HN Or /Id GIFT OF GIFT M-AR 28 1917 The University of Oregon Bulletin New Series AUGUST Vol. XIII No. 14 A Rural Survey of Lane County, Oregon By FRED C. AYER and HERMAN N. MORSE Issued by the Extension Division University of Oregon Published semi - monthly by the UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, and entered at the postoffice at Eugene, Oregon, as second -class matter TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Foreword 3 Part I. A General View of the Field 4-20 Chapter 1. Introducing Lane County 4 Chapter 2. Varied Economic Resources 11 Chapter 3. The Agricultural Resources and Industry 13 Part II. Population and Social Life 20-38 Chapter 1. Number, Distribution and Composition of Population 20 Chapter 2. The Making of a Community 22 Chapter 3. The Social Organizations 29 Chapter 4. Some Community Characteristics 33 Chapter 5. Pleasant Hill 35 Part III. Religious Life and Institutions 38-70 Chapter 1. General Characteristics of the Religious Situation.. 38 Chapter 2. The Number and Distribution of Churches 43 Chapter 3. Material, Equipment and Finance 45 Chapter 4. Membership 49 Chapter 5. Gain and Loss 51 Chapter 6. Effects of Competition Upon Church Efficiency. 55 Chapter 7. Organization in the Churches 57 Chapter 8. The Church Program 59 Chapter 9." The Minister 62 Chapter 10. General Conclusions and Recommendations , 67 Part IV. Education 71-109 Chapter 1. Foreword 71 Chapter 2. Adjustment to Geographical Conditions Chapter 3. Instruction and the Course of Study Chapter 4. Buildings, Grounds, Equipment and Miscellaneous Items 86 Chapter 5. State, County and District Functions 93 Chapter 6. Centralization of Authority 95 Chapter 7. County Organization 99 Chapter 8. Finances 104 Chapter 9. Final Recommendations 108 A RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY, OREGON BY FRED C. AYER and HERMAN N. MORSE Published by the Extension Division University of Oregon MAP OF OREGON LANE COUNTY, THE SUBJECT OF THIS SURVEY, SHOWN IN BLACK, IS ABOUT THE SIZE OF CONNECTICUT The Extension Division of the University of Oregon presents this, the first rural social survey to be undertaken of any county in the State, in the hope that both matter and method will be of service to students of country and small town social conditions in Oregon and elsewhere, and that the facts herp."cQllecte v d/apther sections, that as far as the small town and country are concerned, to confine ourselves to that aspect of the problem, the pastor is by all odds his own best evangelist. Next in importance in the consideration of the program of the church is the social work which is carried on. Most of this work can be summed up under three heads. First, there is a considerable amount of social life developed as a regular part of the year's work of various auxiliary organizations in the church and carried on with no apparent secondary motive. Under this head we would include Sunday School picnics and class socials and a considerable proportion of the activities of the various young people's societies, which in most cases are important for the members of those organizations only. In two or three instances such organizations exerted a controlling influence over the social activities of their communities. Second, we may note that there is an amount of social life centering around the celebration of such annual holidays as Christmas, New Year's, Hallowe'en, and similar occasions. In these the communities at large are much more apt to unite than in the events above referred to. Third, there is here as alsewhere, a considerable use made of various kinds of social functions as money-raising devices and more than one preacher is paid by a pie social or ladies' bazaar. To a very slight extent does it seem to be the aim of most of the churches to furnish adequate social life for the whole community, although without doubt the social activities of the churches are most severely tested when considered in relation to the general problem of community amusement. In our discussion of the general social life we had occasion to record the great prevalence of dancing as a form of amusement and also to note that there was a very considerable use of Sunday as a day of recreation. Most of the churches of the county feel that their influence is limited and their work hampered by these tendencies of which most of them openly disapprove. It will at once appear that this feeling might give rise to two possible attitudes. One would be for the church to go bludgeoning after the amusements of which they disapprove with a club. Such an effort is almost never successful and the negative RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 61 attitude of the church toward the amusement problem is the one out- standing reason why most of the churches have so little social influence. A pitched battle between a church, particularly a weak and struggling church and, for example, a community dance hall, is a very unequal contest with the odds in favor of the dance hall. There are a number of instances in the county of languishing or dead churches in close proximity to flourishing dance halls, not to mention the one case in which the church died and the building subsequently became the dance hall. The other possible attitude is for the church to proceed by indirec- tion and undermine the amusements of which it disapproves by satisfying the needs which they satisfy and doing it better, or by monopolizing those amusements, where it can do so conscientiously, and conducting them under auspices to which no exception can be taken. This attitude requires a wise and resident leadership, which as we shall see is far too often lacking, and a more adequate equipment than most of the churches at present possess. It is a short step from the consideration of the relation of the church to the amusement problem to the consideration of its relation to many other kinds of community problems. It should no longer be necessary to argue that whatever concerns the welfare of the community concerns also the welfare of the church, its most voluntary and sensitive institu- tion. A good many of the churches which we are considering are so organized and so conducted that they have practically no relation to any community problem outside of the problem of maintaining their own special religious work. Other churches concern themselves with certain community problems, but they limit that concern very largely to three types of problems; the amusement problem and the problem of Sunday observance, which we have just mentioned, and the temperance problem. The churches played an active and effective part in the campaign which was successfully waged last year for State-wide prohibition, and have in the past played a very effective part in the campaign for local prohibition. This work is important, but it by no means encompasses the full duty of the church toward the problems of its community. There has been developed the very slightest connection between the churches as a whole and the basic social and economic problems with which the county is concerned. Something of a start has been made, but it only serves to define the extent of the task. For example, the Methodist Episcopal Church at Goshen, a small, weak organization, com- bined with another weak church under the care of a minister who is supported by farming and not by his ministry, has made a start in this direction and the minister has this year opened his pulpit to various men who are concerned with the improvement of the social and economic life of the country. But the church as a whole has today, and has had in the past, far less influence than either the school or the grange in the matter of arousing community interest and sentiment and organizing and directing it to good ends. 62 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY CHAPTER 9 THE MINISTER The organization centers around the man and we cannot get far in the matter of improving religious conditions without considering the number, the status and the qualifications of the men who are primarily charged with the direction of religious work. Of the one hundred and five points, eleven were without pastoral service at the time of the survey. These eleven were most of them occasionally served by ministers or students residing in the county, or otherwise available, but not regu- larly employed. We will consider, therefore, ninety-four points having regular pastoral service. These ninety-four points were served last year by fifty-four men. We must first consider the question of the distribution of ministerial service, using the church rather than the minister as a unit. Thirty-five of these churches were served by men who combined some other employment with the ministry, being farmers, students or business men. In twenty-three of these cases the men so employed had a single preaching point. In eight the churches were arranged in groups of twos, while four churches were on circuits of three churches each, two churches outside the county bounds completing the circuits. Fifty-nine churches were served by men giving their entire time to the ministry, but they divided the time of these ministers amongst them as follows: Four had the full time of a minister; twenty- two had half time; seventeen had one-third time; ten had one-fifth time and six were combined under the ministry of a single man. These same ninety-four churches which had a measure of pastoral service may be classified with respect to the residence of the pastor as follows: Thirty-three had a pastor resident in the immediate environment of the church, while in twelve other instances the pastor though not residing in the immediate environs, nevertheless lived within the limits of the logical community of which the specified preaching point was a part. Forty-five could therefore be said to have had resident ministers. In eleven of these instances, however, the minister, though resident, com- bined the ministry with some other employment. Forty-nine churches were served by non-resident ministers, men who resided neither in the immediate vicinity of the preaching point nor within the larger com- munity of which it was a part. At one time the Eugene Commercial Club popularized the phrase, "Eugene, the City of Radiation." A glance at the map on page 63 would show the force of that phrase, as applied to religious conditions, since twenty-two of the ninety-four points which we are considering were served from Eugene, the men residing there and radiating out in all directions on a Sabbath morning and radiating back on a Sabbath night. Considering the same questions from the point of view of the men rather than of the churches, we learn that of the fifty-four ministers in the county having regular appointments, twenty-five gave their full time to the ministry, while twenty-nine combined the ministry with some other form of employment. The distribution of these men RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 63 'The C,r of Rad.af.on.' amongst the various fields we may indicate by the following table, for convenience referring to the two groups of ministers as full time and part time ministers: Full Time Ministers 4 1 2 6 2 1 25 Part Time Ministers Having one preaching point 23 Having two preaching points 4 ...Having three preaching points Having five preaching points Having six preaching points Total It is important to notice that of the twenty-seven ministers who it will be seen served each only one point, twenty-three divided their time between two occupations, while of the twenty-five ministers who gave their whole time to the ministry twenty-one divided that time between two or more preaching points. The phrase, "ministerial vivisection," which we have frequently been moved to employ, seems most aptly to characterize this situation. Of course, merely to say that a man has more than one preaching point does not in itself give any clear notion of the character of his parish. Eight of the twenty-five full time ministers who had more than one point have fairly logical and workable parishes. This, however, leaves thirteen full time ministers whose parishes in their physical makeup have no justification from the com- munity point of view. It is hardly necessary to add that the work of 64 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY the ministry is of sufficient importance and involves a sufficient amount of work to logically call for the full time of a man, although doubtless there are instances in which it does not pay enough to warrant the giving of the full time, and although also it cannot be doubted that there are kinds of missionary and extension work in which part time men can be utilized to very good advantage. A perfectly justifiable expedient is, however, here seriously overworked. All the full time ministers are resident within their parishes, although when their parishes contain two or more communities they cannot very well be resident near each of their churches. Of the twenty-nine part time ministers, eleven reside in their parishes and eighteen do not. Such a system as we have outlined above is made possible only by a narrow and relatively profitless conception of the function of the church, since the very laying out of the field prearranges the limits to the work which can possibly be attempted. These limits it is needless to say are much too restricted. The question will always be asked, "what, then, would you do with those weak points which cannot afford the full time of a minister? Isn't such service as they could receive under this system better than no service at all?" It is not entirely clear that such service is better than none at all, but in any event the question does not admit of a simple answer, for it raises many problems. For one thing, many of the points now without adequate service could support a minister if they were properly arranged according to com- munity limits and if the religious forces within those community limits were united, or if they could receive for a time a sufficient amount of outside help to make possible a policy of promotion. Further, merely as a question of home mission polity, it is doubtful if it is desirable or wise even in a growing country to so extend the religious work that only indifferent results can be achieved at any point and so that at no point will strong self-supporting work be created, and so that the minister has no opportunity to relate himself helpfully to the general problems of any community. In various instances the maintenance of existing arrangements is justifiable only on most narrowly denomina- tional grounds. The citation of a few specific cases will suffice to make this problem