. Many 
 years ago a certain " Col. Shaw " f urged the claims 
 
 * " Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 14, Alpine Journal, vol. xvi. 
 t See " Hints for Pedestrians," by Medicus, 1843, P- 4 2>
 
 OUTFIT. 169 
 
 of this form of headgear upon pedestrians generally, on 
 the ground that "you can carry things in the hollow 
 of a hat ; " but, in spite of this recommendation, the 
 practice has never become popular among mountaineers, 
 and, unless we are to regard a recent utterance* as 
 the thin end of the wedge, there are as yet no signs of 
 fashion turning in this direction. Many sorts of hats 
 and caps have been worn, but the general concensus of 
 opinion is in favour of a fairly broad-brimmed soft felt 
 as being the best of all hats for the purpose. A strip 
 of flannel should be slipped between the leather and the 
 felt, or an absorbent material may be substituted for the 
 leather. A hat-guard of some sort is necessary, and a good 
 one is sold by Silver and Co. Many climbers wear their 
 goggles round the hat when not in use. These sometimes 
 work off and get lost, but this mishap may be easily pre- 
 vented by a series of three small inverted hooks sewn to 
 the hat-band. 
 
 A closely fitting cap is most comfortable when there is 
 much wind. So useful indeed is it, that many guides, 
 though averse to carrying any unnecessary luggage, habitually 
 take one with them. Such a cap may as well be made to 
 cover the ears, and one with lappets to tie or button under 
 the chin answers very well. The Jaeger Co. make caps 
 of this description, and others which are almost equally 
 suited to the purpose. 
 
 Shirt. Flannel shirts with turned-down collars are 
 almost universally worn. The flannel should be thick and 
 ought to be thoroughly shrunk before being cut. 
 
 Stockings should be hand-knitted and can hardly be made 
 too thick. A soft wool is far the most comfortable, though 
 the harder kinds wear better. One cannot be too particular 
 * " Mountaineering " (Badminton Library), p. 42.
 
 MO UNTA1NEERING. 
 
 in having the best stockings obtainable, and in only wearing 
 them while they are in good repair, as climbers have often 
 been laid aside for a week by blisters produced by stockings 
 which had been darned. Two pairs of stockings may be 
 worn, thin ones beneath thick ones ; and some climbers 
 habitually wear socks under their stockings ; the latter are 
 more liable to ruck. 
 
 Boots. It is needless to say that boots for mountaineer- 
 ing must be very strong. Laced boots not too high at the 
 ankle are the best, and the tongue should not be loose but 
 be sewn at the sides. The soles should project, and the 
 heels should be low and come well forward. It is not easy 
 for a bootmaker, unaccustomed to make for Alpine men, to 
 realize the great strain his work will be expected to resist. 
 The cuts from sharp rocks, the wear and tear of running 
 down moraine and screes, and the alternate soaking, freez- 
 ing, and baking, combine to make climbing the severest test 
 that a boot can be subjected to. The boots, then, must be 
 strong, and they must also be comfortable. If there is any 
 doubt at all on this point, a second pair, old and tried, 
 should be taken, in addition to the new ones. If one's feet 
 blister easily, thick felt socks may be worn between the 
 stocking and the sole. These can be rinsed in water after 
 use, and dried in the sun. If used at all, several pairs should 
 be taken. 
 
 Boot-nails, The soles and heels of the boots should be 
 well studded with nails of the right sort. Nothing suitable 
 can be got in England ; and in some Alpine resorts, 
 Chamonix for instance, the nails are poor. It is therefore 
 well to get a supply, and to take some spare ones in the 
 luggage.* Two sorts of nails are desirable, one for the 
 
 * I have made arrangements with a Swiss guide to supply nails to 
 any one who sends him a foreign post-office order for 6.r. For this sum
 
 OUTFIT. 171 
 
 edges (A) and one for the middle (B). All should be made 
 of wrought iron, and should 
 have little projections from 
 the head to give them a 
 better hold on the boot. 
 
 It is a great nuisance to 
 find that the nails kick out, 
 but this will seldom happen 
 if the boots are kept for a A B 
 
 year before being nailed. The nails, too, may be dipped in 
 water before being driven in, so that they will rust into their 
 places ; and, if those on the edges are placed so as just to 
 overlap, they will help to keep each other in position. If 
 these precautions are observed, the nails will be much less 
 likely to come out, but the heads may occasionally break 
 off; and, after a season or two, they will become so worn 
 down and polished as to be of no service. The boots 
 must then be either resoled or discarded. 
 
 Screw-nails, somewhat resembling cricket screws, are 
 used by some climbers. It is important that the screws 
 should be five-eighths of an inch long, and the boot-soles 
 must consequently be very thick. Two sorts are made by 
 Hill and Co. 
 
 Dwarf trees, to be inserted as soon as the boots are taken 
 off, will be found to repay what little trouble they entail ; 
 adding as much to the durability, as they do to the comfort, 
 of the boots. It is hardly necessary to say that the boots, 
 
 he will have made, pack, and send off, post free, enough nails of both 
 kinds to nail three boots : that is, enough for a pair and some spare 
 ones. Any one wishing to take advantage of this arrangement may 
 write to Ulrich Aimer, Guide, Grindelwald, Switzerland. It should be 
 remembered that during the summer months he is seldom at home, and 
 further, that the blacksmith, who makes the nails only as they are 
 wanted, is apt to take his time. In writing, put the name and address 
 very plainly, and request a post-card acknowledging receipt of money.
 
 172 MO UNTAINEERING. 
 
 when in use, should be well greased every day, and that 
 in winter they should be seen to now and then, and 
 similarly treated. 
 
 Tennis shoes with rubber soles, or shoes with soles of 
 plaited grass or string, are used by some for climbing on 
 smooth rocks. 
 
 Slippers should be strong enough to be worn, even in 
 wet, outside a hotel or hut, and they should be large enough 
 to carry a felt sock. This will be appreciated if one has 
 to take the stockings off. 
 
 Knitted anklets, to cover the top of the boot, and prevent 
 small stones and grit from gaining entrance, are such a 
 comfort that, once worn, they will not readily be discarded. 
 They can be made at home, or bought from the Jaeger 
 Co. ; or they can be roughly improvised by cutting the feet 
 off old socks. They must be slipped over the foot before 
 the boots are put on, and adjusted 'after these are laced. 
 Stockings are sometimes made with these adjuncts per- 
 manently attached ; but they are not suitable for Alpine 
 work. Knitted anklets do not last long, and two or three 
 pairs should be taken. Canvas anklets, to lace, answer the 
 same purpose, but are less comfortable. Leather ones get 
 hard and stiff. 
 
 Gaiters are always donned by mountaineers as soon as 
 they reach snow into which they are likely to sink over 
 the boot tops. Much thought has been bestowed on this 
 article of apparel, and the very best form of gaiter has 
 possibly yet to be evolved. The kind most generally 
 worn is one which covers the upper surface of the foot, and 
 is kept in place by a chain passing under the instep. It 
 is fastened down the outer side of the leg by buttons, 
 hooks, or laces, and a small strap at the knee tends to 
 secure its position. As an extra safeguard against the
 
 OUTFIT. 173 
 
 gaiter slipping down, this strap may be passed through a 
 small loop of string depending from the knickerbocker 
 buckle. No portion of the gaiter should be of leather ; the 
 whole should be made of some strong cloth, and box-cloth, 
 the material now most recommended, is more durable 
 and more waterproof than tweed. The gaiters must be 
 carefully made to fit the boot and calf, and the chain 
 should be fixed to the posterior half of the foot-piece, so 
 as to slip on under the heel instead of the toe. This chain 
 must be strong or it will break ; and the chains sometimes 
 worn under the instep by equestrians, though needlessly 
 heavy, answer the purpose very well. Steel chain of any 
 sort rusts, and, if thin, snaps ; while any chain whose links 
 are not soldered is apt to open and come undone. I have, 
 for the last two years, used two pieces of german-silver 
 watch chain, and this has lasted better than anything of 
 the same weight that I have seen ; but a brass chain, of 
 the sort used for chandeliers, answers fairly well. It is 
 wise to take some spare chain in case of mishap, and wire- 
 cutters will be found useful for cutting it into proper lengths. 
 Some experienced mountaineers wear leggings which, ex- 
 tending from the knee, cover the ankle only. If properly 
 made they are said not to work up and so allow snow to 
 enter the boot, though no chain passes below the foot. 
 
 Gloves for mountaineering are generally made of thick 
 wool, closely knitted, and on the pattern of an infant's 
 glove, with only two compartments, one for the thumb 
 and another for the fingers. They are warmer if a piece 
 of flannel is sewn inside over the back of the hand. Such 
 gloves can be bought from the Jaeger Co., but the best 
 of all are home-made. 
 
 A knitted waistcoat or Shetland jersey is a necessary 
 adjunct. The latter is preferable, as being possibly warmer
 
 17* MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 and certainly lighter. It can be worn next the skin in 
 huts, but it is so elastic that it can be slipped on over the 
 waistcoat or coat, and is often useful at meal times if the 
 air is cold. A muffler of some sort (wool or silk) must 
 be taken, and some mountaineers consider a short water- 
 proof coat or cape to be a necessity. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS USED IN CLIMBING. 
 
 Ice-axe, sling for ice-axe, rope, compass, maps, crampons, 
 artificial aids. 
 
 The number of implements actually used in climbing 
 is small. A map and compass help in finding the way, 
 and a rope and ice-axe enable climbers to follow it. Other 
 appliances are of minor importance. 
 