clear. You may take first the towns of Franklin and Alvadore, distant about three miles from each other, northwest of Eugene, and the points of Hendricks and Stafford on the Mohawk River, some distance northeast of Eugene. No stretch of the imagination could possibly include all these points within the limits of a single community. Alvadore has one church, a Christian Church, served by a man who partially supports himself by farming. This same minister has also a church in Franklin. Franklin has a second church, Methodist Episcopal South, with a resident pastor. This pastor combines his work at Franklin with the care of organizations in Hendricks and Stafford. Hendricks in addition to its Methodist Episcopal Church South has also a Christian Church, which is served by a professor from the Eugene Bible University. Another instance: Wendling, Marcola, Mabel, Donna RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 65 and Camp Creek are united in one Methodist Episcopal appointment. The first four of these points do combine fairly well in a single com- munity. Marcola and Donna have also Christian Churches which are under the care of a minister living near Marcola, who supports himself entirely by farming. Mabel has a Brethren Church, the minister of which is supported partially by home mission funds and partially by 66 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY working in the mill. Creswell, on the Southern Pacific, south of Eugene, has four churches: Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Baptist and Christian. The pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church has attached to his work there the country charge of Cloverdale, a logical arrangement. The Presbyterian minister has appointments at Walker, where there is a Primitive Baptist Church, and at School No. 9 on the Camus Swale, northwest of Creswell, not so compact a parish, but one that is still reasonably workable. The Christian Church is cared for by a student at the University of Eugene and the Baptist Church is cared for by a farmer living just out of Eugene. The general territory surrounding the Middle Fork of the Willamette affords another instance. In this whole territory are four churches served from Eugene; one church served by a resident man who is not supported by his ministry, and five churches combined on a circuit of one full time minister. All but one of these points are within a radius not to exceed six miles. As the last example we may take the towns of Irving and Santa Clara, a very short distance from each other, north of Eugene. Irving has a Methodist Episcopal Church, served by a student from Willamette University; a United Brethren Church, served by a student from Philo- math College, and an abandoned Christian Church. Santa Clara has a Christian Church, served by a student from the University at Eugene, and these two points together comprise one of the best and most prosper- ous farming communities in the county. It is probably not necessary to add any words of explanation to this bare statement of fact. The salaries paid for ministerial services further illuminate the whole matter, as may be inferred from the appended table: Full Time Part Time Ministers Ministers Receiving salary of $0.00 , Receiving salary of $250.00 or less 1 Receiving salary of $251.00 to $500.00.. Receiving salary of $501.00 to $750.00.. Receiving salary of $751.00 to $1,000.00 7 Receiving salary of $1,001.00 and over Amount of salary unknown.... Total 25 29 The average cash salary of the twenty-three full time ministers is $665.00, nineteen of them also receiving free house rent. There is an old saying that the gospel should be free, but one would hardly assert that it should be as free as the above table would seem to indicate. These salaries paid are merely an indication of the support given the whole work and they indicate the vicious circle within which many small points are confined. We are told, and with truth, that many of these points cannot raise more funds for the support of their ministers until the work is built up. We know that the work will never be built up until more money is available for the maintenance of a better prepared and more adequately supported resident ministry, but if one cannot get better service without more money and cannot raise more money without better service, it will be seen that we have here a very nice problem of home mission polity. RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 67 The permanence of the working force is very closely related to the question of finance, for it is inevitable that these weaker churches should have to accustom themselves to an endless procession of ministers. One church whose record is available experienced sixteen different min- isters in fifteen years. There are some others which doubtless have done even better than this. The exact figures are of interest: Full Time Part Time Ministers Ministers Serving present parish 1 year or less 8 19 Serving present parish 2 years 5 1 Serving present parish 3 to 5 pears 11 5 Serving present parish 6 to 10 years 1 4 Total 25 29 The reason why some of the part time ministers have remained so long in their parishes is that they own property there. The record on the whole is not one that would make us expect very much continuity of program. Lastly, we may consider a question which is primarily subjective and in connection with which we can only venture an opinion, based on a study of the church work and on conversations with the ministers themselves. This is as to the number of the men who are by tempera- ment, viewpoint and training equipped to render community service; the men, that is to say, who view their problems in a large way, who see the fundamental implications, who are cooperative, open, and in a measure progressive. Many of the men working under serious handicaps are capable of much better things than their circumstances permit them to achieve. At least twelve of the full time ministers are men whom one would not hesitate to commend. The remaining number, however, at one point or another fail to encompass their full task in their thinking of it and in their planning for it and hold out very little hope for more adequate methods. CHAPTER 10 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Reverting again to the two-fold division of the problem with which we opened the discussion of this section, we may recall that the question of developing religious work in a territory such as we are here consider- ing involves two sides; the one, the problem of equipment and main- tenance of the local work; the other, and fundamental problem, the problem of the larger statesmanship involved. As to the local churches it is clear that a bare statement of condition, disregarding the causes involved, must be to the effect that they are weak on the side of organization; that their financial methods are poorly organized and very inadequate and that they are characterized by a narrow point of view, and a restricted program of work. They need a four-square program of community development. We need the type of church that can fairly be called a community church, a church which views its primary mission as the upbuilding of the community in the interests of 68 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY the Kingdom; which views it as a part of that task to advance every community interest, and to discourage whatever would retard the development, and which is concerned with the organization and the direction to good ends of community interest and feeling. As to the field as a whole we need first, an inquiry into the social and economic, as well as religious justification of every existing organi- zation. With this should go an inter-denominational agreement to abandon needless or harmful organizations, an agreement which would refer also to future development and expansion. On these points we must do some clear and hard thinking. As a side issue to this we need a better defined policy of ministry to the various scattered groups of the county. Lastly, we need a well prepared and adequately supported, a full time, a resident and permanent pastorate, one man to one parish of all contiguous and related territory. Lacking these things, the work will continue to be inefficient, costly and wasteful. As a concluding example we may refer to a point, which though not in this county was included in this survey, which throws the whole thing into clear relief. This is a farming community whose topography definitely outlines its limits and within which there is a considerable population in reasonably good circumstances. This community has had both the means and the inclination to organize and develop a fine consolidated grammar school and an equally fine consolidated high school. With this brief statement as a background let us note that its religious history began something more than a half century ago, with the organization of a Baptist Church which promptly died. A Methodist Episcopal Church came to attend the funeral and also died and its funeral rites were read by a Holiness Church, which shortly took its place beside the other two. Later there came into the community somewhat by accident a minister of the Cum- berland Presbyterian faith, who organized a church there. His work for a time prospered and the church after four or five years reached a point of strength which it has at no time since approached. In course of time this Cumberland Church became a Presbyterian Church U. S. A., which dwindled steadily. In an interim of service when it was unusually quiescent an Evangelical Church was established in the community. The pastor of this church labored alongside the Presbyterian Church for a number of years and became disgusted and left. The last experiment which the Presbyterian Church macle in the way of maintaining a pastor proved very unsuccessful, as the man was entirely unfitted to his task. For sometime there was no pastor in the community. At the time of the survey the Baptist denomination was considering the resuscitation of its ancient dead and the establishment of a pastor there. A bare handful of church people were available to launch the movement, and what the future may be does not yet appear. That this record of futility can be lightly viewed is unthinkable and yet in an extreme degree it indicates the character of much of the development throughout this territory. RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 69 RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is obvious that the ultimate future of most of the churches in this type of country depends upon agriculture as an industry. The churches should therefore promote sound and permanent agriculture as a foundation of organized piety. Ministers should study the agricultural problems of their communities, acting as local agents of the work of the County Farm Adviser. They should preach often from the Old Testament the splendid appeal "Behold I have set the land before you." The churches should invite the meetings of farmers, for it is plain that from days onward the church lives only in a firm, permanent population, the basis of which will be productive and profitable agriculture. Profit and satisfaction will be secured through cooperation first of all, there- fore, the churches must teach obedience, the lesson taught on every Bible page, in order that their people may possess this new land so like in many ways to the Promised Land; the winning of which required the cooperation of God and his people. 2. The making of churches is the second greatest task of godly people in this county; and the making of churches is accomplished along with the making of communities. We recommend the careful tracing of community lines, in this survey, to the attention of all Christian people. The church can be made only as an expression of the community. The time has not yet come for church-making in some places; in others the time is at hand, as this study shows, and there the intensive development of strong congregations should be the work of the immediate future. The various types of communities in Chapter Three should be treated according to their differing natures. Personal evangelism is needed for the first, second, fourth and eighth classes. For the second, fifth, sixth, and seventh classes definite measures should be taken to develop strong churches. The great problems of the future are in these communities. 3. We recommend, therefore, the promotion of a limited number of churches, in communities of the second, fifth and sixth classes, by the missionary organizations, in use of funds hitherto devoted only to extension work. This will mean that those denominations which have live organized churches in such communities shall place in each a settled, resident pastor, with a house for him to live in and an adequate salary and shall direct him to develop that church with regular, once a week services. These pastors are the key to the religious problem of the county. It is more important to place and maintain one of them than to support two absentee missionaries; and these pastors may also be missionaries so far as is consistent with thorough development of the one field of which each is the resident, responsible man of God. For a time these men will have to be supported out of missionary funds; and not all of them will succeed; but they and their type of work possess the key to the future. 4. We recommend above all in this county the establishment of a certain number, even though it be a small number for some years to 70 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY come, of community churches. The survey shows that the county enjoys several lines of rather high development; but religion is not one of them. The churches are inferior to several other types of community organization. They should be improved in kind. The time has passed for increasing their number. A new standard of church life should be exemplified. It is not necessary to recommend measures. for reducing the number of small churches. They will die of themselves. The people of Oregon are practical, and prompt is the demise of the useless church. It is, however, important to establish the useful church, rightly located, served by an educated resident minister, well supported, giving his whole life to his people, interested in the cordial social life of the county, practical and fore-sighted in promoting the solid welfare of a land-owning people, and so of the Church of Christ. Such a pastor in such a church is the master of the future of the county and the community church, growing out of his work, will solve the problems of overlapping and neglect. SCENE ON THE SHORE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN LANE COUNTY RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 71 PART IV EDUCATION BY FRED C. AYER Professor of Education, University of Oregon CHAPTER 1 FOREWORD The following account is the result of an attempt to present the educational situation in Lane County, Oregon, with particular reference to its rural aspects. A view of the schools of Lane County at work. was obtained by personal inspection of all districts which were operating high schools, and of representative groups of the several classes of districts which were conducting grade schools. In these visits no attempt was made to rate separately the quality of individual teachers or schools. The point of view at all times has been one looking at the school system as a whole, and individual units of the system have been considered only as they may have exhibited the salient characteristics of the general system, or the manner in which it is being conducted. A second and fertile source of material was found in the various statistics which have been accumulated annually by the county and State educational authori- ties. While not ideal, the availability of this important material is distinctly superior to that of the majority of states in the Union. As a check upon each of the foregoing sources of material, an elaborate set of questions was sent to the head of each school in the county. The questions called for specific information concerning ground and material equipment, teaching force, pupils, studies, the daily program, libraries, the school as a social center, and a number of miscellaneous items. One hundred and fifty-six replies were received out of a possible one hundred and eighty-five, which, despite the many details called for, were almost without exception filled in accurately and completely. Some twenty-five detailed district maps were assembled as the result of a prize cup offered for the best educational map of a single school district. These were particularly illuminating in showing the geographical distribution of the school population. Special mention should be made of indebtedness due to Mr. E. J. Moore, County Superintendent of Schools; Mr. A. I. O'Reilly and Miss Jennie Bossen, County Supervisors, for ever ready assistance, and to Mr. Earl Kilpatrick, Assistant Dean of the Extension Division of the University of Oregon, who has at all times contributed to the progress of the survey. Great assistance in the compilation of certain important statistics has been given by a number of advanced students in the Department of Education in the University of Oregon. The large debt \vhich is due to Mr. H. N. Morse for his assistance to this phase of the survey is too evident to need additional mention here, but is most heartily acknowledged. There is a large amount of sociological material which relates very closely to educational problems which is not included in the account which follows, but which is presented by Mr. Morse in the earlier chapters 72 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY and to which frequent reference will be made. Attention is called to the fact that while a certain amount of descriptive material has been presented in the following account, no attempt has been made to cover the field from this point of view. The aim throughout the work has been chiefly toward administrative aspects of the present system of county education, and to this end is given the bulk of the material which follows. CHAPTER 2 ADJUSTMENT TO GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS If the reader will recall what has been said in an earlier chapter concerning the size and topography of Lane County, he will be in a THIRTY MILES FROM EUGENE UP THE McKENZIE RIVER RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 73 SIXTY MILES FROM EUGENE ON TIDEWATER proper mental attitude to appreciate the statement that its chief educa- tional problem is one of geography. It is true, indeed, that soil and topography determine in large degree the life and welfare of counties and countries everywhere, and that the school, as the chief agency in adjusting the race to continuous control of its remade environment, must everywhere adapt itself specifically to its immediate surroundings. It is rarely, however, that a system of schools is called upon to adapt itself within the limits of a single county to climatic and other geographical conditions so diversified in character as those which exist within the area under consideration. Without attempting to review what already has been given, it may be said in a few words that Lane County is a huge forest spread over the vast areas which comprise two separate mountain ranges the Coast and the Cascades. Upon the lower slopes and within the valleys of these two major and innumerable minor ranges, the forest gives way to the field, and the industries of civilization supplant the unfettered growth of the primeval. Some of this civilization is old. Within the Willamette Valley, grandfathers are common who were born within the county. Social life in its conventions and aspirations, as well as in its more concrete embodiments in schools and churches, and colleges and universities, has taken on all of the stability and much of the inertia that go with age everywhere. Between this comparatively old civilization within and the wilderness everywhere beyond, has been going on, and still continues, the world-wide process of pioneering, settlement and absorption of the frontier into the interior. Thus social variation exists all the way from a complexly organized university city down to the solitary herder or hunter in the hills. Let us now consider the matter from another aspect. The Pacific Ocean lies at the western boundary of the county, and fosters the typical coast and beach life upon its shores. Between the coast and the heights 74 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY of the Coast Range and lying chiefly on the western slopes, is a forest country of exceedingly heavy rainfall. Down the eastern slopes of the Coast Range, the forest gradually thins out into the broad Willamette Valley a fertile plain which includes the larger part of the population of the county. The climate is mild the year 'round and subject to moderately heavy rainfall. Going farther east, the traveler comes to the vast forests of the western slopes of the Cascade Range, through and over which there are but few, and these difficult, passable avenues of travel. Beyond the Cascades is a high plateau of little rainfall, and possessed of the vegetation which is characteristic of the dry or desert sections of this country. From western to eastern boundary of Lane County are to be found floral and faunal areas with plants and animals typical of the coldest arctic and the warmest tropical regions, and representatives of regions of the heaviest rainfall on the one hand, and the most xerotic desert on the other. Let us now consider the school system which has developed under these variable and changing conditions. In a broad way the educational situation within Lane County is typical of that of the entire nation. Within the cities, towns, and more enterprising rural districts, good schools have been established, are being well conducted, and a good school spirit exists; in the rougher rural and more poorly settled districts conditions shade from medium down through poor to no educational facilities whatever. The State law makes provisions for the optional organization of a school district whenever ten children of school age live within a given area, and under the provisions of this law some one hundred and eighty-nine school districts have been established, which now give six or more months of school each year. The average length of the school term within Lane County is 7.80 months; the average in the State of Oregon is 7.55 months; the average throughout the United States is 7.91 months. Districts have been organized from year to year as new centers of population have grown up. For the most part, these have been in valley districts. How closely the location of the school district is dependent upon geographical features is indicated by the names which have been given to a large proportion of them, such as Oak Hill, Spencer Creek, Clear Creek, Clear Lake, Blue Mountain, Fawn Creek, Silk Creek, Fir Butte, Fir Grove, Black Butte, Fall Creek, Upper Camp Creek, Lower Camp Creek, Oakridge, Lynx Hollow, Middle Fork, Coast Fork, Rocky Point, Upper Fern Ridge, etc. For the greater part the more newly-organized districts are relatively poor financially and have a small number of widely scattered school children, and are possessed of poor transportation facilities. This general condition, although more highly aggravated in Lane County than elsewhere, is not uncommon throughout the United States, and raises everywhere the problem of equalizing the educational opportunity of the rural child with that of the city child. What has Lane County done to meet the problem of rural education under these particular geographical conditions? RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 75 In the first place, it may be said that it has organized a county educational system (to be described more in detail later), which gives special aid to rural school districts. The present law provides that any school district which is unable to raise an amount in the aggregate equal to three hundred dollars ($300.00) shall be aided from the general fund of the county up to this amount. This is an important help to the weakest districts, but under the present law it fails in a large number of cases to provide ample educational facilities. The law works auto- matically, regardless of the needs of individual districts. The county authorities who have charge of its educational system, should have definite power to distribute a certain portion of the county funds in places where they are most needed. The State authorities who encourage educational efforts by means of setting up standards, etc., should similarly be in a position to grant financial aid to deserving effort, as is common in many other states. In the second place the county undertakes, through a county superin- tendent of schools and rural supervisors, to supervise rural education. I am positively convinced that no other equal sum of money spent within recent years has resulted in so much good educationally as has the amount devoted to the county supervisory system. The quality of instruction has been improved, district school boards have been given information by virtue of which they were enabled to select better teachers, and information concerning higher standards existing elsewhere has been given to local schools. The attempts of the State Department of Education and the extension departments of the higher educational institutions of the State to render aid to the rural schools has been greatly facilitated by the efforts of the rural school supervisor. In fact, it has been through the supervisory system that the rural districts have come to give attention to actual conditions, to compare themselves with better schools, and to elevate their efforts to a decidedly higher level. The results of this movement have been of inestimable value. One of my students made an elaborate study of the supervisory system throughout the entire State, and assembled facts and figures which give irrefutable evidence of the striking progress made through the specific work of the supervisors. The definite changes brought about in Lane County under this system during the past four years are so numerous as to characterize the supervisory movement as the most significant one of county education in recent years. State law also makes provision for consolidation on the part of school districts which may wish to pool interests and thus increase educational opportunities. Unfortunately, this change depends upon the vote of each of the several districts concerned, and this measure which has been so prolific of better school conditions elsewhere has produced no con- solidation whatever in Lane County within the past few years, and only two of the entire one hundred and eighty-nine districts at present are the result of consolidation. Here again, greater powers should be given to the county educational authorities. It is true that there are certain 76 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY exceptional difficulties in the way of transportation to be considered in many places, but I have before me a number of sets of figures, carefully worked out, which indicate clearly that there are many districts which would be materially improved by consolidation with their neighbors. Secondary education has profited more markedly under united effort, for there are seven union high schools within the county, the majority of which are in successful operation. Besides these, there are twenty district high schools, fifteen of which have been standardized under the regulations of the State Board of Education. A number of these are made possible by the county high school fund, a fund raised by county taxation, but apportioned to districts maintaining high schools. This is a praiseworthy, although isolated, example of the benefits which county TYPICAL RURAL UNION HIGH SCHOOL aid to district educational endeavor may bring about. Finally may be mentioned the State's effort in the way of providing a uniform course of study, uniform textbooks, and uniform eighth grade examinations. There is a large body of educational material in the way of the funda- mental subjects, which may be considered as the core of the course of study, to be taken by all pupils, regardless of local considerations, and which may very properly be controlled by the State educational authori- ties. For the manner in which they have placed expert knowledge of the organization and presentation of this fundamental body of material in the hands of rural teachers, the State educational authorities deserve great praise. On the other hand, it would be extremely difficult to find an educational authority who would recommend anything which approaches complete uniformity in a course of study to be followed, or RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 77 textbooks to be used, without deviation throughout an area which has the geographical variation to be found in Lane County. At present with very minor differences, children in communities where fishing is the chief industry, children in districts where all are concerned in the lumber industry, and children in rural and city districts, are all following the same course of study and using the same textbooks. Without question some