 Ice-axe (French "piolet," German " Pickel," or "Eis- 
 beil" ). The ice-axe has undergone 'many modifications of 
 form. The earliest guides used to carry a long pole or 
 alpenstock in the hand, and a small ice-hatchet slung in 
 the belt. The two are now combined. 
 
 Ice-axes, such as are in use to-day, are all made on one 
 general plan, though in detail they differ considerably. In 
 speaking of axes, confusion may arise from the fact that 
 two separate parts of the implement may be appropriately 
 termed the " point." It is well, therefore, to avoid this 
 term, and select others which are less ambiguous. An 
 ice-axe consists, then, of two main parts, the head and the 
 stock. The two ends of the head may be called respectively 
 the blade (A) and the pick (B) : the stock ends below in 
 the spike (C). The head and spike are made of wrought 
 iron, and may be tipped with steel. Great care is 
 necessary in tempering, as, unless the blade is properly 
 tempered, it is sure to be either chipped or dented if struck
 
 OUTFIT. 175 
 
 accidently against a rock. The stock is made of well- 
 seasoned, straight-grained ash, split from the log and not 
 sawn, and must be strong enough to stand a 
 sudden strain. The pick should not be too B 
 much curved ; indeed, in some of the very 
 best Swiss axes, it is not curved at all, and 
 leaves the stock at a right angle. There is 
 not the same objection to a slight curve in 
 the blade. English makers often roughen the 
 under surface of the blade, under the impres- 
 sion that it gives a better grip in the snow. 
 This is not the case, for the snow sometimes 
 balls on it, which is a serious drawback ; still, 
 it is useful to strike matches on. Some 
 makers cut a few jagged teeth in the under 
 surface of the pick, on the supposition that 
 they are of service in climbing rocks. They 
 are in reality quite useless. Many again put c 
 
 a rim of thick leather, fixed on the stock, a 
 foot or fifteen inches above the spike ; or the wood is made 
 bulbous at this part. The idea is to give a better grip 
 when the axe is being used as an anchor, but the excresence 
 is unsightly and needless, and it interferes with one of 
 the functions of an axe, namely, that of a probe to ascertain 
 the presence of concealed crevasses. One cannot have an 
 ice-axe made too simply. The spike in Swiss-made axes 
 is usually a very simple affair. In most English ones it is 
 highly finished and often far too heavy. 
 
 For a man of average size an ice-axe should be between 
 three feet seven, and three feet ten inches long, and it 
 should balance about thirteen or fourteen inches from the 
 head. Many English axes are faulty in this important 
 particular, and balance at a point some sixteen inches from
 
 176 
 
 MO UNTA1NEER1NG, 
 
 the head, this being mainly due to the absurd amount of metal 
 in the spike. Some men like heavy axes, and some light ones, 
 but if step-cutting is to be done, a good balance is essential. 
 According to my own idea, three pounds is the right weight 
 for an axe, but two of the best amateur step-cutters I know 
 prefer heavier ones. Ice-axes may be bought in England 
 or at any of the climbing centres in the Alps. The best 
 
 LEATHER CAP FOR HEAD OF ICE-AXE. 
 
 Swiss types are made in the Oberland and cost from fifteen 
 to twenty francs. The English axes are generally much 
 more highly finished, and cost, as a rule, thirty shillings or 
 two pounds ; some have, however, been recently made by 
 Carter and Co. of Salford, at a pound. The patterns for 
 these were furnished by Mr. Charles Pilkington, and they
 
 OUTFIT. 
 
 177 
 
 bear much more resemblance to good Swiss axes than to 
 those ordinarily made in this country. 
 
 With regard to the choice of an ice-axe a good deal might 
 be said, but for a beginner the main point is to select a 
 light one with a strong stock. By the time a man begins to 
 think of doing any guide's work himself, he will have a very 
 fair idea as to what sort of axe he wants ; and, if he is 
 inclined to be faddy, he will have one made for him. If 
 his ideas as to detail are carried out, the result will very 
 likely be that the axe will not feel right, just as a billiard 
 cue, made to order, may prove disappointing. A better plan 
 is to go to a good maker at 
 home or abroad, and, from 
 an assortment of half a dozen 
 sound axes, select, as in the 
 case of a cricket bat or a 
 golf club, the particular im- 
 plement which appears to be 
 the best balanced and other- 
 wise most suitable. 
 
 It is convenient, for the 
 safety of one's fellow-travel- 
 lers and their effects, when 
 travelling by coach or rail, to 
 have leather caps to shield 
 the points of the axe. 
 
 Sling for axe. This is a 
 small but necessary item in 
 a mountaineer's outfit. When 
 climbing on rocks which are 
 at all difficult the axe is a 
 
 SUNG FOR AXE. 
 
 decided encumbrance, and a 
 
 sling whereby to hang it from the wrist is the best remedy. 
 
 N
 
 178 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Thick string or blind cord answers the purpose well, but a 
 sling made from an old silk neck-tie is the most comfort- 
 able. Some use a leather strap either detachable or per- 
 manently fixed near the head of the axe. This is a mistake, 
 for leather, though pleasant enough when new, gets hard 
 and stiff after it has been soaked and dried ; and an appli- 
 ance which is only occasionally needed should not be made 
 a fixture. Whatever is used must be strong, and if attached 
 by two clove-hitches it is perfectly secure and easily un- 
 done.* 
 
 Rope. The qualities required of a rope for Alpine climb- 
 ing are that it shall be strong enough to resist any probable 
 strain, and light enough to be readily portable. Ropes 
 made of hemp, flax, or silk, have been used, but the best of 
 all is that which has received the official sanction of the 
 Alpine Club, and is made of three strands of the finest 
 Manilla hemp by John Buckingham- of Bloomsbury. This 
 rope was tested by a committee of the Alpine Club in 1864,! 
 when it was found to be the best for climbing purposes. 
 Again it has been tested in 1892,! and again its excellence 
 has been proved. It is known as "Alpine Club Rope," 
 and has a thin line of red worsted running through its 
 centre, visible if the strands are slightly untwisted. So 
 justly celebrated has the rope become that it has been 
 imitated both in England and abroad. Climbers are urged, 
 consequently, to make a point of purchasing it direct from 
 the maker. It costs slightly over a penny a foot. The 
 ends of the rope should be whipped with fine twine, which 
 entirely prevents unravelling. The accompanying diagram 
 explains the process. 
 
 The quantity of rope taken will vary according to the 
 
 * For diagram of clove-hitch, see p. 97. 
 
 t Alpine Journal, vol. i. p. 322. 
 
 \ " Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 5, Alpine Journal, vol. xvi.
 
 OUTFIT. 
 
 179 
 
 number of travellers who are proposing to climb together, 
 and the nature of the work contemplated. For ordinary 
 work it is usual to allow fifteen to twenty 
 feet between each two men, and four feet 
 for each waist loop and knot. As it is well 
 to have too much rope rather than too 
 little, a party of three will generally take 
 sixty feet, and a party of four eighty. 
 Occasionally, on difficult rocks, it is con- 
 venient to have a greater length of rope, 
 and it may be wise for a party of three to 
 take eighty or even a hundred feet with 
 them. 
 
 A spare rope will be found useful in 
 descending very difficult rocks; when 
 hitched over a suitable projection it acts 
 as a safeguard to the last man, and when HOW TO WHIP A 
 
 . . ROPE END. 
 
 time is of importance it enables a whole 
 party to descend more quickly.* For this purpose the 
 club rope is still the best, though a lighter one, also made 
 by Buckingham, under the name of " one and a quarter inch 
 fine yarn Manilla," answers the purpose almost as well. 
 The reason why this slighter rope is safe for this work lies 
 in the fact that only one man is ever using it at any one 
 time, and that, as it is always kept taut, it is never subjected 
 to a sudden strain. 
 
 A rope when quite new is unpleasant to use, as it tends to 
 get into kinks. To avoid this it is well to soak it in water, 
 and then stretch it well between trees or clothes-posts while 
 it dries in the sunshine. Every time a rope gets wet it 
 should be stretched and dried. 
 
 The lasting power of an Alpine rope depends of course 
 * See p. 126.
 
 i8o MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 on the use made of it ; but it is wise to be chary of trusting 
 one for more than two seasons even if it shows no signs of 
 wear, for which, however, a watch must always be kept, as 
 half a dozen climbs on sharp rocks may so fray a rope as 
 to render it unsafe though only used for a fortnight. 
 
 Compass. A good compass is indispensable. Many 
 prefer one with a floating dial, and if this be a luminous 
 one it can be used at night. The case, which should be 
 strong, may advantageously open with a spring like a watch, 
 and should certainly be so arranged as to lift the needle off 
 its pivot when shut. If a wristlet compass * is taken, it 
 should be in addition to, and not instead of, an ordinary 
 one. 
 
 Mr. Conway insists strongly upon the advantages of the 
 prismatic compass, and certainly his remarks upon the 
 instrument are well worthy of perusal. f 
 
 Mafs. A map of the district one is travelling in should 
 always be carried in the pocket. A transparent oiled-silk 
 case, obtainable at Stanford's, protects it against wet, both 
 in the pocket and while in use. 
 
 Crampons (Steigeisen or climbing irons) are used 
 extensively by Austrian climbers, both amateur and pro- 
 fessional ; but, though evidently in use when Simler wrote 
 three hundred years ago,| they have been very generally 
 scouted both by Englishmen and Swiss guides. They are 
 now being spoken of in more respectful terms ; and those 
 who have really learned their use speak very highly of them 
 as time-saving appliances. It is very important that 
 crampons should be made to fit the boots with which they 
 are to be worn. " They consist of a framework of the best 
 steel, in two parts, hinged together under the instep, and 
 
 * See p. 16. (Sold by Hill & Son.) 
 
 t "Mountaineering" (Badminton Library), p. 267. 
 
 J Coolidge, "Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-books," p. 17.
 
 OUTFIT. 181 
 
 carrying ten large spikes. They will be made to order by 
 the Albion Iron and Wirework Co. It is of especial im- 
 portance that the two front and the two back spikes should 
 come just under the edge of the sole. It is perhaps need- 
 less to remark that for crampons to be of any great use 
 every member of a party must be provided with them." * 
 Crampons are of most service on very hard snow, but are 
 valuable also upon ice and ice-glazed rocks. 
 
 Artificial aids of various kinds have from time to time 
 been used in climbing mountains. The term is one of 
 opprobrium, and is usually considered to comprise all 
 climbing appliances other than those discussed above, and 
 crampons will be included by many. Ladders were pro- 
 bably the first articles of this class to be used, and they 
 have been found of service in crossing crevasses and in 
 scaling difficult rocks. Rockets have, as already pointed 
 out,f been tried for carrying a rope over a crest, but not 
 with much success. Iron and wood stanchions have been 
 driven into cracks, and the rock has actually been bored 
 and blasted in order to fix them. Mr. Whymper 
 describes what he calls a " claw," ^ an iron hook- 
 like instrument, to which a rope is attached : it is 
 thrown up, or pushed up on the end of an axe, to 
 catch on a ledge of rock above the climber's head. 
 Other special implements have been devised for 
 special places, but none have met with any general 
 recognition. One article, a " piton " must, how- 
 ever, be alluded to, as having proved very useful on 
 occasions where the descent was both steep and 
 difficult. This consists of a strong iron nail or P 'TON. 
 spike some eight or ten inches in length, with an eye at one 
 
 * " Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 10. t See p. 124. 
 
 J "Scrambles amongst the Alps," p. no.
 
 182 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 end through which a rope can be passed. In situations 
 where there is no projection, over which a spare rope may 
 be hitched, this may be driven into a crack with a stone 
 used as a hammer ; and those, at any rate, who contemplate 
 trying a new route down a rock mountain, will be wise to 
 take two or three pitons with them. 
 
 ACCESSORIES. 
 
 Knapsacks and rucksack, lantern, candles, gourds, spirit- 
 flask, drinking-cups, pocket-knives, tin-opener, goggles, masks, 
 telescopes and field-glasses, aneroids, clinometer, photographic, 
 drawing and scientific apparatus, bags and boxes for pro- 
 visions, etc. , tents, sleeping-bags and cooking outfits. 
 
 Knapsacks and rucksacks of various kinds are used for 
 carrying provisions and extra clothing. There can be 
 hardly any doubt that, both for convenience of packing 
 and comfort in carrying, the Willesden canvas rucksacks 
 made by Silver and Co. at the suggestion of the Alpine 
 Club committee on equipment, are the best yet offered to 
 the public. Two sizes are made, but the smaller one (24 
 inches X 22 inches) is the more generally useful : it costs 
 about iSs. 
 
 A lantern is needed for early starts and will be useful 
 should the party be benighted. It is always well to have 
 one's own lantern, so as not to be dependent on borrowing ; 
 and first-rate lanterns are made which fold into an incredibly 
 small space. Two patterns only are now in general use, 
 both of foreign manufacture, but both obtainable in England. 
 The larger and more serviceable, known as the Italian or 
 Excelsior lantern, can be bought in Italy for five francs, 
 or at Hill's for about 8*. : it weighs, without the case, 
 something under eight ounces. The smaller or Vienna
 
 OUTFIT. 183 
 
 pattern is about half this weight, and costs proportionately 
 less. Carriage candles, the stoutest the lantern will accom- 
 modate, should be taken to burn in it ; for they are more 
 satisfactory, both as to illuminating and lasting power, than 
 candles bought abroad. 
 
 Gourds for holding wine, cold tea, or whatever drink is 
 chosen, may be purchased at home or abroad. Silver's 
 vulcanite felt-covered gourds are good, though bulky to 
 pack. Nothing could be much better, however, for a gourd 
 required to hold one quart or less ; but, for larger quantities 
 they are, like the tins and natural gourds used by guides, 
 clumsy, because non-collapsable. The French leather 
 bottles, made with the hairy side of the skin in the interior, 
 are the best of all gourds for mountaineers. They are, 
 unfortunately, very difficult to obtain ; and the makers, from 
 whom Silver and Co. will order them for customers, " often 
 take three months to deliver." * I have had one on order 
 now, for considerably over a year ; and, until some arrange- 
 ment can be made for ensuring a regular supply, they may be 
 regarded as almost unprocurable. Those who are fortunate 
 enough to procure one should consult the "Equipment 
 Report " as to " curing " and preserving it.f Owing to the 
 difficulty in obtaining these leather ones, Silver and Co. are 
 making, at my suggestion, large indiarubber gourds covered 
 with pigskin : I have great hopes that these will prove to 
 be a success. They should, when new, be filled with strong 
 coffee, with the grounds left in, and put aside for twenty- 
 four hours ; as this will remove the taste of indiarubber. 
 
 A small spirit-flask, preferably of metal or vulcanite 
 should always be taken by one member of a party ; but its 
 contents should be kept for emergencies only. 
 
 * "Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 8, Alpine Journal, vol. xvi. 
 t Ibid. p. 8.
 
 184 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Drinking-cups of two sizes are required (i) A small 
 pocket-cup of indiarubber or leather; (2) a large cup to hold 
 a quart or more. The latter can be obtained in Geneva, 
 made of leather, and of the same pattern as the small 
 folding leather drinking-cup called in Switzerland a 
 " bateau." One of these large cups was many years ago 
 dubbed datnpfschiff by Melchoir Anderegg, and the name 
 has been generally applied by mountaineers to all large 
 drinking-cups. " This is the only instance where a slang 
 term has been applied to any of the ' fixings ' of mountain- 
 eering." * The best of all dampfschiffs are those made of 
 rubber. They can be bought at many of the indiarubber 
 shops under the name of Alpine or Arctic drinking-cups : 
 Pontifex is recommended as a maker by the Equipment 
 Committee. These, when new, impart a flavour of india- 
 rubber to their contents, and they should be treated with 
 coffee, as already recommended in the case of gourds, f 
 
 A wooden or horn spoon is very useful to stir any mixture 
 which may be put into the dampfschiff. 
 
 A pocket-knife for mountaineering must be strong, and 
 should contain a long blade suitable for cutting bread, a 
 corkscrew, a button-hook, and a thoroughly efficient tin- 
 opener. This latter, at all events, ought to lock when 
 open; and, if one is not accustomed to opening tinned 
 meats, it is well to practise at home, as mountaineers 
 engaged in the pursuit have often inflicted upon themselves 
 very nasty gashes at times when they could ill afford to 
 be maimed. A punch for boring holes in leather is a 
 very useful adjunct, and a gun-pick " long enough to clean 
 a pipe " % will be found serviceable to smokers. Metal 
 handled knives are preferred by many, and it is always 
 
 * " Pioneers of the Alps," p. 73. t See p. 183. 
 
 J " Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 10,
 
 OUTFIT. 
 
 '85 
 
 best to carry a knife attached to a string or chain, lest it 
 be left behind after a meal. It is wise, however, to take 
 out an extra knife in case of accident or loss. 
 
 Tin-opener. A heavier tin-opener than that in the knife 
 may be recommended for use in huts and camps. 
 
 Tinted goggles are needed while on the snow,* and a 
 neutral tint is the best colour. Two pairs at least should 
 be taken ; for, although cheap substitutes can be obtained 
 
 SNOW GOGGLES. 
 
 at most Alpine villages, they are in many respects inferior 
 to those made in England. The rim of the metal which 
 touches the skin should be bound with velvet, and the 
 nose bridge should be made of, or covered with, the same 
 material. Very good goggles are sold by Silver and Co., 
 and mountaineers are recommended to get them there, 
 as many opticians have given up keeping them in stock, 
 and endeavour to palm off a more expensive article in a 
 steel spectacle-frame as being "what is now generally 
 worn." Goggles can be packed or carried in the pocket 
 in tin boxes made to hold them, but they are often carried 
 on the hat as already mentioned.f 
 
 Masks to prevent sunburn are worn by some ; and the 
 woollen ones made by the Jaeger Co. are recommended. 
 
 * Seep. 147. 
 
 t See p. 169.
 
 186 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 A telescope or field-glass is a useful and delightful 
 companion in the mountains. The former is preferred by 
 most as, weight for weight, greater magnifying power is 
 obtained. If you take one at all, take a good one. First- 
 rate instruments are sold by many opticians and the 
 " Lovat Telescope " (,4 105-.) made by Ross and Co. of 
 Bond Street, and protected by a metal case, is suited to 
 the rough treatment to which the exigencies of climbing 
 will render it liable. 
 
 Aneroid. Many climbers take aneroids to Switzerland ; 
 few carry them up mountains. Mr. Whymper's monograph 
 on the use of the Aneroid * shows pretty conclusively that 
 much time and attention are needed to make the instru- 
 ment of any real service in determining heights ; still it 
 is an amusing toy in bad weather. 
 
 A clinometer is useful for measuring angles, and 
 photographic apparatus, drawing materials, and botanical 
 or geological collecting apparatus will be taken by those 
 who are able to make use of them. Several linen bags 
 of various sizes to take loaves of bread, candles, and other 
 articles, are preferable to paper for packing in the sack. 
 Each bag should be labelled. Similarly oiled-silk or 
 jacanette bags for sugar, prunes, raisins, or biscuits, are very 
 useful, and a vulcanite butter jar with a screw lid, made by 
 Silver and Co., is a great improvement on the glass tumblers 
 generally used for carrying butter or honey. A small wooden 
 box, also with a screw lid, is useful for salt. 
 