modification of the present State uniformity should be brought about, and very preferably, power given to the county educational authorities to modify the curriculum or to adopt textbooks when a change in either proves of specific benefit to the individual community concerned. The use of uniform eighth grade examinations will be discussed in a later chapter. Looking now at county rural education as a unit, the most significant need at present is that of greater power in the hands of the county educational authorities. Mention has been made in a previous chapter of the existence of a number of natural "social centers." The centers which have developed during the growth of the county have been largely determined by geographical considerations, which indicate clearly in the great majority of cases that they will remain important centers in the future. Consolidation of educational effort should occur at these points of social development, and should be under the specific direction of the county authorities. High schools should be located at such points, and not indiscriminately, as at present. There are by far too many school districts in Lane County. The number should be greatly reduced by consolidation. No other business in the world would scatter its financial and technical management under so many separate heads. It is all too evident that these districts will never be consolidated under the present educational system, and that until such time as consolidation and cen- tralization may occur, effective wide-spread rural education, even by way of approximation, will be out of the question. CHAPTER 3 INSTRUCTION AND THE COURSE OF STUDY Although no attempt has been made to rate specifically the quality of instruction being given by the various teachers in Lane County, a substantial array of facts has been gathered which bear directly upon teaching and the course of study. One of the important elements which conduce toward superior teaching is adequate supervision. Wherever expert study has been made of teaching, or actual measurements of progress taken, it has been shown that supervised teaching is, on the whole, markedly superior to independent teaching. Despite this, one of the difficulties with which educational authorities have to contend in Lane County is a somewhat wide-spread disposition on the part of the taxpayers to regard supervision as something necessary to counteract poor teaching, rather than as a means for directing good teaching. The fact that a large proportion of the total running expenditure in other business enterprises than teaching is devoted to management and super- 78 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY vision is lost sight of. In the face of this general feeling county super- vision has made excellent progress despite the recent reduction of the number of supervisors. Compared with city systems, in which instruction is given by more expert teachers under the special direction of supervisors and with a superintendent in full control of the selection and assignment of teachers, the rural school system is at a decided disadvantage. The present situation, not only in this county but in other counties similarly situated, calls for a marked increase in the amount of attention given to individual rural schools. At present, the amount of time which a supervisor can give to any one school is far too short. In the face of this, several special devices have been called into play which have been wonderfully helpful and constructive in improving rural education in Lane County. One of these is known as the "standardization movement," which has been described in the previous chapter and which has resulted in better equipment and teachers everywhere. Another is known as the "school rally movement/' which, although usually associated with the standardization movement, has been in itself distinctly and characteristically successful. Under the stimulation of the county supervisor, various communities have been led to hold social gatherings at the district school grounds which have attracted practically the entire population for miles around. During the course of the day addresses have been made upon school questions by various educational authorities brought in by the supervisors. As a result of this mixture of social and educational interests, school and community enthusiasm have been aroused to a high pitch and almost invariably some direct concrete improvement has been the result of each specific rally. Not only in the way of school improvements, but RURAL SCHOOL FLOAT AT ANNUAL COUNTY RALLY RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 79 PART OF THE MILE-LONG PARADE AT ANNUAL COUNTY RALLY in community socialization it would be difficult to overstate the benefits which have accrued through the school rally movement. An enlargement upon the local rally has resulted in the annual county school rally held in Eugene. TABLE 1. PREPARATION OF LANE COUNTY TEACHERS IN THIRD CLASS DISTRICTS Number of teachers having completed eighth grade only Number of teachers having completed one year high school Number of teachers having completed two years high school 18 Number of teachers having completed three years high school 13 Number of teachers having completed four years high school 98 Number of teachers having completed one year normal Number of teachers having completed two years normal Number of teachers having completed one year college..... Number of teachers having completed two years college Number of teachers having completed three years college 1 Number of teachers having completed four years college A large array of prizes offered each year calls forth exhibits from practically all the schools in the county. Large crowds attend the rallies and much good results from the enthusiasm thus generated. Accompany- ing illustrations picture several units of the school parade which occurs each year. As a whole, the rural teachers in Lane County are distinctly superior to those of the majority of the states. The average monthly salary for teachers in one-room buildings in Lane County for the year 1915 was $55.00, and for assistant teachers in schools having more than one room, $72.00. In comparison with the situation in many other states, these averages are high. Principals in Lane County receive, on the average, a salary of $98.50. There is relatively a large share of college (14 per 80 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY L\NE COUNTY RURAL, SCHOOLS ARE STIMULATED BY THE WORK OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OREGON AT EUGENE cent) and normal (20 per cent) trained teachers in Lane County in the rural schools, and a conspicuously small number of teachers (15 per cent) who have had less than a high school education. (See Table 1.) More- over, as the school law now stands, it will be impossible in the future for beginners to teach in the rural schools with less than a high school education in addition to special professional training. It must be said, therefore, that with respect to the individuality of its teachers, Lane County on the whole, is to be highly congratulated. It is to be regretted that there are many who change positions each year, although from a comparative point of view the actual exchange may be said to be favor- ably low. There are many new teachers each year without experience, but, again, it may be said that, on the whole, there is a praiseworthy number of teachers who have had considerable experience and many of the new teachers are those who have had training which includes supervised practice teaching. Lane County also stands high in another important phase of school activity. That is in the percentage of school attendance. The State of Oregon is foremost in the United States in the matter of school attend- ance, and Lane County is one of the leaders in Oregon. In 1914-1915 the average attendance was 96 per cent. This happy condition is due to several causes. The method of recording attendance undoubtedly plays a minor part and the compulsory school law a major part, but as Lane County is the same in these respects as are counties in many other states which have decidedly poorer school attendance, the results are chiefly due to some other cause. This is, undoubtedly, the local spirit which has been aroused everywhere in Oregon by State and county educational authorities a spirit which makes it the duty of everyone to see that children attend school during its regular sessions. Let us now look at the course of study and the school program. The rural districts are not so fortunate here. Not only does the course RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 81 SCALE- 6 INCHEJS= 1 MILL SCHOOL. HOUSE. CHURCH = _==. ROAIX5 TYPICAL SCHOOL DISTRICT IN LANE COUNTY. THIS MAP WAS DRAWN BY A PUPIL AND WON A PRIZE IN A COUNTY CONTEST 82 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY of study as a whole lack in adaptability to local conditions, as has been suggested previously, but even in the richest part of its content, it suffers from the demands which it makes upon the rural teacher who must teach eight different school grades at one time. This is shown quite clearly by noting the schedule of studies which is exhibited by rural school programs. The following program is typical of those to be found everywhere in rural sections: TYPICAL LANE COUNTY RURAL SCHOOL PROGRAM 9:00- 9:15 Opening Exercises. 9:15- 9:30 Primary Reading. 9:30- 9:45 Third Grade Reading. 9:45-10:00 Fifth Grade Arithmetic. 10:00-10:15--Sixth Grade Arithmetic. 10:15-10:30 Seventh Grade Arithmetic. 10 :30-10 :45 Recess. 10:45-11:00 Primary Numbers. 11:00-11:15 Third Grade Numbers. 11:15-11:30 Fifth Grade Reading. 11:30-11:40 Sixth Grade Reading. 11:40-11:50 Seventh Grade Reading. 11:50-12:00 Fifth and Sixth Grade Hygiene. 12 :00- 1 :00 Intermission. 1 :00- 1 :10 Opening Exercises. 1:10- 1:20 Primary Reading. 1:20- 1 :30 Third Grade Language. 1 ;30- l : 4 5 Fifth and Sixth Grade Language. 1:45- 1:55 Primary Special. 1 :55- 2 :10 Writing. 2:20- 2:30 Third Grade Spelling. 2 :30- 2 :45 Recess. 2 :45- 3 :00 Seventh Grade History. 3 :00- 3 :10 Fifth Grade Geography. 3:10- 3 :20 Sixth Grade Geography. 3 :20- 3 :35 Seventh Grade Geography. 3:35- 4 :00 Spelling. Examination of the foregoing program indicates clearly that the rural pupil and the rural school teacher are at great disadvantage as compared with pupils and teachers within the city districts. As I write I have before me tabulations which show the distribution of the time of one hundred rural teachers in the various subjects for the eight different grades. The number of separate recitations which one-room teachers must conduct daily averages above twenty-six per day. Most of them extend over a period of ten or fifteen minutes. Under these conditions adequate instruction is practically impossible. More- over, in addition to inadequate instruction in such subjects as may be given, it is very probable that many rural school pupils in the numerous one-teacher schools will receive no instruction whatever in such important subjects as music, drawing, nature study, manual training, domestic science, public speaking and physical training. Out of one hundred and forty-five schools reporting, seventy-eight indicated that they offer no nature study, seventy-seven have no music whatever, and ninety-two do not give work in drawing. But twenty-one schools offer domestic science, and that frequently means hot lunch preparation only. But sixteen attempt manual training. It is perhaps just as well, considering the welfare of the regular program, that the rural teachers do not attempt the optional subjects, and for those who hold strongly to the three "R's" there is some consolation in the present school programs. RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 83 Under these conditions it is interesting: to note what progress has been made by rural pupils. No tests have been given to measure school achievement in the rural school other than the general final eighth grade examination, which in many schools indicates poor progress in the mastery of subject essentials. However, to a certain extent, progress is indicated by the grades in which children may be found at certain ages. It has come to be accepted the country over that if a child is promoted out of the first grade before he is over eight years of age, and passes one grade a year thereafter, he is making normal progress. If he has not done this, he is regarded as being over age or retarded. The percentage of retarded pupils to be found within a school system is, therefore, an index of the progress of the pupils through the grades. Many factors enter into retardation, which cannot be considered here, but it will be valid for comparative purposes to make use of general percentages of retardation, as they exist at present in Lane County. To this end a study was made of the age-grade enrollment of fifty rural schools selected at random from among the schools of the county, but including schools of various sizes up to two hundred pupils. Table 2 shows the distribution by ages and grades of the 1,572 pupils enrolled in these fifty elementary schools. The figures in each square show how many pupils of the same age were in the same grade; thus in grade I, there were twelve pupils five years old, sixty-five pupils six years old, ninety-four pupils seven years old, fifty pupils eight years old, seven pupils nine years old, six pupils ten years old, four pupils eleven years old, one pupil twelve years old, and one pupil fifteen years old. The pupils below the heavy zigzag line in the table are retarded (over age for their grade). At the bottom of the table may be found a summary of the total retardation by grades. As a whole, this table discloses several important conditions. The percentage of retardation for the whole group is fifty-one, which is about 10 per cent more than is ordinarily found in city districts. No figures are available for comparison with similar rural districts, but the Lane County situation, undoubtedly, averages favorably. Late entrance has undoubtedly been a large factor in these schools, for the difference between the amount of retardation found in the lower and upper grades is much less than that which is ordinarily found. The same thing is indicated by two striking features of the enrollment; one which shows that there are nearly as many pupils enrolled in the upper grades as are enrolled in the lower, and the other, which shows an exceptionally large number of pupils enrolled who are over fourteen years of age, and who have not quit school. In Lane County there is 23 per cent of the total enrollment in the seventh and eighth grades, as compared with 14 per cent in the United States. The comparison between Lane County and the United States as a whole is exhibited in table 3 and shown graphically in the figure on page 85. In Lane County there are over 13 per cent of the pupils fifteen years of age or over, as compared with less than 5 per cent in the United States. 84 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF LANE COUNTY RURAL SCHOOL CHILDREN BY GRADES AND AGES; SCHOOLS SELECTED AT RANDOM; CHILDREN BELOW HEAVY LINE ARE RETARDED AGE I II III IV V VI VII VIII TOTAL 5 12 12 6 65 5 70 7 94 39 4 137 8 50 61 39 7 147 9 7 45 65 JO 5 142 10 6 28 47 66 19 6 1 178 11 4 3 32 71 45 82 4 181 12 1 2 10 36 41 66 20 1 177 13 1 3 18 37 52 52 25 188 14 1 6 12 24 56 34 133 15 1 1 14 16 30 61 123 16 1 9 5 13 27 48 17 1 8 5 18 27 18 1 3 7 11 19 1 2 3 TOTAL 240 175 200 227 175 196 186 173 1572 RETARDED. 69 80 92 134 106 10* 109 113 805 PER CENT 29 46 46 59 61 52 59 65 51 The ability of Lane County rural schools to hold their pupils despite over-age is commendable, and is due partly to the same spirit which promotes the high average of attendance, and partly to lack of remun- erative employment. More significant from the administrative point of view is the amount of retardation which are found in schools of different sized enrollments and numbers of teachers. Table 4 exhibits the retardation by grades in five classes of schools; those having seventy to two hundred pupils with two teachers, and four classes having three RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 85 TABLE 3. NUMBER OF PUPILS AND PER CENT OF TOTAL SCHOOL POPULATION IN VARIOUS GRADES IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN LANE COUNTY RURAL SCHOOLS NUMBER OF PUPILS PER CENT United States Lane County United States Lane County Grade I . 4,480,225 240 23 5 15 3 Grade II 2,819,682 175 14.8 11.1 Grade III 2 651 912 200 14 Grade IV 2,531,804 227 13.3 14.5 Grade V 2,150,508 175 11.3 11.1 Grade VI 1,763,493 196 9 2 12 5 Grade VII 1,454,643 186 76 11 8 Grade VIII 1 212 520 173 6 3 0.0 11 All 19,064 787 1 572 100 100 J- Pdtcd Uix-UnM^/fcW >~O~~ <;a) \ Full Line - LaneGouny, \ * ' * \ -4 \ \ 15" V v ^ - * 3 ^X^x*^"" . i ^ ^_^ 10 " x ^. *i^ ~*S s "" s, o _< I IE IE 3Z 21 3ZL HE ~3SL x-/chool Grade. to fifteen, fifteen to twenty-five, twenty-five to fifty, fifty to seventy pupils, and having but one teacher. The schools having an enrollment of from seventy to two hundred pupils with more than one teacher have a total average retardation of 45 per cent as compared with 51 per cent, the average of all the schools. The two classes of small schools having from three to fifteen pupils and fifteen to twenty-five pupils in each, and with one teacher, have 50 per cent retardation, which indicates that one teacher who is not burdened with too many pupils can make average progress with them, but the one-teacher schools with an enrollment of from twenty-five to fifty pupils average 58 per cent retardation, and those with an enrollment of from fifty to seventy pupils have 62 per cent retardation, which indicates clearly that one teacher cannot cope success- fully under such heavy enrollment. 86 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 87 TABLE 4. PERCENTAGES OF RETARDED CHILDREN IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF LANE COUNTY RURAL SCHOOLS GIVEN BY GRADES; ALL ARE FROM ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS SAVE THE 70 TO 200 PUPIL GROUP No. OF PUPILS IN SCHOOL PER CENT RETARDATION IN EACH GRADE i I II HI IV V 1 VI VII VIII ; All 70 to 50 to 25 to 15 to 3 to 200 70 50 25 15 (one teacher) (one teacher) (one teacher) (one teacher) (one teacher) 27 ! 38 38 19 35 49 42 75 46 36 61 45 53 50 63 63 66 48 52 65 68 53 52 60 52 64 66 : 38 52 39 78 86 52 75 ' 56 i ! 67 ! 61 | ! 75 i i 75 i 45 62 58 50 51 All 29 46 46 59 61 i >' 59 ! 65 51 In concluding this chapter it should be said that there is a rapidly growing number of rural schools, both elementary and secondary, in Lane County, which are well equipped, have adequate teaching staffs, and which are offering and giving excellent instruction in a satisfactorily wide range of subjects. Each of these schools has become the center for united community effort and activity which has been of the highest value to the best type of social development. Lane County is justly proud of these for they have contributed a large share to making rural life as attractive as that found in the city, and in doing this, they have indicated in large measure what may be expected throughout the county under a system of county school administration which equalizes rural conditions everywhere. CHAPTER 4 BUILDINGS, GROUNDS, EQUIPMENT AND MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS An extensive array of statistics concerning the buildings, grounds and equipment of the Lane County rural schools has been gathered during the year by means of reports and personal visitation. This material is far too extensive to publish in detail, but there are a number of points which appear to be significant in summary form. The whole number of organized elementary school districts for the years 1915-16 is one hundred and eighty-nine. Within these districts four hundred and twenty-seven school rooms were in operation. There are twenty district and seven union high schools, two private schools, several business and musical "colleges," and a Bible University located within the county. The State University of Oregon is located at Eugene, the county seat, and the State Agricultural College is in a neighboring county at Corvallis. In 1915-16, there were forty-two districts having six months school, seventeen having seven months school, eighty-four having eight months school, and forty-six with nine months school. During the previous year but thirty-three districts had nine months school. The school buildings are, almost without exception, of frame con- struction. There were eight new buildings going up during the year, and under the stimulus of the standardization movement, many others were in the progress of reconstruction. It is impossible to make any RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY ALL THE NEWER SCHOOL BUILDINGS ARE PROPERLY LIGHTED satisfactory general statement concerning the adequacy of the building construction of the various county school houses. They represent the different types and different ideals of more than twenty years. Many of the newer ones are excellent examples of well-lighted, well-heated, and well-ventilated schoolrooms. Some of the older ones, which are not always in the poorer districts, are too faulty to risk the English language in adequate description. The lighting and (possibilities of) ventilation on the whole are good, and many changes are being made to improve both. Fifty-eight schools report facilities for evening lighting, of which eighteen are good, twenty- eight medium and twelve poor. The majority of schools in all classes of districts could benefit greatly by more frequent opening of all the doors and windows for brief periods of fresh air flushing. A summary of conditions is exhibited in the following table: TABLE 5. LIGHTING AND HEATING FACILITIES IN LANE COUNTY RURAL SCHOOLS Light from one side in 25 rooms Light from two sides in 110 rooms Light from three sides in 10 rooms Light from four sides in 3 rooms Light from right side in 82 rooms Heat by unjacketed stove in 60 rooms Heat by jacketed stove in 80 rooms Heat by furnace in 12 rooms Heat by steam in 4 rooms Heat by Smith system in 10 rooms Heat by Waterbury system in 4 rooms RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 89 With respect to washing- and drinking facilities it may be said that every variety known to man is used somewhere in the county. There is a distinct and growing tendency toward sanitary washing. Seventy-six schools are using individual towels, five schools are using paper towels, and thirty-two schools report the use of common towels. The variety of water supply includes, covered filter, well, bubbling force pump, spring, city water, creek, cemented well, filtered cistern, and tank. Many schools are fortunate in the possession of the purest spring water in the immediate vicinity of the school. A large number have installed the Hardin pump, which affords a very satisfactory bubbling fountain. Seventy-six schools report the use of individual drinking cups as against nine which use the common drinking cup. Possibly the most severe criticism to be made against regular equip- ment to be found in Lane County schools, would fall upon the seating facilities. There are very few schools which are using adjustable seats which have been properly adjusted to the physical statures of the occupants. The seats, moreover, very frequently have not been placed properly to secure the best light. Many schools still use the out-of-date double seats. One hundred and forty-three schools report ample seating facilities against fourteen which have an insuf- ficient supply. There has been a wide-spread effort to increase the THE OLD TYPE OF BUILDING STILL PERSISTS IN MANY DISTRICTS 90 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY attractiveness of the rural school by the use of mural decorations and the presence of potted plants within the schoolroom. Many of the schools have musical instru- ments. Seventy-seven report organs, and six pianos. The school grounds in many of the schools are exceedingly attractive and with a little expenditure of money could be made to exhibit a high degree of natural beauty. The school grounds average, and the majority actually are, about one acre in size. About one-half of them are inclosed by fences, and about 60 per cent of the schools have walks, board or cement. Nearly all of the school grounds have trees; sixty have flower beds; but despite the required teaching of agriculture, only fourteen report vegetable gardens. Two-thirds of the rural schools have cloak rooms, one-half having two. Libraries and teachers' rooms are practically unknown. THE HARDIN PUMP A LANE COUNTY INVENTION MODERN SCHOOL BUILDING IN DANISH SETTLEMENT NEAR EUGENE RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 91 There are naturally no apparatus rooms, for teaching aids, outside of maps, are seldom used, and over one-third of the schools have no apparatus whatever. There has been a distinct playground movement in the last few years, which has resulted in the construction of a number of well-built play sheds, which are quite necessary, owing to the long rainy season. Basket- ball is popular when grounds are present, but running games and elementary baseball predominate during the play periods. Many schools are adding play apparatus. The giant stride, teeter boards and swings are in greatest numbers, but such pieces as the turning-bar and merry-go-round are not infrequent. The school law provides a special county tax for the maintenance of a general school library fund, which must not be less than ten cents per school census child. In 1914-15, $651.21 was paid out for library books, which were distributed according to the number of children in each district. The fund does not provide many books each year for the smaller schools, but small libraries have been accumulating gradually. Little system has been shown on the part of many of the schools in selecting, organizing or caring for their books. A number have taken advantage of the State traveling libraries which may be obtained on application. Considerable variation exists among the schools as to the number of books in the library, the newer schools ordinarily possessing fewer books. A- summary follows : ALL STANDARD SCHOOLS HAVE AT LEAST THREE PIECES OF PLAY APPARATUS 92 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY TABLE G. NUMBER OF BOOKS IN LANE COUNTY RURAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES No. of books 0-25 25-50 50-100 100-200 200-300 over 300 No. of schools 22 31 46 30 9 11 The most significant phase of school equipment and buildings in Lane County from the standpoint of the school world outside is embraced in what is known as the "Standardization" movement. This work was begun some five years ago under the supervisory system. A certain number of points of efficiency were set as the standard for every rural school to attain. Upon the attainment of these, a school rally was held and a pennant bearing the label "Standard School" was awarded to the deserving school. Under the stimulus of the supervisors the move- ment spread rapidly and schools which for years had rested in a state of absolute quiescence suddenly came to life and made the changes necessary to become standardized. Two years ago the State Department of Education assumed charge of this movement, and it is safe to say that under the stress of standardization, more has been accomplished in the way of equipment changes in the rural schools than could be brought about by decades of argument. The standards are gradually being raised as the majority of schools approach them. During the years 1915-16, there were sixty-one rural schools in Lane County which became standardized. A copy of standard requirements for the past two years follows: REQUIREMENTS FOR A STANDARD SCHOOL STATE OF OREGON, 1914-1915 Flag Must be flying, weather per- Outbuildings At least two good ones, mitting. to be sanitary at all times and free School House Properly lighted. from marks. Equipment Teacher's desk and chair ; Teacher Must maintain good order at desks for pupils properly adapted all times, supervise the playground; and placed ; suitable blackboards ; have her work well prepared ; follow window shades in good condition. state course of study ; take at least one educational journal ; have pro- Heatmg and VenMatmg Jacketed gram poste d in room; keep register stove properly situated, minimum in good condition ; be neat in attire. requirement ; window boards or some other approved method of ventilating. Li^-aryGooA selection of books from _ . . fetclLG llSt. t^clSG IOr LllG DOOKS. Rooms Attractive at all times. Books kept upright in good condition Standard Picture One new one, unless and recorded according to rules spec- three are already in the room, ified by Oregon State Library and framed. required by law. Grounds To be clean, free from paper, Attendance Average 92 per cent for etc. At least three features of play year and not to exceed 2 per cent in apparatus. Walks if necessary. tardiness per year. Sanitation Pure drinking water, either Length of Term Not less than eight drinking fountain or covered tank and months of school each year, individual, family or paper towels. As soon as the district fulfills any requirement it will be marked with a star. When all the requirements are fulfilled a suitable pennant or certificate will be awarded by the county superintendent. ADOPTED BY THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION AUGUST 5, 1914 Two years ago the State Department undertook the standardization of Oregon high schools in a similar fashion. The results have exceeded the fondest expectations. Lane County became the banner county of RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 93 the State, with nineteen standardized high schools. Standards were set for four-year, three-year and two-year high schools, although two and three-year schools have been practically eliminated. In order to become a standard four-year high school, each high school must offer four years of work; have not less than two hundred and fifty reference books in the library, chosen from the State Library lists for high schools; one standard encyclopedia and a sufficient number of dictionaries. Each must have proper laboratory equipment selected from the State list for each science offered. The teachers must be graduates from standard colleges or the equivalent, and all high schools must follow the approved course of study. Fifteen units must be required for graduation, and at least forty minutes allowed for each recitation. Following the introduction of this movement, has come an unprece- dented rush of orders for books and equipment, and Lane County high schools have had the banner year of their existence. Table 7 gives a summary description of Lane County standard high schools. TABLE 7 in -!