 Tents, sleeping-bags, and cooking outfits, are needed by 
 mountaineers visiting districts where the expeditions are 
 long and where huts or refuges are wanting. These are 
 fully described in the equipment report already alluded to,f 
 
 * " How to use the Aneroid Barometer." 1891. 
 t pp. 17 and 25.
 
 OUTFIT. 187 
 
 and the two forms of tent recommended, the " Whymper " 
 and the " Mummery," are made by Benjamin Edgington. 
 The latter is most likely to be useful to climbers in the 
 Alps ; the former to explorers in ranges beyond the confines 
 of civilization. Beginners are hardly likely to require a tent 
 during their first season or two ; and as, by the time they 
 think of buying one, they will assuredly have possessed 
 themselves of the document referred to, it is unnecessary 
 to say more on the subject here. The same remark applies 
 to sleeping-bags and cooking apparatus. 
 
 PROVISIONS. 
 
 Tinned meats, jams, fruits and soups, Kola biscuits, and 
 chocolate. 
 
 One of the most marked changes which the last ten years 
 has wrought in the habits of the average mountaineer relates 
 to the provisions he takes with him on the mountains. 
 Instead of the dry "fleisch," tough fowls, and sloppy 
 honey, it is now very usual to rely largely upon potted 
 meats and English-made jam, put up in small tins. To 
 my own mind the modern plan is as superior from a gastro- 
 nomic, as from an economical, point of view. 
 
 Tinned meats may be bought at home, or in any of the 
 large Swiss towns ; but no duty is charged by either the 
 French or Swiss Governments,* and many English firms 
 supply very good meats in great variety, both in sixpenny 
 and shilling tins. Crosse and Blackwell, and the Cunning- 
 ham and De Fourier Co.,f are good makers, and a 
 
 * I believe this statement is correct : it is certainly true of a few 
 dozen tins taken as personal luggage. 
 
 t The preparations made by these firms must be ordered through a 
 grocer.
 
 1 88 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 preparation made by the latter under the name of " sardine 
 paste," may be specially noticed as appetising. Fortnum 
 and Mason also sell excellent tinned provisions. 
 
 Southwell's jam is packed in four-ounce tins, and sold at 
 2s. $d. the dozen. It can be bought from Jackson and Co., 
 next door to the Egyptian Hall, and should be ordered a 
 short time before it is required, as this will ensure the 
 supply of freshly made jam. It should be specially men- 
 tioned that the tins are to be soldered. Tinned peaches, 
 apricots, or pears, are very acceptable ; and, if a porter who 
 is not overladen, be employed, there is no reason why such 
 luxuries should not be taken to huts or on short excursions. 
 
 Soups, for use in huts and camps, will probably form part 
 of a climber's luggage ; and, if the self-cooking soups sold by 
 Silver are taken, they can be used also upon the mountain- 
 side, the only objection to them being their weight. More 
 portable soups are made by Lazenby and others ; and pea- 
 flour, put up in tins, is a useful addition to soups made from 
 Bovril, Brand's essence, or other meat extract. It is well to 
 pay attention to the directions given with the various sorts 
 of condensed soup, as some require soaking in cold water 
 or other special treatment. It should also be known how 
 much water to add to each packet or tin of soup. 
 
 Kola biscuits and chocolate can be bought at Silver's, and, 
 as previously stated,* are useful in allaying hunger and 
 keeping up strength when provisions have to be husbanded. 
 
 Medicines and medical appliances. These form a small 
 but necessary part of a climber's outfit. In the preceding 
 chapter the uses of some were discussed, but they must not 
 be forgotten when dealing with the various articles a 
 mountaineer should pack to take with him abroad. Some 
 powder or ointment for treating and warding off sunburn ; 
 * See p. 73.
 
 OUTFIT. 189 
 
 cocaine solution for snow-blindness ; some laxative and 
 opium pills ; a small bottle of chlorodyne ; and perhaps a 
 few other simple medicines; plasters, a bandage or two, 
 some cotton wool, and a small bottle of flexile collodion, 
 will be found to meet all ordinary requirements. Burroughs, 
 Wellcome and Co. have made up, at Mr. Dent's suggestion, 
 two tabloid cases containing all that mountaineers are really 
 likely to want.* The smaller case is called the "Alpine 
 Emergency Case" (price 2is.), the larger, the "Moun- 
 taineer's Pocket Case" (price 30^.): they must be ordered 
 through a chemist. Those who take bottles, powders, or 
 ointments loose, are recommended to carry all of them in 
 boxwood cases with screw lids. Some ointments toilet 
 lanoline, for instance can be obtained in collapsable metal 
 tubes. 
 
 LIST OF ADDRESSES. 
 
 Albion Iron & Wirework Co., Red Lion Street, E.G. Crampons. 
 
 Aimer, Ulrich, Grinclelwald, Switzerland. Boot-nails. 
 
 Buckingham, J., 194, Shaftesbury Avenue, W.C. Rope. 
 
 Burroughs, Wellcome & Co., Snow Hill Buildings, E.G. Medical 
 Pocket Cases, Toilet Lanoline in tubes. 
 
 Crosse & Blackwell, 20, Soho Square, W. Tinned Meats, etc. 
 
 Carter, J., & Co., New Bailey Street, Salford, Manchester. Ice Axes. 
 
 Carter, Jas. S., 16, South Molton Street, W. Boots, Gaiters, Ruck- 
 sacks, etc. 
 
 Cunningham & De Fourier Co., 2, Duncan Street, Leman Street, S.E. 
 Tinned Meats, etc. 
 
 Curtis, 48, Baker Street, W. Chemist, Pasma, etc. 
 
 Edgington, B., 2, Duke Street, London Bridge, S.E. Tents. 
 
 Fortnum & Mason, 181, Piccadilly, W. Provisions. 
 
 Hennig, 26, Coventry Street, W. Ice Axes, Lanterns, Compasses, etc. 
 
 * " Equipment for Mountaineers," p. 31.
 
 190 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 Hill & Son, 4, Haymarket, W. Ice Axes, Lanterns, Compasses, 
 Boot Screws, etc. 
 
 Jackson, R., & Co., 172, Piccadilly, W. Potted Meats, Soups, and 
 Jams. 
 
 Jaeger Co., 3, Princes Street, Cavendish Square, W. Anklets, Slip- 
 pers, Gloves, Gaiters, Caps, Boots, Sleeping-bags, etc. 
 
 Lazenby, E., & Sons, 18, Trinity Street, S.E. Soups and other goods. 
 
 Macdougal & Co., 42, Sackville Street, W. Shetland Jerseys, Stock- 
 ings, Anklets. 
 
 Pontifex, J. H., 4, Holden Terrace, Victoria Street, S.W. Drinking 
 Cups and other Rubber Goods. 
 
 Respaut, Marcel, Successeur, Olette, Pyrenees-Orientales, France. 
 " Gourdes en peau de bouc." 
 
 Ross & Co., 112, New Bond Street, W. (Opticians). Telescopes, etc. 
 
 Silver & Co., 29, Old Bond Street, W., and 67, Cornhill. Gourds, 
 Goggles, Rucksacks, Lanterns, Sleeping-bags, Soups, Kola Bis- 
 cuits, etc. 
 
 Stanford, E., 27, Cockspur Street, Charing Cross, S.W. Maps and 
 Guide-books. 
 
 LUGGAGE AND SUNDRIES. 
 
 Hitherto the present chapter has dealt exclusively with 
 articles directly connected with mountaineering. It remains 
 to say a few words on matters more concerned with travel 
 generally. The clothes taken to wear when not climbing 
 will differ somewhat according to the plan of tour contem- 
 plated, and a rather more extensive wardrobe may be 
 thought needful when a crowded centre is chosen as head- 
 quarters than what would suffice for a stay at a primitive 
 and secluded village. In any case the selection of garments 
 should be made with due regard to the extremes of heat 
 and cold liable to be met with, and the luggage should be 
 such as to admit of ready transit by mules or porters. 
 Gladstone-bags, 'kit-bags, canvas sacks, and hold-alls, are 
 the most generally useful forms of luggage ; but, if port- 
 manteaus are desired, it is better to take two small ones,
 
 OUTFIT. 191 
 
 rather than one of larger size. Extra boot-laces, some string 
 of various strengths, and other little odds and ends will 
 occur to most, and smokers are not likely to forget their 
 pipes, tobacco, vestas and fusees. A box of fusees or an 
 English pipe are little things much prized by guides, and 
 some odd ones may be taken for presents : the best pipes 
 are those with covers. A small bath-towel takes up but little 
 room, and is a great comfort ; and a few books, a pack of 
 cards, and a pocket chess-board, will be found useful on wet 
 days. It is always wise to travel with a passport, and one's 
 cheque-book should not be forgotten. The appended list 
 is based on one which has been in use for years, and found 
 useful to run over before starting, so as to make sure that 
 nothing has been left out. Items not wanted can be crossed 
 out, and others added in the vacant space, to suit individual 
 requirements.
 
 MO VNTAINEERING. 
 
 
 PACKING LIST. 
 
 
 Travelling Clothes. 
 
 Climbing Suit. 
 
 Tin-opener. 
 
 Travelling Cap. 
 
 Flannel Shirts. 
 
 Bags for Provisions. 
 
 Overcoat. 
 
 Knitted Waistcoat or 
 
 Ice Axe. 
 
 Waterproof Coat. 
 