-> _o "E 2 i* h O 3o 1 9 NAME Number of School Dist Number of High Schoc Teachers Total En- rollment in High Schoo m >> M = ^ 3 cS'w So O cj >> III rt G.2 >^W Value of Apparatus Physics Number of Standard E in High Scl Library Coburg 43 3 34 $ 111.00 $ 122.00 $ 197.00 300 Cottage Grove 45 7 45 81.00 84.00 316.00 250 Creswell 40 3 41 75.00 75.00 150.00 344 U-3 2 9 75 00 75 00 250 Dorena 93 20 75.00 75.00 250 Elmira U-4 3 38 75.00 75.00 280 Eugene 4 23 604 283.00 539.00 1,093.00 700 Eugene 12 2 22 75.00 75.00 250 Florence 97 2 40 75.00 75.00 175.00 260 Irving 86 1 16 90.00 75.00 150.00 250 Junction City 69 3 76 75.00 75.00 175.00 250 126 2 8 75.00 250 Lorane U-2 1 32 153.00 153.00 250 Mapleton Pleasant Hill 32 U-l 1 2 14 50 75.00 85.00 75.00 150.00 150.00 250 250 Springfield 19 6 131 75.00 75.00 250.00 250 Thurston U-7 o 20 75.00 75.00 250 Walker U-6 1 13 75.00 150.00 250 UK 2 95 75 00 250 CHAPTER 5 STATE, COUNTY, AND DISTRICT FUNCTIONS The school census of Lane County for the year ending June 16, 1916, gives a total of 11,721 children between four and twenty years of age. Of these 5,850 are boys and 5,871 are girls. How properly to educate this group so that it may best serve and conserve the present social organization, and most happily procure the welfare of its individual members, is the problem which confronts those who have charge of the public school system of the State of Oregon. This problem is not simple, for the activities of the social state and the interests of the individual 94 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY have within recent years attained a high degree of complexity, which has necessitated a similarly complicated organization for the formal administration of education. Properly to appreciate the complexity of the school problem in Lane County, and better to understand the strong and weak points in the present school organization, it will be necessary to consider the existing plan of administration in some detail, and to examine it in the light of contemporary aims and achievements in other parts of the State and the country. It is impossible to discuss Lane as an isolated county, for in America education is everywhere conceived to be an affair State-wide in scope and responsibility, and in the State of Oregon, as elsewhere, the first control of school activities rests with the State Legislature. This body has delegated, and continues to delegate, from year to year, such authority as may seem desirable to the several subordinate units of control which are best adapted to specific administrative control. In actual practice, control of the various educational functions in Oregon is now vested in agencies, which may for the most part be classified under the headings of State, County, and School District, according to the limits of the area immediately concerned. Many school functions, such as the certification of teachers, are con- trolled by the State as a unit; others, such as the creation of school districts, by the county; and still others, such as hiring of teachers, by the school district. As the whole problem of school administration is intimately connected with the disposition of control of educational func- A SCHOOL RALLY. SCORES OF COMMUNITY MEETINGS LIKE THIS ARE HELD EVERY YEAR RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 95 tions, it will be well first of all to indicate the general nature of the distribution of power affected in Oregon. The following summary exhibits the more important educational functions as they have been delegated by legislative enactment to the State, county, and school district, respectively : I. STATE FUNCTIONS 1. Prescription of rules for general government of schools. 2. Gathering and publication of school statistics. 3. Issuance of teaching certificates. 4. Preparation of reading-circle work and rules. 5. Examination of eighth grade graduates. 6. Examination of teachers. 7. Preparation of common school course of study. 8. Adoption of common school textbooks. 9. Inspection, supervision, and standardization of schools. 10. Recommendation of laws to Legislature. II. COUNTY FUNCTIONS 1. Creation of school districts. 2. Enforcement of course of study. 3. Supervision of rural schools. 4. Conducting of examinations. 5. Holding of county and local institutes. 6. Control and canvas of specified school elections. 7. Control of county high school fund. 8. Keeping of school records. 9. Levying of prescribed taxes and making prescribed apportionments. 10. Registration of certificates. III. DISTRICT FUNCTIONS 1. Hiring of teachers. 2. Control of school, other than course of study. 3. Levying and collection of taxes. 4. Leasing and building school houses. 5. Establishment of kindergarten and evening schools. 6. Loaning of textbooks. 7. Furnishing of school supplies. 8. Issuance of bonds. 9. Transportation of pupils. 10. Consolidation with other districts. The question which now arises is, how does the distribution of educational functions according to the foregoing summary, comport with American ideal of universal education, which provides equal opportunities for "all the children of all the people," and which has been embodied in Oregon in the constitutional provision which calls "for the establishment of a uniform and general system of common schools?" From the admin- istrative point of view this important question may be considered under three major, albeit overlapping, topics: (1) the degree of centralization attained; (2) the county organization; (3) the administration of finances. To each of these topics will be devoted one of the following chapters. CHAPTER 6 CENTRALIZATION OF AUTHORITY "It is today a settled conviction of the people of our different American states that the provision of a liberal system of free education for the children of the State is one of the most important duties of the State, and that such education contributes very markedly to the moral uplift of the people, to a higher civic virtue, and to increased economic returns to the State." (Cubberley, E. P., Public School Administration, 1916.) The growth of this conception of education has been paralleled by increasing centralization of authority in school administration, by virtue of which the control of school activities has been shifted gradually 96 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY from small to larger units. Thus, parental control in the certification of teachers has yielded to the district, the district to the township, the township to the county, and finally the county to the State. Suet' transfer of power in general has been in the interest of better organiza- tion and more effective administration, and with it have come the attainment of compulsory attendance of children of school age, the lengthened school term, the enrichment of the curriculum, better methods of instruction, and more adequate material equipment. It is, of course, true that the control of many items of educational endeavor may best be left to the district, or even to the home, for local support of the schools is a most important consideration in their ultimate welfare. Moreover, the educative processes must be adapted to individual pupils and to individual communities, and the danger of uniformity where individual variation is demanded is one which is not unlikely to accompany centralization of authority. Let us, then, examine some of the more important functions which have been listed in the preceding chapter with a view of determining whether or not the children of Lane County are receiving the benefits of properly distributed control of school power. The State functions, (1) prescription of rules for general governmnet of schools, and (2) gathering and publication of school statistics, are properly located, and, considering the present type of State organization, surprisingly well carried out. The composition of the State Board of Education on the basis of membership, the political election of the State Superintendent, and the excessive number of State boards which have to do with educational matters, are all open to criticism. Although the present personnel of the State department is fortunately excellent, the lack of centralization of the various State boards is without question detrimental to the State's best educational interests. The issuing of State certificates quite properly rests with the State Department of Education, and in execution is a marked advance over conditions in many states. The State Superintendent has discretionary powers with regard to accepting credentials from other states and with regard to the issuance of certificates for the teaching of special subjects, such as manual training, music, etc. Certification under State control has worked admirably in Oregon and has tended steadily toward the raising of teaching standards until Oregon ranks among the very fore- most states of the Union in this respect. The State reading circle work, although legally compulsory for a large number of teachers, has suffered in the past from lack of organization. Each teacher affected, supposedly, satisfied the county superintendent before the annual registration of certificates, but, until recently, the very limited sale of the required books in the State indicated that only a small percentage of teachers were actually doing the reading circle work. At present the University of Oregon has charge of most of this work, and by supervising the reading has made it practically universal. RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 97 The assumption of power by the State, which has resulted in a system of uniform examination for eighth grade graduates, is an illustration of misdirected centralization of power. In the earlier development of the schools, there may have been certain advantages attached to the State examination, but at the present stage of development this function clearly belongs to more local supervision. The consensus of the best educational opinion and experimentation indicates that the use of the ordinary memory examination for promotion purposes is decidedly ques- tionable at best, while legitimate uses of the examination for purposes of review or stimulus to work are more effectively administered by local control. We found eighth grade teachers in all parts of the county who were teaching solely with the aim of getting as many pupils as possible "by" the eighth grade examination. The majority of them admitted, indeed insisted, that the chief aim of teaching was being subordinated, but added that as their success as teachers was estimated by their ability to get pupils successfully through this examination they had no alternative but to yield to its stultifying influence. Moreover, as opportunity for eighth grade pupils to enter upon a high school education depends upon passing the eighth grade examinations, success in passing it, is no less essential to them. It is interesting to note what has been the actual influence of the State eighth grade examination upon the number of pupils qualifying for high school entrance. This is shown by the record of failures and successes which have been made in Lane County in attempts to pass this examination during the last few years. This year's record is better than those of previous years. (See Table 8.) TABLE 8. NUMBER OF LANE COUNTY PUPILS WHO PASSED AND FAILED IN THE STATE UNIFORM EIGHTH GRADE EXAMINATIONS IN 1915-16 Number attempting 792 Number passing 494 Number conditioned 156 Number failing .'. 142 The age grade distribution in Table 2, of Chapter 3, shows that 11 per cent of the school population in 1914-J.5 were in the eighth grade, but only a few over 5 per cent received eighth grade diplomas in 1914. The sudden stopping or retardation of the educational career of from one-fourth to one-third of the public school product by the interposition of an artificial examination, whether entirely due to the examination itself or not, is administratively inexcusable. It clogs the educational machinery, deprives children of just educational opportunity in the high schools, and robs the State of a better citizenry. It is interesting to note that the present State Superintendent of Public Instruction realizes the situation and proposes to combat it by giving examinations in which the pupil may have his book open. It is undoubtedly well to have the examination of teachers for certification controlled by the State. Much also may be said for the preparation of a common school course of study, and for the State adoption of textbooks. Certainly the State's endeavor here has given 98 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY the advantages of expert service to many local areas which otherwise would have had only meagre guidance. On the other hand, the State requirement of uniformity in following the course of study transcends the rights of many districts well qualified to organize a course of study more peculiarly adapted to their own interests. The State Superintendent is given considerable power to inspect, supervise, and standardize schools. This is as it should be, for he is the actual head of the public school system and should have the most extensive powers in these functions. More ample provision should be made for carrying on this type of work by the addition of members to the State force. The exceptional record which has been made by the State department in Lane County is worthy of the highest commendation, and if in addition to his present powers the State Superintendent had authority to grant financial aid to school districts which made exceptional endeavor, his influence for good would be vastly extended. Let us now examine the functions more specifically under county control. We are immediately struck with the fact that the county has few significant powers and relatively little control of the educational system within its borders. Seven of the functions mentioned: (1) En- forcement of course of study, (2) conducting of examinations, (3) school elections, (4) control of county high school fund, (5) keeping of school records, (6) control of specified taxes and apportionments, and (7) regis- tration of certificates, are matters which relate almost wholly to routine and clerical service. The other three: (1) creation of school districts, (2) supervision of rural schools, and (3) holding of county and local institutes, constitute the narrow scope of constructive county effort, and while considerable praiseworthy advance has been made, particularly through the supervisory system, the county as a whole is so hampered by lack of centralization, paucity of funds, and deficiency of initiative power, that little advance can be expected in the future under the present form of administration. As compared with the advantages attached to city school administration, or to what is known as a "county system," the Lane County rural districts must continue to suffer until a marked administrative change is brought about. Compare now the functions of the school district with those of the county. Lane County, like all of the Oregon counties, has what is known as the "district system," in which control of the most important educational functions is vested in the relatively small school district. Within the county, there are some one hundred and eighty-six active school districts, each of which has practically unrestricted independence in the selection of its teachers, the equipment of its school, and the specific education of its pupils. Insofar as this state of affairs promotes local school support and permits of adaptability of State or county uniformity, it is well, but inasmuch as it tends to deprive many individual pupils of proper educational opportunity, it is seriously defective, and necessitates reorganization. What this should be will be considered in the following chapter. RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 99 CHAPTER 7 COUNTY ORGANIZATION Lane County is approximately the size of the State of Connecticut. One hundred and eighty-nine school districts have been organized within its borders for purposes of support and control of local school affairs. We have noted that each of these districts controls in large measure the education of the children who live within its borders. If each district were intellectually and financially qualified to administer a system of schools which would measure up to the educational interests of State and individual, the present system would be an ideal one. As a matter of fact, however, the greatest variation, both in leadership and economic wealth exists among the numerous districts. Districts which have over one thousand children of school age in the State of Oregon are known as districts of the first class. There is one such district in Lane County. This is the city of Eugene, with three thousand and eighty children of school age, and within which exists a standard school system. All districts with more than two hundred and less than one thousand children of school age are known as districts of the second class. There are six districts of the second class in Lane County: Cottage Grove, with seven hundred and sixteen children; Springfield, with six hundred and eighty-three children; Junc- tion City, with three hundred and seventy-six children; Marcola, with three hundred and sixty-eight children; Coburg, with two hundred and twenty-one children, and Creswell, with two hundred and nineteen children. Education flourishes with varying degrees of success within these several towns, but withal may be said to be, if not everywhere praiseworthy, at least acceptable. Each district contains by way of property valuation and number of children the foundation for the organization of a relatively independent school system. All districts with less than two hundred children of school age are known as districts of the third class. There are one hundred and seventy-eight districts of the third class in Lane County, a majority of which have neither sufficient property nor enough children to support independently organized and administered schools. Fifty-five of these districts of the third class have from twenty-five to fifty children of school age; sixty-two of them have from ten to twenty-five children; while eighteen of them have ten or less' than ten children. It is evident to the most casual observer that children who live in the richer and more densely populated school districts may profit by an organization provided with an expert superintendent, special supervision and special teachers, and enjoy the benefits of modern equipment and a full curri- culum, which at present are denied to boys and girls who live in the more rural districts. This is the problem that county educational organization is supposed to master. As it is the chief problem of rural education, let us look for a moment at the type of county organization which is attempting to cope with it in the State of Oregon, and of which the organization in Lane County is typical. too RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY FIGURE A. LANE COUNTY ONE-SIDED EDUCATIONAL, SYSTEM THE AVENUES OF MOST DIRECT CONTROL OR CORRELATION ARE INDICATED BY THE HEAVIER LINES. THE DISTRICT SCHOOL BOARD STANDS OUT AS THE MOST IMPORTANT UNIT OF CONTROL. THE COUNTY SCHOOL OFFICIALS ARE ONLY INDIRECTLY IN CONTROL OF COUNTY EDUCATION The numerous county educational officers and boards with their respective organization and duties are shown in the accompanying outline. (See Figure A.) Without going into the detail of the multiplicity of interests involved, it may be said in a few words that the present system is an excellent example of lack of centralization and proper distribution of authority. Seven different boards do the work which might well be centered in one. The present membership of some of the most important boards is composed of county officials who are elected for, and whose time is chiefly devoted to, other than educational duties. Experience has shown that the form of educational administration which secures the best results, is the city type in which the taxpayers RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 101 elect a board of education, who, in turn, elect a superintendent of schools. In opposition to this in Lane County, we have the anomalous situation in which the taxpayers elect the county superintendent of schools, who, in turn, appoints the educational board; thus the educa- tional board is dependent and responsible to the county superintendent rather than the reverse, which is the natural situation. It must not be taken for granted from what has been said and what will be said concerning the defective county organization, and the rural school situation in Lane County ranks lower than that of the average county in the United States. It does not. In most respects it is distinctly superior to the average county. Neither should it be thought that the county superintendent has not rendered effective service, for even under the handicap of the present county organization, it must be said that much has been accomplished for the advancement of the education of the children of Lane County. But in comparison with the possibilities of constructive work which exist in a number of states, and which has been accomplished elsewhere in counties which have a cen- tralized organization, the present Lane County educational situation is open to severe criticism. Let us look at the limits of power which, at present, attend the county superintendent of schools, and the demands which are made upon his time in the way of routine work. We have already indicated that, as compared with the State or school district, the county has but little power. The following outline of the county superintendent's duties will show, as nothing else can, why at present he can have but little time for other than routine and clerical duties, and why with but one stenographer and two supervisors he can do little in the way of constructive work. POWERS AND DUTIES OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS CLERICAL AND ROUTINE 1. Turn over fees each month to county treasurer and file receipt with county clerk. 2. Apportion irreducible school fund. 3. Make partial apportionment if district so desires. 4. Certify claims for expenses of blind. 5. Apportion county school fund. 6. Approve school board convention expenses. 7. Certify to the county court cost of educating high school pupils. 8. Distribute interest of irreducible school fund. 9. Draw warrant for tuition when districts fail to pay. 10. Keep accounts of county treasurer and school districts. 11. Keep record of all purchases of land. 12. Receive examination fees and remit to State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 13. Apportion school library fund. 14. Make estimates on county school fund and special taxes. 15. Furnish list of teachers to district truant officers. 16. Keep record of contracts with teachers. 17. Use uniform blanks. 18. Post notices of new districts. 19. Notify districts of changes made by district boundary board. 20. Preserve ballots in consolidation elections. 21. Report deaf mutes and blind children 22. Transmit examination manuscripts to State Superintendent. 23. Declare vacancies and call district meetings to fill them. 24. Report high school non-residents. 25. Endorse State certificates. 102 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 26. Notify inhabitants of newly organized districts. 27. Keep record of books purchased and distributed. 28. Notify State Superintendent of result of eighth grade examinations. ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY 1. Promote interest in schools, deportment and scholarship. 2. Select district library books. 3. Act as supervisor for one supervisory district. 4. Enforce course of study. 5. Issue temporary county certificates. 6. Approve entrance requirement to high schools. 7. Certify to successful teaching experience. 8. Require monthly reports trom teachers and district clerks. 9. Conduct school fair work. 10. Appoint examiners and conduct teachers' examinations. 11. Make report to State Superintendent. 12. Hear and determine appeals from district officers and teachers. 13. Consult with directors in regard to plans of school houses. 14. Hold county institute, three local institutes, and keep record of attendance of teachers. 15. May hold joint institute with other counties. 16. May hold school board conventions. 17. May appeal to State Superintendent. 18. May submit training school question to vote of teachers. 19. Appoint four members of county educational board. 20. Attend conventions. 21. Appoint district librarians. 22. Correct report of district clerks. 23. Ex-officio member of county educational board, county high school board, district boundary board, county board of examiners, county board of loans and county fair board. It can be readily understood from the foregoing list of duties that the county superintendent is greatly handicapped in his endeavor to give adequate attention to the individual needs of some one hundred and eighty third-class districts. Let us now suggest certain changes which are needed before rural education can become uniformly effective. Two changes, general, but marked in character, are necessary. First : More money must be devoted to rural education. This question will be discussed in the following chapter. Second: County organization must be centralized adminis- tratively, and the county authorities given more power over rural education. The county organization should fit in directly between the State and district organization. At present the county educational system is lopsided as far as the county authority is concerned. Instead of this one-sided organization with its many boards, improper distribution of authority and secondary control of rural education, Lane County should have a centralized county unit system, such as is dis- played in Figure B. Under this system of education the authority of the State, county and school district is integrated in the interests of the broadest economy, and guarantees the individual welfare of every child in the State. Such a system is embodied in the "county system," which is being urged by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction for adoption at the present time. It is in successful operation in a number of other states. In such a system the voters elect a county board of education directly, who in turn select a county superintendent, going as far afield as they may desire to find a qualified man and paying whatever salary is requisite, in the same manner that city school superintendents are appointed at the present time. RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 103 FIGURE B. COUNTY UNIT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Recommended for Lane County THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS IS THE CONTROLLING AUTHORITY IN ALL RURAL DISTRICTS. CITY OR OTHER LARGE WEALTHY DISTRICTS HAVE SIMILAR ORGANIZATION UNDER SEPARATE DISTRICT AUTHORITIES Under the authority of the State department and the county board of education, the county superintendent would then exercise complete administrative control over all rural districts which were not separately organized. Provision would be made for the formation of separate districts out of city or other territory wealthy enough to maintain inde- pendent schools of a standard character. All auxiliary officials, such as local directors, truant officers and health officers, and all auxiliary 104 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY educational agencies, such as library, agricultural and extension work, would act under the direction of the county authorities. We would then have a centralized system in which there would be no financial loss due to duplication of work, and no loss in school efficiency due to dissipation of authority. The general organization of the county unit system is shown in the accompanying chart. It is highly recommended for adoption in Lane County. CHAPTER 8 FINANCES Numerous references have been made in the preceding chapters to the financial aspects of rural education. In fact, the whole problem of rural education is so clearly allied to questions of financial support that this topic leads all others in importance from the administrative point of view. As one goes from district to district in Lane County, viewing here a school in most successful operation, there a school indifferently conducted, and there again one practically lifeless, and at the same time makes inquiry as to the financial support of each, it becomes clearly manifest that lack of money is the chief cause of failure wherever it may occur. No school district can hope to maintain an efficient corps of teachers, suitable buildings, grounds and equipment, without furnish- ing definitely substantial financial support. The effort made by Lane County to finance its education is exhibited in Table 9. The table indicates that Lane County ranks above the average Oregon county in the amount of money spent per school child, although having less than the average wealth: TABLE 9. THE AMOUNT OF WEALTH AND AMOUNT OF EXPENDITURE PER CENSUS CHILD IN VARIOUS OREGON COUNTIES Lane County Highest Oregon County Medium Oregon County Lowest Oregon County Wealth per Expenditure census child per census child.... $ 4,618.00 30.70 $ 12,926.00 66.70 $ 5,700.00 27.90 $ 3,796.00 9.50 It is only when we contrast districts within the county that our attention is drawn to the glaring inequality of educational opportunity. Let us examine the system of taxation and apportionment which produces the present unequal conditions to be found in Lane County. Each district in the county at present receives funds from three chief sources. 