 Jersey. 
 
 Rope. 
 
 Linen Shirts. 
 
 Stockings. 
 
 Spare Rope. 
 
 Underclothing. 
 
 Gaiters. 
 
 Lantern. 
 
 Pyjamas. 
 
 Knitted Anklets. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Socks. 
 
 Climbing Boots and 
 
 Goggles. 
 
 Boots. 
 
 Trees. 
 
 Knife. 
 
 Slippers. 
 
 Rubber Shoes. 
 
 Boot Laces. 
 
 Handkerchiefs. 
 
 Slippers. 
 
 String. 
 
 Comb and Brush. 
 
 Climbing Hat and 
 
 Sling for Axe. 
 
 Soap and Soap-box. 
 
 Guard. 
 
 Chain for Gaiters. 
 
 Sponge and Sponge- 
 
 Climbing Cap. 
 
 Wire Cutters. 
 
 
 
 Boot Nails. 
 
 bag. 
 
 Climbing Gloves. 
 
 
 
 
 Crampons. 
 
 Razors and Strop. 
 
 Felt Soles. 
 
 
 
 
 Compass. 
 
 Shaving Brush. 
 
 Muffler. 
 
 Aneroid. 
 
 Shaving Soap. 
 
 
 Telescope. 
 
 Tooth-brush and 
 
 Knapsack or Ruck- 
 
 Clinometer. 
 
 Powder. 
 
 sack. 
 
 Camera, etc. 
 
 Scissors. 
 
 Gourd. 
 
 Collecting Apparatus. 
 
 Clothes-brush. 
 
 Flask. 
 
 Tent. 
 
 Air Cushion. 
 
 Dampfschiflf. 
 
 Sleeping-bags. 
 
 Bath Towel. 
 
 Pocket-cup. 
 
 TTni-n 9\nr>nn. 
 
 Cooking Kit.
 
 OUTFIT. 
 
 Tinned Soups. 
 Tinned Meat. 
 Tinned Jam. 
 Tinned Fruits. 
 Kola Chocolate. 
 Acid Lemon Essence. 
 
 Passport. 
 Money. 
 Cheque Book. 
 Books. 
 
 Guide-Books. 
 Paper-Knife. 
 Maps. 
 Map Case. 
 Playing Cards. 
 Chess Board. 
 Drawing Materials. 
 Note Book. 
 Writing Paper. 
 Visiting Cards. 
 Pens and Pencils. 
 Ink 
 
 PACKING LIST. 
 
 Blotting Paper. 
 
 Labels. 
 
 Sewing Materials, 
 
 Ointment. 
 
 Dusting Powder. 
 
 Cocaine Solution. 
 
 Medicines. 
 
 Flexile Collodion. 
 
 Cotton-Wool. 
 
 Lint. 
 
 Bandages. 
 
 Plasters. 
 
 Safety-Pins.
 
 ALPINE GLOSSARY. 
 
 After each term the language to which it belongs, or from which it is 
 derived, is placed within parentheses. In the case of terms having a 
 general, as well as a special meaning, the latter alone is given in this 
 glossary. 
 
 ABFAHREN (German). To glissade. 
 
 ABGESCHNITTEN (German). Cut off. " Wir sind abgeschnitten " is 
 a phrase used by German-speaking guides when they reach a spot on 
 the descent from a peak or pass, from which further progress seems to be 
 impossible. Often used with regard to rock precipices, but also as 
 regards huge unbridged crevasses. 
 
 ABHANG (German). A slope. 
 
 AIGUILLE (French). A pointed peak, whether of snow or rock. 
 
 ALP (German). Mountain pastures. Never used of a peak, unless 
 of one which takes its name from the pastures at its foot. 
 
 ALPLER (German). One of the dheesemakers or herdsmen, who 
 inhabit the huts on an Alp in summer. 
 
 ARETE (French). A ridge ; specially one of the main ridges of 
 a peak. 
 
 AVALANCHE (French). A mass of ice or snow which is sliding or 
 falling down towards the valley ; used also of the remains thereof. 
 More rarely used of a fall of rocks. 
 
 BAITA (Italian). A shepherd's hat or shelter j even a cave in the 
 rocks. 
 
 BALM (German). A cave in the rocks. 
 
 BALME OR BAUME (French). A cave in the rocks. 
 
 BERGSCHRUND (German). An important variety of crevasse, viz. 
 the large crack at the point at which the steep upper ice or snow slopes 
 join the lower neve or glacier. A Bergschrund is almost always both 
 broad and long, and its upper edge is often considerably higher than 
 Us lower edge.
 
 ig6 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 BEWIRTHSCHAFTET (German). This term is used of a Club-hut 
 which is inhabited during the summer by a caretaker, who supplies 
 provisions, wood, and lodgings. A hut thus inhabited is on its way to 
 become a small mountain inn. Common in the Eastern Alps-. 
 
 BLATTE, in the plural BLATTEN (German). This is the patois 
 pronunciation of Platte, which see. 
 
 BRI&CHE (French). A narrow gap in a ridge. Often used as Col. 
 CABANE (French). Club-hxUs are so called in the Mont Blanc range : 
 in other parts of the French Alps this name is replaced by " Refuge." 
 
 CACHE (French). A hiding-place where lantern or provisions are 
 left on the way up a peak, to be picked up on the way down. 
 
 CAIRE (French). A name given in the Maritime Alps to certain 
 peaks. 
 
 CAIRN (English). A pyramid of stones, built in order to mark a 
 summit, a doubtful point on a route, or a cache. 
 
 CALOTTE (French). A snow cap, or dome. Specially used of 
 Mont Blanc. 
 
 CANALONE (Italian). A couloir, or gully. 
 CHEMINEE (French). A steep narrow gully in the rocks. 
 CHIMNEY (English). Same meaning as Cheminee. 
 CIMA and CIMON (Italian) or CIME (French). A peak, specially if 
 rounded. 
 
 CLAPIER (French). Same meaning as Geroll : the nearest English 
 equivalent is Screes. 
 
 CLUB-HUT (English). Same meaning as Clubhiitte. 
 CLUBHUTTE (German). A hut built by one of the foreign Alpine 
 Clubs for the use of travellers. It is sometimes " bewirthschaftet " 
 (see that term). Members of the Club to which the hut belongs 
 generally have a prior right to occupy it, but all travellers and guides 
 are allowed to make use of it, generally without paying any fee. 
 Sometimes the hut is kept locked, the keys being deposited at the 
 nearest village, or given to the local guides ; but they are generally 
 lent to bond fide travellers. 
 
 COL (French). A pass. The term is often wrongly applied now- 
 adays to any gap in a ridge, without regard to its accessibility on either 
 side ; but, strictly speaking, the essential point in a Col is that it can be 
 made into a pass, even though a difficult one. 
 COMBE (French). A lateral glen. 
 CORNICE (English). This term has two meanings ;
 
 ALPINE GLOSSARY. 197 
 
 (a) A mass of snow or ice, which projects from a ridge, thus 
 overhanging the slopes below it. 
 (l>) A narrow rock ledge. 
 
 CORNICHE (French). Same meanings as Cornice. 
 
 COULOIR (French). A gully or furrow in a mountain side. It is 
 sometimes filled with ice or snow, and is almost always more or less 
 exposed to falling stones or ice. 
 
 COUPES (French). The phrase "Nous sommes coupes" is the 
 equivalent, in the mouth of a French-speaking guide, for the "Wir 
 sind abgeschnitten " of his German-speaking colleague. (See under A.) 
 
 CRAMPONS (French). Climbing-irons (the old English name is 
 Cramp irons) ; specially those worn on the feet. 
 
 CRASTA (Romansch). A crest or ridge. 
 
 CREPACCIO (Italian). Same meaning as Crevasse. 
 
 CRETE (French). Properly means the crest of a ridge, though often 
 used of ridges generally. 
 
 CREVASSE (French). A rent, crack, or hole in a glacier. 
 
 CRODA (Italian). A term used in the Dolomites for rock ; e.g. 
 " croda morta," means rotten rock. 
 
 DAMPFSCHIFF (German). A large collapsable drinking-cup is so 
 called in Alpine slang. 
 
 DENT (French). A rocky tooth or peak. 
 
 DOME (French). A rounded snow summit. 
 
 EISBEIL (German). Ice-axe. 
 
 EISRINNE or SCHNEERINNE (German). A gully or couloir, filled 
 with ice or snow respectively. 
 
 ENGE (German). A narrow passage along rocks ; specially used of 
 two such passages near Grindelwald. 
 
 FACE (English). A mountain side. 
 
 FELSABFALL (German). A fall of rocks and the remains thereof. 
 
 FELSABSTURZ (German). Same meaning as Felsabfall. 
 
 FENETRE (French). A narrow gap or window in a ridge. 
 
 FERNER (German). The name given in the Eastern Alps to a glacier- 
 clad mass of mountains. 
 
 FEST (German). An exclamation meaning that the speaker has good 
 handhold or foothold, or both. 
 
 FIRN (German). Same meaning as Neve, which see. 
 
 FLUH (German). A cliff or precipice. Specially used of smooth 
 rock faces overhanging roads, villages, or huts.
 
 ig8 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 FOHN (German). A hot, south wind : it sometimes blows with great 
 force for two or three days at a time. 
 
 FRUITIER (French). A cheesemaker on the mountain pastures. 
 
 GABEL (German). Applied to a deeply-cut notch in a ridge, by 
 reason of its resemblance to a fork. 
 
 GENDARME (French). Used in Alpine slang for a rock tower or 
 tooth on a ridge, apparently barring the way. 
 
 GEROLL (German). Stones (not being great boulders) which cover a 
 slope. Much the same meaning as Clapier and Screes. 
 
 G!TE (French). A bivouacking place. 
 
 GLACIER (French). The outflow of the Neve or Firn, which is 
 pressed into ice and forms ice-streams in the valleys and hollows of 
 high mountains. Strictly speaking the term glacier is only applicable 
 below the snow-line; * but as "snow-covered glaciers" are constantly 
 spoken of, the term "naked glacier" has been used in this book for 
 that portion of a glacier which is not snow-covered. 
 
 GLACIER-TABLE (English). A large flat stone supported on a column 
 of ice. The ice below the stone has been protected from the sun's rays, 
 and has consequently not melted, while that around it has. 
 
 GLETCHER (German). Same meaning as glacier. 
 
 GLETSCHERABFALL (German). An avalanche produced by the fall 
 of a great fragment of ice from a glacier ; and the remains thereof. 
 
 GLETSCHERABSTURZ (German). An icefall. 
 
 GLISSADE (French). The mode of sliding down snow slopes adopted 
 by mountaineers. 
 
 GRABEN (German). A ravine swept by falling snow or rocks. It is 
 generally the bed of a wild mountain torrent. 
 
 GRAT (German). A ridge. 
 
 GRIFF (German). Handhold or foothold. 
 
 HANGING GLACIER (English). A glacier (generally small) which is 
 stuck on to the face of a mountain. It is independent of any other 
 glacier, though falls from it generally come to rest upon some larger 
 glacier below. 
 
 HEISSE PLATTE (German). A patch of bare rock, in the midst of an 
 icefall or of a steep ice or snow slope, over which avalanches constantly 
 fall. 
 
 HOMME DE PIERRES (French). Cairn. 
 
 HORN (German). A peak. 
 
 HiiBEL or HUGEL (German). A hillock, whether of earth or snow. 
 
 * Tyndall, " Forms of Water" (8th Ed.), P- 49-
 
 ALPINE GLOSSARY. 199 
 
 ICEFALL (English). A much torn and crevassed portion of a glacier, 
 due to a steep slope in the rocky bed on which it rests. 
 
 JocH (German). A pass ; its original meaning being yoke. 
 
 KAMM (German). A ridge or comb. 
 
 KAR (German). A Tyrolese name for a ravine or hollow. 
 
 KEES (German). A Tyrolese term for a glacier. 
 
 KLUFT (German). A crevasse. 
 
 KOFEL (German). A Tyrolese term for a rounded peak. 
 
 KUGEL (German). A rounded or flattened summit. 
 
 LAUINE or LAWINE (German). An avalanche. 
 
 LIMMI (German). A patois word used for a pass in the Gadmen valley. 
 
 LilCKE (German). A gap in a ridge which is, or may become, a pass. 
 
 MASSIF (French). A group of mountains. 
 
 MORAINE (French). Stones and debris brought down by a glacier. 
 These accumulations bear different names according to their position. 
 "As the glacier moves downwards, it carries with it the load deposited 
 upon it. Long ridges of debris thus flank the glacier, and these 
 ridges are called lateral moraines. Where two tributary glaciers join 
 to form a trunk-glacier, their adjacent lateral moraines are laid side by 
 side at the place of confluence, thus constituting a ridge which runs 
 along the middle of the trunk-glacier, and which is called a medial 
 moraine. The rocks and debris carried down by the glacier are finally 
 deposited at the lower extremity, forming there a terminal moraine" * 
 
 MORANR (German). Same meaning as Moraine. 
 
 MOULIN (French). This term is applied to the circular shoot or hole 
 produced by the rush of a stream from the surface of a glacier to the 
 rocky bed beneath. The water gradually enlarges the shoot, which, in 
 its origin, was simply a small crack in the glacier. 
 
 MUHLE (German). Same meaning as Moulin. 
 
 NVE (French). "The French term nivi is applied to the glacial 
 region above the snow-line." f It forms the reservoirs which feed the 
 lower glaciers. Practically nlvi is hardened snow. 
 
 OMETTO (Italian). Cairn. 
 
 OUILLE (French). A patois form of Aiguille, found in parts of the 
 Western division of the Graian Alps. 
 
 PALA (Italian). A term used in the Dolomites for summits which 
 are supposed to have rounded tops. 
 
 * Tyndall, " The Glaciers of the Alps," p. 263. 
 t TyndaJI, "Forms of Water," p. 49.
 
 200 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 PICKEL (German). Ice-axe. 
 
 PIGNE (French). A ridge or comb. 
 
 PIOLET (French). Ice-axe. 
 
 PITCH (English). A short, steep cliff, or projecting mass of rack in 
 ai gully or chimney, which cuts it into two parts, upper and lower. 
 
 PlTON (French). A ringed iron nail sometimes used by mountaineers 
 (described on p. 181). 
 
 Piz (Romansch). A peak. 
 
 PLAQUES (French). Smooth slabs of rock. 
 
 PLATTE, plural FLATTEN (German). Same meaning as Plaques. 
 
 PYRAMIDS (French). Cairn. 
 
 RANDKLUFT (German). Another name for Bergschrund. 
 
 RIB (English). A minor or secondary rock ridge. 
 
 RINNE (German). Couloir. 
 
 REFUGE (French). Club-hut, in all parts of the French Alps save 
 the chain of Mont Blanc. 
 
 RIFUGIO (Italian). Club-hut, in all parts of the Italian Alps. 
 
 RIMAYE (French). A name sometimes given to a crevasse, but 
 generally confined to a Bergschrund. 
 
 ROCHES MOUTONNEES (French). Glacier-polished rocks, rounded, 
 like sheep's backs. 
 
 ROGNON (French). A rounded rock. 
 
 ROTURE (French). An old-fashioned name for a Bergschrund. 
 
 RUCKSACK, also written RUCKSACK (German). A loose bag, which 
 many prefer to an ordinary stiff knapsack ; adopted from the Tyrol. 
 
 RUTSCHEN (German). To glissade. 
 
 RUTSCHPARTIE (German). A glissade. 
 
 SAND-CONE (English). A small cone of ice, which is covered by 
 small stones and debris : it results from the protection afforded by the 
 said debris against the sun's rays, while the ice around has melted. 
 
 SATTEL (German). A saddle or pass. 
 
 SCHARTE (German). A pass, or notch in a ridge. 
 
 SCHLAFPLATZ (German). A bivouacking place. 
 
 SCHNEEWACHTE (German). A snow cornice. 
 
 SCHRITT (German). A step, in the sense of a pace, or of a step cut. 
 
 SCHRUND (German). A crevasse. 
 
 SCREES (English). A slope of small loose stones. 
 
 SENN or SENNER (German). A cheesemaker on one of the mountain 
 pastures.
 
 ALPINE GLOSSARY. 201 
 
 SENNHUTTE (German). The hut inhabited by a Senn during the 
 summer. 
 
 SCRAGS (French). Towers or pinnacles of ice in an icefall. The name 
 comes from the appearance of cheese in one stage of its manufacture. 
 
 SNOUT (English). The lower end of a glacier. 
 
 SNOW-LINE (English). "There must exist a line where the quantity 
 of snow which falls is exactly equal to the quantity annually melted. 
 This is the snow-line" * The term is often used conventionally, and 
 somewhat indefinitely. 
 
 SPALT or SPALTE (German). A crevasse. 
 
 SPITZ or SPITZE (German). A peak in general, but often limited to 
 its highest point. 
 
 STAFFEL (German). A terrace or plateau on an alp. The Unter, 
 Mittel, and Ober Staffel huts on a mountain pasture are those used 
 seriatim in the upward progress of the cows during the summer, the 
 names indicating the relative height of each. 
 
 STEIGEISEN (German). Crampons. 
 
 STEINMANN, in the Eastern Alps generally STEINMANDL (German). 
 Cairn. 
 
 STUFE (German). A step on an ice or snow slope. 
 
 STUNDE (German). The distance which can be covered in an hour 
 by an average walker ; about three miles on the flat. 
 
 SUB-ALPINE (English). An adjective referring to the Alps below 
 the snow-line. 
 
 TAUERN (German). A pass over the main ridge of a group of 
 mountains. 
 
 THOR (German). A pass. 
 
 THORL (German). A pass over a lateral ridge of a group of moun- 
 tains. 
 
 THURM (German). A Gendarme. 
 
 TOUR (French). A Gendarme. 
 
 TRAVERSE (English). This term has two meanings as a verb, and 
 one as a noun. 
 
 (a) To cross a mountain slope horizontally. 
 
 (b) To ascend a peak by one route, and descend by another. 
 
 (c) A place where a mountain face is "traversed." 
 TRAVERSIEREN (German). Same meanings as Traverse (a and b). 
 TOBEL (German). A ravine like a Graben, but on a larger scale. 
 
 * Tyndall, " Forms of Water," p. 49.
 
 202 MOUNTAINEERING. 
 
 TRITT (German). A step in the sense of a pace : also applied to a 
 low rocky barrier or terrace, such as is often found between the snout 
 of a glacier and the floor of a valley, e.g. the Tschingeltritt. 
 
 UEBERHANG (German). A cornice. 
 
 UjA (Italian). Aiguille. 
 
 VARIATION (English). A modification of a route previously taken 
 by another party, but not sufficiently distinct to be reckoned itself as a 
 new route. 
 
 VERGLAS (French). A thin film of ice which glazes rocks. It is 
 due to the freezing of trickling water or recent rain, and is one of the 
 most treacherous and dangerous enemies of the climber. 
 
 VIRE (French). A winding rock ledge. 
 
 WALL (English). A steep slope or cliff of ice, snow, or rock. 
 
 WAND (German). Same meaning as Wall. 
 
 WEILER or WYLER (German). A small hamlet of a larger village. 
 
 ZINNE (German). A pinnacle, or pointed rock peak.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ACCIDENT, on Aig. du Gouter, 48 ; 
 on Brouillard Glacier, 37 ; on 
 Lyskamm, 38 ; on Haut de Cry, 
 29, 44 ; on Matterhorn, 26 ; on 
 the Meije, 24 ; causes of, 22 ; 
 relief in, 156 
 
 ADDRESSES, list of, 189 
 
 AIGUILLE DU GOUTER, accident 
 on, 48 
 
 ALPINE CLUB, constitution of, 10 ; 
 founded, 9 ; map, 141 
 
 ALPS, maps of, 139 
 
 ANEROIDS, 186 
 
 ANKLETS, 172 
 
 APHORISMS, Mr. Leslie Stephen's, 
 
 54 
 APPARATUS, photographic, etc., 
 
 186 
 ARCHITECTURE of the mountains, 
 
 87, 102 
 ARETES, 86 ; of snow and ice, 109 ; 
 
 of rock, 118 
 
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION, 156 
 ARVES, AIGUILLES D', reconnoitred, 
 
 117 
 ASCENDING, general remarks on, 
 
 87 ; on rock, 123 ; on snow and 
 
 ice, 109 
 AVALANCHES, ice, 42 ; snow, 44 
 
 BADDELEY'S " Guide to English 
 Lakes," 13 
 
 BAEDEKER'S "Guide to Switzer- 
 land," 138 
 
 BAGS for provisions, etc., 186 
 
 BALANCE, faculty of, 123 
 
 BALFOUR, PROFESSOR F. M., 
 accident, 25 
 
 BALL, MR. J., on sure-footedness, 
 33 ; " The Alpine Guide," 138 
 
 BALMAT, JACQUES, ascent of Mont 
 Blanc, 9 
 
 BEAUPRfe ascends Mont Aiguille, 7 
 
 BENNEN, JOSEPH, accident on Haut 
 de Cry, 29, 44 
 
 BERGSCHRUNDS, 107 
 
 BEVERAGES for Alpine expeditions^ 
 
 74 
 BLISTERS, on hands and feet, 161 - f 
 
 in frost-bite, 152, 154 
 BOOKS on Mountaineering, 142 
 BOOT-NAILS, 170 
 BOOTS, 170 
 BOURRIT, on Mountaineering, 5 ; 
 
 early climber and artist, 9 
 BOWLINE KNOT, 95, 96 
 BROUILLARD GLACIER, accident on, 
 
 37 
 BUET, first ascent of, 8 
 
 CAIRNS, routes marked by, 17 
 CAMPING OUT, 80 
 CANDLES for lantern, 183 
 CAPS for mountaineering, 169
 
 2O4 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CHALETS, sleeping in, 80 
 CHAMOIS TRACKS, 38 
 CHAMONIX, " Socie'te des Guides," 
 
 58 
 
 CHARMOZ, AIGUILLES DES, gen- 
 darmes on, 119 
 
 CLIMBING IRONS, 180 
 
 CLOTHES for Mountaineering, 166 
 
 CLOVE HITCH, 97 
 
 COAT, 167, 174 
 
 CODE OF RULES for mountaineers, 
 
 *35 
 
 COL DU GEANT first crossed, 9 
 
 COLS, 87 
 
 COMPASS, choice of, 180; use of, 14, 
 1 6, 51 
 
 CONSECUTIVE DAYS, climbing on, 
 84 
 
 CONWAY, MR. \V. M., on prismatic 
 compasses, 180 
 
 CONWAY AND COOLIDGE'S Climb- 
 ers' Guides, 139 
 
 COOKING OUTFITS, 186 
 
 COOLIDGE, REV. W. A. B., on 
 Alpine Literature, 142 ; on 
 Scheuchzer, 7 ; on Swiss Guide- 
 books, 137 
 
 CORNICES, 38, 42 
 
 CORRA, M., storm on Ecrins, 48 
 
 COULOIRS, 87, 109, 112, 118 
 
 CRAMP, 164 
 
 CRAMPONS, 180 
 
 CREVASSES, crossing, 104, 106 ; 
 falls into, 36, 105 ; general re- 
 marks on, 103 ; lie of, 37, 104 
 
 CUCHULLIN'S BLACK, climbing in, 
 19 ; map of, 20 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, MR. C. D., on 
 Alpine accidents, 21 
 
 CUTS, 157 
 
 DAMPFSCHIFFS, 184 
 
 DANGERS, general remarks on, 21 ; 
 
 classification of, 23 
 DAUPHIN ALPS, map of, 141 
 DEAFNESS from rarefied air, 164 
 DENT, MR. C. T., on amateur 
 
 guides, 130, 132 ; on broken 
 goggles, 148; on Skye, 20; on 
 thunderstorms, 51 
 
 DESCENDING, general remarks on, 
 87, 98 ; on rocks, 125 ; on snow, 
 
 112 
 
 DIFFICULTY distinguished from 
 
 danger, 23 
 
 DRINKING while climbing, 80 
 DRINKING-CUPS, 184 
 DUHAMEL'S Map of Dauphine 
 
 Alps, 141 
 
 EARLY START, 76 
 
 ECHO in fog, 51 
 
 ECRINS, POINTES DES, storm on, 48 
 
 EXHAUSTION, 155 
 
 EXPENSE of mountaineering, 66 
 
 EXPOSURE, danger of, 47, 152 
 
 FEET, blisters on, 161 ; sore, 162 
 FELT SOCKS, 170 
 FIELD-GLASSES, 186 
 FIGURE OF EIGHT KNOT, 95, 96 
 FINSTERAARHORN, first ascent of, 9 
 
 FlRN, IO2 
 
 FISHERMAN'S BEND, 93 
 
 FIXED ROPES, 126, 127 
 
 FLASKS for spirits, 183 
 
 FOG, to find way in, 16 
 
 FOHN-WIND, 32, 47 
 
 FORBES, PRINCIPAL, J. D., on 
 
 Windham, 8 ; Map of Mont 
 
 Blanc, 140 
 FROST-BITE, 151 
 
 GAITERS, 172 
 
 GARDINER, MR. F., ascent of 
 
 Meije, 130 ; on Mont Aiguille, 7 
 GENDARMES, 118 
 GESNER, an early climber, 7 
 GIDDINESS, 71 
 GIRDLESTONE, REV. A. G., on 
 
 guideless climbing, 129 
 GLACIERS, general remarks on, 101 
 GLACIER-WORN ROCKS, 116 
 GLISSADING, 112
 
 INDEX. 
 
 205* 
 
 GLOSSARY, 195 
 
 GLOVES, knitted, 173 
 
 GOGGLES, tinted, 185 
 
 GOURDS, 183 
 
 GRAIAN ALPS, Mr. Yeld's Map, 141 
 
 GRASS SLOPES, 34 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, climbing in, 12 
 
 GROVE, MR. F. C., on guideless 
 climbing, 130 
 
 GUIDE, choice of a, 64 
 
 GUIDES, Alpine, 55 ; amateur, 21, 
 130 ; classification of, 63 ; num- 
 ber required, 65 ; remuneration 
 of, 67 ; testimonial books, 55, 
 58 ; treatment of, 69 ; weak points 
 in good, 57 
 
 GUIDE - BOOKS, Ball's " Alpine 
 Guide," 138; Conway and 
 Coolidge's, 139; for climbers, 
 138 ; to English Lakes, 13 ; for 
 mountaineers, 138; Swiss, 137 
 
 GUIDELESS CLIMBING, 129; a cause 
 of accidents, 36 ; when justifiable, 
 132 
 
 GUIDING, BAD, a danger, 35 
 
 GUIDING INSTINCT, 61, 114, 131 
 
 GUIDING QUALITIES classified, 59 
 
 GULLIES, 87, 118 
 
 HANDS, blisters on, 161 ; sore, 162 
 
 HAEMORRHAGE, to arrest, 158 
 
 HASKETT-SMITH, MR., projected 
 guide-book, 13 
 
 HATS for mountaineering, 168 
 
 HAUT DE CRY, accident on, 29, 44 
 
 HINCHCLIFF, MR. T. W., on sleep- 
 lessness, 77 
 
 HISTORY of mountaineering, 6, n, 
 129 
 
 HUDSON, MR. CHAS., ascent of 
 Mont Blanc, 129 
 
 HUTS, ALPINE, sleeping in, So 
 
 ICE, general remarks on, 99, 101 
 ICE-AXE, 174 ; choice of, 177 ; man- 
 agement on rocks, 124 ; use in 
 step-cutting, no; sling for, 177 
 
 ICE-AXES pulled up by rope, 124 
 
 ICE-FALLS, 43, 103 
 
 IMFELD'S Map of Mont Blanc 
 
 range, 141 
 INCOMPETENCE a source of danger,, 
 
 26 
 IRELAND, climbing in, 19 
 
 JAMS, in tins, 188 
 
 JENKINSON'S "Guide to English 
 
 Lakes," 13 
 JERSEY, knitted, 173 
 JORASSES, GRANDES, cornice on, 43, 
 JUNGFRAU, first ascent of, 9 
 
 KENNEDY, Mr. E. S., ascent of 
 
 Mont Blanc, 129 
 KNAPSACKS, 
 KNICKERBOCKERS, 168 
 KNIFE, pocket, 184 
 KNOTS, 92 
 KOLA, 1 88 
 KURZ, M., on Aiguilles des Char 
 
 moz, 119 
 
 LADIES, mountaineering for, 86 
 
 LAKE DISTRICT, climbing in, 12 ; 
 guide-books, 13 ; maps of, 13 ; 
 in winter, 18 
 
 LANTERNS, 182 
 
 LENGTH OF EXPEDITIONS, remarks 
 on, 78 
 
 LIST of addresses, 189 ; of Alpine 
 books, 143 ; of Alpine dangers, 
 23 ; of mountaineering maxims, 
 135 ; for packing, 192 ; of pro- 
 visions, 75 
 
 LITERATURE, Alpine, 142 
 
 LONGMAN, MR. WM., on disused 
 snow passes, 8 
 
 LOOSE STONES, 52, 83, 120 
 
 DE Luc, J. & A., early climbers, 8, 9 
 
 LUGGAGE, 190 
 
 LYSKAMM, accident on, 38 
 
 MACGILLICUDDY REEKS, maps of, 
 19
 
 206 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 MAPS of the Alps, 139 ; of Cuchul- 
 
 lins, 20; of English Lakes, 13; 
 
 of Macgillicuddy Reeks, 19 ; of 
 
 Snowdon district, 19 ; oiled silk 
 
 cases for, 180 
 
 MAP AND COMPASS, use of, 14, 51 
 MARTEL, an early climber, 9 
 MASKS, 185 
 MATTHEWS, MR. C. E., on parties 
 
 of two, 27 j on solitary climbing, 
 
 27 
 
 MATTERHORN, accident on, 26 
 MEALS on mountain excursions, 78 
 MEATS in tins, 187 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL hints, 144 
 MEDICINES, 188 
 MEIJE, accident on, 24 ; ascent 
 
 without guides, 130 
 MIDDLEMAN-LOOP, 94, 95 
 MIEULET'S map of Mont Blanc 
 
 range, 140 
 
 MONT AIGUILLE, first ascent of, 7 
 MONT BLANC, ascent without guides, 
 
 129 ; early ascents of, 9 ; first 
 
 ascent of, 9 
 MONT BLANC RANGE, maps of, 
 
 140 
 MOUNTAIN ARCHITECTURE, 87, 
 
 IO2 
 
 MOUNTAIN-SICKNESS, 145 
 MOORE, MR. A. W., on Aiguilles 
 
 d'Arves, 117 
 MORAINES, 103 
 MURRAY'S " Guide to Switzerland," 
 
 J37 
 
 NAILS for boots, 170 
 NANTILLONS, GLACIER DES, seracs 
 
 on, 43 
 NETTLESHIP, MR., accident on Aig. 
 
 du Gouter, 48 
 NEVE, 102 
 
 NIGHT OUT, danger of, 49, 153 
 NOTE-TAKING, 85 
 
 ORDER OF GOING, remarks on, 92 
 OUTFIT, Alpine Club report on, 
 
 165 ; for Alpine climbing, 165 
 for British hills, 15, 1 8 
 OVERHAND KNOT, 93 
 
 PARTY, MOUNTAINEERING, number 
 of climbers in, 91 
 
 PATERSON'S "Guide to Switzer- 
 land," 138 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY, 85 
 
 PILATUS, early ascents of, 7 
 
 PILKINGTON, MR. C., his map of 
 Cuchullins, 20 ; on Skye, 20 ; on 
 solitary rambling, 16 
 
 PILKINGTON, MESSRS. C. & L., 
 ascent of Meije, 130 
 
 PITON, 126, 181 
 
 PLANS, 70; effect of weather on, 71 
 
 PLAQUES, 116 
 
 FLATTEN, 116 
 
 POCKET-KNIFE, 184 
 
 POCOCKE AND WlNDHAM, visit to 
 
 Chamonix, 8 
 
 PORTERS, Alpine, 58, 63, 64, 67 
 PRIOR'S- " Guide to English Lakes," 
 
 13 
 
 PRISMATIC COMPASS, 180 
 PROVISIONS for Alpine expeditions, 
 
 72 ; for camping out, 81 ; list of, 
 
 75 ; preserved, 187 
 RECONNOITRING, 89 
 REILLY, MR. ADAMS, map of 
 
 Italian valleys, 141 ; map of 
 
 Mont Blanc range, 140 
 RELIEF EXPEDITIONS, 155 
 RESTS during Alpine expeditions, 
 
 80 
 ROCHE MELON, thunderstorm on, 
 
 52 
 ROCK CLIMBING, general remarks 
 
 on, 114, 128; hints on, I2O 
 ROCKS, climber's classification, 1 16 ; 
 
 " condition " of, 116; ice-glazed, 
 
 32, 1 18 ; glacier-worn, 1 16 j rotten, 
 
 34. I* 6 
 
 ROPE, general remarks, 92, 178 ; 
 bad, 29 ; choice of, 178 ; care of, 
 179 ; dangers connected with, 28 ;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 207 
 
 length needed, 179; rules for 
 using, 37, 97, 105, 136; fixed, 
 126, 127 ; choice of spare, 179; 
 use of spare, 124, 126, 128 
 
 " ROPED " MOUNTAINS, 127 
 
 ROUTE- FINDING, faculty of, 60, 61 
 
 RUCKSACKS, 182 
 
 RULES, CODE OF, for mountaineers, 
 
 135 
 RusKiNon Mountaineering, 6 
 
 SCHEUCHZER, an early climber, 8; 
 
 on dragons, 145 
 SCOTLAND, climbing in, 19 
 SEARCH PARTIES, 155 
 SEASON for climbing, 29 
 SCRAGS, 43, 103 
 SHIRT, flannel, 169 
 SHOES, 172 
 SKETCHING, 85 
 SKYE, climbing in, 19 
 SLEEPINESS on the mountains, 78 
 SLEEPING-BAGS, 186 
 SLEEPING OUT, 80 
 SLEEPLESSNESS, remarks on, 77 
 SLING, for ice-axe, 177 
 SLIP a common cause of accidents, 
 
 33 
 
 SLIPPERS, 172 
 SMITH, ALBERT, ascent of Mont 
 
 Blanc, 9 
 SNOW, general remarks on, 99 ; 
 
 avalanchy, 45, 101 ; "condition" 
 
 of, 100; crusted, IOO 
 SNOW-BLINDNESS, 146 
 SNOWDON DISTRICT, climbing in, 
 
 19 ; maps of, 19 
 SOCKS, felt, 170 
 SOLITARY CLIMBING, 27 
 SOUPS, preserved, 188 
 SPARE ROPE, choice of, 179; use 
 
 of, 124, 126, 128 
 SPECTACLES, tinted, 185 
 SPEED CLIMBING, 84 
 SPIRIT-FLASK, 183 
 SPOON, horn, 184 
 SPRAINS, 159 
 
 STARTING, from a hotel, 76 ; from 
 
 a hut, 82 ; necessity for early, 76 ; 
 
 preparations for, 76 
 STEP-CUTTING, no 
 STEPHEN, MR. LESLIE, aphorisms, 
 
 54 ; on code of rules, 135 ; on 
 
 falling stones, 52 
 STOCKINGS, 169 
 STONES, falling, 52 ; loose, 52, 83, 
 
 1 20 
 STORMS, 50 
 SUNBURN, 149 
 SURE-FOOTEDNESS, acquirement of, 
 
 33 
 
 SURGICAL hints, 157 
 
 SUSPENDED ANIMATION, treatment 
 
 of, 156 
 SWITZERLAND, Guide-books to, 137 
 
 TARIFFS for mountain excursions, 
 
 66 
 
 TEA, COLD, how to make, 74 
 TELESCOPES, 186 
 TELESCOPE, use of, 90 
 TEMPLE BAR MAGAZINE on choice 
 
 of comrades, 26 
 TENTS, 186 
 TESTIMONIAL-BOOKS, guides', 55, 
 
 58,64 
 
 THROAT, inflamed, 164 
 THUNDERSTORMS, 51 
 TIN OPENERS, 185 
 TITLIS, first ascent of, 8 
 TRAINING, hints on, 71 ; want of, 
 
 a danger, 24 
 TRAVERSING, general remarks on, 
 
 88 ; on rocks, 127 ; on snow and 
 
 ice, III 
 TUCKETT, MR., thunderstorm on 
 
 Roche Melon, 52 
 Two PARTIES on same mountain, 
 
 83 
 
 Two ON A ROPE, danger of, 26 
 TYNDALL, PROF., on sleeplessness, 
 
 77 
 VELAN, first ascent of, 9
 
 208 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 VERGLAS, 32, 118 
 VIOLLET-LE-DUC'S Map of Mont 
 Blanc range, 141 
 
 WAISTCOAT, 168, 173 
 
 WALES, climbing in, 18 
 
 WATERPROOF COAT, 174 
 
 WEATHER for climbing, 30, 32 ; 
 guides' conduct in bad, 57 ; dan- 
 ger of bad, 30, 51, 152 ; effect on 
 mountain of bad, 31 ; effect on 
 plans of bad, 71 
 
 WETTERHORN, ascent from Grindel- 
 wald, 9 ; cornice on, 43 
 
 WHYMPER, MR. E., on Aiguille 
 
 d'Arves, 117; on aneroids, 186; 
 
 on difficulty and danger, 23 
 WILLS, MR. JUSTICE, ascent of 
 
 Wetterhorn, 9 ; on steep grass, 
 
 35 ; on storms, 50 
 
 WlNDHAM AND FOCOCKE, visit to 
 
 Chamonix, 8 
 
 YELD, MR. G., Map of Graians, 
 141 
 
 ZSIGMONDV, DR. E., accident on 
 Meije, 24; on thunderstorms, 51 
 
 9 
 *J- 
 
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