1. State Irreducible School Fund. This fund has accumulated from the sales of certain school land, escheated property, etc., and is invested by the State Land Board. The interest from this fund is equal to approximately 6 per cent of all school funds, and is divided among the several counties of the State in proportion to the number of children between the ages of four and twenty. 2. County School Fund. This fund is raised by levy of a tax upon all taxable property of the county, which must produce at least $8.00 for each child between four and twenty, and which at present comprises RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 105 something over one-fourth of the total school fund. Each school district receives from the county school fund directly: (a) a lump sum of $100.00; (b) $5.00 for each teacher employed, and (c) a proportionate share of the remainder on a basis of the number of children between four and twenty living within the district. 3. District School Fund. This fund is raised from a tax levied annually in the school district by the authority of a majority of the resident taxpayers. It amounts, on the average, to about two-thirds of the entire school fund. If the aggregate maximum amount from these several funds do not in any district equal $300.00, the deficiency is apportioned from the county school fund. How does the present system of taxation and apportionment result in actual practice? This is readily shown by making a comparison of the apportionments received by a number of typical districts. Table 10 exhibits the 1914-15 distribution of the school funds in seven Lane County districts one first-class district, two second-class districts, and four third-class districts : TABLE 10. APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS IN SEVEN TYPICAL LANE COUNTY SCHOOL DISTRICTS, 1914-1915 District Number Lump Sum Per Teacher County Fund State Fund From County Local District Total District No. 4.... District No. 19 $100.00 100.00 $425.00 100.00 $20,894 4,131 $ 6,185 1,223 $ $64,737 9,379 $92,341 14,933 District No. 45 100.00 100.00 4,500 1,332 7,421 13,453 District No. 131 100.00 5.00 175 52 18 350 District No. 157 100.00 5.00 100 30 75 330 District No. 161 District No. 168 100.00 100.00 I 5.00 5.00 56 69 17 20 88 101 51 25 317 320 This table shows the presence of striking differences in the amounts available for school purposes in the several districts concerned, the ultimate significance of which may be realized more clearly by reference to Table 11: TABLE 11. SCHOOL EXPENDITURES IN TYPICAL LANE COUNTY DIS- TRICTS, 1914-1915. THE MAXIMUM POSSIBLE, AND REQUIRED MINIMUM AMOUNTS FOR TEACHERS' SALARIES, AND THE MAXIMUM POSSIBLE PER PUPIL FOR OTHER EXPENSES ARE INDICATED 1 (1) District Number (2) School Census (3) No. of Teachers (4) Available Per Teacher (9) Legal Minimum Per Teacher (6) Maximum for Other Expenses Per Child District No. District No. District No. District No. District No. District No. District No. 4.... 19 i 45 | 131 157 ! 161 168 ! 3,343 661 720 28 16 9 11 85 20 20 1 1 1 1 $1,086.00" 747.00 673.00 350.00 330.00 317.00 320.00 $276.04 236.05 256.36 282.20 206.75 226.10 259.25 $20.30 15.45 11.42 2.42 7.08 10.10 6.29 106 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY Column (4) of Table 11 shows the total amount of money available for teachers according* to the number now employed in each district. Eighty- five per cent of the amount received from the county school fund and the irreducible school fund must be applied on teachers' salaries. This minimum amount is indicated for each school in column (5). The total possible amount which may be devoted to each pupil for other expenses than teachers, such as fuel, chalk, blackboards, erasers, stoves, or other apparatus necessary for the use of schools, for repairs or furnsh- ing school houses, cannot exceed for each school the amount shown in column (6). It is evident that the more populous school districts have much greater amount to devote to teachers' salaries. The legal minimum sum to be devoted to teachers' salaries does not vary significantly among the different types of districts, but in practice the large districts more than double the minimum requirement, while the smaller districts are unable to go much beyond the minimum requirement. It is also evident that the smaller districts do not have equal funds for expenditures per individual pupil, and that they cannot take the advantage of combination that is possible in large schools. It may be thought that the less populous districts make up their small county and State apportionment by increasing their local district tax. As a matter of fact, the tendency is in the other direction, many of the smaller districts making no local levy whatever. Moreover, the greatest inequality exists in the amounts of the special levies in various districts. In 1914-15, the district levy ranged everywhere from zero up to sixteen mills. Thirty-one districts made no special levy whatever, being sufficiently satisfied with the State and county allotments. Fifty- seven districts made a levy of two mills or less, while seventeen districts made levies of over eight mills. These illustrations, which are typical of many others, show clearly that two very important economic principles are not being carried out in Lane County. In the first place, every child in the county is not enjoying even approximately equal educational advantages. In the second place, the burden of taxation for school purposes is not distributed on a basis of equality. Finally, let us ask, "What is the solution of the present difficulty?" Basing our answer upon the experience of other states, two distinct changes may be safely recommended : (1) An increase in the amount of funds derived from the State and county, and a decrease in the amount derived from individual school districts, (2) An apportionment of State and county school funds on a basis to help needy districts and to stimulate inactive districts. Oregon is one of the very few states in the Union which do not aid local public schools by means of a general State school tax. This throws RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 107 a heavy burden upon the local counties and districts. Table 12 shows how unfavorably Oregon compares with her neighboring states in this respect : TABLE 12. PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL FUNDS RAISED FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES (REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, 1914) State Levies Per Cent County and Permanent District Funds, Etc. Per Cent Per Cent Other Sources Per Cent Montana 33 52 10 5 California 26 70 2 2 Utah 24 62 14 \Vashington 17 74 7 2 Idaho Oregon 77 11 88 6 12 6 Oregon cannot hope to equalize the burdens of local school support until the State gives greater aid to its individual school districts. Unfortunately the present tendency is not in this direction. Reference to Table 13 will show that whereas in 1873 the State was giving through the irreducible school fund 18 per cent of the total school fund, and the district 38 per cent, the burden has been gradually shifted until in 1913 the State irreducible school fund afforded but 7 per cent of the total, while the individual school district, on the average, was giving 65 per cent of the total. This is not in line with progressive educational tendency elsewhere, and it is eminently necessary that the weight of the burden be shifted in the opposite direction. TABLE 13. PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL FUND FURNISHED BY STATE IRREDUCIBLE SCHOOL FUND, COUNTY SCHOOL FUND, AND DISTRICT SCHOOL FUND Date Amount State Per Cent County Per Cent District Per Cent 1873 . . $ 184,010.00 18 44 38 1883 538 798 00 14 49 37 1893 . 1,449 615 00 15 49 36 1903 1... 3,157,926.00 14 49 37 1913 8 512 177 00 28 65 How to apportion the school funds, once raised, under a system that will help needy districts and at the same time stimulate local effort is another problem. The present system which first apportions $100.00 alike to each school district and $5.00 for every teacher who has attended an institute, and the remainder on the basis of the school census is weak in several vital points. (1) It does not tend to equalize the burdens of taxation. (2) It does not encourage regular attendance at school; it offers no incentive for local effort, and pays just as much for a poor school as for a good one. (3) It pays for all persons in the district between the ages of four and twenty, whether they are school children or not. The method employed by the State in distributing the irreducible school fund is even poorer, for it is based upon the school census only. 108 RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY The system now used in Lane County must be modified to approximate that in other progressive states. In Pennsylvania the funds are apportioned on a basis of one-third according to the number of teachers, one-third according to the number of school children in the local district, and one-third according to the local property valuation. Nebraska gives one-fourth, in a lump to each school district, and three-fourths on the basis of the school census, while California gives $550.00 on the basis of teachers employed, and the remainder on a basis of average attendance. The following plan of apportionment is proposed as a solution for the present problem in Lane County: (1) 45 per cent according to the number of full-time teachers. (2) 45 per cent according to the aggregate daily attendance. (3) 10 per cent according to the needs and efforts of individual schools. Part (3) of the school fund should be under definite control of the State and county educational authorities, and should be used to adjust the more striking inequalities which may remain after each district has met its just share of the burden of school taxation. Let the State contribute its just share to the support of local educa- tion, adopt the foregoing plan of apportionment, delegate the control of rural education to the educational authorities of a properly centralized county school system, and the problem of rural education in Lane County will be solved. Nor is this an idle fancy it has been done in part or in whole elsewhere, and in equal measure as Lane County approaches the standard set, in equal degree will all her schools reach the present standard of her many good ones, and all of her children enjoy the educational privileges of her more favored ones. CHAPTER 9 FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS Careful reading of the foregoing pages will disclose the fact that there are many phases of education and numerous individual schools in Lane County which receive commendation and which are worthy of imitation elsewhere. Judging from the standards which have been set elsewhere, rural education may be said to be above the average. But average rural education in the United States is far from satisfactory. Most certainly it will not answer in Lane County where the promotion of rural life and efficiency is of first importance to the ultimate welfare of the entire population. Little space has been given to pointing out local defects which may be remedied over night for the trouble is deep-seated, and one which demands rigorous treatment, no less than the complete reorganization of county educational administration. It will take time to attain the ideals here set forth, but because the journey may prove long is no reason for delaying the start. If rural education in Lane County is to meet the needs of country life in an adequate manner, definite progress should be made at an early date towards the following changes : RURAL SURVEY OF LANE COUNTY 109 1. Development of consolidated grade schools and union high schools at points which, geographically and economically, are "natural" com- munity centers. 2. Adoption of the county unit system in place of the present one- sided system of county educational administration. 3. Extension of the present rural supervisory system. 4. Equalization of the burdens of taxation for school purposes by increasing the proportional amounts borne by the State and county, and lowering the proportional amount borne by local school districts. 5. Distribution of authority among State, county and district school officials in such a manner as (1) to adjust the course of study to local needs, (2) to stimulate local school support, and (3) to insure equal educational opportunities in all parts of the county. UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBEAEY BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. MA 3 I91g SMar^Bl' %1 i LIBRARY U. SENT ON ILL APR 3 2000 U. C. BERKELEY 50m-7,'16 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY