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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY 
 BERKELEY, CA 94720 
 
 s 
 
CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OF SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 ANATOMY 
 PHYSIOLOGY 
 HYGIENE 
 
 COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION 
 or THE 
 
 STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 
 
 SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA. 
 PRINTED AT THE STATE PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
BIOLOGY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 G 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1891 , 
 By Henry H. Markham, James W, Anderson, Ira More, Charles W. Childs, and 
 
 Edward T. Pierce, 
 
 STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 Of the State of California, for the People of the State of California. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The objects kept in view in the preparation of this 
 book have been: 
 
 To teach the organs and functions of the human body. 
 To show how health may be kept. 
 To develop powers of observation. 
 To teach the use of pictures. 
 
 The facts of Anatomy and Physiology are put as sim- 
 ply and clearly as possible; something in the way of 
 object lessons, with the child himself as an object. The 
 pupil is encouraged to look in the fields and markets to 
 see the truth of the statements made, and is constantly 
 referred to the pictures that illustrate the text for a bet- 
 ter understanding. Common diseases are mentioned, and 
 the habits that lead to them emphasized. 
 
 The book is in two parts, because it seems wiser to 
 learn the parts and uses of a machine before attempting 
 to run it, and the dependence of the systems is so inti- 
 mate that a knowledge of all should precede an attempt 
 to study the hygiene of any one. 
 
 The second part, Hygiene, serves as a comprehensive 
 review of Anatomy and Physiology. The subjects are 
 arranged as they are, because the child can thus proceed 
 in the scientific way from the known to the unknown. 
 The parts of the body, the supporters (bones), the 
 movers (muscles), and the cover (skin), are easily recog- 
 nized from the outside of the body. The reason of 
 motion, of growth, of flow of blood when a finger is cut,. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 must be found inside the body in the vital organs: the 
 organs of respiration, digestion, and circulation. The 
 ruler of all these organs is found in the nervous system, 
 which, being more intricate than any other, should be 
 studied last, when the child has become familiar with 
 physiological study. 
 
 The scientific names connected with the illustrations 
 and in the glossary are for the use of teachers and older 
 pupils; English names have been inserted, as far as pos- 
 sible, for the use of the younger pupils. 
 
 It is not claimed that the subject is exhausted. Two 
 things have been kept in mind: that the mental capacity 
 of children is limited, and that " cramming" should be 
 avoided. Therefore a number of interesting and impor- 
 tant facts have been left for the study of later years. 
 Experienced teachers will have no trouble in selecting 
 supplemental material for teaching, and inexperienced 
 teachers may find it helpful to supplement from any of 
 the authors mentioned in the list of good works on 
 anatomy and physiology. Teachers will find Martin's 
 Human Body, Briefer Course, excellent in suggestions for 
 object work. 
 
 All the cuts illustrating the text, except otherwise 
 marked, were made especially for this book by Sarah P. 
 Monks. 
 
 In the critical revision of the proof sheets the Board 
 of Education has been fortunate in having the assistance 
 of Miss Lucy M. Washburn, teacher of Physiology in 
 the State Normal School at San Jose; Mrs. Julia B. 
 Hoitt, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction; 
 Dr. J. W. Hunt, Los Angeles, California; Dr. A. C. Avery, 
 San Jose, California; Mr. C. F. Holder, author of an 
 Elementary Zoology and editor of the Los Angeles Trib- 
 une, Los Angeles, California; Prof. M. L. Seymour, teacher 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 of Physiology in the State Normal School at Chico, Cali- 
 fornia; Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Institute of Technology, 
 Boston, Mass.; and Prof. E. D. Cope, University of Penn- 
 sylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 I. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER 1 The Human Body 7 
 
 CHAPTER 2 The Bones ' . 20 
 
 CHAPTER 3 The Muscles 36 
 
 CHAPTER 4 The Skin and its Appendages 48 
 
 CHAPTER 5 The Food System 62 
 
 CHAPTER 6 The Circulation 83 
 
 CHAPTER 7 The Breathing Organs 103 
 
 CHAPTER 8 The Nervous System 112 
 
 CHAPTER 9 The Special Senses . . % 127 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER 1 General Hygiene 151 
 
 CHAPTER 2 Hygiene of the Bones 153 
 
 CHAPTER 3 Hygiene of the Muscles 156 
 
 CHAPTER 4 Hygiene of the Skin 161 
 
 CHAPTER 5 Hygiene of the Alimentary Canal 167 
 
 CHAPTER 6 Alcohol and Narcotics 186 
 
 CHAPTER 7 Hygiene of the Organs of Circulation .... 202 
 
 CHAPTER 8 Care of the Breathing Organs 208 
 
 CHAPTER 9 Care of the Organs of the Special Senses . . 222 
 
 CHAPTER 10 Care of the Nervous System 225 
 
 GLOSSARY 246 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS 260 
 
 INDEX 261 
 
 GYMNASTICS . 273 
 
I. 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 The human body may be divided into three parts the 
 head, trunk, and limbs. 
 
 The Head. The head has two important parts the 
 head proper and the face. By rubbing the hand over the 
 head it will be found that the outside substance moves 
 easily, and that under it is something hard. On the fore- 
 head the loose part can be pinched up. It is the skin, 
 with a little flesh. 
 
 If the top of the head were cut off, the head part would 
 be seen as a hollow, irregular box of bone, and it is this 
 box that we feel when the hand is pressed on the head. 
 This roundish box with its hard bone walls is a strong 
 protection to the soft brain, which is inside. Bone can 
 be felt by rubbing the hand anywhere over the face. 
 
 At the cheeks the flesh between the bone and the skin 
 is thicker than elsewhere on the face, and so soft that 
 quite a lump can be pinched up between the thumb and 
 finger. The flesh is called muscle. In animals that we 
 eat, the flesh, as mutton and beef, is called lean meat. 
 
 When the cheeks are pinched they get red, and the 
 lips of people in health are always red. This means that 
 there are many little tubes in muscle that are filled with 
 blood. When a person cuts or scratches his hand, the 
 tubes are opened, and the blood flows out, and thus it is 
 seen to be red. On the backs of the hands, at the wrists 
 and temples, we can see these blood vessels standing up 
 like bluish cords. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 14 
 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 When you take hold of your ear or nose, another sub- 
 stance is found which is not so hard as bone nor so soft 
 as skin and muscle. It bends easily. It is cartilage, or 
 gristle. It is the hard, white, shiny substance that is seen 
 at the end of meat bones. 
 
 These skin, bone, muscle, blood vessels, cartilage 
 are substances that form the head, and are found, also, 
 in other parts of the body. 
 
 The large, hollow place that holds the brain is called 
 the cranial cavity. There are a number of other smaller 
 hollows in the skull which hold very important organs 
 (Fig. 1). Your eyes look out of two little caves under 
 
 f 1. Brain (Cranial} Cavity. 
 2. Eye (Orbital) Cavity (2). 
 Head Cavities. { 3. Ear (Aural) Cavity (2). 
 
 4. Nose (Nasal) Cavity (divided). 
 [ 5. Mouth (Oral) Cavity. 
 
 FIG. 1( Copied). 
 Human Body. 
 
 Trunk Cavities. 
 
 Extremities. 
 
 Upper, or Arm. 
 
 f 6. Chest ( Thoracic) Cavity. 
 
 7. Bowel (Abdominal and Pelvic) 
 Cavity. 
 
 8. Shoulder. 
 
 9. Arm. 
 
 15. Forearm. 
 Wrist. 
 Hand. 
 Fingers. 
 f 10. Hip. 
 
 11. Thigh. 
 I Lower, or Leg. <j 12. Knee. 
 
 13. Leg. 
 1 14. Akle. 
 ' * 
 
 fc 
 
10 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 the forehead. You can feel a ring of bone all around the 
 front part. This hollow is called the orbital, or eye cavity. 
 On each side of the head there is a small opening, sur- 
 rounded by the ear cartilage, which leads away into the 
 ear cavity, where the wonderful organs of hearing are 
 hidden. The lips shut up the mouth cavity. The carti- 
 lage, skin, and muscles of the nose cover the cavity where 
 the organs of smell are found. 
 
 The Trunk. The trunk is usually called the body, and 
 it differs a good deal from the head. Hold your hands 
 tightly against the lower part of your waist a few minutes, 
 and you will feel motion. What is it made by? Press 
 against different parts of the trunk, and breathe. The 
 upper part moves, but has hard walls, not as solid as 
 those of the head, though very much more solid than 
 those of the lower part of the trunk. Lower down the 
 trunk is extremely soft, except at the back and hips. It 
 is as soft as the cheeks. At the back of the trunk there 
 is a number of small, irregular-shaped bones which extend 
 the whole length of the back, and are joined together, 
 one above the other, by little bands. They form what 
 is called the backbone. 
 
 At the upper part of the trunk there are many curved 
 bones, called ribs. They start at the backbone and curve 
 around something like the hoops of a barrel, to join the 
 breast bone in front. Their curved shape can be traced 
 by the fingers. They move up and down when we 
 breathe. They are the bones that make the upper portion 
 of the trunk more rigid than the lower. Find out how 
 far down they extend. The upper cavity of the trunk is 
 called the chest cavity, and the lower the cavity of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 The Limbs. The limbs, or extremities, are the legs 
 and arms. The arm is divided into arm, forearm, wrist, 
 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 11 
 
 hand, and fingers. The leg, into thigh, leg, ankle, foot, and 
 toes ( Fig. 1 ) . The limbs are unlike the head and trunk, 
 although made of much the same substances. A thumb 
 may be taken as an example of the arrangement of the 
 parts of the limbs. It can be bent, and moved easily 
 backward and forward, showing that it is made of a 
 number of bones. The place where the bones join is 
 called & joint. 
 
 Joints make it possible to bend fingers and toes, arms 
 and legs. Inside the thumb the hard bone can be felt, 
 then the soft muscle, and over all the elastic skin. The 
 nails at the ends of the fingers and toes can be bent, but 
 they are not as flexible as gristle. The arrangement of 
 bone, muscle, and skin can be seen in the leg bones of beef 
 and mutton at the market. 
 
 EPIDERMIS 
 
 FIG. 2. Section of Thumb. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the inside of a thumb cut 
 lengthwise. The bones are long, hollow inside, and 
 porous at the ends. There is something fastened to 
 the bone that looks like cord. It is tendon. It tapers 
 down from the large muscle and fastens it to the 
 bones. Similar tendons can be felt and seen inside 
 the wrist, and they are the hard cords found at the 
 small end of a chicken's "drumstick." The bulky part 
 on the inside of the hand, at the base of the thumb, is 
 muscle, and looks fibrous. The mottled appearance 
 
12 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 just under the skin in the figure shows fat. Over all is 
 seen the skin. 
 
 Even an examination of the outside shows that the 
 body is made of many substances. We can see hair, 
 skin, and nails; just under the skin in many places ten- 
 dons and blood vessels are easily found; and cartilage 
 and bones may be felt, and their shapes traced by external 
 examination. These make the body, as bricks, mortar, 
 and wood make a house. They are called tissues. 
 
 Tissues. A tissue is any solid substance that forms 
 part of the body. Tissues differ very much. Some, like 
 bone, are hard; some are tough, like cartilage; some are 
 soft, like flesh; some are elastic, like skin; and each one 
 has work to do. 
 
 Fluids. The moisture of the mouth, and the blood in 
 the veins, are examples of fluids of the body. In all the 
 tissues and fluids there is a large amount of water. Even 
 the bones are part water. 
 
 Cells. Under the microscope something new is seen. 
 This instrument, which makes things that are invisible 
 to the unaided eye large enough to be seen, shows of 
 what the tissues are made. They are built of cells. Most 
 fluids of the body also contain cells. The cells are very 
 small, and of different shapes. Fig. 3 shows various 
 cells. They are exceedingly numerous, and even though 
 so small, most of them are very important portions -of 
 the human system. 
 
 Organs. A number of tissues and fluids together 
 form an organ. An organ is a part of the body that has 
 a particular work to do. and this work is called the use 
 or function of the organ. The tissues skin, flesh, bone, 
 tendon, and blood vessels form the hand, which is an 
 organ for grasping; various fluids and tissues form the 
 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 13 
 
 FIG. 3. Cells. 1. Nerve Cells (multipolar); 2. Blood Cells, or Cor- 
 puscles ; 3. Liver, or Hepatic Cells ; 4. Fat Cells ; 5. Striped Muscles 
 (with bead-like cells); 6. Unstriped muscles (spindle-shaped cells). 
 
 eye, which is an organ for seeing; the lungs, that cause the 
 chest walls to rise and fall when the air is drawn in and 
 forced out, are organs of breathing; and the heart, which 
 you can feel thumping against your left side, is an organ 
 to drive the blood through the blood vessels. ' 
 
 The heart is a single organ. Many of our organs are in 
 pairs. There are two eyes, two ears, two arms, two legs, 
 and two lungs. Even the heart is divided into two parts, 
 and the nasal cavity has a partition, which makes two 
 nostrils. But some other organs, like mouth and stom- 
 ach, are not divided, or in pairs. 
 
 Systems. A number of organs working together 
 make a system. The heart, blood vessels, and blood form 
 the blood circulating system. The teeth, tongue, and the 
 stomach, which aches when wrong material or bad food 
 is eaten, and some other organs, make the food or digestive 
 
14 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 4 (Copied). Absorbent System. S. Superficial vessels; Z>. Deep- 
 seated vessels; 1. Thoracic Duct; 2. Chyle receptacle (Receptaculum 
 chylii); 3. Lacteals. 
 
 system. The system that takes in poison when one is 
 injured by poison oak, is called the absorbent system. 
 
 The systems are closely connected, and are dependent 
 upon one another. When all organs and systems work 
 well a person is not conscious of his body, and is said to 
 be in good health. If one organ gets out of order, other 
 parts are apt to be affected, and the whole body becomes 
 uncomfortable or cis-eased. 
 
THE HUMAN BODY. 15 
 
 Anatomy. Anatomy tells how tissues and organs are 
 made, where the organs are, and describes their shape, 
 color, and general appearance. 
 
 Physiology. Physiology teaches the function, use, or 
 working of organs and parts of the body. 
 
 Hygiene. School children do not study text-books of 
 physiology merely to learn the description and functions 
 of organs, but to learn what it is right to eat and drink, 
 how to avoid poisonous and injurious things, and how to 
 live and work and think so as to have strong, well bodies 
 that can do their work comfortably and perfectly. It is 
 easier to keep from getting sick than to get well when 
 health is broken down. Hygiene is the science that 
 teaches the laws of health. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Write what you remember of Chapter 1 under the fol- 
 lowing heads: 
 
 Head. Limbs. 
 
 Parts. Names. 
 
 Tissues. p artgt 
 
 Fluids. Joints. 
 
 Cavities. Tendons. 
 
 Systems. 
 
 Tissues. 
 Backbone. ~ ,, 
 
 Ribs. Cells - 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Upper. Anatomy. 
 
 Lower. 
 
 Front. Physiology, 
 
 Back. 
 
 Cavities. Hygiene. 
 
16 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 QUESTIONS. Which of the following statements relate 
 io anatomy, which to physiology, and which to hygiene? 
 
 Skin is in two layers. 
 
 Liver is made of angular cells. 
 
 The heart propels blood. 
 
 Blood is part water. 
 
 Tobacco injures the nervous system. 
 
 Unstriped muscle is made of spindle-shaped cells. 
 
 Perspiration keeps the body cool. 
 
 Reading fine print at dusk injures the eyesight. 
 
 Saliva helps dissolve food. 
 
 Organs are made of tissue. 
 
 Alcoholic drinks injure the brain. 
 
 Make three original statements relating to anatomy. 
 Three relating to physiology. Three relating to hygiene. 
 
 Questions to be answered from memory will be found 
 at the end of Part I. 
 
THE SKELETON. 
 
 17 
 
 Head Bones. 
 29. 
 
 Total, 206. 
 
 Trunk Bones. 
 57. 
 
 Bones of Ex- 
 tremities . . 
 120. 
 
 f 1. Frontal (1). 
 
 2. Parietal (2). 
 
 3. Temple, or Temporal (2). 
 
 4. Occipital (1). 
 
 5. Cheek (Malar} (2). 
 
 6. Nose (Nasal} (2). 
 6 a . Vomer (1). 
 
 7. Lower Jaw (Inferior Maxillary} (1). 
 
 8. Upper Jaw (Superior Maxillary} (2). 
 
 Not shown in figure : Sphenoid (1), Ethmoid (1), 
 Turbinated (2), Lachrymal (2), Palate (2), Ear 
 bones (6), Tongue (Hyoid} bone (1). 
 
 9. Collar bone (Clavicle} (2). 
 
 9 a . Shoulder blade (Scapula} (2). 
 10. Ribs (24). 
 10 a . Breast bone (Sternum) (1). 
 
 a. N eck ( Cervical) Ver- 
 
 tebrae (7). 
 
 b. Back (Dorsal) Ver- 
 
 tebrae (12). 
 
 c. Loin (Lumbar) Ver- 
 
 tebrae (5). 
 
 d. Hip (Sacral), five 
 
 consolidated (1). 
 
 e. Coccyx or Coccyg- 
 
 eal, consolidated 
 (1), or imperfect. 
 [ 12. Hip (Innominata) Bones (2). 
 
 13. Humerus(2). 
 
 14. Radius (2). 
 
 15. Ulna (2). 
 
 16. Wrist bones (Carpals) (16). 
 
 17. Metacarpals (10). 
 
 18. Finger bones (Phalanges) (28). 
 
 11. Spinal (Vertebral) Column. <| 
 
 Arm. 
 60. 
 
 19. Thigh bone (Femur) (2). 
 
 20. Kneepan (Patella) (2). 
 
 21. Tibia (2).. 
 
 22. Fibula (2). 
 
 23. Ankle bones (Tarsals) (14). 
 
 24. Instep (Metatarsals) (10). 
 
 25. Toe bones (Phalanges) (28). 
 26. Ligaments 
 
 Leg. 
 60. 
 
 (Authors differ, because some count the teeth, making 238 ; some do 
 not count ear bones; some do not count patellae.) 
 2 P 
 
18 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 13 
 
THE SKELETON. 
 
 19 
 
 26- 
 
20 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 
 BONES. 
 
 The Skeleton. By simply pressing on different parts 
 of the body it is found that there is a bony framework 
 beneath the skin and flesh, but this examination does 
 not give a satisfactory idea of the form or the number of* 
 bones. It is easy to count the separate pieces that make 
 the fingers and the hand, but, from the outside, no one 
 could tell how many bones there are in the ankle, or the 
 wrist, and would suppose that the skull is but a single 
 curved bone. Fig. 5 shows how the bones of the body look 
 when the soft tissues are removed. These bones make 
 what is called the skeleton. It takes about two hundred 
 bones to form the skeleton, and they are of very differ- 
 ent shapes and sizes (Figs. 5, 6). 
 
 FIG. 7. Cranium. 1. Mas- 
 toid Process of Temporal 
 Bone; 2. Styloid Pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Flat Bones. 
 
 Most of the 
 head bones 
 are curved, 
 and all of 
 them are flat 
 and rather 
 thin (Fig. 
 7). They 
 are called 
 flat bones. 
 The shoul- 
 der blade 
 
 (Fig. 8) is an excellent example of a flat bone. The hip 
 
 bones (Figs. 5, 6) also belong to this class. 
 
 ASAL 
 
BONES. 
 
 21 
 
 Long Bones. Look at the thigh bone (Figs. 9, 5, 6), 
 
 FIG. 8. Shoulder Blade (Scapula). 1. Shoulder 
 Socket ; 2. Openings for blood vessels and nerves. 
 
 FIG. 9. Back of 
 Thigh Bone (Right 
 Femur). 1, 1. Open- 
 ings for blood ves- 
 sels and veins. 
 
 and you will find 
 another class of 
 bones. In the hands 
 and feet, arms and 
 legs, most of the 
 bones are long and 
 
 roundish, something like rods (Figs. 10, 5, 
 6). They are called long bones. They are 
 widened at the ends, and in some of them the 
 ends are very much rounded. The two 
 tremities of long bones are called heads, and 
 the part between is the shaft. The femur 
 (Fig. 9) is the longest bone of the body, 
 and its upper end is so round that there 
 is good reason for calling it a head. 
 
 Irregular Bones. The backbone, 
 or spinal column (Fig. 11), shows 
 another class. The pieces that form it 
 have very peculiar shapes. They be- 
 long to the third class, called irregular 
 
22 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 10 (Copied}. I. Hand. Ph. Finger Bones (Phalanges); Me. 
 Bones of the hand between wrist and lingers (Metacarpals) ; A. A. A. 
 (T. Ligaments, T. Trapezium, T. Trapezoid, M. Magnum, U. Unci- 
 form, Scaphoid, S. Semi-lunar, C. Cuneiform, P. Pisiform, Wrist, 
 or Carpal, Bones, or Carpalia. 
 
 II. Finger Bone without Ligaments. M. Metacarpal. 
 
 Those of the wrist and of the ankle are also of 
 this class. 
 
 Processes. All bones have projections, called pro- 
 cesses and ridges, for attachment of muscles, and in 
 many places the bones are made rough by the pulling of 
 tendons. In muscular people the bones are rougher, and 
 the processes and ridges larger, than in others, because 
 their muscles are more developed and pull on the bone 
 harder. 
 
BONES. 
 
 7. Neck (Cervical) Vertebrae. 
 
 23 
 
 co 7 
 
 -a | 
 
 t 
 
 12. Back (Dorsal) Vertebrae. 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 5. Loin (Lumbar) Vertebrae. 
 
 Hip (Sacral) Vertebrae (5. Consolidated). 
 
 Coccygeal Vertebrae (3 or 4, imperfect). 
 
24 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 On the skull (Fig. 7), just back of the ear, there is a 
 stout process, called the mastoid process, which you can 
 find on your own head. The muscle fastened to it and 
 passing down the side of the neck can be pinched up 
 between the thumb and fingers, if the head is held side- 
 wise. There is another process of the temporal bone seen 
 in Fig. 7, that looks like a thick needle. 
 
 The projections along the spinal column are stout pro- 
 cesses, called spines or spinous processes (Fig. 11), and 
 the ridge of the shoulder blade, also called a spine (Fig. 
 8), is a good example of a ridge for muscular attachment. 
 
 Openings in Bone. On the surface of any dried bone 
 you pick up you can see a great number of little openings 
 like pin holes. They are shown in Figs. 9, 8. They 
 are in all bones. They are openings through which the 
 blood vessels enter, for bone, like all parts of the body, is 
 alive, and needs blood to bring it material to keep it strong 
 and well. 
 
 Color. When inside the body, bone does not look like 
 the bleached pieces sometimes picked up on the street or 
 in the field. If it is exposed to the weather it becomes 
 white; if buried, it gets stained a blackish or brownish 
 color, from the soil; but when it is fresh, bone is of a 
 delicate pinkish color. 
 
 Cover. Bones have a kind of coat over them. It is 
 thin, pinkish, and fits closely; but in meat bones it can 
 be pulled off, like a skin, from the harder part. It nour- 
 ishes them, and helps mend them when they are broken. 
 It is called bone cover (periosteum). 
 
 Structure. Next to the outside cover the bones are 
 hard and dense. After that there is a porous layer, and 
 then another dense layer, which can be seen in any 
 broken piece. This is all there is of the flat bones. 
 
 If you break open a chicken's leg, you will find a long 
 
BONES. 25 
 
 hollow inside the last dense layer. In soup bones, and 
 in the long bones of dogs and sheep, and other domestic 
 animals, the hollow is filled with a 
 yellowish, fatty substance. It is called 
 -HEAD the marrow. Do not look for marrow 
 in the chicken's bone; the long bones 
 of birds are hollow. This makes them 
 light and enables them to fly easily. 
 JsHArT The ends of the long bones are 
 
 quite porous, the fibres of bone form- 
 ing there a kind of network. This 
 can be seen in a bone cut lengthwise 
 (Fig. 12), or by breaking any long 
 bone you may find. 
 FIG. 12. section of Microscopic Structure. The 
 
 Humerus. . . 
 
 microscopic structure of bone is very 
 
 interesting, for it shows how it is possible for the blood 
 to circulate all through so hard a substance as bone. 
 
 Connected with the small holes that can be seen on the 
 outside of any bone, there are minute canals, invisible to 
 the unaided eye, which run in different directions, and 
 branch like the roots of trees. Little crooked tubes run 
 from them, and lead to irregular lake-like spaces. 
 
 I., Fig. 13, shows two of the canals, and their branches, 
 cut lengthwise. II., Fig. 13, shows one cut across, with 
 the tiny lakes, like long black spots, and the fine thread- 
 like tubes connecting the lakes with the canals. The 
 blood comes in through the small holes in the outside, 
 enters the canals, goes through the crooked tubes, comes 
 to the lakes, and there nourishes all the surrounding 
 particles of bone. 
 
 Composition. In Chapter 1 it was said that even 
 bone is made partly of water. It is easy to guess, from 
 its hardness, that it must have also something in it that 
 
26 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 FIG. 13. Bone Sections. I. Vertical Section: 1, 1. Haversian Canal; 
 2. Little Lakes (Lacunas); 3. Little Canals (Canaliculi). 
 II. Cross Section : 1. Haversian Canal ; 2. Lacuna ; 3. Canaliculi. 
 
 is like stone. It has. This is a mineral, made of the 
 same materials as the marble which is used for making 
 statues, and for trimming brick or stone houses. It is 
 called limestone, or carbonate of lime. Bone, however, is 
 composed of limestone and another mineral called phos- 
 phate of lime. 
 
 Experiments. But if there were only water and this 
 kind of lime in the bone, it would look like the marble 
 of statues and gravestones, but it does not. Water and 
 lime make up only two thirds of the bone. What is the 
 rest? Something you never would guess by merely look- 
 ing at the bone. It is animal matter, not very unlike 
 cartilage. This can easily be shown by soaking a bone, 
 like those from mutton chops, or a chicken's leg, for a 
 day in dilute muriatic acid. All the mineral will be 
 taken out, and the animal part that remains will be so 
 tough and flexible that it can be tied in a knot, if it is 
 long enough. To get rid of the animal matter in a bone, 
 put it into the fire. All the water and animal part 
 burns away, and the lime remains white and brittle and 
 porous. 
 
BONES. 27 
 
 In both experiments the bone keeps its shape and size, 
 but it loses weight. They show the use of each material, 
 and how closely they are connected. The lime makes it 
 hard and strong, and the animal portion makes it tough 
 and flexible. By comparing some bone that has been in 
 the street a long time with one fresh from the market, it 
 will be seen that exposure to weather also drives out part 
 of the animal matter. 
 
 Proportion of Mineral and Animal Matter. The 
 ratio of the two substances in bone varies with age and 
 individuals. In the bones of babies there is a great deal 
 more of animal matter than of mineral; in young chil- 
 dren there is more than in grown people, and in old people 
 there is very much more mineral than animal matter. 
 That is the reason children's bones bend easily, and are 
 not so apt to break from slight falls. 
 
 The habit of letting babies stand too early bends the 
 soft bones of the legs, and makes them what is called 
 bow-legged. The extra lime in the bones of old persons 
 makes them so brittle that they break readily. There is 
 also a great difference in persons of the same age in 
 regard to the two materials. Sometimes a fall from a 
 chair will result in the breaking of a bone in one child, 
 while in another child it only bruises the flesh. 
 
 Broken Bone. When a bone is broken, if the two 
 edges are held firmly together for some time it will knit, 
 or grow together again, and be as strong as ever. At first 
 the joined part is flexible^but after a few weeks it hard- 
 ens like the old part. This is because the blood has 
 taken to it all the lime it needed. In fact, so much 
 mineral has been taken there that, a ridge is made, which 
 is only smoothed down after a number of years have 
 passed, by the blood carrying away by degrees the excess 
 of material. 
 
28 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Joints. Bones are joined together in different ways, 
 according to their uses and the amount of motion required. 
 By opening and shutting the hand, it is seen that the 
 bones double up on each other very readily in closing, 
 but there is only a limited motion 
 backward. The same is true of 
 toes, elbows, and knees. Because 
 they move something like hinges, 
 they are called hinge joints. These 
 hinges are swinging all day long, 
 and still they never creak. The 
 hinges of a door often creak, and 
 some one is only too glad to apply 
 oil to stop the noise. The hinge 
 joints are also oiled. There is a 
 membrane at each joint that man- 
 ufactures a smooth, whitish fluid, 
 something like the white of egg, 
 called synovia, that comes between 
 the two rubbing surfaces and 
 makes them move smoothly. 
 
 The hinge joints (Fig. 14) are 
 very wonderful. First, there are 
 
 FIG. 14 (Copied). Section the wide ends of the two bones, 
 ofKneeJomt.l. Knee pan . , , 
 
 (Patella}; 2. Mass of Fat; 3. and over each there is a hard, pol- 
 
 ished cap of-cartilage that, in beef 
 
 6. Thigh bone (Femur). bones, can be cut, and that looks 
 something like dull glass. Then comes the thin mem- 
 brane which makes the oiling 'material. Then all these 
 are bound together by straps of ligaments (Fig. 10), or 
 cap-like ligaments (Fig. 15). 
 
 The ligament is inelastic, white, and fibrous, and it is 
 everywhere found binding bones together when joints 
 have any motion. 
 
 Not all joints are hinge joints. Stiffen your arm and 
 
BONES. 29 
 
 swing it around. See how 
 many motions you can 
 make up, down, backward, 
 forward, and around in a 
 circle. A hinge joint can- 
 not do that. Try twisting 1 - 
 your finger around in that way. 
 At a meat market can be seen how a 
 calf's, sheep's, or cow's hind leg 
 joins the body. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows the most perfect joint of 
 this kind. There is a deep socket in 
 one bone and a round head at the end 
 of the other. The ball fits smoothly 
 into the hollow. It is called a ball and 
 socket joint. In the hip joint there 
 is a small ligament which fastens the 
 head of the thigh bone to ttie inside 
 
 of the socket to help hold it in place. (Capsular) Ligament; 3. 
 xx , . T , i . TIT L Thigh bone, or femur. 
 
 Outside there is a cap-like ligament 
 
 extending from the hip bone to the thigh bone (Figs. 
 5, 6). The shoulder is nearly as good an example of ball 
 and socket joint. It admits of a great deal of motion. 
 
 Place your hands on your spinal column and bend 
 backward and forward and from side to side. A new 
 joint is found. The parts of the backbone cannot shut 
 up on themselves like the fingers, nor swing as freely as 
 the arms. The motion is limited, for the most part, to a 
 glide, and the joints are called plane or gliding joints. 
 
 All the joinings of bones of the extremities and spinal 
 column admit of motion, and they are called movable joints. 
 Nearly all the head bones are fastened closely together. 
 In most of them the bony edges are jagged, like irregular 
 saw teeth, and they fit together so as to hold the bones in 
 place without ligaments (Fig. 7). These joints are 
 
30 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 called sutures. Sometimes, as between the temporal and 
 parietal bones, the edges merely lap over (Fig. 7). These 
 and the sutures are immovable joints. 
 
 The under part of the back of the head fits on the 
 spinal column. Move your head up and down, and from 
 side to side; it acts as though it were fastened by a ball 
 and socket joint. There is something like one. On the 
 under side of the skull there is a short, curved process, 
 something like a rocker, on each side of the opening, 
 through which the spinal cord passes. These fit into 
 long hollows, like grooves, on the first vertebra (Fig. 18, 
 I. 3), and the head rocks forward and back- 
 ward, with its rockers in the grooves. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 piG. 16. I. Atlas : 1. Ligament ; 2. End of Odontoid Process ; 3. 
 Places on which the curved processes of the head move; 4. Opening 
 for nerves and blood vessels. 
 
 II. Axis (side view): A. Odontoid Process; B. Spinous Process; 
 C. Opening for nerves and blood vessels. 
 
 It cannot twist around on these. The second vertebra 
 has a peg-like process on its upper side (Fig. 16, II. A). 
 This peg fits into a hollowed-out place in the first ver- 
 tebra (Fig. 16, I.), and is held in its place by a ligament, 
 and when we turn our heads the first vertebra and the 
 head move on the pivot of the second vertebra. This is 
 called a pivot joint. When a person's neck is broken, it 
 is generally the peg that breaks through the ligament, 
 and kills by pressing against the spinal cord. 
 
BONES. 
 
 31 
 
 Shape of the Skull. The skull, or brain box, is 
 shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, and its shape can be seen and felt 
 on any head. It is curved like a dome, and this is the 
 strongest form in the world for resisting blows or press- 
 ure. It has this perfect shape in order to protect the 
 delicate, soft brain. The sutures add to its protecting 
 power. If it were solid, and a blow received hard enough 
 to fracture the bone, the break would extend a great dis- 
 tance. As it is, when a skull bone is broken, the break 
 extends only to the suture, which scatters or distributes 
 the jar. The most delicate organs of the body the 
 brain, the eye, and the ear are thus well protected by 
 the strong, arched, and sutured skull. 
 
 The Ribs. The internal organs of the trunk are par- 
 tially protected by bones the ribs, spinal column, and hip 
 bones (Figs. 5, 6). There are twenty-four ribs. They 
 are generally fastened, in pairs, to the breast bone by car- 
 tilage, and to the spinal column by ligaments, and they 
 move freely up and down when we breathe. They have 
 the strong, arched shape. 
 
 By looking at Figs. 5, 6, it will be seen that they 
 are not all joined to the breast bone in the same way. 
 Seven pairs join the breast bone by their own cartilage, 
 and are called true ribs. Three pairs are fastened to the 
 cartilage of the seventh rib, and are called false ribs; and 
 two pairs are free, or floating ribs. Fig. 17 shows the 
 relation between the ribs and soft organs beneath, the 
 dotted lines showing the position of such organs. 
 
 Press hard with both hands against the floating ribs. 
 You will perceive how easily the ribs are bent in, and 
 how it is possible for a silly girl to make a small waist. 
 The five lower pairs of ribs are pressed down on the soft 
 organs inside the trunk. Do you think it can be com- 
 fortable? 
 
32 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 17. Torso Showing Ribs and relative positions of vital organs 
 of Trunk. Dotted lines show organs which are beneath Ribs and 
 Sternum. 
 
 The Hip Bones and Spinal Column. The hip 
 bones form the lower part of the pelvic cavity, and are 
 fastened to the spinal column (Figs. 5, 6). A number 
 of vertebrae in the lower end of the spinal column are 
 joined firmly together, and thus make a stronger support 
 for the hips and upper part of the trunk. The spinal 
 column (Fig. 11) is made of many pieces, called verte- 
 brae, that vary in size and shape. Nearly every separate 
 bone has a broad, flat part in front, on which rests a pad 
 
BONES. 
 
 33 
 
 of cartilage when the bones are fastened together, a spinous 
 part projecting backward, and a hole through which the 
 spinal cord passes (Fig. 18). The spines give it the 
 name of spinal column. 
 
 This column is sometimes incor- 
 rectly called the backbone, as 
 
 FIG. 18. Loin (Lumbar) Vertebra. 
 I. Top View: 1. Opening for spinal 
 cord. 
 
 II. Side: 1, 1. Opening for spinal cord. 
 
 though it were all in one piece. In many people the 
 spinous processes can easily be felt on the neck, especially 
 the last, or seventh, neck vertebra. In very thin horses 
 they stand up all along the back like knots. Bones are 
 always seen when the padding of fat is wasted away. 
 
 Curves and Cartilage. The spinal column has 
 several curves. These serve to lessen or prevent injury 
 to the brain in case of a fall. The cartilages between the 
 vertebrae also serve to deaden a shock or jar. During 
 the day, while one is on one's feet a great deal, the pads 
 of cartilage get compressed and thin; but at night, by 
 resting, they expand. A person is therefore shorter at 
 night than he is in the morning. 
 
 FOR THE TEACHER. 
 
 Procure several fresh bones from the market and ask 
 
 3 P 
 
34 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 each child to bring any bone he can get. Compare, notice 
 differences. 
 
 Old Bone. Fresh Bone. 
 
 Dry. Moist. 
 
 Many holes outside. No holes. 
 
 Whitish. Pinkish (with spots marking tiny 
 
 blood vessels). 
 
 No periosteum. Periosteum (hard to pull off). 
 
 No cartilage. Shiny cartilages on ends. 
 
 No ligaments. Ligaments. 
 
 Clean. Having shreds of muscle. 
 
 Hollow. Has marrow inside. 
 
 Brittle. Tough. 
 
 Porous inside. Pores filled with marrow or vessels. 
 
 Points in Common. 
 
 Ridges arid processes for attachment of tendons. Koughness. 
 Hardness. Expanded ends and shaft (if long bone). 
 
 Notice processes on irregular bones. Notice hollow for 
 spinal cord in vertebrae. In bones of young animals 
 (calves, lambs) notice the ends. Generally they separate 
 easily from the rest. That means that the ends ossify 
 free from the rest and join afterwards as the animal 
 grows older. 
 
 THOUGHT, OR OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 How does the thigh bone differ from the shoulder blade ? 
 
 What is the reason the ridge will not be prominent on a baby's 
 thigh bone? 
 
 How do the ends of a thigh bone differ? 
 
 What is the difference between the inside of the shaft and of the 
 head of long bones? 
 
 What is the difference in result, if you place one bone in acid 
 and the other in the fire? 
 
 If it were possible to stop up all the outside holes in a live bone, 
 what would happen? 
 
 What is the difference between the joints of the head and those 
 of the fingers? 
 
BONES. 35 
 
 Name all the places where ball and socket joints are found. 
 Which part of the body is best protected by bone? 
 Name three differences between a rib and an arm bone. 
 Why can ribs be pressed out of position? 
 Is your nose all cartilage ? 
 
 How is the peg of the second vertebra held in the hollow of the 
 first vertebra ? 
 
 Name four differences between thigh bone and lumbar vertebra. 
 Draw a thigh bone, a vertebra, a hip joint, a knee joint, a scapula. 
 What is the difference between a spine and a vertebra ? 
 
36 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscle, or flesh, is most easily seen as the soft tissue 
 that covers bones. It is in rounded masses that give 
 shape and beauty to all parts of the body. The thick 
 parts at the base of the thumb, on the forearm just below 
 the elbow, the bunch on the top of the shoulder, the 
 masses at the hip and the calf of the leg, all show prom- 
 inent surface muscles that are just under the skin. 
 
 Contractility. Place your left hand on the front of 
 your right arm, a little above the elbow, and bring your 
 right hand toward your shoulder. Notice how hard the 
 muscle gets. Doubling the fist hardens the muscles just 
 below the elbow. Muscles are soft when not in action, and 
 become hard when they move. They also thicken and 
 shorten. This is the peculiar and chief characteristic of 
 muscle, that it can contract or draw itself up. When it 
 contracts, it pulls flesh, bone, or whatever else is con- 
 nected with it toward itself. Move the fingers of your 
 hand backward and forward, and watch your wrist. 
 Then press the back of your hand, then the upper part 
 of the forearm. Every motion of the fingers is con- 
 trolled by the muscle of the arm, and the tendons at the 
 wrists and back of the hands show the connection. 
 
 Voluntary and Involuntary Muscles. Your 
 fingers open and shut; your hand is put forth and drawn 
 back; you walk and talk when you will, but muscle is 
 the mover. The heart is a muscle. Put your hand on 
 your left side, and feel it beat. Your will, or thought, 
 has no control over its beating. Neither does any one 
 think how food is going down to his stomach when eat- 
 ing, yet it is pushed along by muscular action; nor 
 
MUSCLES. 
 
 37 
 
 does he think how he must grow, but growth is largely 
 dependent upon the action of the muscles. Evidently, 
 therefore, while some muscles are controlled by the will, 
 others are not. Those of the first class, as the muscles 
 of the face, head, outside of the trunk, and the extrem- 
 ities, are called voluntary. 
 
 The muscles of the internal organs are not controlled 
 by the will. The heart beats, the breath comes and goes, 
 the blood moves, without our thinking. All these acts 
 are performed by muscles called involuntary. 
 
 FIG. 19. Muscle Fibres. I. Voluntary: 1. Twisted Fibre of Striped 
 (Striated) Muscle; 2. Fibrils. 
 
 II. Involuntary: 3. Unstriped ( Unstriated) Muscle; 4. Single Cells: 
 5. Nucleus of Cell. 
 
 Structure. Both classes of muscles are made of 
 thread-like fibres. These are plainly seen in lean meat, 
 and give it its stringy appearance. The microscope 
 shows that not all fibres are alike. In voluntary muscles 
 the fibres are bundles of fine, long threads, placed side 
 
38 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 20 (Copied). 
 
MUSCLES. 
 
 39 
 
 FIG 21 (Copied). 
 
40 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 by side, called fibrils ( Fig. 19,1.). Each fibril is made of 
 tiny cells, placed end to end, and the tops of the cells 
 form fine lines, running across the muscles like delicate 
 stripes; this is called striped muscle. 
 
 MUSCLES. 
 
 f 24. Occipito frontalis, moves the scalp. 
 
 23. Orbicularis palpebrarum, puckers up eyelids. 
 ad - j 21. Masseter, lifts under jaw. 
 
 20. Digastric, pulls down lower jaw. 
 1,22. Orbicularis oris, puckers up the lips. 
 
 f25. Sterno-cleido-mastoid, bends head forward. 
 19. Trapezius, pulls head backward. 
 Trunk. <j 2 * Pectorali s major, pulls arm forward. 
 j 3. Latissimus dorsi, pulls arm backward. 
 | 5. Serratus magnus, aids in respiration. 
 (. 6. Obliquus externus, aids in respiration. 
 
 Jl. Deltoid, lifts arm up. 
 3. Biceps, lifts forearm up. 
 4. Triceps, pulls forearm down. 
 (16. Extensors, extend the hand. 
 17. Flexors, shut the hand. 
 I 18. Annular ligament, holds tendons in place. 
 
 8. Rectus femoralis, pulls leg forward. 
 
 15. Biceps femoralis, pulls leg backward. 
 
 9. Sartorius, crosses the legs. 
 
 11. Vastus externus and internus, extend the leg. 
 Leg j ^' Adductor, raises the thigh. 
 
 1 7. Glutei, lower the thigh. 
 
 12. Gastrocnemius, extends the foot. 
 14. Tibialis anticus, flexes the foot. 
 
 13.,,Tendo Achilles, connects gastrocnemius to heel bone. 
 
 16. Annular ligament, binds down tendon. 
 
 Involuntary muscle cells are spindle-shaped and they 
 overlap at the ends so that there are no cross lines, and 
 such muscle is called plain, or unstriped (Fig. 19, II.). 
 
 The cells in both cases are composed of a peculiar jelly- 
 like substance called protoplasm, which is found in all 
 parts of the body where there is growing or living 
 tissue. 
 
MUSCLES. 41 
 
 Each fibre has around it a coat of thin tissue called 
 flesh sheath, which binds the fibrils together (Fig. 22, 
 
 11. 1). Then each bundle of fibres which forms a sep- 
 arate muscle is wrapped in a fine, white, silky membrane 
 named connective tissue. This keeps the muscles apart. 
 This tissue can be seen on beef or mutton "suet, and 
 may be torn off in large, papery pieces. 
 
 Shape and Arrangement. Muscles are of different 
 shapes. Sometimes they are long, roundish masses (1,7, 
 
 12, Figs. 20, 21); sometimes in flat bands (11, Fig. 20); 
 or ribbon-like pieces (9, Fig. 20). Those that work the 
 bones are often arranged one over the other in irregular 
 layers, and the outside ones are called superficial (2, Fig. 
 20), and the under ones, deep-seated (5, Fig. 20). 
 
 Action of Muscles. The striped muscles are gen- 
 erally in pairs, opposed to each other, so that they coun- 
 teract each other's motion. One pulls a part of the body 
 out of place, and the other brings it back to position. 
 One set shuts the fingers (17, Fig. 20), the opposite set 
 pulls them open (16, Fig. 20); one lifts the arm^(l, Fig. 
 20), the other pulls it down (2, Fig. 20); one moves the 
 head, or the leg, forward, another brings it backward. 
 
 Flexors. Double up your fist. You have willed that 
 the muscles on the front of your forearm shall contract. 
 They bunch up and pull on the tendons that pass along 
 the front of the wrist (17, Fig. 20) to the many finger 
 bones. Then the fingers double up. A muscle that does 
 such work is called a flexor. Flexors are found in the 
 extremities. 
 
 Extensors. When you will to open your hand a set 
 of muscles on the back of the forearm contracts, the flex- 
 ors relax, and the tendons on the back of the hand (16, 
 Fig. 20) pull on the bones and straighten the fingers. 
 
42 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 These muscles, which extend the fingers and hand, are 
 called extensors. 
 
 Although the terms extensor and flexor apply only to 
 muscles of the arms and legs, there are many pairs of- 
 muscles in the body acting in much the same way. 
 Sometimes they act together, to keep the head or body 
 erect. 
 
 Lift your arm over your head. The large muscle on 
 the top of the shoulder does it (1, Fig. 20). Muscles on 
 each side of the armpit, acting together, bring it down. 
 Work your arm slowly, as though hammering, and feel 
 the muscles on the back and front of the arm contract 
 and relax in turn. The muscle on the front is called 
 biceps (3, Fig. 20), and is the one that active and ath- 
 letic boys are very proud of showing when they say, " feel 
 my muscle." Its counteractor is triceps (4, Fig. 20). 
 
 Muscular Training. Playing ball, rowing, and dif- 
 ferent gymnastic exercises, develop arm muscles, and 
 walking and jumping are good for developing leg muscles. 
 
 Muscles are the movers of the body. The voluntary 
 class has to be taught to work. Grown people, who walk 
 and talk and move about freely, quickly, and fearlessly, 
 forget that they have to use their wills in order to move; 
 but if we watch a baby trying to walk, talk, or hold a 
 toy, or aimlessly seeking to reach for something bright, 
 in other words trying to teach his muscles to work, we 
 are able to appreciate the amount of skill our own mus- 
 cles have acquired. 
 
 Color. Muscles are generally pinkish in color, and 
 dark or light according to the amount of exercise given 
 them. This can be seen by comparing the breast mus- 
 cles of game birds, like quail and wild duck, which use 
 their wings a great deal, with the same muscles of chick- 
 ens, which rarely fly. Exercise makes muscles dark, 
 
MUSCLES. 43 
 
 full, and hard, but laziness causes them to be pale and 
 flabby. 
 
 Tendons. Muscles rarely unite directly with bone, 
 but taper oft' and are connected with it by means of 
 tough, white connective tissue, called tendons. They are 
 also called leaders, thews, cords, or sinews. There are 
 two advantages in having muscle end in tendon: First, 
 by the tapering of a bulky muscle, less room is occupied, 
 and the body is more symmetrical and shapely; and, 
 second, there is a concentration of force at one point. 
 
 Tendons are inelastic. They are sometimes cord-like 
 and sometimes in flat bands. They can be seen in Figs. 
 20, 21, at the end of the muscles. They are prominent 
 and near enough the surface to be seen and felt at the 
 wrist, back of the hand, back of the knee, and heel and 
 ankle. 
 
 They are bound down at the wrist and ankle and kept 
 from springing outward, when the fingers or toes are 
 worked, by a kind of living bracelet called annular liga- 
 ment (18, Fig. 20). 
 
 They are large where much strength is required. The 
 leg muscles support the weight of the body, and their 
 tendons are larger than those of the arms. Notice how 
 strong the one is that connects the heel bone with the 
 muscle that forms the calf of the leg (13, Fig. 21). It 
 is the largest in the body. 
 
 Cutting of Tendons. Tendons are also large on 
 each side of the back of the knee. Here they are some- 
 times called "ham strings." Formerly, in more barbar- 
 ous times, cruel people tortured their enemies or innocent 
 people whom they hated, by cutting these strong cords. 
 This destroyed the balance, and the tendon connected 
 with the muscle on the front part of the leg pulled the 
 leg forward and the injured person was never able to 
 walk or stand again. 
 
44 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Band Tendons. The tendon of the muscle that 
 moves the scalp is an example of the flat band. Its 
 arrangement is unusual. It is between the two parts of 
 muscle seen in 24, Fig. 20. The muscle fibres begin and 
 are attached to the bone at the eyebrows and continue 
 over the forehead; then the broad band over the top of 
 the skull is tendon, which ends in muscle that is fastened 
 to the bone at the back of the head. 
 
 Involuntary Muscles. Involuntary muscles are 
 generally inside the trunk, and are connected with bones, 
 other muscles, or other organs. They are often in fibrous 
 rings or bands, in the walls of organs that contract and 
 enlarge, as in the walls of blood vessels, and of the stom- 
 ach and the intestines. They are an important part of 
 the vital organs that control the food and the nourish- 
 ment of the whole system, and of the breathing organs, 
 and of those that make the blood circulate. It is exceed- 
 ingly fortunate that the muscles which direct the circula- 
 tion of the blood, respiration, and the distribution of food 
 act without our thinking to tell them, for were it other- 
 wise we could get no time to think of anything else. Day 
 and night, whether we sleep or wake, play or rest, these 
 involuntary muscles must keep moving to build up or 
 renew the tissues. So long as we use judgment in taking 
 proper food, drink, rest, and exercise, and in keeping clean 
 bodies and pure minds, these patient workers work on, 
 and work well, and keep us healthy and happy. The 
 largest and most remarkable of this class are the heart 
 and the diaphragm. 
 
 The Heart. The heart is a single muscle, and its 
 fibres have characteristics that place them between the 
 voluntary and involuntary classes. They have no flesh 
 sheath, are branched, the fibrils are finer, and the stripes 
 more delicate than in striped muscle (Fig. 22). They 
 
MUSCLES. 
 
 45 
 
 look more like striped than unstriped, but they are not 
 under the control of the will. 
 
 The Diaphragm. In 5, Fig. ^&, a portion of the 
 diaphragm is shown, dividing the upper part of the trunk, 
 or chest, from the lower part, or abdomen. It is a thin, 
 muscular partition, joined to the ribs and back bone and 
 muscular walls of the front of the trunk. It is made of 
 
 I. II. 
 
 FIG. 22. I. Muscle Fibres from Tongue : 1. Muscle Sheath (Sarco- 
 lemma) ; 2. Stripes (Strix) ; 3. Fibril. 
 
 II. Muscle from Heart (showing cross divisions and branching 
 arrangement): 2. Striae; 4. Nucleus. 
 
 coarse, involuntary muscular fibres. It is an important 
 agent in breathing, and it readily changes shape. When 
 air is expired and the chest is contracted, the diaphragm 
 is dome-shaped; when the chest is full of air, the dia- 
 phragm is flattened. Above it are the lungs and heart, 
 and below are the stomach, liver, and intestines. All 
 the long tubular organs, such as the food canal and the 
 blood vessels, which extend the length of the trunk, pass 
 through the diaphragm as large tubes. 
 
 Connective Tissue. The membrane that wraps 
 
46 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 around muscle is called connective tissue. It is one of 
 the most widely distributed materials of the body and 
 varies in use and appearance. It forms a cover and a 
 lining for all organs, and is the framework upon which 
 all soft parts are formed, and in which the character- 
 istic cells of other tissues (Fig. 3) are placed, and through 
 which the network of nerves and blood vessels is inter- 
 woven. 
 
 It seems to be the basis of everything. It has been 
 said that if it were possible to take away all other 
 tissues, the connective would retain the shape of the 
 whole body and be a perfect mold of all the organs. It 
 wraps around the bones, nerves, fat, and muscles. It 
 forms part of the walls of blood vessels, and the frame- 
 work of skin, tendon, and ligament; under the name of 
 serous membrane it lines the trunk and brain box, and 
 shuts, in a separate, closed sac, each vital organ, as the 
 lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines. 
 
 FIG. 23. Fat (Adipose) Tissue (cells crowded). Thin connective tis- 
 sue full of fat with oval masses of crystals. 
 
 It is sometimes tough and compact and fibrous, as liga- 
 ment and tendon, but generally it is fine and thin and full 
 of many roundish openings (Fig. 23). These openings 
 are not holes, but large, elastic spaces, connected together. 
 
MUSCLES. 47 
 
 In some diseases, as in dropsy, an excess of watery 
 fluid gets into this tissue and gives the person a swelled 
 and puffy appearance. Butchers sometimes insert tubes 
 between muscles of veal and blow the cellular connective 
 tissue full of air to make the meat look plump. It is 
 then called " blown veal." 
 
 Fat. Fat is a substance stored up in the connective 
 tissue of many parts of the body. It is inert and seems 
 to be merely a kind of food packed away for a time of 
 need. It is found as yellowish masses around organs, or 
 in liquid globules stored among the tissues of all parts 
 of the body. 
 
 Under the microscope it shows as roundish cells. 
 Sometimes, on cooling, it forms bunches of crystals that 
 cluster together in oval masses (Fig. 23). Its accumula- 
 tion about the vital organs often interferes with their 
 function. 
 
 THOUGHT, OR OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 Name three characteristics common to both kinds of muscles. 
 Draw both kinds. 
 
 Why is a chicken's breast-meat lighter colored than its legs? 
 
 In how many ways does tendon differ from bone? Can tendon 
 stretch? 
 
 If the tendon above the kneepan were cut, what two things would 
 happen, and why? 
 
 What parts of muscle are microscopic? 
 
 What muscles are used when a beggar puts out his hand for 
 money? 
 
 What happens when he gets it? 
 
 What is the difference between the muscles that cause food to be 
 chewed and those that move it around in the stomach? 
 
 Name four differences between breast and tongue muscle. 
 
48 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
 
 The Skin. Fig. 24 shows how the human skin looks 
 when it is magnified many times. It is an elastic 
 
 tissue which loosely covers the ft}/ outside of the 
 
 FIG. 24. Section of Skin. 1. Shaft of Hair; 2. Medullary Substance; 
 
 13. Muscle; 14. Nerve. 
 
 body and is fastened to the muscles by connective tissue. 
 The lower layer is full of nerves and blood vessels. You 
 will find that it is loose and elastic by pinching it up on 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 49 
 
 the face or hands. Blood vessels can be seen as bluish 
 cords standing up in many places, and 5, Fig. 21, shows 
 how they branch. If cut they bleed. A cut or scratch 
 causes pain, and that shows that there are nerves. 
 
 Mucous Membrane. Membrane, like the skin, but 
 somewhat modified, lines the inside of the body, so that 
 the outside coat and the inside lining are continuous. 
 The lips show how the two membranes meet. The out- 
 side one covering the muscles is called skin, but when it 
 lines the air passages of nose, throat, and lungs, and the 
 food passages of the mouth and digestive canal, it is called 
 mucous membrane. 
 
 The difference between skin and mucous membrane is 
 well shown at the lips and on the inside and outside sur- 
 face of the eyelids. Mucous membrane is thinner, more 
 moist, and fuller of blood vessels than skin. It looks red, 
 because the many blood vessels show through. 
 
 Mucous membrane lines passages into which air can 
 get. It is very different in different places, but no matter 
 what its form is, it is nothing but skin changed so that 
 it can do many kinds of work. Its modifications can be 
 best studied with the subjects of digestion and respira- 
 tion. 
 
 Cuticle. The skin is made of two parts. The outer 
 part is called the external, or scarf, skin, epidermis, and 
 cuticle. Little pieces can be cut off the skin of the fingers 
 without drawing blood or causing pain, because it has 
 neither nerves nor blood vessels. It is often loosened 
 from the lower skin by a burn or a blow, and this causes 
 what is called a blister. The bruise, or burn, shows the 
 thin cuticle freed from the inner skin, with, at first, a 
 liquid between them. If the blister is cut it causes pain, 
 for then the tender under skin is exposed to the air. 
 
 A blood blister is different from an ordinary blister. 
 
 4 P 
 
50 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 It is caused by a blow, which bruises the under skin and 
 breaks some of the tiny blood vessels. They bleed, the 
 blood collects between the two layers of skin, and the 
 blister looks red at first, then turns dark as it gets old. 
 
 Cells of Cuticle. The cuticle, or little skin, like all 
 other tissues, is made of cells. These are flatter and drier 
 than the cells of the under layer. The difference between 
 the very flat, horny, worn-out cells of the upper part of the 
 cuticle and the more rounded ones near the true skin is 
 shown in Figs. 24, 27. 
 
 You can remove and see the small scales of cuticle 
 by rubbing a black cloth on the face. They are being 
 rubbed off all the time. As they dry and wear away, 
 new ones grow constantly from below. On the head the 
 loose scales are called dandruff. 
 
 Generally the scarf skin is removed insensibly in 
 small particles, by bathing and by the friction of clothing; 
 but sometimes, as after fevers, it peels off in large patches 
 or tatters. Children, who have had scarlet fever, often 
 speak of it as " skinning." 
 
 Thickened Cuticle. The cuticle is thin over most 
 parts of the body, but in places which are much rubbed 
 or pressed, as at the soles of the feet, it is thickened* 
 People who are not used to hard work get the palms of the 
 hands hardened in patches, or even blistered, by sweeping 
 or rowing. In case of blistering, the friction rubs the 
 upper skin loose. If such hard work is done constantly, 
 the skin of the hands becomes thick, horny, and callous. 
 Notice where the cuticle is thickest in your hand. 
 
 The pressure of badly-fitting boots acts much the same 
 as hard work does on hands, and rubs painful, hard places, 
 called corns, on the toes. This happens when boots are 
 too tight, or too loose, and is caused by the effort of the 
 cuticle to place something between the tender under skin 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 51 
 
 and the irritating leather. Thickened cuticle generally 
 acts as a protector. 
 
 Pigment. The lower layer of cells of scarf skin fol- 
 lows closely the outline of the under skin, and it is 
 generally well supplied with little dark colored grains. 
 It is called the pigment, or paint layer (9, Fig. 24). 
 Pigment grains, like thickened cuticle, are for protecting 
 the inner skin. They guard it from the injurious effect of 
 too much sunlight. 
 
 Complexion. Fair people have little pigment, and 
 dark ones have much. In the Indian, negro, and other 
 dark races, the pigment layer is thicker, and there are 
 more grains of coloring material than in light colored 
 people. Albinos have no pigment. They are persons, or 
 lower animals, having white hair, pink eyes, and pinkish 
 or chalky white skins or fur. White rats and rabbits are 
 good examples. Because pigment is wanting, the color 
 of the blood is seen in the eyes, making the eyes look 
 pink. When the cuticle is thin, the skin looks pinkish 
 for the same reason. 
 
 Tan and Burn. Sunlight either produces some 
 change in the pigment, or increases its amount, so that 
 persons who live much out of doors get their complexions 
 darkened. Those who stay indoors too much become 
 bleached. Sunburn is caused by the heat of the sun 
 bringing a quantity of blood to the surface. If people 
 who have thin skins, or very little pigment, are exposed 
 very long to sunlight, the burn becomes painful, and 
 blisters like any other burn. Most people with dark 
 complexions, being better protected by pigment, merely 
 tan, or darken. Sometimes sunlight, or wind, causes 
 the pigment to form in small specks, called freckles. 
 Freckles come and go according to the amount of expos- 
 ure. Generally as people grow older less pigment is 
 
52 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 formed, the face becomes paler, and sunshine does not 
 cause freckles. 
 
 Scars. When the pigment layer is destroyed in any 
 place, it will not form again; so when a cut is deep enough 
 to injure it, the scar that forms always stays white. This 
 is true of light or dark skins, and a very deep cut on a 
 negro heals whitish. 
 
 Outis. The under skin is called cutis, dermis, or true 
 sHn. It begins just below the pigment layer. It is a 
 loose network of fibres and cells full of branching nerves 
 and blood vessels. These vessels are so crowded together 
 that it is impossible to cut the dermis without drawing 
 blood and causing pain. 
 
 Papillae. The upper surface of the dermis is not level 
 like that of the cuticle, but is made of a multitude of lit- 
 tle projections called papillse (singular, papilla}. (8, 
 Fig. 24.) Of course, they are microscopic. Although 
 they are so small that you cannot see them with the 
 unaided eye, they are filled with tiny blood vessels, which 
 make this part redder than any other portion of the 
 skin. They also contain the tips of the nerves of touch. 
 
 In very sensitive places the papillae are crowded 
 together, but in places where there is not much feeling 
 they are far apart. Notice the ends of your fingers. 
 The ridges are rows of papillae. The rows are curved 
 around in a queer way. There are so many termina- 
 tions of nerves in these rows that you can feel better with 
 the ends of the fingers than with any other part of the 
 hand. 
 
 Appendages. There are certain organs called ap- 
 pendages of the skin. They are hair, nails, teeth, the oil 
 and the sweat glands. They are modifications of skin. 
 Teeth, like hair, are modified skin. They grow from 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
 
 53 
 
 UUi papilla? in folds 
 
 of the skin, and 
 therefore belong 
 to this system; 
 but as their 
 function is to pre- 
 pare food, they are 
 best studied with 
 the digestive system. 
 
 Hair. Hair is mod- 
 ified cuticle. Each hair 
 grows in a long tube that 
 is a depression of the 
 cuticle which extends from 
 the surface down deep into 
 the cutis (Fig. 25). This 
 tube is called a hair sac. The 
 lower end of each hair fits like 
 a cap over one of the papillae 
 of the cutis, and grows from 
 it. If a papilla is destroyed 
 no new hair will ever grow in 
 that place. Each hair is made 
 of three parts: the shaft, above 
 the surface; root, below the 
 surface; and bulb, at end of 
 root. Pull out a hair from 
 your head and tell how the end of the root differs from 
 the shaft. 
 
 The hair is destitute of nerves and blood vessels. It 
 hurts sometimes to pull it out, because there are nerves 
 in the papillae, which are injured when the hair bulb is 
 torn loose. Nearly all the body is clothed with fine hair 
 or down. None is found on the palms of the hands, or 
 
 FIG. 25. 1. Shaft of Hair; 2. 
 Dry Cells of Epidermis; 3. Pig- 
 ment Layer; 4. Papilla; 5. 
 True Skin (Dennis}; 6. Root of 
 Hair; 7. Bulb of Hair; 8. Fat 
 Cells; 9. Muscle; 10. Blood 
 Vessels; 11. Depression of the 
 Cuticle, Hair Sac, or Follicle. 
 
54 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 soles of the feet, or the first joints of fingers and toes. 
 
 The eyelashes are short, stiff 
 hairs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 FIG. 26. I. Outside of Brown Hair. 
 
 II. Outside of Gray Hair (Medullary center (3) shows through). 
 
 III. Cross Sections of Hair: 1. Scaly outside (Cortex}; 2. Cellular 
 part (Fibrous, or of long cells); 3. Medullary part (Roundish cells). 
 
 Do these hairs stand with the top up, or the root? 
 
 Structure. A hair is not perfectly round (Fig. 26). 
 It is cellular and fibrous inside, but not hollow. The 
 cells contain air, water, oil, and pigment grains. The 
 outside part has irregular scales, and the free ends of 
 these are turned toward the tip of the hair. When a 
 hair is held by the tip it can be cut with a sharp knife, 
 but the knife slips off the scales if it is held by the root. 
 The roughness can be felt by pulling a hair through the 
 fingers from tip to root. 
 
 Changes in Hair. The sun bleaches hair, or makes 
 it rusty, and damp weather causes curly hair to curl 
 tighter. Like epidermis, it is renewed by degrees, except 
 in sickness and old age, when it often all comes out. It 
 shows ver^ few signs of life, but cannot be considered 
 entirely dead material, because its condition changes with 
 the change from health to illness of a person. When it is 
 dry. harsh, and brittle, there is some trouble with the gen- 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 55 
 
 eral skin system, while soft and glossy hair indicates that 
 this system is in good working order. 
 
 There is no doubt that some material works its way 
 from the papillae through the cells of hairs even after 
 they are full grown, under the influence of the nerves. 
 This is shown by the fact that hair changes from dark 
 to white before old age, under the influence of some 
 severe emotion, as fear, or fright, or as the result of ex- 
 tremely exhaustive labor or dissipation. 
 
 These things greatly affect the nervous system, and the 
 nerves control the circulation of blood. Now, if there 
 is too great a demand for blood in any place, other parts 
 suffer want. So, if overwork or fright calls the blood 
 away from the papillae, ordinary conditions are interfered 
 with, some mischief begins, and the hair cells are filled 
 with air, or some change not well understood is made in 
 the pigment, and the color is lost. The change of color 
 is generally slow. Fig. 26 shows how brown and white 
 hair differ under the microscope. The cells full of air in 
 the center of the white hair look black when seen through 
 a^ microscope. 
 
 Why Hair "Stands on End." There are small 
 muscles connecting the upper part of the skin with the 
 lower portion of each hair sac (9, Fig. 25). When these 
 contract they pull up the sac, and the hair is said "to 
 stand on end." Cold, fright, or electricity, cause them 
 to contract. On cold days, if the arms are exposed to 
 the air, they get pimply from this cause, and are said to 
 be all "goose flesh." Probably the same muscles act and 
 cause the hair along the back of a dog's neck to stand up 
 when he is attacked by another dog. 
 
 Nails. Nails are another modification of cuticle. 
 They are of the same flexible, horny material as the 
 hoofs and horns of some lower animals. They are curved 
 
56 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 from side to side, and extend over the ends of the fingers 
 and the toes. They grow from a fold of skin which fits 
 closely along each side and the base. They are flat and 
 wide and thin, thus differing from hair in shape, but they 
 grow from papillae in the same way, and have about the 
 same composition as hair. They are transparent, and the 
 
 FIG. 27. Cross section of part of Nail and Finger, showing that Nail 
 is modified Epidermis. 1. Papilla under skin ; 2. Pigment ; 3. Cuti- 
 cle; 4. Nail; 5. Lower layer of cuticle; 6. Papillae. 
 
 blood shows through and makes them look pink. At the 
 base there are fewer papillae, and that leaves a little half- 
 moon place that is whitish. Like hair, teeth, and cuti- 
 cle, they are without nerves and blood vessels. Nails ate 
 protectors of the ends of fingers and toes, and they also 
 aid in picking up small articles. 
 
 Growth. The nails grow rapidly, but probably the 
 rate of growth differs in different seasons and conditions 
 of health, and with different persons. It is easy to time 
 the growth by putting an indelible ink mark on the nail 
 just above the skin and noting how long it will take the 
 stain to grow to the end of the finger. If pulled out 
 they will grow again, the same as hair, if the papillae are 
 not injured. 
 
 Sometimes from pressure of boots, or from a blow, toe 
 nails are injured, and they remain in place till new ones 
 grow under them and loosen them off, much as milk 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 57 
 
 teeth are pushed out by permanent ones. It takes some- 
 times as much as four or five months for new ones to 
 
 grow. The growth, as well as 
 other things, shows that nails, 
 hair, and teeth are modifications 
 of the same material. Examine 
 Figs. 24, 25, 27, 28, for papillae. 
 
 Glands. There are two other 
 very important parts of the 
 skin: the oil and the perspira- 
 tion glands. 
 
 A gland is a cellular organ, 
 which has the power of taking 
 materials from the blood, from 
 which it makes a new fluid. 
 
 Secretion and Excretion. 
 
 Some glands take waste sub- 
 stances, and the new fluid they 
 make must leave the body, or it 
 will poison it; other glands 
 FIG. 28. Development of make materials that are neces- 
 
 P^Cavit^l^-RoT; Milk sary to the growth and health of 
 
 Tooth); 3 Mucous Mem- the body Gi an d s are said to 
 
 brane of Gum; 5. Bone of J 
 
 Jaw; 6. Young Tooth (Per- secrete, or hide, their fluids, and 
 
 from this some of the fluids are 
 
 called secretions. Some of the secretions are called excre- 
 tions, because they are sent out of the system. The glands 
 that make fluids have little pipes leading from them for 
 carrying their liquids away. These are called ducts. A 
 duct is a tube or canal. Perspiration is an excretion, a 
 waste product; and oil is a secretion, a fluid needed to 
 keep the skin pliable. 
 
 Oil Glands. The oil glands (Figs. 24, 29) are rather 
 
58 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 short and thick, and have a branched, sac-like appear- 
 ance. Sometimes their ducts open on the surface, but 
 oftenest as shown in Fig. 24. They 
 are numerous all over the body, 
 except at the palms of the hands 
 and the soles of the feet. Their 
 absence allows hands that are 
 much in hot water, like those of a 
 washer-woman, to become wrinkled 
 and shrunken on the inside. The 
 oil made by these skin glands keeps 
 the skin soft and pliant, and the 
 hair soft and glossy. 
 
 Enough is secreted and poured 
 FIG 29 Oil Gland over ^ e hair to keep it soft under 
 (One branch cut open ordinary circumstances, so that the 
 showing cellular lining.) I 
 
 habit of putting oil or water on the 
 
 hair to dress it is useless and injurious. Water evap- 
 orates soon, and leaves the hair harsh and dry, and, if 
 the hair is very thick, it gives it an unpleasant odor. 
 
 Ear wax is a thick, yellowish oil, that is secreted by 
 special oil glands in the outer part of the ear. It is bit- 
 ter, and for this reason is useful in keeping insects from 
 crawling into the opening of the ear. 
 
 Perspiratory Glands. The other set of skin glands 
 are the sweat, or perspiratory, glands. They are thin, 
 long, coiled tubes. They open obliquely on the surface 
 by little mouths. These openings, with those of the oil 
 glands, are called pores of the skin. They are very nu- 
 merous. Sometimes they are large enough to be seen, as 
 around the sides of the nose, where they become filled 
 with dirt and appear as black specks. In some places, 
 they are placed in regular, curved lines; in others, they 
 occur irregularly, as in Fig. 30. Perspiration regulates 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
 
 59 
 
 the temperature of the body, and removes harmful sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Sensible Perspiration. The perspiration which 
 they empty on the surface is made of some water, some 
 
 salty material, some waste 
 organic matter, and some 
 gas. It is going out 
 of the pores all the 
 time. It is a waste 
 product. When it 
 
 -^rijs ""T&m me ^ oozes out s fast 
 
 0^6-Q VDO .^C^lf that it cannot be 
 
 dried away by the 
 air, and collects on 
 the hands, upper 
 FIG. 30. Pores of Skin (from Arm). ]ip ? anc [ forehead, as 
 
 drops or " beads of sweat," it is called sensible perspira- 
 tion, and is caused by over excitement, over heating, 
 or over exertion. Also, on hot, moist days, when evap- 
 oration goes on slowly, it becomes visible. All these 
 things cause the blood to rush to the surface, and the 
 blood vessels being full, press against the perspiratory 
 glands, and make them send out a larger supply than 
 can be evaporated. 
 
 Insensible Perspiration. When perspiration cannot 
 be seen or felt, it is called insensible. Its presence can be 
 shown by placing the hand on a cold glass, or stone, or 
 polished metal, or even varnished wood, where, if the day 
 is cool, it leaves a damp outline. 
 
 Evaporation. If you put a drop of water on the back 
 of your hand and blow on it, it dries away. That is 
 evaporation. If perspiration is constantly evaporating, 
 it is one means of keeping cool. You can prove that evap- 
 oration cools by putting water on one hand and blowing 
 
60 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 it, and then blowing on the other hand where there is 
 no water. 
 
 Absorption. The pores not only allow oil and per- 
 spiration to reach the surface, but they also let other sub- 
 stances enter the body and get into the blood. They 
 absorb anything on the skin. Sometimes medicine is 
 given in this way, by rubbing it on the surface. The pores 
 let it in, then another set of vessels carries it to the blood 
 tubes, and then it is circulated around the body till it 
 reaches the part that needs helping. 
 
 Liquids are taken up freely. Thirst can be relieved by 
 wrapping wet cloths around the body. Shipwrecked sail- 
 ors who could not drink the salt water around them, have 
 been greatly refreshed by plunging their entire bodies in 
 the sea. Sometimes this power of absorption does great 
 harm. Poisons work their way through pores as easily as 
 do substances that are harmless. This is especially so of 
 the pores on the inside of the hand where there are no 
 oil glands. Painters and type setters are often made sick 
 by getting the lead from paint or type rubbed into the 
 pores, and this is also the way poison from poison oak 
 enters the system. 
 
 Uses of the Skin. The skin, with its various ap- 
 pendages, has many uses: 
 
 1. It is a protector of the delicate organs beneath by 
 being soft, flexible, and elastic. 
 
 2. It is a medium of touch, as it holds the ends of the 
 nerves of sensation. 
 
 3. It is an organ of excretion or exhalation, and acts 
 with the lungs and kidneys in carrying off great quan- 
 tities of waste material. Its excretion is perspiration. 
 
 4. It is an organ of absorption, taking in liquids by 
 means of its pores. 
 
 5. It is a cooler of the body, by the evaporation of per- 
 spiration. 
 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
 
 61 
 
 ORGANS OF INTEGUMENT, OR SKIN. 
 
 f Nails. 
 
 Cuticle, or Epidermis, or Scarf Skin. < 
 
 Cutis Vera, or Dermis . 
 
 Shaft. 
 Root. 
 Hair, j Bulb. 
 
 Papilla. 
 
 I Sac. or follicle. 
 Oil glands. 
 Pigment layer. 
 . Perspiratory, or sweat glands. 
 
 Papillae. 
 Nerves. 
 Blood vessels. 
 Muscles. 
 Connective tissue. 
 
 THOUGHT, OR OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 What two things follow if scarf skin is torn off? 
 
 How does serous membrane differ from mucous membrane? 
 
 If the cuticle has no feeling, how do we feel cold things? 
 
 How do cells of pigment layer differ from those of upper layer of 
 cuticle ? 
 
 Is there any tube in the center of a hair? 
 
 In what position does a hair stand? 
 
 Which is its widest part? 
 
 Why does it hurt a man more to have his whiskers pulled than 
 his hair? 
 
 Why does part of a nail look pink and part white? 
 
 Name three characteristics common to hair and nails. 
 
 How do oil and sweat glands differ in shape? Draw them. 
 
 Where do oil glands open? 
 
 Can you see the opening of the sweat glands? 
 
 Why is a person warmer on a damp, hot day than on a dry, hot 
 day? 
 
62 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 Need of Food. Every day a well person has to eat 
 his usual amount of food or become faint and hungry. 
 He chews up meat, bread, potatoes, and pie, and they dis- 
 appear, and there is no way to tell from the outside what 
 become's of them. If he fails to get enough, or eats what is 
 not suitable, he is in pain. So he learns from experience 
 that some things harm him, some are poisonous, and 
 others make him feel strong and comfortable. The expe- 
 rience of many people for many centuries has taught 
 most sensible persons what is fit and what unfit to eat, 
 so that now each one is not compelled to eat and suffer 
 for himself. 
 
 Hunger. Hunger is a call, or demand, for food, and 
 it means that acting or growing tissue has become wasted 
 and needs material for renewing itself. All the sub- 
 stances, except air, that are needed to make bone, muscle, 
 brain, and all other tissues of the body, must be taken 
 into the mouth as food and prepared in the food canal for 
 places where they are needed, since parts are always 
 wearing out and being renewed. 
 
 The Alimentary Canal. The food, or alimentary, 
 canal is long and tubular, with many twists and some 
 dilations and with some important digestive organs 
 attached (Fig. 31). The stomach is merely an organ, a 
 dilation of the general canal, where part of the food is 
 acted upon by special juices. 
 
 After leaving the mouth the food canal is tube-like and 
 for about nine inches is called the gullet; then it widens 
 and becomes pear-shaped and is called stomach; then it 
 becomes tube-like again and very much twisted, or folded, 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 63 
 
 FIG. 31 (Copied}. Diagram of greater part of Alimentary Canal. 0. 
 (Esophageal or cardiac opening; & Stomach; P. Pylorus. Intestines: 
 d. Duodenum; j. Jejunum; i. Ileum; c. Caecum; a. Worm-like ap- 
 pendage (.Vermiform Appendix}; co. Ascending, transverse, and descend- 
 ing Colon; /. Sigmoid Flexure of Colon; r. Rectum; ^> Direction 
 
 of Food. 
 
 and is called small intestine; then the tube widens and 
 becomes the larger intestine (Fig. 31). A small duct 
 leads from the liver to the upper part of the smaller intes- 
 tine, and another from the pancreas enters near the 
 same place. 
 
 Organs of Digestion. These gullet, stomach, in- 
 testines, liver, and pancreas are the organs of digestion. 
 Their work is to change solid food into liquids that are 
 thin enough to ooze through the walls of different parts 
 
64 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 of the food canal. These liquids that contain all the 
 nutritive parts of the food we eat, enter the blood vessels 
 and are carried all over the body to renew parts that are 
 wearing out. 
 
 Digestive Process. Digestion is the process of 
 changing food into material needed for growth of tissues. 
 In nearly all food there are useless parts, and these are 
 carried from the body as waste material in various ways, 
 by the skin, the lungs, the kidneys, and the larger intes- 
 tines. Preparing the nutrient liquid is a long process of 
 grinding, mixing, soaking, and straining, and in doing 
 this different organs along the road have different func- 
 tions and act on particular parts as the mass of food is 
 pushed along by muscular action. 
 
 Lining of the Ganal. The food canal begins with the 
 lips. The delicate, soft, moist, and red membrane seen 
 here is continued as lining through the entire length. 
 It is mucous membrane. It varies in character in differ- 
 ent parts of the canal. On the tongue it is rough with 
 little projections; in the stomach it is thrown in folds and 
 is full of cells and glands; and in the intestines it is folded 
 crosswise and has numerous patches and tufts of glands. 
 The folds permit a great deal of surface to be packed in 
 a small space. 
 
 Glands. Glands along the food canal are numerous 
 and important, and will be described with the larger 
 organs with which they are most closely connected. 
 Glands of all the mucous membrane secrete a liquid called 
 mucus, which keeps the membrane moist. 
 
 Salivary Glands. In health the mouth is always 
 moist, but it is not entirely because of mucus. When a 
 person thinks of peaches, or some juicy, luscious fruit or 
 food, his mouth waters. The glands pour out an extra 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 65 
 
 supply of their secretion. The secretion is called saliva. 
 It is frothy and white, dissolves such kinds of food as 
 have starch in them, keeps the mouth moist, and aids in 
 detecting the taste of substances. 
 
 FIG. 32. Salivary Glands (diagram). 1. Upper Jaw; 2. Tongue; 3. 
 Sublingual Gland; 4. Submaxillary Gland; 5. Parotoid Gland, with 
 Ducts. " Dotted line shows position of lower jaw. 
 
 The saliva is made by three sets of glands. They look 
 something like bunches of grapes (Fig. 32). One pair is 
 found just under the ears, .and extends a little forward 
 on the jaw bone, on each side of the face. The second 
 pair is just under the angles of the jaw bone, and the 
 third pair is close together, just under the front part of 
 the tongue. 
 
 They all discharge the fluid they make into the mouth 
 
 5 P 
 
66 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 by tiny ducts. The opening of the pair under the tongue 
 can be seen just back of the lower front teeth, by lifting 
 up the tongue. The liquid can be seen oozing out. 
 
 The Tongue. The tongue is remarkable for the short- 
 ness of its muscular fibres, and the number of ways they 
 run. This gives it a great variety of motions. It is an 
 organ of taste and touch, and moves the food about, and 
 helps in speaking. The tongue is not absolutely neces- 
 sary for speech, although it is an important helper. Per- 
 sons who have lost their tongues by disease or accident 
 have been able to speak many words, but there was a 
 loss of power to pronounce t and d sounds. Can you tell 
 why? 
 
 Teeth. Teeth are the crushing organs. They are 
 sometimes classified with bone, but they are really like 
 it only in hardness and composition, and they differ in 
 origin and structure. Bones originate from cartilage, and 
 teeth from mucous membrane. Fig. 28 shows that a 
 tooth grows from an infolding of mucous membrane and 
 a papilla, the same as a hair (Fig. 24) and a nail (Fig. 27). 
 
 Crown 
 
 III. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 PIG. 33. Tooth Sections. I. Section of Whole Tooth (natural size): 
 1. True Bone, or cement, with Canaliculi; 2. Canal for Nerve, and 
 Blood Vessel; 3. Pulp Cavity; 4. Dentine; 5. Enamel. 
 
 II. Section of Bone and Dentine, very greatly magnified. 
 
 III. Section of Enamel and Dentine, very greatly magnified. 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 67 
 
 Structure. Notice the hard outside of your teeth. It 
 is very hard, harder than bone. If a dog's tooth is found, 
 it can easily be broken, showing how brittle and thin 
 this layer is. It is called enamel. Under it the greater 
 bulk of the tooth is not so hard, nor so white. It is called 
 dentine. Around the root of the tooth there is a thin film 
 of bone, called cement (Fig. 33, I. 1). The microscope 
 shows that tooth structure is very different from bone ( Fig. 
 33, II., III. ) . The enamel is in straight up and down rods, 
 having lines running across; the dentine is made of rather 
 oblique, wavy little tubes, which branch as they approach 
 the enamel, or the coat of bone, while the coat of bone 
 around the root, like all bone, is made up of little lakes 
 and canals. 
 
 Parts. Every tooth has three parts: the crown above 
 the gum, the root that fastens in the socket or hollow 
 of the jaw, and a hollow inside, called pulp cavity (Fig. 
 33, I.). Sometimes the roots are called fangs. The 
 socket is lined with mucous membrane, which bleeds 
 when the tooth is pulled out. The pulp cavity, in a live 
 tooth, is filled with a grayish pulp made of nerves and 
 blood vessels. The nerves cause a tooth to ache, or hurt, 
 when pulled or when it is decayed; for teeth, like hair, 
 and nails, and cuticle, are insensible, and the hurt is in 
 the nerve cavity, or the gum outside. Nerves and blood 
 vessels enter the pulp cavity by means of minute open- 
 ings in the roots of the teeth (Fig. 34). 
 
 Incisors. Notice how your teeth differ in size and 
 shape. The four front teeth on the upper and lower jaws 
 are flattened and sharp, somewhat like a chisel. They 
 are called incisors. 
 
 Canines. Just back of each of the last incisors there 
 is a tooth that is generally longer and sharper than the 
 
 1 
 
68 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 others. It is called canine, from a word meaning dog, 
 because dogs have these teeth remarkably long and sharp. 
 It is well to examine the teeth of a dog or a cat to find 
 how they differ from ours. Animals that have these teeth 
 large catch and tear their live prey with them. The 
 canines on the upper jaw are called "eye teeth." 
 
 FIG. 34. Jaw and Teeth. 1. Artery ; 2. Vein ; 3. Nerve ; 4. Foramen 
 Nerves and Blood Vessels; 5. Incisor Teeth; 6. Canine Teeth; 7. 
 Bicuspid Teeth; 8. Molar Teeth; 9. Section of Tooth (E. Enamel, D. 
 Dentine, B. Bone, P. Pulp Cavity) ; 10. Second, or Permanent Teeth. 
 
 Bicuspids. Just back of the canines are two teeth 
 on each half jaw that sometimes have two roots. They 
 are called bicuspids. All the teeth in front of them have 
 a single root. 
 
 Molars. Back of the bicuspids there are three broad, 
 flat-crowned teeth that have two or three fangs. They 
 are the grinders, or molars. They pulverize the food, and 
 with the aid of saliva, make it into a pulpy mass easy 
 to swallow and digest. The last molars on each jaw 
 are called " wisdom teeth." They are the last to come, 
 sometimes never coming through the gum, and often are 
 not cut till the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. 
 
 Two Sets of Teeth. There are two sets of teeth. 
 The first is cut in babyhood, and lasts till the sixth or 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 69 
 
 eighth year, and is called the milk set. It numbers 
 twenty. The other, the permanent set, begins to come 
 about the sixth year, and is complete, except wisdom 
 teeth, by the twelfth or thirteenth year, and lasts a vary- 
 ing time. It numbers thirty-two teeth. There are eight 
 on each half jaw (Fig. 34). 
 
 FIG. 35. Section of Head. 1. Air Cavities in Bone; 2. Olfactory 
 Bulb ; 3. Nasal Cavity with Turbinated Bone ; 4. Teeth ; 5. Tongue ; 6. 
 Hard Palate ; 7. Soft Palate ; 8. Epiglottis ; 9. Vocal Cords ; 10. Wind- 
 
 Eipe (Trachea) ; 11. Vertebras; 12. Spinal Cord; 13. Medulla Oblongata, 
 eginning of the Spinal Cord; 14. Cerebellum (cut); 15. Dura mater 
 between Hemispheres of Cerebrum; 16. Corpus Callosum, holding 
 Hemispheres together; 17. Gullet ((Esophagus); 18. Optic Nerve. 
 
 When permanent teeth are ready to come they grow 
 
70 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 from their bulbs, and push out the milk teeth (Fig. 34). 
 Sometimes the milk teeth, whose roots are absorbed, loosen 
 and fall out easily, but generally they have to be pulled 
 out, and it requires some courage from the little man or 
 woman to stand up and have the loose tooth whisked 
 out. If left too long they crowd the new teeth and make 
 them grow in crooked. 
 
 Action of Teeth. The action of teeth is purely 
 mechanical the breaking up of food so it can be easily 
 dissolved. A mechanical action breaks up, but does not 
 change the nature of a substance. Pounding up chalk or 
 limestone is a mechanical action. The saliva has a 
 chemical action on food. Chemical action changes the 
 nature of compounds, as the action of acid on limestone 
 fragments makes another kind of lime compound. 
 
 FIG. 36 (Copied). Stomach and Duodenum, showing folds. 1. Gullet 
 ((Esophagus)', 2. Cardiac end of Stomach; 3. Folds (Rugx)- 4. Intes- 
 tinal Folds ( Valvulx Conniventes) ; 5. Opening for Bile and Pancreatic 
 Juice; 6. Duodenum; 7. Pylorus; 8. Cardiac Opening. 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 71 
 
 Motion of Jaws. The muscles of the jaws cause 
 the teeth to move over each other in various ways. 
 Find how many motions your jaw can make. 
 
 The action of teeth is called chewing, or mastication. 
 
 Gullet. Food gets into the stomach by means of a 
 tube called the gullet. It is back of the windpipe (Fig. 
 
 15 
 
 FIG. 37. Cavities and Contents of Trunk. 1. Windpipe (Trachea)', 
 2. Aorta; 3. Lung (Right); 4. Ribs and Costal Muscles ; 5. Diaphragm; 
 6. Liver; 7. Bile Cyst; 8. Worm-like appendage (Appendix vermi- 
 formis); 9. Pleura (Lung Cover); 10. Heart; 11. Pericardium; 12. Left 
 Lung (2 lobes); 13. Stomach; 14. Spleen; 15. Large Intestine; 16. 
 Small Intestine. 
 
 35). It has three coats. It is lined with mucous mem- 
 brane, has a coat of muscular tissue, and an outer one of 
 
72 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 serous membrane. (See Glossary for Serous Membrane.) 
 Its muscular fibres are arranged in rings running around, 
 and in lines running up and down the tube, and when 
 they act together they catch a lump of food and squeeze 
 it along in a peculiar, squirming way, giving it a worm- 
 like motion called vermicular. All the gullet does is to 
 pass the food along. The process is called swallowing. 
 
 Stomach. The stomach is the largest dilation of the 
 food canal. Its larger end is toward the left side, and 
 because this is nearer the heart its opening is called the 
 cardiac opening (Fig. 36). The other orifice, near the 
 small intestine, is called pylorus, a gateway. 
 
 FIG. 38. Lining and Wall of Stomach. 1. Gland layer; 2. Bloodves- 
 sel and muscle layer, showing cut blood vessels and bundles of 
 muscle fibres (3) cut across ; 4. Serous layer. 
 
 The stomach is tucked up closely under the diaphragm, 
 and extends more than half way across the front of the 
 body (Fig. 37). It has folds running lengthwise (Fig. 
 36). Like the gullet, it has three coats. The fibres of 
 the muscular coat are arranged lengthwise, crosswise, and 
 slanting, and they pull in all directions. When they 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 73 
 
 contract, they press the food around against all parts of 
 the walls, giving it a motion called peristaltic. 
 
 Glands and Juices of the Stomach. The walls 
 of the stomach are full of glands, which make gastric 
 juice, and by the motion the food is brought in contact 
 with it. The soft mucous membrane has a tufted look 
 under the microscope (Fig. 38), but is delicate, and not 
 unlike pink velvet to look at with the naked eye. Part 
 of the food that is taken as liquid, or that is made liquid 
 by saliva and gastric juice, soaks through this membrane, 
 and enters the blood vessels that pass through the mus- 
 cular coat. 
 
 The glands that make gastric juice do not look like the 
 
 salivary glands (Fig. 
 39). The gastric juice 
 is the most important 
 2 dissolver in the body. 
 It is the second one 
 found in the alimen- 
 tary canal, the saliva 
 being first. It is acid, 
 and also has a sub- 
 stance in it called 
 pepsin, which dis- 
 solves such food as 
 white of egg and lean 
 meat. 
 
 r 
 1 
 
 Absorption by 
 the Stomach. 
 When the food enters 
 the stomach, it is a 
 pulpy mass. Drinks 
 like water, tea, beer, wine, and dissolved sugars, seep 
 through the walls of the stomach, leaving the solid foods 
 
 FIG. 39. Gastric Follicles which con- 
 tain Gastric Glands. 1. Cut Tubes show- 
 ing cellular lining; 2. Uncut Tubes, or 
 Follicles. 
 
74 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 to be dissolved. The muscles squeeze out the gastric juice 
 till it stands upon the walls like drops of dew. It sat- 
 urates the food. The layer of food that is dissolved by 
 this juice strains through the stomach walls; and the 
 undigested remainder, a half liquid mass, comes to the 
 pylorus. It is now called chyme. 
 
 Then the muscles that close the pylorus relax, and the 
 chyme is pushed onward. If a button, bone, or other hard 
 substance be swallowed, it is pressed around with the 
 food till it reaches the pylorus. It tries to pass through, 
 but is turned back to get another soaking. It goes 
 around again, the gastric juice trying to turn it into 
 pulp, till, in despair, it is allowed to squeeze through the 
 pylorus into the intestine; but not until some time after 
 the good material has passed through. 
 
 Small Intestine. The smaller intestine comes next 
 to the stomach. It is considerably smaller than the 
 large intestine (Figs. 31, 37). It begins on the right side, 
 
 and goes twisting 
 across the body. Both 
 intestines are long; 
 together they measure 
 about twenty-five feet, 
 and have to be very 
 much folded, in order 
 to fit in the space of 
 the abdomen. The 
 small intestine has 
 three coats. The inner one is in folds, crosswise ( Fig. 40) . 
 
 Glands and Juices of Small Intestines. The 
 glands in the mucous membrane are numerous, and have 
 a greater variety of function than those of any other part 
 of the food canal. Two very important juices enter it 
 near the stomach (Fig. 36). One comes from the liver, 
 
 FIG. 40 (Copied}. Section of Small In- 
 testines. Showing folds in lining (Val- 
 vulae Conniventes). 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 75 
 
 and is called bile; the other comes from the pancreas, 
 and is called pancreatic juice. They act on the fats that 
 have passed unchanged by the other juices, dividing them 
 into small particles, and forming a milky fluid called 
 chyle. The chyle oozes through the walls of the intestines. 
 
 Pancreas. The pancreas is a flat, long gland, just 
 back of the stomach. Its color is ashy pink. The juice 
 it makes has three uses it changes sugar, egg and meat, 
 and fats so that they can all enter the circulation. 
 
 Liver. The liver is the largest gland in the body. 
 Fig. 37 shows its position on the right side, just under the 
 diaphragm. It laps over part of the stomach. Beef 
 liver in the shops shows its color, shape, and structure. 
 It is reddish brown, thin on the edges, and breaks in 
 angular pieces. It is divided by deep fissures into lobes 
 (Fig. 37). Outside it is smooth and shiny, because cov- 
 ered with a thin serous membrane, and has a mottled 
 look that is caused by its being made up of small parts 
 called lobules (Fig. 55). The lobules are formed of 
 microscopic parts called liver cells. The cells are many 
 sided. How they look in ordinary position, when crowded 
 together, is shown in 3, Fig. 3. 
 
 Veins, arteries, and blood and bile capillaries run in all 
 directions through the substance of each lobule. Blood 
 vessels carry in the blood to renew the lobules and the 
 blood that needs changing, and carry out worn-out parts, 
 and reorganized blood; and the bile capillaries carry the 
 bile that has been formed. 
 
 Function of Liver. It used to be thought that the 
 only use of the liver was to make bile, but now it is sup- 
 posed to be a very important organ for preparing blood, 
 because nearly all the blood from the stomach and intes- 
 tines goes through it before entering the general circula- 
 tion of the body. 
 
76 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 It not only secretes bile, a new material partly useful 
 and partly waste, but it also changes the blood that 
 passes through it, and it makes a new substance called 
 glycogen. Glycogen. is something like starch, and is stored 
 up in the liver till it is needed to produce heat in the 
 body. 
 
 Bile. The bile is secreted from the blood in the liver 
 cells, and collects around the cells, and then it enters the 
 bile capillaries and flows out of the liver to a little bag 
 called bile cyst (7, Fig. 37). Here it is stored up. Fig. 
 41 is a diagram showing how it enters bile capillaries, 
 and the direction it takes. It flows outward from the 
 center of the lobule, while the blood flows toward the 
 center. The central part of a lobule is a vein which con- 
 
 FIG. 41. Diagram of part of Liver Circulation. 1. Blood capillary 
 (Blood flows toward center of Lobule); 2. Bile capillary (Bile flows 
 toward outside of Lobule); 3. Space between Liver cells; 4. Liver 
 cells; 5. Nucleus of cell. (Showing that cells secrete bile from blood 
 which is on its way to Vena Cava Ascending via intralobular vein. 
 Bile first is between cells, then is collected by bile capillaries around 
 cells and carried away from lobule to Bile Cyst.) 
 
 nects with veins of other lobules, and finally enters the 
 large vein that ascends to the heart. 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 77 
 
 Bile is a golden brown, thickish liquid. It may be con- 
 sidered a secretion and an excretion. It is as an excre- 
 tion that it has some action on the food. One use is to 
 help break up fats, another to stimulate secretion of intes- 
 tinal glands, and another to prevent injurious fermenta- 
 tions in the food. 
 
 Functions of Intestinal Glands. Besides bile and 
 pancreatic juice, there are numerous digestive juices 
 along the smaller intestines. They are not as well under- 
 stood as the others. The intestinal glands secrete juices 
 of such different kinds, that any food that has escaped 
 digestion in the upper part of the canal meets its dis- 
 solver here. 
 
 Suppose a person has swallowed starchy food, like 
 
 FIG. 42. Section of Intestine (of Bear).. a. Epithelium; b. Blood 
 Vessels ; c. Vein ; d. Artery, connected by Capillaries ; b. Lacteal ; e. Cut 
 Blood Vessel; /. Muscular Coat; 1, 2, 3. Cut Villi; 4. Uncut Villus. 
 
 potato, only half chewed, and the saliva was not able to 
 penetrate it; or that meat, or eggs, were eaten too rapidly 
 and the stomach was overcrowded and gastric juice could 
 not soak in. Then the mass is squeezed through the pylo- 
 rus, not as chyme, but as lumps of food; the intestinal 
 juices pour out and slowly dissolve the food as it passes 
 along. 
 
78- PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 This work can be done to a limited extent, but the 
 practice of bolting food in a half chewed condition throws 
 too much work on these glands and causes disease, for 
 food undigested does no good and much harm. 
 
 Villi. Chyle, which is formed by the action of bile 
 and pancreatic juice on chyme, is ready to go through 
 the walls. It is thin, and has a milky look. 
 
 FIG. 43. Diagram of a Villus. 1. Cells of Mucous Coat of Intestine; 
 2. Vein ; 3. Lacteal ; 4. Artery. 
 
 But it does not get into the circulation like food that 
 soaks through the stomach walls. The mucous mem- 
 brane of the intestines is so modified, as to look some- 
 thing like velvet. The microscope shows that it contains 
 an immense number of tiny tubes (Fig. 42). These 
 tubes extend into the liquid food like little fingers, and 
 the chyle soaks through their delicate walls. Each tube 
 is called a villus (plural, villi). A villus contains a capil- 
 lary vein and artery, and a minute vessel called a lacteal 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 79 
 
 (Fig. 43). The part of the food that enters the blood 
 vessels of the villus goes to a larger vein, and then to 
 the liver (Fig. 53). The chyle oozes into the lacteal. 
 
 The veins take up the same materials that the stomach 
 veins do. But when the two food substances are sepa- 
 rated in a villus, one going into a vein, and the other into 
 a lacteal, they never see anything more of each other 
 unless they happen to meet in the general circulation. 
 
 The fatty food that entered the lacteal of the villus 
 passes to a larger vessel, and then through glands in a 
 serous membrane that holds the intestine (Fig. 44), then 
 up to a tube called the thoracic duct, that leads to a vein 
 on the left side of the neck. 
 
 Thoracic Duct. The thoracic duct is important, 
 because it takes up all the fatty food. It is about the 
 size of a goose quill. Where all the lacteals enter, it is 
 widened (33, Fig. 53). 
 
 Absorption. The power of taking up liquid food by 
 veins and lacteals is called absorption. There are no visi- 
 ble openings in these vessels. Certain organic substances 
 let liquids freely pass through them. If a bladder is 
 filled with colored liquid, and hung in a jar of pure 
 water, the colorless water gets into the colored liquor, 
 and the colored liquid gets out. This changing of places 
 is called osmose. Liquids mix if separated by such sub- 
 stances, and so do gases, and the process is the same. 
 
 Kinds of Digestion. In the small intestine probably 
 all the work of digestion is completed. The process of 
 dissolving food by the juices of the mouth is called 
 salivary digestion, dissolving by gastric juice is called 
 gastric digestion, and by intestinal juices intestinal diges- 
 tion. 
 
 The Large Intestine. The large intestine is wider 
 
80 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 than the small one, and it is 
 about five feet long. It is 
 folded up over the convolu- 
 tions of the smaller (Fig. 37). 
 Through it husks and other 
 non-nutritive parts of the food 
 pass from the system. The 
 intestines are covered with 
 serous membrane, which al- 
 lows them to move freely on 
 each other. 
 
 Vermiform Append- 
 age. Just after the large in- 
 testine begins, there is a queer 
 little arrangement. It is a 
 little tube, coiled up like a 
 worm, on the right side (8, 
 
 FIG. 44 (Copied). Portion of Fig. 37), and is called the 
 
 vermiform appendage. It does 
 not seem to be of any use, but 
 it is liable to make a great 
 deal of mischief. As materials pass by its mouth, a part 
 is apt to be pressed into this tube. If it is soft, it is 
 pressed out again; but if it is hard, like cherry or plum 
 pits, there may be trouble. The hard particles get packed 
 in, cannot be driven out, and they cause inflammation, 
 and if not removed, cause death. In one case a child ate 
 chestnut leaves, and the harsh fibres became packed in 
 this little tube, and killed him. In another death was 
 caused by the tube getting pressed full of chewing gum. 
 The importance of food is seen in the various and 
 complicated machines engaged in its digestion, and 
 these are so closely connected with other systems, that 
 it is easy to understand how bad food can make the 
 whole body sick. 
 
 Small Intestine and Mesen- 
 tery. 1. Intestine; 2. Mesen- 
 tery (Serous Membrane); 3. 
 Lacteal, or Lymphatic, Glands ; 
 4. Lacteal Vessels. 
 
FOOD SYSTEM. 
 
 81 
 
 ORGANS AND JUICES OF DIGESTION. 
 
 Mouth for Mastication, or Chew- 
 ing, and Salivary Digestion. 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 Tongue. 
 
 f Incisors. 
 
 Canines. 
 
 Bicuspids. 
 [ Molars. 
 
 f Parotid. 
 Salivary Glands. \ Sublingual. 
 
 [ Submaxillary. 
 
 Saliva, contains Ptyalin (a fer- 
 ment). 
 Taste Corpuscles. 
 
 Pharynx and (Esophagus for Swal- 
 lowing, or Deglutition. Stomach for 
 Gastric Digestion and Absorption. 
 
 Liver*. Bile cyst and Bile. 
 
 Openings. 
 
 f Cardiac. 
 
 Intestines for 
 Intestinal Di- 
 gestion and j ^ 
 Absorption. 
 
 f Small. { Duodenum, Jeju- 
 
 num, Ileum. . 
 
 o> 
 
 L Pyloric. 
 Glands. 
 Veins. 
 Folds. 
 
 Gastric Juice, contains Pep- 
 sin (a ferment). 
 
 Pancreas. 
 
 Pancreatic Juice, 
 contains Pan- 
 creatin (a fer- 
 ment). 
 Villi. 
 Intestinal glands and 
 
 juices. 
 Lacteals. 
 
 Large. 
 
 Caecum. <{ Appendix vermiformis. 
 
 f Ascending. 
 Colon. \ Transverse. 
 
 [ Descending. 
 Rectum. 
 
 THOUGHT, OR OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 Why is food moved around in the stomach? 
 Show, by drawing, the difference between dentine and enamel. 
 Why should children ever have milk teeth extracted ? 
 Why should they never have them, filled? 
 6-P 
 
82 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 How do salivary glands differ from sweat glands? 
 
 How does the tongue serve to protect against bad food ? 
 
 Draw a gastric, a salivary, an oil, a perspiratory gland, and the 
 liver, side by side, and compare them. 
 
 How does gastric juice get into the stomach? 
 
 What is it made from? 
 
 What is the use of the great number of veins and capillaries in 
 the liver? 
 
 If fatty foods go to thoracic duct, how does liver get its fatty 
 material? 
 
CIRCULATION. 83 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 
 CIRCULATION. 
 
 The heart, whose beating can be felt on the left side, 
 the pulse throbbing at the temples and wrists, the veins 
 that look on the surface of the skin like bluish cords, and 
 the blood that flows from a cut, are all intimately con- 
 nected. Similar blood in like veins runs through nearly 
 all tissues of the body. Its motion is called circulation. 
 The heart drives it along. 
 
 As the tissues receive all their material from the blood, 
 it is evident that the blood must contain all the materials 
 of which the tissues are made. It also carries waste mat- 
 ter. All that is in the blood comes in the first place from 
 air or food. 
 
 It is easy to understand that blood is not always the 
 same. In one place it is full of new material from the 
 food; in another it has more air; and in another it has 
 an excess of waste material. It varies in the different 
 things it contains, and these make it vary in color. 
 
 Corpuscles. If blood is placed under a microscope 
 it is found to be made of two parts a colorless liquid 
 and a multitude of little disc-like cells. These cells are 
 called corpuscles. They are yellowish, and when crowded 
 together give the blood its bright red color. Not all cor- 
 puscles are colored. There are three kinds: large color- 
 less; medium sized colored; and small colorless corpuscles. 
 The large ones are granular, few in number, and are called 
 white or colorless corpuscles. The medium sized ones 
 are most abundant and are called red or colored corpus- 
 cles. The small ones are flattened discs, more common 
 than the colorless ones, and they are called blood plates 
 or third blood corpuscles. The function of both the 
 
84 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 small and the large colorless cells has not been satisfac- 
 torily shown, but it is supposed that the larger ones 
 sometimes build tissue and also break up to form red 
 cells, and that the smaller ones help in the coagulation 
 of blood. The colored corpuscles are hollowed out on 
 each side (2, Fig. 3). When exposed to the air, they have 
 a queer habit of packing together in long rows (Fig. 45). 
 Sometimes, under one's eye they move about, and when 
 they come to a narrow place they squeeze through, chang- 
 ing their shapes (4, Fig. 45). This shows that they 
 are flexible. When they stay quite a number of minutes 
 
 FIG. 45. Blood Corpuscles. 1. Normal Shape (colorless and colored 
 Corpuscle) ; 2, 3. Corpuscles crowded ; 4. Crowding through narrow 
 space ; 5. Piles of colored Corpuscles ; 6. Colored Corpuscles stellated 
 from evaporation. 
 
 in the air they begin to dry, and look like little burrs 
 (6, Fig. 45). 
 
 If the foot of a live frog is put under the glass, the cor- 
 puscles, which are larger than ours, can be seen through 
 the thin web fleeting along rapidly, passing each other in 
 lines, and changing shape. 
 
CIRCULATION. 85 
 
 The blood cells are among the most important of small 
 bodies. Their work is to carry oxygen. Oxygen is a gas 
 that cannot be seen, but it is absolutely necessary to ani- 
 mal life. This gas is taken in by the lungs every time 
 we breathe in pure air. Multitudes of corpuscles take it 
 up in the lungs, and away the fleet of tiny red boats goes 
 sailing through the system, leaving, here and there, the 
 oxygen wherever it is needed, till they are all unloaded. 
 Then the corpuscles either go to pieces in the stream, or 
 drift off to some place where they are renewed or broken 
 up, and all the good material in them is taken for other 
 purposes. 
 
 Plasma. The fluid of the blood is called plasma. It 
 contains a great deal of water, is rich in food products, 
 and carries waste material and different gases. One 
 part of it is something like the white of an egg and 
 hardens when exposed to the air. When in this stiff, 
 jelly-like condition it is called clot, and the hardening is 
 called coagulation. 
 
 This power to harden, or coagulate, is of great use, for 
 when a blood vessel is cut, the blood, exposed to air, soon 
 hardens and plugs up the opening, and thus prevents 
 serious bleeding. 
 
 Capillaries. Blood flows through different kinds of 
 vessels. The smallest tubes are microscopic, and are 
 called capillaries. Their walls are so thin that the blood 
 oozes through and irrigates the surrounding tissues. 
 They penetrate nearly all tissues, and in them the most 
 important changes take place. They interlace and form 
 a fine network. 
 
 Capillaries are not merely smaller sized veins or arte- 
 ries, but they differ in having their walls extremely thin, 
 and in having fewer coats. They connect veins with 
 arteries (Fig. 46). If one capillary of the network gets 
 
86 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 injured, the blood takes a new course through the near- 
 est capillaries. 
 
 Arteries and Veins. The two other kinds of blood 
 vessels arteries and veins differ essentially. Near the 
 capillaries they are very small and much alike, but farther 
 away they are enlarged. There are six important dif- 
 ferences: 
 
 ARTERIES VEINS 
 
 Carry blood from the heart. 
 
 Do not have valves. 
 
 Have stiff walls that stay open 
 
 when empty. 
 Have elastic walls. 
 
 Carry blood to the heart. 
 
 Have valves. 
 
 Have soft walls that collapse 
 
 when empty. 
 Have almost no elasticity to 
 
 walls. 
 
 Are generally smaller. 
 Generally carry blue blood. 
 
 Are generally larger. 
 Generally carry red blood. 
 
 (Exceptions: The pulmonary arteries carry blue blood to the 
 lungs and the pulmonary veins carry red blood from the lungs.) 
 
 Veins begin as fine 
 tubes at the capillaries, 
 and multitudes of them 
 unite, forming larger 
 and larger tubes, till 
 they enter the heart as 
 two large trunks from 
 the body and four large 
 tubes from the lungs. 
 
 Arteries begin at the 
 heart as two large tubes, 
 one going to the lungs 
 and one to the rest of 
 the body, and these 
 branch and rebranch 
 till they are fine tubes 
 and then they change to capillaries. 
 
 FIG. 46 (Copied). Capillary 
 work. a. Artery; b. Vein. 
 
 Net- 
 
CIRCULATION. 
 
 87 
 
 FIG. 47. 1. Vein with Valves ; 2. Artery, cut open ; 3. Lymphatic Ves- 
 sel, outside; 4. Lymphatic Vessel, inside, showing valves; ^-Di- 
 rection of blood. 
 
 Valves of Veins. The valves of the veins are a kind 
 of little pocket of thin membrane. When the blood flows, 
 in an ordinary manner they stick tightly to the walls, 
 but if it tries to flow backward to the capillaries they 
 instantly fill up and shut up the passage way. 
 
 Motion of Blood. The blood does not move the 
 same in all vessels. In arteries it goes with a jerk. 
 This means that when an artery is full the heart pushes 
 in some more blood with a quick pressure. The elastic 
 walls yield, pass the extra quantity on, and relax, and 
 so on through its entire length, thus making a kind of 
 wave motion. Some of the impulse is lost as the artery 
 divides, and finally in the intricate capillaries there is a 
 smooth flow. It also flows smoothly in the veins. From 
 this difference of motion it is easy to tell whether an 
 artery or a vein is cut, for blood spurts in jets from an 
 artery and flows smoothly from a vein. 
 
 The Pulse. The beating of the pulse is merely the 
 motion of blood through an artery near the surface. 
 The doctor counts the pulse-beat to find the condition of 
 
88 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 R 
 
 his patient, be- 
 cause the heart 
 and circulation 
 are affected by 
 the diseases of 
 all the other sys- 
 tems. The 'beat 
 is slower in 
 grown people, 
 and during sleep. 
 For a grown per- 
 son it is from 
 seventy-five to 
 eighty-five throbs 
 a minute. 
 
 The Heart. 
 
 The heart is the 
 chief organ of cir- 
 culation. It has 
 a serous mem- 
 brane around it, 
 called the heart 
 cover, or heart 
 sac (pericardium) 
 (Figs. 48, 50). It 
 is a single muscle, 
 is hollow, somewhat cone-shaped, and is situated in the 
 center of the chest, between the lungs, with the small end 
 turned to the left side, and is free to move (Fig. 37). 
 Heart muscle is involuntary (Fig. 22). The muscular 
 fibres run in many directions and are interlaced in an 
 exceedingly intricate manner. 
 
 Auricles and Ventricles. The heart is divided into 
 four unequal hollows, or chambers (Fig. 49). These 
 
 FIG. 48. Outside of Heart. 1. Auricles ; 
 2. Ventricles ; 3. Heart Sac (Serous Mem- 
 brane); 4. Aorta; 5. Ascending Vena Cava; 
 6. Descending Vena Cava; 7. Pulmonary 
 Artery ; R. Right ; L. Left. 
 
CIRCULATION. 
 
 89 
 
 Aorta 
 
 chambers are 
 nicely shown in 
 a beefs heart. 
 The two upper 
 ones are called 
 auricles, from a 
 word meaning 
 ears, because 
 on the outside 
 of these parts 
 there are flaps 
 that look some- 
 thing like dog's 
 ears (Fig. 48). 
 The lower chambers 
 are called ventricles. 
 Each auricle opens 
 into the ventricle be- 
 low it, but has no 
 
 FIG. 49. Diagram of Chambers and opening between it and 
 
 Openings of the Heart. Blood from ,-. n +i> p1 . onrinlA 
 
 veins of body enters RA at 1 and leaves tne otner auricle. 
 
 R V for lungs at 2. Blood from veins of Neither do the ven- 
 lungs enters LA at 3 and leaves LVai. 
 
 4 for all parts of the body except the tricles connect, 
 lungs. W. Walls of the Heart. 
 
 Valves. The openings into the ventricles are guarded 
 by strong, thin membranes, called valves, which are tubu- 
 lar when filled with blood. They form a kind of live 
 door (4, 11, Fig. 50). 
 
 The valves between the auricles and ventricles are of 
 thin, tough membrane, and would be driven through into 
 the auricles by the pressure of blood, like an umbrella 
 turned inside out, were they not held in position by cord- 
 like tissue. These cords can be seen in 14, FigxiOTv$U 
 
 Beating of the Heart. When the blood flows into 
 the two auricles, from the general circulation, and from 
 
90 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 the lungs, and fills them up, the auricles squeeze together; 
 the doors or valves are forced open, and the blood is 
 pushed down into the ventricles. Then the auricles relax. 
 
 13 
 
 FIG. 50. Heart cut open. 1. Descending Vena Cava ; 2. Right Auri- 
 cle ; 3. Ascending Vena Cava ; 4. Tricuspid Valve ; 5. Right Ventricle ; 
 6. Aorta ; 7. Pulmonary Artery ; 8. Pulmonary Veins ; 9. Left Auricle ; 
 10. Semilunar Valves; 11. Mitral, or Bicuspfd, Valve; 12. Left Ven- 
 tricle; 13. Heart Sac (Pericardium), (Serous Membrane); 14. Cords 
 holding the valves in position. 
 
 The ventricles quickly contract, and give the blood a 
 push. It cannot go back to the auricles, for the doors are 
 tightly closed, so it rushes up through the large arteries 
 (Fig. 49), one called pulmonary artery, going to the lungs, 
 and the other, called aorta, going to other parts of the 
 body. 
 
CIRCULATION. 
 
 91 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 Divisions of Heart. 
 
 Blood Vessels 
 hind Heart. 
 Course of Blood 
 
 be- 
 
 FIG. 51. Diagram of Pul- 
 monary and Systemic Cir- 
 culation. 1. Right Carotid 
 Vein ; 2. Right Carotid Ar- 
 tery ; 3. Vena Cava De- 
 scendens; 4. Branches of 
 Right Pulmonary Artery 
 (blue blood shaded, red 
 blood unshaded) ; 5. Aorta ; 
 6. Right Auricle; 7. 
 Lung; 8. Right Ven- 
 tricle; 9. Ascend- 
 ing Vena Cava ; 10. 
 Left Carotid Artery ; 
 
 11. Vein of Left Arm ; 
 
 12. Artery of Left Arm (Subclavian); 
 
 13. Pulmonary Artery ; 14. Three "of the four Pulmonary Veins ; 15. 
 Left Auricle ; 16. Lung ; 17. Left Ventricle ; 18. Descending. Aorta. 
 
92 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 To keep the blood from going back to the ventricles 
 when they in turn relax, there are three little pocket 
 valves (10, Fig. 50, shows two of them) at the opening of 
 the large pulmonary artery and of the aorta. So the 
 blood is just pushed right along through the arteries. 
 
 This contraction and expansion of the heart muscle 
 causes the free end of the heart to strike against the side 
 of the chest, and that is called the beating of the heart. 
 The heart muscle, which seems ceaseless in its action, 
 catches its rest spells between its times of contraction. 
 
 The Circulation of the Blood. The passage of 
 the blood through blood vessels, lungs, and heart is often 
 spoken of as two circulations; that part connected with 
 the lungs is called pulmonary, or lung circulation] and 
 that which is connected with the rest of the body is 
 named systemic, or body circulation, but as it is one con- 
 tinuous flow, it is better to consider it the general circu- 
 lation. 
 
 Pulmonary Circulation. The simple circulation of 
 the blood is as follows ( Fig. 51 ) : The blue blood from the 
 veins of the body enters the right auricle (6), passes 
 through the valve into the right ventricle (8), then 
 through a valve into the pulmonary artery (13), which 
 divides and enters the lungs (7). Here the blood ves- 
 sels divide very much, and become capillaries. Then 
 the blood is collected in the veins of the lungs, and goes 
 from the lungs, and enters the left auricle of the heart 
 by the four large pulmonary veins (14), two for each 
 lung. The blood enters the lungs from the right ven- 
 tricle blue, and comes from them red in color, full of 
 oxygen. This is called the pulmonary circulation. 
 
 Systemic Circulation. The four pulmonary veins 
 enter the left auricle carrying red blood, and the blood 
 
CIRCULATION. 
 
 93 
 
 passes through the valve into the ventricle. Then it 
 presses past another valve, and reaches the aorta. This 
 large artery sends one fifth of the blood to the head by 
 two branches, and the rest, by other branches, goes to 
 the organs of the trunk and to the extremities. 
 
 After passing into myriads of small arteries of the 
 upper and lower parts of the body, it reaches the capil- 
 laries, loses its oxygen, gets impure and bluish in color, 
 and flows into little veins. 
 
 The small veins empty into larger 
 ones, and finally into two large 
 trunks, one of which enters the right 
 
 FIG. 52. Portal Circulation. 1. Gall 
 Cyst ; 2. Gastric Artery ; 3. Splenic Ar- 
 tery; 4. Hepatic Artery; 5. Intestinal 
 Artery ; 6. Gastric Vein from Stomach ; 
 7. Gastric Vein from Spleen and Pan- 
 creas ; 8. Inferior Mesenteric from Intes- 
 tines ; 9. Superior Mesenteric from Intes- 
 tines; 10. Descending Aorta; L. Liver 
 
 (under side); VP. Portal Vein; VC. Vena Cava Ascendens; 11. He- 
 patic Veins. 
 
94 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 R 1516 
 
 - 18 L 
 
 35 
 
 FIG. 53. Diagram of 
 Blood and Lacteal Cir- 
 culation. 1. Vein from 
 Right Arm; 2. De- 
 scending Vena Cava; 3. 
 Lung ; 4. R. Auricle ; 5. 
 R. Ventricle; 6. He- 
 patic Artery; 7. Liver; 
 8. Portal Vein ; 9. Gas- 
 tric Vein j 10. Superior 
 Mesenteric Artery ; 11. Kidney ; 
 12. Aorta: 13. Ascending Vena Cava; 14. 
 Mesenteric Vein; 15-16. Right Carotid 
 Vein and Artery ; 17-18. Left Carotid Vein 
 and Artery; 19. Artery of Left Arm; 20. Vein of Left Arm; 21. Arch 
 of Aorta ; 22. Pulmonary Artery ; 23. Four Pulmonary Veins ; 24. 
 Left Auricle ; 25. Left Ventricle ; 26. Thoracic Duct ; 27. Splenic and 
 Gastric Arteries ; 28. Stomach ; 29. Spleen ; 30. Pancreas ; 30a. Splenic 
 Vein; 31. Mesenteric Vein; 32. Small Intestine; 33. Receptaculum 
 Chyli; 34. Lacteal; 35. Lacteals and Glands of Mesentery. 
 
CIRCULATION. 95 
 
 auricle from above, and the other from below the heart. 
 Thus it comes back to the place from which it started. 
 
 Things that Help Circulation. Although the heart 
 is the chief propeller of the blood, the force i's not enough 
 to account for motion in veins and capillaries where there 
 is no pulsation. Several other things are helpers. These 
 are: The pressure of muscles against the blood vessels; 
 the changes taking place when oxygen is given up in the 
 capillaries, for if something goes into the tissue from the 
 blood something else must hurry to take the place it 
 left; the changes made by growth; and the attraction of 
 the corpuscles for the walls of capillaries. The jnove- 
 ments of the chest in breathing and the elasticity of 
 arteries are also helpers. 
 
 FIG. 54. Section of a Lobule highly magnified, showing Liver Cells 
 and Blood Capillaries. 1. Capillaries ; 2. Cells. 
 
 Portal System. The circulation also includes two 
 special divisions that are often, for convenience, consid- 
 ered apart. They are called the portal and the absorbent, 
 or lymphatic, systems. 
 
96 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 The portal (Fig. 52) has to do with part of the digested 
 food. All the food material that seeps through the walls 
 of blood vessels in the stomach and intestines, and all 
 the blood from these organs and from the spleen and 
 pancreas goes to the liver. 
 
 Notice how the smaller veins on each side of the stom- 
 ach (28, Fig. 53) join a large one. Notice how many veins 
 run into the short portal vein (8, Fig. 53), and think of 
 twenty-fi-ve feet of intestines, with all their veins, and 
 you get some idea of the extent of this system, or the 
 amount of territory drained by these bluish red rivers. 
 
 FIG. 55 (Copied). Lobule of Liver of Rabbit. 1. Intralobular Vein ; 
 2. Interlobular Veins ; 3. Bile Canals and Capillaries. 
 
 The portal system starts in the capillaries of the ali- 
 mentary canal, and these capillaries connect with small 
 veins that, like veins elsewhere, empty into larger ones, 
 
CIRCULATION. 97 
 
 till, at last, the blood enters the liver by one short, stout 
 vein, about four inches long (Fig. 51, V P). But here 
 a strange thing takes place. The large vein subdivides 
 again and again, much as arteries do, and finally ends 
 in capillaries, as it began. 
 
 The capillaries in each lobule of the liver run among the 
 cells and connect with a single vein in the center of the 
 lobule, called the intralobular vein (Figs. 54, 55). The 
 blood from the intralobular vein flows into larger, and 
 then larger ones, till it leaves the liver by the hepatic 
 veins (11, Fig. 52), and enters the large trunk that runs 
 up to the right auricle of the heart (Fig. 52, V C). 
 
 The peculiarity of the portal system is that blood 
 starts in capillaries in the digestive organs, and, before 
 reaching the general circulation, runs through a second 
 set of capillaries in the liver. Now, the blood always 
 slows up in capillaries, so this circulation, where there are 
 two interferences with its speed, goes to prove the state- 
 ment that something more than heart force is needed for 
 circulation. 
 
 Portal blood is a mixture of food element and the blue 
 blood from the alimentary canal. The digestive organs 
 and the liver receive red blood from their arteries, which 
 are branches of the aorta (Figs. 52, 53). 
 
 The Lymphatic System. The lymphatic system 
 (Fig. 56) is called also absorbent, because its chief work 
 is to absorb the material which it carries. It does not 
 get it by circulation from other vessels. It is named lym- 
 phatic, because the fluid oftenest in its vessels is lymph. 
 The lymphatics are situated, one set just under the skin, 
 and another deeper down in the muscles, and inside the 
 trunk (Fig. 56). They r-un along through nearly all the 
 tissues, close beside blood vessels. 
 
 Lymph is a whitish fluid, something like the plasma 
 
98 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 56 (Copied). Absorbent System. (Superficial Lymphatics show 
 on Head and left Limbs ; deep ones on right. Enlarged white masses 
 are glands), c. Termination of Thoracic Duct; a. Thoracic Duct; i. 
 Intestine with Lacteals passing to Mesentery, through Glands to Re- 
 ceptaculum Chyli. On the right Lymphatic Trunks enter large Veins. 
 
CIRCULATION. 99 
 
 of blood. The lacteals of the digestive organs (Fig. 53) 
 belong to the lymphatic system, and carry lymph when 
 they are not busy carrying lacteal fluid to the thoracic 
 duct. The difference between $ymph and lacteal material 
 is that the latter is milky, and full of food products; the 
 chyle shows through the walls of the lacteals, and makes 
 them look white. 
 
 Valves and Glands. Lymph is carried in very fine 
 vessels that have valves (3, 4, Fig. 47), and the valves 
 are so numerous that the vessels look beaded. These 
 vessels are connected with numerous glands. The glands 
 are in size from a hemp seed to an almond. The beaded 
 tubes are supposed to collect the liquid blood that oozes 
 through blood vessels and is not used up by the saturated 
 tissues. Perhaps they also take in some partially wasted 
 material, and carry it to their glands to be changed, and 
 then hold all the material till it is needed. 
 
 Nearly all the lymphatics of the system empty into 
 the thoracic duct,, and send their fluid into the general 
 circulation by way of the left vein, under the clavicle 
 (20, Fig. 53); but those of the upper right side enter the 
 right vein (4, Fig. 56). 
 
 Extra Glands That Act on the Blood. There are 
 
 certain glands outside the digestive and the lymphatic 
 systems whose functions are of great importance in the 
 preparation of blood. These glands remove harmful ma- 
 terials from, or reorganize substances in the blood. The 
 largest glands are the kidneys and spleen. 
 
 The Kidneys. The kidneys are two small, dark 
 colored glands, situated one on each side of the spinal 
 column, near the lowest ribs. Their shape, something 
 like a Lima bean, is shown in 11, Fig. 53, and the kid- 
 neys of sheep and calves in the markets give a good 
 
 7 P 
 
100 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 idea of their texture. Nearly all the waste material from 
 lean meat and such foods is taken from the blood by the 
 kidneys, and also much of the waste material from the 
 tissues. 
 
 The skin and lungs act with them, and if one of these 
 organs becomes diseased, the others have to use extra 
 effort to get rid of injurious substances. If these excre- 
 tions do not leave the body, they are taken up again by 
 the blood, and circulate around among the tissues, which 
 are already clogged with their own constant waste, and 
 the consequence is temporary discomfort or permanent 
 disease. It causes a kind of poisoning. 
 
 An organ can only for a short time help its fellow that 
 is out of order, for the supply of waste material is large, 
 and each part of it has its regular way of leaving the 
 body. Each organ has its limit of capacity for work, and 
 if it is overworked it becomes unfit for its usual task. 
 
 Spleen. The spleen belongs to a class of glands that 
 have no ducts, and until lately its function has not been 
 well understood. It is supposed to change certain food 
 elements, and thus is connected with digestion, but late 
 investigations show that it also has much to do with the 
 reorganizing of blood. It is of a reddish brown color, and 
 is situated back of the left side of the stomach. It is said 
 to form colorless corpuscles, and to break up partially worn 
 colored ones, and to form new colored ones, and also to act 
 as a reservoir for blood when anything interferes with the 
 portal system. It changes its size considerably during 
 the day, and is largest several hours after a full meal. 
 
 There is a peculiarity connected with the circulation of 
 blood in the spleen. Some of its arteries end in capil- 
 laries, and some do not. In the latter case the artery 
 wall stops short; there is no blood vessel of any kind to 
 continue it, and the blood escapes among the tissues, and 
 
CIRCULATION. 101 
 
 forms little lakes. Then veins connect with these lakes, 
 collect the blood, and carry it away in the ordinary 
 manner. 
 
 Changes in Blood. The blood, in its circuit around 
 the body, constantly changes in composition and appear- 
 ance. It goes through a process of loss and gain as it 
 passes through all the organs. 
 
 It enters the lungs blue, and filled with impure air, and 
 when it leaves them it is red, and full of oxygen. It 
 enters the capillaries of nearly all organs red, and loaded 
 with oxygen, and comes out blue, and burdened with im- 
 pure air and waste materials. 
 
 It carries crude food and waste products to the liver, 
 and carries away glycogen sugar and changed food. It 
 reaches the skin laden with inorganic salts in solution, 
 injurious gases, and waste substance, and returns without 
 its load. It also carries a burden of waste and poisonous 
 material to the kidneys, and comes back purer. It 
 reaches the spleen, bearing quantities of broken down, 
 colored corpuscles, and a few colorless ones, and goes away 
 with renewed colored and many more colorless cor- 
 puscles. If the organs do not do their duty, the blood is 
 not good, and all tissues suffer. 
 
 Dependence of Systems. It is a false idea to con- 
 sider the systems as in any way distinct. No matter 
 where we start, we find an intimate connection and de- 
 pendence. It is difficult to describe one without bringing 
 in parts of the others. This is especially shown in diges- 
 tion, circulation, and respiration. For example, when 
 food is taken, it is digested in the alimentary canal, 
 absorbed by absorbents, carried by lacteals to the thoracic 
 duct and by blood vessels to the liver, and, changed by 
 glands, goes to the lungs for oxygen, which the near-by 
 and the far-off tissues use up in the capillaries, and is 
 
102 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 circulated till it finally reaches the needy parts, where 
 it becomes tissue. The nervous system controls all 
 others, and in turn is affected by them. Grief, anger, or 
 any great nervous excitement will as surely affect diges- 
 tion as the taking into the stomach of a quantity of clay. 
 
 ORGANS AND FLUIDS OF CIRCULATION. 
 
 ORGANS. FLUIDS. 
 
 Heart: Two auricles (with their valves) . . ^ 
 
 Two ventricles (with their valves) 
 Arteries, veins, capillaries . ... 
 
 Pulmonary artery 
 
 Pulmonary veins . j. Blood. { Plasma - 
 
 Aorta 
 
 Vena Cava ascending . 
 
 Vena Cava descending . . 
 
 Portal vein 
 
 Lymphatics Lacteals Lymph. 
 
 L Corpuscles. 
 
 THOUGHT, OB OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 What causes variation of blood ? 
 
 Draw both kinds of corpuscles. 
 
 Are there capillaries in the skin ? 
 
 Are there valves to the vessels that enter the heart ? 
 
 Draw a heart, and trace circulation. 
 
 How does blood that enters the liver differ from that which enters 
 the heart from the left subclavian vein ? 
 
 Do all veins carry blue blood? 
 
 How does poison get from the skin to the heart ? 
 
 Does the blood from the lower extremities pass through the liver ? 
 
 Do veins from spleen and pancreas open directly into portal vein ? 
 
 How does the waste material that results from changes of stom- 
 ach tissue reach the kidneys ? 
 
 If glycogen sugar is needed in the villi, how does it get there? 
 
 Is there any fluid but pancreatic juice in the pancreas ? 
 
 Is there lymph in the lungs ? 
 
 If lacteal glands change food liquids, what do lymphatic glands do? 
 
BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 103 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 
 BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 Blow on your hand. Stop and think where the air 
 comes from. Blow as long as you can. Hold your 
 breath a moment and see if you can blow again. You 
 will find that before you can do it you must draw in air. 
 
 
 FIG. 57. Section of Lungs. 1. Larynx; 2. Windpipe (Trachea); 3. 
 Bronchi (Right and Left Bronchus); 4. Bronchial Tubes; 5. Aorta; 
 6. Descending Vena Cava; 7. Gullet ((Esophagus); 8. Thoracic Duct. 
 
 Breathing". Drawing in and forcing out air is -called 
 breathing, or respiration, and it is done by a sepcial set 
 of organs. It is divided into inspiration and expiration. 
 Air not only goes in and out of these organs, to keep all 
 the tissues of the body in good health, but it causes 
 speech, laughter^ and all the vocal sounds we are able to 
 produce. Fig. 57 shows the chief organs of respiration 
 the lungs and air tubes. They are confined to the head, 
 neck, and upper part of the chest. 
 
104 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Take a long, deep breath. The chest rises, the ribs 
 press out, the waist gets larger, and if the inside of the 
 trunk could be seen it would show the diaphragm nearly 
 straight across. The contracting or relaxing of the chest 
 muscles and the diaphragm alters the capacity of the 
 chest and causes the air to be drawn in. This action 
 gives the lungs the greatest amount of room. Their 
 elastic tissue expands, and the air rushes in to fill them. 
 In expiration the reverse takes place, and air is driven 
 out by making the chest cavity smaller. The diaphragm 
 is considered the chief muscle of respiration. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 FIG. 58 (Copied). Air Sacs and Tubes. I. Diagram of clusters of 
 Air Sacs: 1. Bronchial Tube; 2. Lobule; 3. Lobule cut open, show- 
 ing internal arrangement of Air Sacs. 
 
 II. 1. Windpipe ( Trachea) ; 2. Bronchi (Right and Left); 3. Outline 
 of Left Lung ; 4. Bronchial Tubes ; 5. Cross section of Trachea. 
 
 Windpipe. The -windpipe (trachea) is a tube about 
 four inches long, situated in the front part of the throat. 
 It is stiff, because it is largely composed of cartilage, and 
 it can be easily felt as the hardest part of the throat. 
 The cartilage is in many pieces, fastened one above the 
 
BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 105 
 
 other, and shaped something like a horseshoe, the two 
 ends being connected by softer tissue (5, Fig. 58). The 
 separate pieces fastened together by membranes make 
 the tube flexible. The gullet rests against the back of 
 the windpipe where there is no cartilage, and the ab- 
 sence of this stiff material allows the lump of food to pass 
 down easily. 
 
 Cilia. There is nothing remarkable about the wind- 
 pipe, except a modification of its mucous membrane. 
 Instead of the outer layer of this membrane being made 
 of rounded, or flattened cells, as in the mouth, it is made 
 
 FIG. 59. Ciliated Cells (from Calf). 1. Cilia ; 2. Nucleus. 
 
 of column-like cells. The top of each little cell has 
 fringes, or hair-like projections. They are called cilia 
 (Fig. 59). Of course, they are microscopic. The fringes 
 are always in motion, lashing rapidly backward and for- 
 ward. They cause a current of air in many of the air 
 tubes which drives out particles of dust. As they are 
 numerous, always busy, and always drive the air one way 
 outward it can be understood that they are very impor- 
 tant little bodies. The gills of clams and oysters are cov- 
 ered with similar fringed cells, and by snipping off a bit 
 of the gill and putting it under a microscope, the sway- 
 ing cilia can be seen. In the oyster they cause a current 
 
106 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 of water to move toward the animal's mouth, and thus 
 carry in food. 
 
 PIGLOTTIS 
 
 OCAL CORDS 
 
 TRACHEA 
 
 II. 
 
 FIG. 60. Two views of Larynx. I. Side. 1. Adam's Apple. 
 II. Back. 
 
 Larynx. Between the windpipe and the back of the 
 mouth there is an irregular box with cartilaginous walls 
 (Fig. 57). It is shaped something like a pyramid, with 
 its base uppermost, and its cartilages are in irregular 
 pieces bound together by ligaments. It is called the 
 larynx. It is larger across than the windpipe. In men 
 the larynx is larger than in women; the front part pro- 
 jects, and is called Adam's apple. 
 
 Glottis and Epiglottis. The upper part of the 
 larynx is called the glottis. On the side of the glottis 
 nearest the tongue there is a spoon-like projection of car- 
 tilage, called the epiglottis, that serves as a lid to close 
 the opening of the larynx (Fig. 60). Notice that the 
 windpipe is in front of the food canal (Fig. 35), and 
 food has to pass across it to reach the stomach. 
 
BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 107 
 
 Air is going up and down the windpipe all the time to 
 the lungs, and the lid must be lifted to let it pass. A little 
 carelessness when we eat may have serious or fatal con- 
 sequences. Generally when we swallow, down goes the 
 little lid and the food slips over a smooth bridge into the 
 gullet. But an epiglottis cannot do two things at once. 
 If a person laughs or talks when trying to swallow, the 
 epiglottis lifts to let the air out and in, and if it is not 
 exceedingly quick to shut down again, the chance is that 
 
 a bit of food falls into the 
 larynx. This causes 
 choking. The food is said 
 to have "gone down the 
 wrong way." 
 
 Coughing is a violent 
 forcing of air from the 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 FIG. 61 (Copied). 1. Vertical section through Vocal Organs: 1. Epi- 
 glottis; 2. Vocal Membrane, or "cords; " 3. Windpipe (Trachea}: 4. 
 Cartilages ; 5. Glottis. 
 
 II. Diagram of cross section of Larynx, from above, showing Vocal 
 Membrane across Glottis: 1. Cartilage; 2. Vocal Membrane, attached 
 on all sides except inner; 3. Dotted lines indicate attachment and 
 direction of the ligament "cords" over which mucous membrane is 
 stretched. 
 
108 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 windpipe and larynx, and generally serves to drive out 
 the particle of food. The violence of the effort is liable to 
 bring tears to the eyes and to hurt the muscles and 
 mucous membrane, and cause soreness of the throat. 
 The food that had no right there adds to the injury. 
 
 Vocal Membranes. In the larynx are situated the 
 most important organs of voice, called the vocal "cords" 
 although they do not look like cords. They are folds of 
 mucous membrane, and extend from each side of the 
 larynx, so it is better to call them vocal membranes (Figs. 
 60, 61 ) . They are supported on ligaments. The loose skin 
 between the thumb and the first finger gives some idea 
 of the arrangement of one of these membranes. They are 
 exactly opposite each other and very thin at the edges. 
 They vibrate when the air passes through in speaking. 
 
 When the muscles that control them are tightened, 
 and the membranes become tense, the free edges draw 
 nearer together across the larynx, so that there is only a 
 narrow slit between them (Fig. 61, II.). The air passing 
 through this slit gives a shrill, high tone to the voice. 
 When the membranes relax, the voice is lower and less 
 sharp. By holding the fingers on the throat while mak- 
 ing a variety of sounds one can feel the motion and 
 vibration of the vocal cords. Any thickening of the 
 membrane changes the voice. 
 
 Delicate muscles control the larynx and vocal mem- 
 branes, and make many changes in their shapes, which 
 enable us to produce numerous, different sounds. The 
 tongue, lips, and nasal passages help in the production 
 of voice. In respiration the air goes up and down past 
 the vocal membranes, but makes no noise unless the 
 muscles adjust the vocal organs for speaking. Just 
 above the vocal membranes there are other folds, one on 
 each side of the larynx, called the "false vocal cords," 
 but their use is not well understood. 
 
BREATHING ORGANS. 109 
 
 Bronchial Tubes. After the windpipe has extended 
 about four inches from the larynx, it branches. One 
 branch enters the right, and the other the left lung (Fig. 
 58, II.). These large tubes enter the lung tissue and 
 subdivide, something like arteries, growing smaller and 
 smaller till they become microscopic, their walls becom- 
 ing thinner as they decrease in size. The small branches 
 of the two divisions are called bronchial tubes. They end 
 in minute sacs (Fig. 58, I.). 
 
 FIG. 62. Lung section. Capillary Vessels over Air Sac. 
 
 Sacs. The air sacs are numerous, and are probably 
 the most important of the breathing organs. No openings 
 have been found in their walls, and yet gases constantly 
 pass through them. 
 
 Air and liquids have the ability to creep through moist 
 animal membranes (page 79, Osmose). For example, if 
 a damp bladder is filled with colored, or suffocating gas, 
 or a gas with any marked characteristics, and then hung 
 in a jar filled with some gas without many peculiarities, 
 
110 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 the two gases will pass through the walls of the bladder, 
 and the result will be mixed gases in both places. 
 
 Oxygen gets into the blood corpuscles through the walls 
 of the air sacs and changes the blood from blue to a red 
 color. The walls of the sacs are very thin and delicate, 
 and are covered with a network of capillaries (Fig. 62). 
 You remember that the capillaries were so thin-walled 
 that plasma passed through to the tissues. In this place 
 their thin walls let air pass. There is a vast difference 
 between the air that comes into and that which leaves 
 the lungs. 
 
 EXPIRED AIR. 
 
 If breathed into a jar, it puts 
 out a candle placed in the jar. 
 
 Breathed in a bottle and left, 
 has a bad odor. 
 
 Has much water. 
 
 Breathed into lime water makes 
 it milky in a few minutes. 
 
 INSPIRED, OR ATMOSPHERIC, AIR. 
 
 A candle will burn in it. 
 
 Has no odor, if placed in a 
 
 bottle and left. 
 Has some water. 
 Leaves lime water clear. 
 
 (Lime water left exposed to air for 
 hours gets a film, but this is due 
 to the breath of men and ani- 
 mals in the atmosphere.) 
 
 By a little thought, you will perceive what causes 
 these differences. It is the wearing out of tissue. Cuti- 
 cle can be seen wearing away and hair falling out, and 
 the decay of teeth is unpleasantly perceptible; but the 
 wasting of other tissues can only be learned indirectly. 
 For example, the amount of food taken is an indication 
 of a waste to be repaired, and impure, expired air is an 
 indication that tissues have exchanged their waste for 
 new material in the blood. 
 
 Lungs. The lungs are one of the principal organs 
 for removing waste products. The lungs are of two 
 parts, and made of cellular tissue that forms air cells 
 and supports "air tubes, blood vessels, lymphatics, and 
 nerves. They are pinkish gray in color, and are mottled. 
 
BREATHING ORGANS. Ill 
 
 They occupy nearly all the chest cavity, and have several 
 divisions, which separate them into lobes that are thin at 
 the edges. 
 
 They are covered with a thin, serous membrane, called 
 pleura (9, Fig. 37), and a similar membrane lines the 
 chest. These membranes are so smooth and moist that 
 they glide over each other easily during all the motions of 
 breathing. 
 
 Lung tissue is elastic. AVhen the lung taken from a 
 sheep or calf is pressed down with the finger, it springs 
 back in place when the pressure is removed. The lungs 
 also always contain a certain quantity of air, for, no mat- 
 ter how long the breath is expired, it cannot be exhausted. 
 For this reason, a bit of lung thrown into the water will 
 float. 
 
 Larynx. 
 
 RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 Glottis. 
 
 Epiglottis. 
 
 Adam's apple. Bronchial tubes Cilia. 
 
 Vocal cords. Air cells> 
 
 Cilia - Capillaries. 
 
 Trachea. Pleura. 
 
 Connective tissue of lungs. 
 Diaphragm. 
 
 THOUGHT, OR OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 Why do we have to breathe ? 
 
 Why do we breathe faster after hurrying? 
 
 What becomes of all the oxygen that enters the air cells? 
 
 Is it muscular contraction or osmose that gets the bad air out of 
 the lungs? 
 
 What keeps the lungs and air tubes moist? 
 
 What would happen if they became dry? 
 
 Where does the moisture in the breath come from ? 
 
 What would happen if the blood brought a quantity of bad gas to 
 a bunch of air cells, and found them shut up bv the pressure of a 
 tight dress? 
 
112 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 The Brain. The brain, as the chief organ of the nerv- 
 ous system, rules the whole body. By its means we are 
 
 R L 
 
 I. II. 
 
 FIG. 63. 1. Top view of Brain: 1. Pia Mater; 2. Arachnoid; 3. Dura 
 Mater, three covers of Brain partly removed from left Hemisphere ; 
 Convolutions of Cerebrum, all covers removed; R. Right Hemi- 
 sphere ; L. Left Hemisphere. 
 
 II. View of right side of Brain: 5. Cerebrum, or large brain; 6. 
 Cerebellum, or small brain; 7. Medulla Oblongata, or beginning of 
 Spinal Cord. 
 
 conscious of heat, cold, and hunger; of ugly and beauti- 
 ful things; and of glorious deeds done by men and women 
 before we were born. The brain controls walking, talk- 
 ing, and studying. If we take up a newspaper we find 
 out by brain action what is going on in the world thou- 
 sands of miles away. We are conscious of the universe, 
 because we think. Every child knows where his brain 
 is, and that it is a thought machine. 
 
 Fig. 63 shows how human brain looks with the brain 
 box removecj. The brains seen in meat markets resemble 
 ours so nearly that they are good examples of color, struct- 
 ure, and arrangement. The brain is soft one of the 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 113 
 
 softest of tissues, and in color is part white and part gray. 
 On the outside it has many folds, called convolutions. 
 These are deeper in grown people than in children, and 
 deepest in brains of persons of great intelligence. The 
 number of convolutions is an indication of the mental 
 power of the individual. 
 
 11 
 
 FIG. 64. I. Horizontal section through Cerebrum : 8. Corpus Cal- 
 losum, connecting "band of white tissue, binding Hemispheres; 9. 
 White nerve material ; 10. Gray nerve material outside. 
 -II. Vertical section through 'Cerebellum and between Hemisphere^ 
 of Cerebrum: 5. Cerebrum, or large brain; 6. Cerebellum, or small 
 brain; 7. Medulla Oblongata, gray material inside; 11. Arrangement 
 of gray and white material. 
 
 The brain is in two distinct parts (Figs. 63, 64). 
 
 I. CEREBRUM. 
 
 Large, upper, in front (Fig. 62, 
 
 II., 5). 
 
 Twisted convolutions. 
 Two hemispheres. 
 
 Gray matter in short projec 
 tions (Fig. 64, I.). 
 
 II. CEREBELLUM. 
 
 Small, lower, behind (Fig. 63, 
 II., 6). 
 
 Straight across folds. 
 
 A slight depression, making 
 two sides. 
 
 Gray matter penetrating deeply, 
 forming tree-like branches 
 (Fig. 64, II.). 
 
 The hemispheres are so distinct that only their con- 
 necting band of white tissue would be cut through if 
 
114 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 65. Section of Spinal Cord from 
 Neck, Cervical region. 1. Multipolar 
 Cells (Gray material); 2. Cut ends of 
 Fibres (White material). 
 
 they were separated 
 from each other (8, 
 Fig. 64). In the brain 
 the gray matter is out- 
 side the white and is 
 about an eighth of an 
 2 inch thick. If it were 
 spread out evenly it 
 would cover many 
 feet of surface. 
 
 Structure. Gray 
 
 matter is generally in 
 cells, and these cells 
 have a varying num- 
 ber of projections 
 (3, Fig. 65). White 
 material is in fibres 
 
 I. ii. in. 
 
 FIG. 6Q. I. Cross section of Nerve : 1. Ends of Nerve Fibres ; 2. Con- 
 nective Tissue. 
 
 II. Bundle of Nerve Fibres. 
 
 III. Njerve Fibre: 1. Sheath; 2. Constriction, Sheath wanting. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 115 
 
 (Fig. 66, II.). Fibres are bound 
 together in bundles, and cells are 
 held in position by connective 
 QSM^M tissue (Figs. 65, 66, I.). 
 
 Spinal Cord. Fig. 63, II., 7, 
 shows a white portion projecting 
 below the brain. It is the begin- 
 ning of the spinal cord (Fig. 67). 
 It passes out of the skull through 
 an opening in its under side (13, 
 Fig. 35). The spinal cord is part 
 of the nervous system, and extends 
 from the head to the lower part of 
 the first lumbar vertebra (Fig. 67, 
 c'). It varies in size (Fig. 68). It 
 differs from the brain in having 
 the white nerve material on the 
 outside and gray inside. 
 
 FIG. 68. Cross section 
 of Spinal Cord (natural 
 size). a and b. Lumbar 
 Region ; c. Medulla Ob- 
 longata; 1. Gray mate- 
 rial ; 2. White material. 
 
 FIG. 67 (Copied). Vertical section through 
 Skull and Spinal Canal, showing Brain 
 
 and Spinal Cord in place. a. Cerebrum; 6. Cerebellum; c. Spinal 
 Cord; c' Place where Spinal Cord stops; e. Cauda Equina (Horse's 
 tail) mass of nerves from Spinal Cord; s. Sacral Plexus; n. Sciatic 
 Nerve; x. Iimominata Bone. 
 
116 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY, 
 
 Nerves. Branches extend from 
 the spinal cord and are called 
 nerves (Fig. 69, c). They extend 
 to all parts of the body, subdividing 
 till they become microscopic fila- 
 ments.. Nerve branching is differ- 
 ent from the branching of any other 
 organs of the body. In blood ves- 
 sels a smaller tube ends in a larger 
 one. A nerve filament merely en- 
 ters a bundle of filaments, keeping 
 its individual fibre distinct from all 
 other fibres from the time it starts 
 till it reaches its destination. So 
 a nerve is nothing but a bundle of 
 threads, something like a skein of 
 silk (Fig. 66, 1., II.), and the white 
 JJ""- matter of the spinal cord is only 
 
 a larger bundle of threads. 
 
 Function. The most important 
 thing about a body is the work it 
 can do. Nerve material has to 
 superintend the working of all 
 other systems, and as there are two 
 kinds of material each has its own 
 particular duty. The cells gray 
 matter receive impressions and 
 direct all action; the fibres white 
 matter carry messages. 
 
 FIG. 69 (Copied}. Under side of Brain and 
 Spinal Cord. Cranial Nerves: 1. Olfactory 
 Nerves; 2. Optic Nerves; 3. Motor Nerves 
 of Eyeball ; 4. Pathetic Nerves ; 5. Fifth 
 Pair Nerves (Trigeminal); 6. Sixth Pair; 7. Seventh Pair (part is Au- 
 ditory Nerve); 8. Eighth Pair (of three parts); 9. Ninth Pair, Hypo- 
 glossal; a. Cerebrum; 6. Cerebellum ; m. Medulla Oblongata ; c. Spinal 
 Cord with nerves branching from each side; e. Cauda Equina; ax. Ax- 
 illary Plexus ; /. Lumbar Plexus ; s. Sacral Plexus ; t. Sheath of Cord. 
 
THE NER VO US SYSTEM. 117 
 
 The system is something like that of the telegraph. In 
 the telegraphic system the wires run from all directions to 
 various offices. In each an operator learns what messages 
 they bring and sends back orders or answers. An 
 operator can tap the wires anywhere and learn what is 
 going over them. 
 
 In the nervous system the fibres are like the wires, and 
 the cells like an operator. Wherever cells occur they can 
 take the sensations and give the orders. But they do 
 not send back orders by the same wire that brought the 
 message, as the telegraph operator does. When a cell 
 operator in the nervous system receives a notice of sen- 
 sation by one nerve fibre, it sends back an order for 
 motion by another, and hence the first is called a sensory 
 nerve, and the other a motor nerve. 
 
 One of each kind is bound in a single sheath, and there 
 is no visible difference between them, but they never get 
 mixed up and do each other's work. The filaments extend 
 to the papillse of the whole surface of the body (Fig. 24). 
 Now, if a person puts his hand on something hot, instantly 
 the fibres of the sensory nerve carry the impression to 
 some place where there are gray cells; they receive the 
 impressiQn, and immediately send orders for muscles to 
 pull the hand out of danger. The rapidity of nerve action 
 is seen in the quickness with which one jerks his hand 
 from hot, or harmful, things, but every time the nerve 
 has to carry messages two ways before the hand is 
 snatched away. 
 
 The order is so promptly obeyed by the muscles that 
 we forget that they have had to learn. The fact that a 
 little baby would hold its hand in the fire and cry with 
 pain without knowing enough to~ pull it out, and that a 
 grown person would instantly pull his hand away, shows 
 that muscles and nerves of older people have been edu- 
 cated. 
 
118 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Sensation Seems at the Surface. We feel or are 
 conscious of pain by means of the gray cells in the brain, 
 but the filament in the papillae is the place we think of as 
 hurt. For example, if a nerve that reaches the finger is 
 cut in two, and the cut end irritated, we think the hurt is 
 at the end of the finger. Often, a person who has lost a 
 hand or foot, when the maimed limb is chilled, thinks 
 that his foot or hand is cold. 
 
 Educated Nerve. All the good and the bad charac- 
 teristics of objects ure learned through the sensory nerves, 
 and all motions are directed by the motor nerves. But 
 how can a boy learn his lessons by means of a soft, pulpy 
 mass no thicker than jelly and not quite so lively look- 
 ing? And how can he recite them by means of gray 
 cells in his head sending messages of motion by white 
 fibres to the delicate muscles of his vocal cords? 
 
 These things are part of the power of educated nerve 
 material. A savage cannot study a lesson, but a civilized 
 child can. He has learned how. His gray cells have 
 learned that written words stand for certain things, and 
 they recognize them by sight, and his white fibres have 
 learned, by years of experience, to direct vocal muscles 
 how to recite words. 
 
 Words are learned by much patient care and thought 
 as soon as the brain is developed enough for a child to 
 imitate action in others. A baby has to be taught words, 
 and everything else, and a child does not learn any- 
 thing from books till he knows a great many names of 
 objects, and has many ideas about the things surround- 
 ing him. 
 
 Ideas. But the brain has ideas of things that no 
 man has ever seen, some of which we call honor, love of 
 country, religion, and immortality. They have no mate- 
 rial in them, as have glass and gold and fine raiment. 
 
THE NER VO US SYSTEM. 119 
 
 You cannot touch or see them, yet the bravest and finest 
 thing gray cells can do is to consider them well. On the 
 whole, they are the most important things of life, and the 
 most real. 
 
 Function of Brain. There would be no use in hav- 
 ing so many parts to the nervous system if there were not 
 a division of labor. The large brain controlling volun- 
 tary muscle and taking note of color, shape, and charac- 
 teristics of external things, is the seat of consciousness 
 and will power; it originates ideas of non-material things 
 and forms judgments of right and wrong, and controls 
 the intellectual and moral nature. If it is injured, the 
 mind is impaired or destroyed. The cerebellum regu- 
 lates muscular action. If it is injured or removed, the 
 muscles act, but in an irregular and spasmodic way. 
 
 Reflex Action. The spinal cord is a large bundle of 
 fibres for transmitting impressions and orders, but it has 
 gray cells, and these little operators can tap the wires. 
 Thus, when a slight sensation is sent along a nerve it 
 does not always reach the brain. It is taken ofT by the 
 nearest cell, and the gray matter here sends back an 
 order for muscular action without our consciousness. 
 This unconscious action is called rejl&z^ action. The 
 motion of a person asleep, who stirs when touched, is of 
 this kind. A great many daily actions, such as walking 
 when we have decided where to go, and some motions 
 we have learned with difficulty, are of this kind. Pos- 
 sibly much of the talk we hear is merely reflex action. 
 
 The cells which thus arrest sensation save the brain a 
 great deal of labor. The spinal cord is an organ of 
 reflex action. Some nerve centers in the brain also con- 
 trol reflex action. 
 
 Crossing of Nerves. The spinal cord is made of 
 four columns of fibres, two in front and two back, closely 
 
120 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 pressed together. The nerves that enter it have a strange 
 way of crossing to the opposite side and reaching the 
 
 Li 
 
 S C 
 
 a p 
 
 FIG. 70. Diagram of Medulla Oblongata, Spinal Cord, and three pairs 
 of Spinal Nerves. (Also shows how an injury at x, destroying half of 
 Spinal Cord, affects sides of body.) S. C. Spinal Cord; a. Anterior 
 columns of Spinal Cord ; p. Posterior columns of Spinal Cord ; 8. Sen- 
 sory Nerve, and M. Motor Nerve, join in one sheath after leaving Spinal 
 Column; M. 0. Medulla Oblongata; 1, 2, 3. Three pairs of Spinal 
 Nerves; R. Rigjit side; //.Left side; -^Direction of Nerve Im- 
 pulse; x. Location of an injury. Dotted lines show Sensory Fibres 
 passing back of Anterior to reach Posterior Columns. 
 
 other side of the brain, and this gives rise to some queer 
 effects. The reason a blow on one side of the head affects 
 
THE NER VO US S YSTEM. 121 
 
 the other side of the body, and the reason an injury on 
 one side of the spinal cord destroys sensation of one side 
 and motion of the other side of the body, are perfectly 
 easy to understand, if you will examine Fig. 70, and 
 remember seven things: 
 
 1 . Motor and sensory nerves are distinct. 
 
 2. They reach the spinal cord in a single sheath. 
 
 3. The spinal cord is made of front and back columns. 
 
 4. The motor nerves, upon reaching the spinal cord, go 
 up the front column, and cross at the medulla oblongata. 
 
 5. The sensory nerves cross to opposite side of back 
 column, immediately upon reaching the spinal cord. 
 
 6. Right motor and sensory nerves reach the left side 
 of the brain. 
 
 7. Left motor and sensory nerves reach the right side 
 of the brain. 
 
 Thus the right side of your brain receives impressions 
 from the left side of the body, and directs the action of 
 that side. By tracing these crossings of fibres, it is easy 
 to know the reason of some effects that follow injury of 
 the brain, like paralysis, partial paralysis, and injury of 
 the spinal cord. 
 
 Cranial and Spinal Nerves. There are two divis- 
 ions of nerves (Fig. 69). One set branches from the 
 brain, and only a few of them pass beyond the skull. 
 They are the cranial nerves. There are twelve pairs. 
 
 The other set springs from the spinal cord, and extends 
 to all parts of the surface of the body. There are thirty- 
 one pairs, and they are called spinal nerves. They pass 
 through the bones of the spinal column by means of 
 small openings at the sides, which can be seen in Fig. 11. 
 
 Coats. The nerves are covered by a sheath, and the 
 brain and spinal cord are protected by three coats* Fig. 
 03 shows portions of each of these coats on one half the 
 
122 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 brain. The inside coat is next to the nerve matter, and 
 is very thin, and full of vessels; the middle coat is made 
 of two very thin serous membranes, between which there 
 is a liquid. This liquid and the membranes act as a 
 water cushion to protect the brain from a jar or a blow. 
 The third, or external membrane, is dense and fibrous, 
 and lines the part next to the bone. 
 
 Sympathetic Division of Nervous System. The 
 brain and spinal cord, cranial and spinal nerves have 
 very little to do with the involuntary muscles, with diges- 
 tion, circulation, and respiration. There is a special 
 division of the nervous system, named sympathetic, that 
 generally controls them. It is called sympathetic, be- 
 cause one part of the body, by means of these nerves, is 
 easily affected by, or sympathizes with, any other part 
 that is in pain, or out of order. It is composed of many 
 thread-like nerves and bunches, made up of nerve cells 
 and fibres, and looks something like a loose net with 
 floats (3, Fig. 71). 
 
 Ganglia. The bunches are called .ganglia (singular, 
 ganglion), and are also found in the brain. The ganglia 
 of this system are arranged in two principal lines, inside 
 the trunk, one on each side of the spinal column, and 
 branches of the system extend to all the vital organs, and 
 also extend to the cranial nerves and spinal cord* 
 
 The gray matter in the cells acts as little brains, and 
 controls the functions of the vital organs. Food cannot 
 digest without the motions of stomach and intestines, and 
 the dissolving action of digestive juices; these juices can- 
 not form unless blood brings the right material" to the 
 glands that secrete them; blood cannot flow unless heart 
 and blood vessels contract and relax x and none of these 
 organs can act without impulse from the sympathetic 
 nervous system, 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 123 
 
 FIG. 71 (Copied). Parts of Cerebro-spinal and Sympathetic Nervous 
 Systems (right side). 1. Superficial Facial Nerves; 2. Cervical Nerves ; 
 3. Sympathetic Nerves and Ganglia branching to Heart, Stomach, 
 Kidney, Intestines, Lungs; 4. Brachial Nerves; 5. Brachial Artery; 
 6. Intercostal Nerves ; s. Stomach ; h. Heart ; k. Kidney ; i. Intestines. 
 
124 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Inter-dependence of the Two Systems. In 
 
 health, this system takes all the responsibility of con- 
 trolling the functions of the internal organs, without call- 
 ing our attention to their operations; but if anything 
 gets out of order, messages are sent to the brain, and we 
 are conscious of pain. 
 
 If a person goes too long without food there is a gen- 
 eral uneasiness of the vital organs. Tissues on all sides 
 are calling for material and there is no food in the ali- 
 mentary canal. The nerves from the stomach and intes- 
 tines send messages of need to the gray cells of the 
 sympathetic system, only to have the knowledge sent 
 back that orders for digestion are useless unless there is 
 food to digest. 
 
 Then a great effort is made and a message runs along 
 the nerve that goes to the spinal cord away up to the brain, 
 and the man knows he is hungry. He gets food if pos- 
 sible. When the food comes, the sympathetic nerves 
 start the digestive juices out of their glands, set the in- 
 voluntary muscles to working, and cause the blood vessels 
 and lacteals to begin absorbing, and new material soon 
 goes to all the hungry tissues. 
 
 If a person eats too much, or something difficult to 
 digest, the sympathetic system acts as in ordinary eating, 
 but is unable to dispose of the difficulty, and is compelled 
 to call for help on the brain and spinal cord divisions, as 
 it always does in emergencies. In all such cases our 
 intelligence is acted upon by means of nerves connecting 
 the two systems, and the mind must think of relief 
 measures. In this case it thinks of medicine to relieve 
 pain in the stomach, and thus furnishes relief. 
 
 The intimate connection of these two parts of the 
 nervous system is shown by the influence that many 
 purely mental actions have on involuntary functions. 
 Grief, joy, fright, and almost any excitement will often 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 125 
 
 take away all desire for food. The thought of going on 
 a pleasant journey often spoils a child's appetite. 
 Thought of juicy fruit makes the mouth water. Anger 
 sometimes causes a change in the secretion, and the bite 
 of an angry man is said to be as poisonous as that of a 
 mad dog or wolf. 
 
 ORGANS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 r Cerebrum Two hemispheres. 
 Cerebellum. 
 
 Cerebro-Spinal Division. I Medulla Oblongata. 
 j Spinal Cord. 
 
 f Motor. 
 lNerV6S - I Sensory. 
 
 Sympathetic Division. . ( Nerve Fibres. 
 * 1 Ganglia. 
 
 THOUGHT QUESTIONS. 
 
 Name three different places where gray matter is found. Is it 
 in the hand? 
 
 Name three peculiarities of spinal nerves. 
 
 Can nerve fibres be seen the same as meat fibres ? 
 
 Did you ever see a nerve? 
 
 What is the English name for the lower part of the spinal cord? 
 Do you see any resemblance? 
 
 What is the difference between the upper and lower part of the 
 spinal cord? 
 
 How do you know glass is smooth? 
 
 How do you know its edges will cut ? 
 
 If a large nerve could be pinched, what would be the consequence ? 
 
 What is the difference in manner of learning of a pain in the foot 
 and one in the stomach ? 
 
 How is a person frightened? 
 
 Why are some persons more timid than others? 
 
 Trace the connection between touching an unseen prickly object, 
 knowing it is prickly, and pulling the hand away. 
 
 If a nerve is diseased or destroyed in the arm, how does it affect 
 the arm ? 
 
126 PH YSIOL OGY. 
 
 Why does not a child have to stop and think of snatching his 
 hand from something that is hot, as he has to think about an 
 example in arithmetic? 
 
 Why are some examples hard to understand ? 
 
 What is the difference between knowledge of a color, and know- 
 ing it is wrong to tell a lie ? 
 
 If part of the gray matter of the brain is destroyed, or changed 
 to something else, what will be the effect when nerves bring an 
 important message there ? 
 
 If a right foot is hurt, which side of the brain knows it ; how did 
 the impression get there? 
 
 If the right side of the spinal cord is injured at the neck, how 
 will the extremities be affected? 
 
 If the right side of the brain is injured, can you feel and move 
 the right side of the body? 
 
 If the front columns of the spinal cord are injured in the middle 
 of the back, how will the extremities be affected ? 
 
 Can a man live or walk with his back broken ? 
 
 Does distortion of spinal column injure brain action? 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 127 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 
 SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 The knowledge of external objects is obtained by a 
 number of organs of the body the skin, nose, mouth, 
 ears, and eyes. A man who cannot taste or smell is 
 liable to eat injurious things, or be poisoned by bad gases, 
 and a blind man is cut off from the greatest enjoyment 
 of life, and must be led by other people. 
 
 As each organ does special work, they are called organs 
 of the special senses. They are the highest and most 
 delicate organs of the body. Their nerves are well pro- 
 tected. Although all nerves are of the same soft mate- 
 rial, the nerves of the higher senses, as sight and hearing, 
 have a higher power. 
 
 Nerves terminating in the skin carry to the brain 
 impressions of heat, cold, roughness, smoothness, hard- 
 ness, and softness; nerves from the mouth take sensa- 
 tions of taste, and from the nose those of smell; the ear 
 catches and transmits sounds; and the eye gives impres- 
 sions of color, and of shapes we cannot touch. 
 
 Touch.. The sense of touch seems the lowest, and its 
 nerves are the most widely distributed, being found in 
 the skin of the entire body surface. If anything touches 
 the skin, immediately a message runs rapidly along the 
 white nerve of sensation, and we know by the impression 
 it makes on the gray cells that the object is pleasant or 
 unpleasant to the touch. If it is unpleasant, the order 
 is instantly carried by the nerve of motion for muscles to 
 contract, and the body is drawn away from the object. 
 
 The nerves of touch are in the papillae of the true skin. 
 The curved ridges at the ends of the fingers are rows of 
 papillae. These terminations are called touch corpuscles. 
 
128 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 and, like many important workers, they are microscopic. 
 In fact, they are so exceedingly small that it is not settled 
 beyond a doubt just how they are arranged, but it is 
 thought they are in minute coils in the papillae. 
 
 They are very close together in some places, and in 
 others are a quarter of an inch apart. Where they are 
 farthest apart, feeling is not so acute. They are crowded 
 together on the lips and the tips of the fingers, while on 
 the arms and the back of the thighs they are farther 
 apart. Touch a piece of dress goods with the fingers, 
 and then with the lips, to find where the sensation is 
 most acute. 
 
 Take two pins and hold their points close together, 
 and touch the body. Wherever two impressions can be 
 felt, it is an indication that separate nerve terminations 
 have been touched. In most places on the surface of the 
 body both points give but one impression. 
 
 Touch has been called the universal, or common, sense, 
 and though differing in degree with different people, no 
 one has ever been known to be destitute of this sense. 
 The other senses, one or all of them, are sometimes either 
 entirely absent or but slightly developed. 
 
 Education of Touch. Touch can be highly edu- 
 cated. Watchmakers, workers on optical instruments, 
 musicians, and physicians, are people who have educated 
 touch. The muscles of their hands are also well edu- 
 cated, and the skin on their fingers is not allowed to get 
 hard and callous. 
 
 Blind people, having to depend largely on this sense, 
 have it very delicately trained. They can feel peculiar- 
 ities in objects never thought of by people who see. It 
 is a mistake to believe they can detect color. There 
 is nothing in color that appeals to any sense but sight. 
 Bead workers, or any blind people who work in colored 
 
.SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 129 
 
 FIG. 72 (Copied). Tongue. 1. Circumvallate Papillae; 2. Circum- 
 vallate Papilla, large; 3. Toad-stool (Fungiform) Papillae; 4. Thread- 
 form (Filiform) Papillae. 
 
 patterns, know the different colors by the size, shape, 
 roughness of the material, or by its position in the box. 
 Certain dye stuffs make fabrics harsher, and it is a mat- 
 ter of memory and association of the name of a color 
 with smoothness or roughness, when a blind man says a 
 piece of goods is green, black, or any other color. 
 
 Taste. The little thread-like projections easily seen 
 on your tongue are small tubes, in which the taste nerves 
 begin. Press them apart. Some are more blunt than 
 others (Figs. 72, 73). There are none on the under side 
 of the tongue, but plenty on the sides and top. There 
 are three kinds. Two can be seen, but the third kind is 
 almost too far back to be visible (Fig. 72). A few of the 
 taste papillae are found in the palate. They give impres- 
 sions of salt, sweet, and sour articles, but cannot act un- 
 less the substances are dissolved. 
 
130 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIG. 73. Section of Tongue. 1. Fungus-shaped Papilla (Fungiform) ; 
 2. Thread-shaped Papilla (Filiform)-, 3. Blood Vessel; 4. Muscle; 5. 
 Filiform Papilla, uncut. 
 
 Mixed Impressions. The senses of smell and taste 
 so act together that people are apt to mix the impres- 
 sions and say a substance has a had or good taste, when 
 it is nearly tasteless, but has a strong odor. This is the 
 case with many articles; for example, there is scarcely 
 any taste to onions or vanilla. The mere taste of an 
 article can be told with the nostrils closed. This pre- 
 vents a current of air from passing over the article in 
 the mouth and carrying its odor to the nerves of smell. 
 Notice the mouth and nose cavities (Fig. 35). 
 
 Many disagreeable medicines can be swallowed with- 
 out unpleasant sensations by merely holding the nostrils, 
 because they are really almost wholly destitute of taste; 
 but half the enjoyment of good food would be taken 
 away by the same act. A good illustration of the rapidity 
 of nerve action is shown by the quickness with which a 
 bad tasted object is put from the mouth. 
 
 Nerves of Sensation. There are also nerves 6"f 
 general impression, as of cold and heat in the mouth, 
 and they are more sensitive, because they are less pro- 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 131 
 
 tected by membrane 
 than those on the out- 
 side surface. They 
 carry impressions of 
 pungent and spicy 
 substances, such as 
 mustard and pepper. 
 Smell. Fig. 74 
 shows how the fila- 
 ments of the nerve 
 
 FIG. 74 (Copied). Nasal Cavity . 1. Olfac- of Smell Spread over 
 
 tory Nerve and bulb ; 2. Olfactory Nerve , , , f , , 
 
 fibres on Turbinated portion of Ethmoid the. upper part Ol the 
 
 Bone; 3. Middle Turbinated Bone of Eth- nacal no in +17- TVi^ir 
 moid; 4. Lower Turbinated Bone; 5. Fifth 
 
 Nerve. come to the surface 
 
 of the mucous membrane as the finest kind of threads, 
 and the air, sniffed into the nostrils, brings odorous par- 
 ticles which touch these tiny fibres, and the impression 
 is carried by them to the brain. The two olfactory nerves 
 in 1, Fig. 69, look like little horns. They extend from 
 the large brain mass along the under side of the cere- 
 brum till they reach a bone just above the nasal cavity. 
 Here they widen out into two bulbs (Figs. 35, 74). The 
 bone is full of fine holes, like a sieve, and through these 
 holes go multitudes of fibrous branches from the bulb. 
 Then their filaments spread over the mucous membrane 
 of the nose. 
 
 The nasal cavity is divided into two parts by the 
 vomer, or ploughshare bone (Fig. 5), and the outside 
 walls of each cavity are formed of bones that are exceed- 
 ingly curved and twisted. By covering these twisted 
 bones the mucous membrane gets a great extent of sur- 
 face (Fig. 35), and consequently the smell nerve has 
 greater expansion. In order that a substance may be 
 smelled, it must be in the form of gas, or of particles fine 
 enough to float on air: there must be a draft of air, and 
 
 9 P 
 
132 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 the mucous membrane must be moist. We sniff in order 
 to make the particles strike sharply on the ends of fila- 
 ments. 
 
 There are great personal differences with regard to taste 
 and smell. The use of tobacco, alcoholic drinks, highly 
 spiced food, and many drugs, deaden these nerves and 
 destroy their function. Smell and taste can be culti- 
 vated. In large tea houses there are people called tasters, 
 who have such delicacy of perception that they can 
 classify the many various chops by taste and smell. 
 
 Hearing. Touch, taste, and smell deal with solids, 
 liquids, and gases; but whatever the material is, it comes 
 directly in contact with the nerve or with a thin skin just 
 over it. Hearing and sight are different. The ear and 
 the eye deal with objects that never touch them, and 
 their nerves are shut so far from the outside world that 
 impressions which reach them must pass through many 
 fluids and tissues. 
 
 It is supposed that the object that gives sound or color 
 jars the air, and the waves are carried along till they 
 reach the nerves that convey the impressions to the gray 
 cells, some of which recognize sound, and others perceive 
 color and shape. The eye and the ear are the most com- 
 plex and the best protected organs of the body. 
 
 The organ of hearing is made of so many parts that 
 it is easiest studied in three divisions: the external, 
 middle, and internal ear. 
 
 The External Ear. The part on the outside of the 
 head, which is generally called the ear, is made mainly 
 of cartilage, and it is of less importance than any other 
 part. Many animals that hear well have no visible ears. 
 Try to find a chicken's or canary bird's ears. Do you 
 think you can hear better than a bird? The cartilage 
 part of our ears is a portion of the external ear. It is 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 133 
 
 II 
 
 FIG. 75 (Copied). Ear. I. Diagram of Ear: 6. Concha; ra. Auditory 
 Canal (External), d. Tympanic Membrane; t. Tympanic Cavity; e. 
 Eustachian Tube (Middle), s. Semi-circular Canals; c. Cochlea, or 
 Helix (Internal). /. Styloid Process of Temporal Bone; p. Petrous 
 Bone. 
 
 II. a. Malleus; (h. Handle;) b. Incus: (o. Orbicular Bone;) c. Stapes. 
 
 {a. Bony wall; 
 b. Spiral par- 
 titions. 
 
 IV. r. Tympanic Ring of Temporal Bone ; a, 6, c, as in II. ; d. Mem- 
 brana Tympani. 
 
 twisted and spread out, so as to give much surface for 
 the collection of sounds. 
 
 A person who is hard of hearing will put his open hand 
 back of the outer ear to still further extend the surface. 
 He is trying to make his ears large. This cartilage of the 
 
134 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 ear is covered with skin, and moved by a few small 
 muscles. 
 
 The other part of the external ear is called the audit- 
 ory canal (Fig. 75, 1. m). It is a short tube of bone lined 
 with skin, and you will recognize it as the opening of the 
 ear. It is furnished with some stiff hairs, and some oil 
 glands that secrete ear wax. The hairs and the bitter 
 wax keep dust and insects out. 
 
 Middle Ear. The external is separated from the in- 
 ternal ear by a small, tense membrane, called the ear 
 drum, or tympanic membrane (Fig. 75, 1., IV. d). It looks 
 something like the skin stretched across the head of a 
 drum. Because of this membrane, the middle ear is 
 called the drum of the ear. In this part there are three 
 dainty little bones. They are the smallest bones in the 
 body. They are fastened together, and extend as a chain 
 from the drumhead to the opening of the internal ear. 
 One looks like a stirrup, and the others are supposed to 
 look one like a hammer, and the other like an anvil, but 
 the resemblance is not very close (Fig. 75, II. a, 6, c). 
 Small as they are (and the figure gives them larger than 
 the natural size), they have their own tiny cover, liga- 
 ments, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. 
 
 There is a tube extending from the middle ear to the 
 throat (Fig. 75, 1.e). It is for the entrance of air. The 
 mucous membrane that lines the throat extends into the 
 ear, and when a person has a cold this membrane gets 
 inflamed and swollen, the tube is closed, and hearing 
 becomes difficult. The bony wall between the middle 
 and inner ear has two openings, called little windows, 
 that are covered by membrane. The stirrup rests against 
 ene of these. 
 
 Internal Ear. The internal ear is peculiar and com- 
 plicated. It has three canals, called semi-circular canals, 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 135 
 
 carved out of the bone (Fig. 75, III.), and a coiled up 
 part called helix, or snail shell, and a small space that is 
 nearest the middle ear, called vestibule. All these parts 
 are hollowed out of the hardest bone in the body, a por- 
 tion of the temporal bone, and you can best understand 
 their minuteness by knowing that this portion of the 
 temporal bone is but little over an inch long. 
 
 Inside the canals there is a liquid; within the liquid 
 there is a membranous tube, running the whole length 
 of the canals, and in places it is dilated. The mem- 
 branous tube contains another liquid, in which there are 
 some bones so fine as to be called ear sand, and also 
 some filaments of the nerve of hearing. Other filaments 
 spread over the spiral plates of the snail shell. The use 
 of every part of this complicated organ of hearing is not 
 well understood. 
 
 It is supposed we hear in the following manner: The 
 tympanic membrane is made tense or lax by muscles. 
 Sound waves strike it, and it vibrates; the motion is car- 
 ried by the small bones that touch it to the window of the 
 internal ear; here the fluid outside and inside the bags is 
 set in motion, the ear sand is jarred and beats against the 
 nerve filaments, and the impression is carried by the 
 nerves to the brain. Other jars are taken up by the 
 filaments in the snail shell. And in this way the brain 
 becomes conscious of sounds. 
 
 The Eye. Notice how the optic nerves start from the 
 brain (2, Fig. 69). They look like a little sawbuck. 
 Fig. 76 shows how one enters the eyeball like a thick cord. 
 
 Protectors. Feel the bones around your eye. They 
 form the orbital cavity, and their edges stand out just far 
 enough to protect the eye without interfering with sight. 
 The eyebrows are arranged so as to keep perspiration 
 from rolling down from the forehead into the eyes. The 
 eyelashes keep out dust, and the eyelids serve as live 
 
136 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 curtains that close them- 
 selves when the light 
 is too strong, or any 
 danger threatens 
 the eyes. See h^w 
 quickly any one 
 winks if you 
 make believe to 
 strike his face. 
 If a bit of sand 
 gets into the eye how 
 it hurts, and how 
 soon the eyes are 
 filled with tears. 
 They flow over the 
 eyeball and try to 
 wash away the offending particle. There are tear glands 
 connected with each eye. They are situated under the 
 upper eyelid at its outer side, and they make tears ( Fig. 
 77). The fluid they secrete flows across the eyeball and 
 enters a little hollow at the 
 inner corner of the eye. 
 Then it finds its way by 
 the tear duct (Fig. 77) 
 into the nasal cavity. 
 That is the ordinary 
 way, for tears are being 
 
 secreted all the time to keep ~ 9 ^^jgj^^ f f--' -"/ j' 
 
 the eyes clear and bright. ' / / 
 
 FIG. 76. Horizontal section of Right Eye- 
 ball. Coats: 1. Sclerotic; 2. Choroid; 3. 
 Retina. 4. Optic Nerve; 5. Cornea; 6. Iris. 
 Humors: 7. Aqueous; 8. Crystalline Lens; 
 9. Vitreous Humor. 10. Ciliary Process; 11. 
 Ligament; 12. Pupil; 13. Blind spot. 
 
 But when a 
 weeps, the tear 
 
 person 
 glands 
 
 give him 
 than the 
 
 more tears 
 canals can 
 carry away, and they 
 overflow the lower eye- 
 
 FIG. 77 (Copied). Eyeball and some of 
 its appendages. 1. Tear (Lachrymal} 
 Gland; 2. Tear (Lachrymal) Sac and 
 Nasal Duct, showing two small canals, 
 an upper and a lower, leading into sac. 
 Openings of Oil Glands shown as dots 
 along lower Eyelid. * Shows opening 
 to lower Lachrymal Canal. 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 137 
 
 lid. The lids, the eyebrows, and the lashes, the edges of 
 orbit, and the tears are only appendages to, or protectors 
 of, the eye proper. 
 
 The eyeball is the essential organ. It is a dense hol- 
 low ball filled with liquid or semi-liquid materials. It 
 has (Fig. 76): 
 
 THREE COATS. 
 
 Sclerotic : white, outside. 
 Choroid : dark, middle. 
 Retina : nerve, inside. 
 
 THREE HUMORS. 
 
 Aqueous : in front, watery. 
 Vitreous : in back, jelly-like. 
 Crystalline lens : between thei 
 
 solid. 
 
 First Coat. The outer coat forms the white of the 
 eye, and also the transparent part in front, called the 
 cornea (5, Fig. 76). The stiffness of its walls gives shape 
 to the eyeball. This coat has no nerves, therefore no feel- 
 ing, and can be cut without paining the eye. Then, what 
 hurts so when sand gets in? 
 
 It is the fine mucous membrane that lines the eyelids 
 and extends over the front of the eyeball. It is full of 
 nerves and blood vessels, and gets bloodshot when gritty 
 particles irritate it. Bloodshot means that the tiny, in- 
 visible blood vessels get so full of blood from the irrita- 
 tion that they can be seen. 
 
 Second Coat. The middle, or choroid, coat is dark 
 colored, because it is full of pigment. It has many ves- 
 sels. Notice the colored part of your eye. It is a thin, 
 circular, muscular band fastened by its outer edges to the 
 choroid coat. It is called the iris, and gives color to differ- 
 ent eyes. The hole in the center of the iris grows larger 
 if you go from a light to a dark room, and smaller if 
 you go into strong light. It is called the pupil of the eye. 
 
 In a cat the iris is a straight up and down slit in the 
 daytime. The iris is able to change shape, because it 
 has two sets of muscular fibres one ring-like, and the 
 
138 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 other radiating. By its contraction or relaxation the right 
 amount of light is admitted to the eye. The pigment of 
 the choroid coat is supposed to absorb any light that gets 
 into the eye and that does not fall on the optic nerve, and 
 thus keeps the image from being blurred. 
 
 Third Coat. The internal coat is the expansion of 
 the nerve of sight, and it forms a network of fibres and 
 curious cells, rods, and cones that spreads over the dark 
 choroid. It is called the retina. This is the part that 
 receives impressions of color and shape, and transmits 
 them to the brain. The retina is the essential part of 
 the organ of sight for which all the other parts are made. 
 
 Sight Spot. There are two important spots con- 
 nected with the retina. One is at the back of the eye- 
 ball, directly opposite the middle of the cornea. It is 
 called the yellow spot, and is the most sensitive portion 
 of the retina. It is, more than all other parts of the eye, 
 the sight spot. 
 
 The Blind Spot. The other spot is just its opposite 
 in being entirely blind. It is on the nasal side of the 
 eyeball, a little distance from the yellow spot. This is 
 where the optic nerve enters the eyeball. There is plenty 
 of nerve material there, but it has not the right arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 Power of sight does not seem to depend on the presence 
 of nerve, but upon its arrangement. It is said that the 
 optic nerve is quite as blind, or as incapable of carrying 
 impressions of light, as any nerve of the body, when it 
 does not have the cone and cell arrangement. 
 
 Experiment. You can easily prove that there is a 
 blind spot. Hold your pencil at arm's length horizontally 
 before your eyes. Shut one eye; with the other eye look 
 fixedly at the end of the pencil opposite the closed eye. 
 Both ends can be seen. Now draw the pencil nearer. 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 139 
 
 There comes a place where you can see only the end upon 
 which your look is fixed. On bringing the pencil nearer 
 still, the lost end comes again into view. This means that 
 in altering the position of the pencil, the image of the end 
 that becomes invisible changes its position on the retina, 
 and in moving along comes before the blind spot, and 
 thus disappears. Later, when it has passed this spot, 
 it is seen again. 
 
 The same experiment may be made by holding this 
 page at arm's length, and looking at the letters below in 
 a similar way. 
 
 B 
 
 Humors of the Eye. The humors of the eye do not 
 occupy equal spaces, and they are of different consist- 
 ency. In the little room, which has the cornea in front 
 and the iris and crystalline lens behind, is found a thin, 
 watery liquid, called aqueous humor (7, Fig. 76). 
 
 The crystalline lens is almost too solid to be called a 
 humor. It is clear like glass, and tough like stiff jelly, 
 so that it retains its shape when removed. It can be 
 removed from the eye of a fish or a beef. A beef's eye 
 is a good study, being large enough to show clearly all 
 the parts. 
 
 The cornea helps adapt rays to enter the eye. The 
 function of the crystalline lens is to change the direction 
 of the rays. This is done by altering its shape by means 
 of the ligaments which hold it in place (11, Fig. 76). It 
 stiffens with age, so that elderly people cannot see well. 
 
 The largest part of the eyeball is filled with a jelly- 
 like substance called vitreous humor, that remains stiff 
 for only a short time after it is taken out. 
 
 Muscles. There are a number of small voluntary 
 muscles attached to the eyeball and the orbital cavity, 
 which pull the eyeball and enable a person to look in 
 
140 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 many directions. Will to look up, and the eyeball is 
 directed upward; to look down, and it is pulled down- 
 ward. The rolling of the eyes is caused by a number 
 of different muscles acting in turn ; and because the eye- 
 ball can so move, its socket or cavity is called the orbit. 
 
 Names of 
 Senses. 
 
 Touch . 
 
 Smell 
 
 Taste . 
 
 Organs. 
 . Skin. 
 
 . Nose. 
 
 SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 f Papillae 
 
 \ Touch Corpuscles . . . 
 
 Filaments 
 Bulb. . 
 
 f Taste Bulbs 
 
 Tongue. <j f circuravallate 
 
 * Papillae. 
 
 Sight. . Eyeball. 
 
 Hearing . . Ear. 
 
 Coats 
 
 Humors 
 
 External 
 
 Middle 
 
 ] Fungiform 
 I Filiform . 
 
 Sclerotic (includes 
 
 Cornea) 
 
 Choroid (includes Iris 
 
 and Pupil) 
 
 Retina 
 
 f Vitreous 
 
 j Aqueous 
 
 [ Crystalline 
 
 Concha 
 
 Auditory Canal .... 
 
 ( Tympanic Membrane, 
 f Incus .... 
 Bones. \ Malleus . . . 
 { ( Stapes .... 
 Windows, or Fora- 
 mina 
 
 Eustachian Tube . . . 
 
 Nerves. 
 Sensation. 
 
 Smell, or 
 Olfactory. 
 
 Taste, 
 or Gusta- 
 tory. 
 
 Sight, or 
 Optic. 
 
 Vestibule 
 
 
 Labyrinth. 
 
 Cochlea, or Helix . . . 
 Filaments ....... 
 
 Hearing, 
 
 or 
 Auditory. 
 
SPECIAL SENSES. 141 
 
 THOUGHT, OR OBSERVATION, QUESTIONS. 
 
 Do any nerves of special sense start from the spinal column? 
 
 How do sensory and smell nerves differ in termination ? 
 
 If dry goods are not all wool, what is one way to find it out? 
 
 Can you think of any reason for the projections on the tongue ? 
 
 How does the sense of smell act as a protector? 
 
 Does the size of the nose have anything to do with the acuteness 
 of smell? 
 
 What is the reason that some people enjoy scents and tastes that 
 disgust others? 
 
 Why are our senses less acute than those of savages ? 
 
 What does it mean " to strain one's ears to hear ? " 
 
 What is the reason that the howling of a dog annoys us while we 
 are trying to hear music ? 
 
 Why do some dogs howl when they hear church bells ring ? 
 
 When a stone is thrown into a lake, what happens to a ripple 
 before it goes a mile ? 
 
 Can you see any relation between this and the fact that you can- 
 not hear a person who is speaking a mile away ? 
 
 How many colors can be found in the eye ? 
 
 What part of the eye is nerve, and what muscle? 
 
 Are there blood vessels inside the eyeball ? 
 
 Are there any nerves in the sclerotic coat ? 
 
 What is the relative size of the humors ? 
 
 What enables the optic nerve to carry impressions of light ? 
 
 Are there any gray cells in the eye ? 
 
142 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 MEMORY QUESTIONS. 
 
 I. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 Cells. Define cell. Can you see one? How do people know 
 cells exist? Are they all of one shape? Draw four shapes. Name 
 five kinds. What do they contain? Are they abundant? What do 
 they build? 
 
 Tissues. What is a tissue? Name and locate five kinds. What 
 is the difference between skin and bone? How do you know? 
 Name a characteristic of cartilage. Where is it found, and what 
 is its common name? What is the relative position of tissues in 
 the thumb? Which is outside? Which is hardest? Which is 
 cord-like ? What is a common name for muscle ? What is it called 
 when we eat it? 
 
 Fluids. What makes cheeks and lips red? What other fluid do 
 you know? 
 
 Organs. Define an organ. What is it made of? Name an organ 
 of the head. Name an organ of the trunk. Is there anything but 
 tissue in an organ? What kind of an organ is the hand? What is 
 the use of the heart? Name paired organs. Name single organs. 
 
 Systems. Define system. What organs besides the heart make 
 the circulating system? How is a person poisoned? WTiat system 
 does food affect? What are its parts? Why does the head ache 
 after eating bad food ? What is health ? What is disease ? 
 
 The Head. What is the shape of the bony part of the head? 
 What are the hollows of the head called? Where is the orbital 
 cavity? How does the oral differ from the cranial cavity? What 
 organ is in the oral cavity? What cavities look forward? Which 
 is the largest? Do any look any other way? What covers the nasal 
 cavity? Is it entirely shut? Which cavities have doors? Is any 
 cavity entirely shut ? What is the use. of cavities? What tissues 
 cover the head? Where are blood vessels seen? Where can car- 
 tilage be felt? What is nearly as flexible as cartilage? Where can 
 

 MEMORY QUESTIONS. 143 
 
 the most muscle be found? How do you know there is bone and 
 skin to the head? What is the use of the bony box of the head? 
 
 The Trunk. How does the trunk cavity differ from the head 
 cavity? Name the parts of the trunk cavity. What is the trunk 
 often called? How do you know the upper part of the trunk moves? 
 How does the upper part differ from lower? What is there peculiar 
 at back of the trunk? Is the backbone one bone? Locate the ribs. 
 What is the shape of the ribs? What bones are they joined to? 
 Why do the ribs move ? 
 
 Extremities. What is the common name for extremities? Name 
 parts of the leg. Name parts of the arm. Compares the arm with 
 the leg. How are tissues arranged in a thumb ? Where can the 
 arrangement be seen ? Why are we able to bend our hands ? What 
 tissues generally form a joint? How does muscle end? Where are 
 the nails? What are the cords of a chicken's drumstick? Where 
 is the bone ? What is the thick mass at the upper end ? What do 
 head, trunk, and limbs form? Of what is each part composed? 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 
 Of any bone give: Name, position, use, class, color, structure, 
 size, shape, composition, cover, and most important characteristic. 
 Why are bones brittle? 
 What makes bones hard? 
 How many classes of bones are there? 
 Name ten long bones. 
 How does blood get inside of bones? 
 Where are the ligaments found? 
 Which joint admits of freest motion? 
 What is the reason joints do not creak? 
 How do ribs differ in their attachment to the breast bone? 
 Locate and give use of suture, mastoid, cartilage. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 Of any muscle give: Name, position, use, class, color, size, shape, 
 composition, structure, cover, and most important characteristic. 
 What kind of muscle has spindle-shaped cells? 
 
144 PHYSIOLOGY, 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 Of any part of the skin give : Name, position, use, class, color, 
 shape, parts, composition, structure, and chief characteristic. 
 
 How does mucous membrane differ from skin ? 
 
 What covers gums; roof of mouth; inside of eyelids; inside of 
 stomach; hands; cheeks? 
 
 Why does it not hurt to cut hair and nails? 
 
 Why do the eyes of white rabbits look pink? 
 
 What effect has hard work on the hands? 
 
 What happens if poison is rubbed on the skin? 
 
 Why does a knife slip off a hair held by the root? 
 
 Locate and give use of papillae ; of pigment layer. 
 
 What is the difference of function in oil and in perspiratory 
 glands? 
 
 How can " in visible" perspiration be shown? 
 
 Is perspiration an excretion or secretion? 
 
 What becomes of all the water brought to the surface by per- 
 spiratory glands? 
 
 What effect has dampness on curly hair? 
 
 Does hair sunburn? 
 
 How does fright cause hair to " stand on end? " 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 Of any organ give: The name, position, use, class, color, size, 
 shape, structure, cover, and most important characteristics. 
 
 Of any juice give : Color, uses, location, and gland. 
 
 What is the advantage of length and convolution in the food 
 canal? 
 
 For what two reasons does food have to be chewed? 
 
 What kind of a lining has the food canal? 
 
 How do the folds of the stomach differ from those of the intes- 
 tines? 
 
 Is the stomach above or below the diaphragm? 
 
 If teeth are not sensitive, why do we say a tooth aches? 
 
 What causes bleeding when teeth are pulled ? 
 
 Name the hollows from which hair, teeth, and nails grow. 
 
 Do salivary glands make secretions or excretions ? 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 145 
 
 What is the difference of direction of blood and bile in the liver? 
 What is the difference in the composition of blood and bile? 
 
 What effect has too rapid eating on starchy food? 
 
 Name, in order, the glands of digestion. 
 
 What part of the food canal is widest? 
 
 What is a liver lobule? 
 
 In how many ways do bones differ from teeth ? 
 
 Name a difference of function and one of appearance between 
 incisors and molars. 
 
 How does chyme differ from chyle in looks, locality, and compo- 
 sition ? 
 
 Into which part of the food canal does the greatest variety of 
 digestive juices empty? 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 
 Of any organ give: Name, structure, use, position, connection 
 with other organs, and chief characteristic. 
 
 Of any fluid give : Color, structure, use. 
 
 Name two differences between veins and arteries. 
 
 What is the difference between heart cover and heart material? 
 
 Is heart muscle voluntary? 
 
 Name three differences between tongue and heart muscle. 
 
 Into what part of the heart do the large vessels from the body 
 enter? 
 
 Of what color is the blood in the right ventricle ? 
 
 What is its color in the left lung? 
 
 How many valves has the heart ? 
 
 What prevents the blood from falling back when the ventricle 
 expands? 
 
 Name, in order, all organs the blood must pass through, from left 
 ventricle back to left ventricle. 
 
 What effect does each of the following organs have on the blood : 
 Lungs, liver, skin, kidneys, spleen? 
 
 What makes the blood dark when it comes from capillaries ? 
 
 From what organs does blood come to enter portal vein ? 
 
 What is peculiar about portal circulation? Splenic circulation ? 
 
 Where does the blood in the stomach come from ? 
 
 What is the reason there is a blood vessel of one kind going to an 
 organ, and of another leaving it? 
 
146 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Is the liver an organ of digestion or of circulation? 
 Locate and give use of liver cells, of valves, of pleura, of bile cyst, 
 of lobule, of capillaries, of corpuscles. 
 
 From what two distinct sources does blood flow into the liver? 
 Where does it go when it leaves it ? 
 What is the difference between lymph and chyle ? 
 How does blood differ.from lacteal material ? 
 Do lacteals ever carry lymph ? 
 Do all the lymphatics empty into the left subclavian vein ? 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 
 Of any organ, or part, give : Name, position, use, color, size, shape, 
 structure, an4 chief characteristic. 
 
 Name two important differences between air tubes and blood 
 vessels. 
 
 Are air tubes alike throughout? 
 
 What is the advantage in the shape of the rings of the trachea? 
 
 What harm does it do to have food "go the wrong way? " 
 
 What two organs generally keep dust out of the lungs? 
 
 Where, besides in the lungs, is there transmission by osmose? 
 
 Name the microscopic organs involved in respiration. 
 
 What causes the bad odor of air from lungs? 
 
 How can any one show that there is moisture in the breath? 
 
 What, is the difference between breathed-in and breathed-outair? 
 
 Are the false vocal cords above or below the others? 
 
 Is the vocal membrane stretched from side to side, or from the 
 front backward? 
 
 What is the use of cartilage in the windpipe ? 
 
 What makes the difference between a man's and a woman's voice ? 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 Of any part give: Name, position, use, class, color, size, sjiape, 
 structure, cover, relation to brain, and chief characteristic. 
 
 How do the two divisions of the nervous system differ in function 
 and appearance? 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 147 
 
 What kind of nerve matter is ruler, and which organ of the sys- 
 tem rules all others? 
 
 Where in the body is the greatest amount of gray matter? 
 
 Is there more than one cell in a ganglion? 
 
 What is the use of so many coats to the brain ? 
 
 Where is the spinal cord thickest? 
 
 What kind of nerve material is inside the spinal cord? 
 
 If your face is scratched, what kind of nerve carries the impres- 
 sion? Where does it carry it? 
 
 How is the nervous system so well protected? Why? 
 
 Why is a hand pulled away from hot things? What pulls it? 
 What directs the pulling? 
 
 What nerve directs the digestion of food ? 
 
 If a cut is deep enough to bring blood, what happens, and why? 
 
 What part of the brain controls the idea of love of country ? 
 
 What part of a man tells him it is cowardly to strike a woman ? 
 
 What is the difference of arrangement of gray and white matter 
 in the brain and in the spinal cord? 
 
 How can you know that a small spot on the hand is hurt ? 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 
 Of any organ, or part, give : Name, position, use, class, color, size, 
 shape, structure, essential or non-essential relations, and most im- 
 portant characteristic. 
 
 Is there any difference between nerve material in the optic and 
 the sensory nerve? 
 
 Why does a woman when ironing place a hot iron near her 
 cheek instead of her hand to learn whether it is hot enough ? 
 
 What is " feeling pain," and where is it felt? 
 
 Wlby do people sometimes say an article tastes good when it has 
 no taste? 
 
 Which special sense has a nerve bulb? 
 
 With what condition of matter does each sense deal? 
 
 What part of the hearing organ is pounded, and why? 
 
 Which can be shaken most, a bag fastened to the ground or one 
 hung in water? 
 
 In what part of the ear are there some bags? 
 
 Why cannot some people tell one tune from another? 
 10 P 
 
148 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Why do not we consider the sounds on Chinese instruments as 
 musical as those produced by our own orchestras? 
 What keeps perspiration from running into the eyes ? 
 What use have tears except to express emotion ? 
 Why does an iris contract? 
 
 How do the two spots on the retina, differ in action and position ? 
 What is the hardest part of the eye? Where is it? 
 What hurts when dust gets in the eye ? 
 What happens besides the hurt? 
 How does an eye get bloodshot? 
 
PART II. 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
II. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 GENERAL HYGIENE. 
 
 Health is a condition of the body in which all its parts 
 work well. To keep healthy, proper time and attention 
 should be paid to getting good food, plenty of rest, pure 
 air, daily exercise, suitable clothing and baths, and per- 
 fectly clean and sweet surroundings. 
 
 Every one should understand the conditions necessary 
 for keeping well, for a person who obeys hygienic laws 
 is less liable than unclean and intemperate people to 
 contagious diseases, and he can, with care, keep from 
 suffering from dyspepsia, rheumatism, and many of the 
 every-day diseases that torment mankind. 
 
 People suffer from breaking these laws, even when they 
 are ignorant of the laws that are broken. If hygiene is 
 neglected either by an individual or a community, some 
 one has to pay the penalty in pain or disease. A physical 
 debt is never outlawed. 
 
 Disease is a disorder of one or more of the organs of the 
 body, caused by breaking the laws of hygiene. Catching, 
 or contagious, diseases, such as cholera, diphtheria, small- 
 pox, and typhoid fever, are penalties paid for allowing 
 filth to accumulate, and the innocent suffer with the 
 guilty. Some diseases occur to an individual through 
 his own carelessness or ignorance, and some others 
 through faults of his parents, 
 
152 HYGIENE. 
 
 Children are oftener weak and diseased because they 
 are born unhealthy than because they are neglected after 
 their birth. The children of people given to stimulants, 
 narcotics, or any form of intemperance, are apt to be irri- 
 table, and have a tendency toward excess of various 
 kinds. The gray nerve cells in children of drunkards are 
 often so disordered that their sense of right and wrong is 
 nearly destroyed. Frequently such children are weak- 
 minded, or idiotic, or born with a craving for liquor which 
 they cannot control. On the other hand, children of 
 healthy and temperate people are apt to inherit strong 
 bodies and sound minds. 
 
 This resemblance of children to parents is called hered- 
 ity, or inheritance. As children inherit the same kind 
 of eyes, shape, complexion, and gait as their parents, so, 
 also, they inherit their diseases or strong constitutions. 
 But even inherited tendencies can be overcome by care. 
 
 The natural powers of resistance are so different in 
 different people that no set of rules will apply to all indi- 
 viduals, but obeying the laws of hygiene will generally 
 insure health. It is not the grown people with their bad 
 habits formed and their diseases settled on them who can 
 be most helped by complying with simple hygienic laws. 
 It is the children who are building up their bodies and 
 forming habits. Growing people cannot properly eat, 
 drink, and wear many things that are safe for grown 
 people. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 153 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 
 
 The skeleton is not so liable to injury and disease as 
 the softer parts of the body. After the bones are full 
 sized and hardened, proper food, exercise, and warmth 
 will keep them in good condition. 
 
 Children's Bones. Children's bones being more flex- 
 ible, are. apt to bend and grow out of shape if subject to 
 great strain. For this reason children's work should be 
 light. A young child should never carry heavy babies, 
 or loads of coal or water, for there is great danger of twist- 
 ing the spinal column, rounding the shoulders, and mak- 
 ing the child deformed for life. This is especially to be 
 avoided in delicate and quick-growing children. 
 
 Habits to Avoid. Examine the following list of bad 
 habits and see if you have any of them to correct: 
 
 Sitting on one foot. 
 
 Standing on one foot. 
 
 Stooping over while working or studying. 
 
 Lifting or carrying heavy loads. 
 
 Always carrying school books on one arm, or doing 
 anything else that lifts one shoulder higher than the other. 
 
 Holding the head bent forward. 
 
 Throwing the shoulders forward, thus making " round 
 shoulders." 
 
 Sleeping on high pillows so that the back is curved. 
 
 Sitting, standing, or lying with the back arched. 
 
 Pulling at fingers to "crack" the joints. 
 
 Sitting at desks that are too low. 
 
 Sitting on chairs that are too high. 
 
 Wearing tight clothing. 
 
 Sitting on the spinal column. 
 
154 HYGIENE. 
 
 These habits pull the bones and ligaments out of place 
 and the result is hollow chest, crooked back, round 
 shoulders, or some other distortion, for the man or 
 woman. A child can do a great deal toward growing to 
 be a straight and well formed man or woman, but care 
 should be taken by parents and teachers to correct lazy 
 ways of sitting and walking, and to have desks and 
 chairs that will not strain the ligaments or in any way 
 tend to get the child out of proportion. 
 
 Clothing. Children should never wear tight clothing 
 or garments of stiff materials that keep the parts of the 
 body from naturally expanding and from supporting 
 themselves. It is the work of ligaments to hold bones 
 in place, and when tight corsets are used to hold up the 
 body, they weaken the natural supports. Tight clothing 
 also crushes in the ribs and makes deformed waists. The 
 clothing should be loose, and of a fabric warm enough to 
 keep the body from bad effects of sudden changes of cli- 
 mate, and should cover the entire body. Tight shoes 
 cramp and deform the feet and are apt to give an awkward 
 gait, while high-heeled shoes throw the .body out of its 
 natural position and cause displacement of organs. 
 
 Food. Growing children need much nutritious food. 
 Their tissues are forming so fast that they are always 
 hungry. Lime is needed for making bone, and home- 
 made brown bread and oatmeal are good bone-making 
 foods. Milk contains some of the same substances that 
 are found in bone, besides having an abundance of other 
 tissue makers. 
 
 Broken Bone. Sometimes a bone is broken. When 
 this occurs the strong tendons pull so hard that they 
 make the jagged broken edges slip past each other, and 
 tear the soft tissues. If the accident happens when there 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 155 
 
 is no doctor near, a little care will keep the bone from 
 doing much injury. Keep the broken limb still. If it 
 is a broken arm, make a sling with pocket handkerchiefs, 
 and fasten the arm in it, and then pin the sling tightly 
 to the dress or coat. If a leg be broken the person should 
 lie down till the doctor comes, or be carried to the doctor 
 on a stretcher, having the injured leg fastened to the other 
 to prevent jarring the bone and tearing the flesh. 
 
 Sprains. Sometimes a mis-step wrenches or stretches 
 a ligament or tendon. This injury is called a sprain, 
 and is generally made worse by one of the small bones, as 
 of the ankle or wrist, being pulled out of place. A sprain 
 is generally worse than a broken bone. In no case should 
 a sprained part be used. Rest is what it needs. Band- 
 age it and let it alone, unless it is so serious that a doctor 
 has to take charge of it. 
 
 Diseases of Bones and Joints. Sometimes the 
 membranes of the joints and the cover of the bones 
 become inflamed and diseased from exposure to wet 
 and cold, and a person aches all over. Sitting in a draft 
 when overheated, keeping on wet shoes and clothing, 
 result sometimes in cold, and sometimes in rheumatism. 
 Rheumatism is a name given to a number of diseases that 
 affect the muscles and bones. When it is in the joint, it 
 is an inflammation of the membrane that secretes the 
 fluid for oiling the joint, and the disease is caused by 
 exposure to cold and wet, and neglect of hygienic laws. 
 
 Rickets is a disease of children that comes partly through 
 want of proper food. The bones are not strong enough, 
 the head is generally large, and the child is feeble and 
 thin. 
 
 Gout is a disease of the joints that may be inherited, 
 or may be brought on by lead poisoning, by drinking 
 wine and malt liquors, or by large consumption of 
 animal food. 
 
156 HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscles need regular rest and exercise. Regularity is 
 one of the first laws of health. Muscles that are not 
 used become small and useless, while muscles that are 
 exercised become large and firm. Exercise also causes 
 the heart to beat faster and the blood to flow more rap- 
 idly, and thus it quickens the action of all organs. Chil- 
 dren naturally take all the exercise they need. Active 
 muscular exertion, such as running and jumping, is apt 
 to injure older persons, but, in moderation, is good for 
 young people. In excess it is injurious. If a child jumps 
 the rope till she falls down, or another lifts such heavy 
 weights that he sprains his back, or another runs or 
 jumps till he faints away, it is just as wrong as to sit or 
 lounge till the muscles are pale and flabby. Each excess 
 has its penalty. 
 
 Exercise. There are many forms of exercise, but all 
 kinds should be taken out of doors, or with doors and 
 windows open. Rowing, swimming, working in a garden, 
 horseback riding, and light gymnastics, are all good for 
 people who study, or are shut up many hours in stores or 
 offices. A good brisk walk of an hour or two each day is 
 a health-giver and a beautifier. It is within the reach of 
 all, and one of the best ways to keep the body in good con- 
 dition. It brings into play many muscles, stirs the slug- 
 gish blood, drives impure air from the lungs, sends a glow 
 over the skin, stimulates the nerves, and brightens the 
 eyes and causes the brain to act quicker and better. An 
 appreciation of nature adds much pleasure to walking, for 
 when the brain is agreeably employed it gives tone to the 
 whole system. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 157 
 
 Best of Muscles. Rest is as necessary as exercise. 
 Over exertion of the muscles causes aching and weari- 
 ness, and often reacts on the other systems, creating seri- 
 ous disturbances. Athletes and gymnasts who develop 
 their muscles to the fullest extent are not generally long 
 lived, and they often die of heart disease. Their muscu- 
 lar system is developed at the expense of some other sys- 
 tem. No muscle acts on forever. All parts get tired 
 and worn out. To hold the arms straight out from the 
 sides for ten or more minutes gives aching pains, and the 
 arms seem to grow heavy as lead. Digging, running, 
 playing ball, or any form of exercise, when too long con- 
 tinued, becomes torture. Muscles must rest. The rest- 
 ing time for the voluntary ones is generally when we are 
 asleep. The involuntary ones, having a special work to 
 do, rest when they get a chance. The food preparers rest 
 when we are not eating or digesting food. Those con- 
 nected with lungs and heart have to catch rest between 
 breaths and beats. The heart makes a beat and a pause. 
 The pause is the only rest it gets. During sleep it acts 
 slower, and has longer time to rest. 
 
 Diseases of Muscle. Exposure to cold and wet 
 often causes muscular rheumatism, which is an acute pain 
 in the voluntary muscles. Generally a sharp twinge is 
 enough to make a person careful. Rheumatism affects 
 various parts of the body, but is commonest in the neck, 
 where it is called " wry neck," and in the lower part of 
 the back, where it is called " lumbago." An attack of this 
 rheumatism can be prevented by wearing warm clothing, 
 and by care about exposure to weather. 
 
 Getting wet is not injurious to a healthy person, but 
 remaining quiet in wet clothing and shoes is very danger- 
 ous. Working, playing, or dancing till a person is all in 
 a glow and damp with perspiration, then staying in a 
 
158 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 draft, is an almost 
 sure way to take cold. 
 Such a cold may re- 
 sult in acute pains, 
 or in some serious or 
 fatal illness. 
 
 FIG. 79. Fatty Degeneration of Heart Muscle. 1. Nucleus; 2. Fat- 
 like substance. 
 
 The heart, as chief organ of circulation, is apt to be 
 affected by diseases of other organs. Its muscles are sub- 
 ject to several maladies. 
 
 Enlargement of the Heart is an increase of muscu- 
 lar tissue caused by disease, and also by the use of stimu- 
 lants and alcoholic drinks, and by excess of muscular 
 action. It causes pain and death. Generally it can be 
 prevented by temperance. 
 
 Fatty Degeneration of the Heart is an incurable 
 disease. The tissue is changed to a fatty substance. 
 Muscle is contractile; fat is not contractile; and if the 
 latter tissue takes the place of the former, it prevents the 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 159 
 
 beating of the heart and the circulation of blood. Fig. 
 22 shows healthy heart fibres, and Fig. 79 shows fatty 
 degeneration. Imagine what would be the consequence 
 if an order to contract were to be sent down a fibre 
 like that in Fig. 79. It is easy to understand that no 
 nerve impulse in the world could keep a heart beating 
 that was largely turned to fat. Death occurs before the 
 greater part of the muscle is changed. This fatty change 
 also takes place in the muscular coats of blood vessels, 
 and destroys their elasticity. Fatty degeneration is 
 caused by many diseases, and frequently by the use of 
 alcoholic drinks. 
 
 Palpitation of the Heart is an abnormal quickness 
 in beating. It is apt to cause enlargement. Excess of 
 muscular, mental, and moral action, and intemperance 
 in stimulants and alcoholic drinks, are causes of palpita- 
 tion, and may be cured, if not too advanced, by temperate 
 habits. 
 
 FIG. 80. Trichina in Striped Muscle. 
 
 Trichina, or "Flesh- worm Disease." Examine 
 Fig. 80 and notice what is coiled up among the fibres of 
 muscles. They are small worms. They frequently get 
 into the stomachs of people who eat raw or half cooked 
 
160 HYGIENE. 
 
 pork, and then they burrow their way till they reach the 
 muscles. Here they produce symptoms something like 
 typhoid fever. If there are only a few worms, the person 
 recovers after a good deal of suffering, but if there are 
 many, they cause death. The disease may be prevented 
 by never eating pork unless it is perfectly cooked, for 
 heat enough to cook the pork kills the worms. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 161 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Importance of a Healthy Skin. The skin, one of 
 the organs of excretion, must be kept in good condition. 
 
 The perspiratory ducts constantly pour out perspira- 
 tion, the water of which evaporates, leaving the solid 
 parts on the surface. 
 
 The oil ducts give out oil, and the dust in the air sticks 
 to the oil. The waste material and dust stop up the pores, 
 and prevent the escape of moisture, gas, and other waste 
 material that are trying to work their- way outward. 
 This stoppage does great harm, for it throws injurious 
 substances back into the circulation, and the lungs and 
 kidneys, fellow workers of the skin, are overtaxed, and 
 become diseased, trying to get rid of these poisons. 
 
 Baths. The skin should be kept soft and clean by 
 frequent baths. The question of bathing, like that of 
 sleep and diet, is for each one to decide for himself 
 according to his need, but baths should be taken as often 
 as the system will permit without inconvenience. A test 
 of the help or harm of frequent baths is to notice their 
 effects. 
 
 If there is a feeling of warmth, comfort, and exhilara- 
 tion afterward, a bath is beneficial. If there is a feeling 
 of dullness, heaviness, and general misery, something is 
 wrong. There should be a change of hour, of tempera- 
 ture of the water, or of the room, or bathing should be less 
 frequent. Attendant circumstances, not the bath, may 
 be to blame. 
 
 In California, where the climate is so warm, a daily 
 morning bath is good for any but invalids; but in places 
 where the ice must be broken on the water, a sponge or 
 
162 HYGIENE. 
 
 plunge bath is too heroic treatment for ordinary skins. 
 In places where there is much dust, baths also should 
 be frequent. 
 
 Cold water is better for bathing than warm, because 
 warm water opens the pores, and calls the blood to 
 the surface, and there is a danger 'of chill afterwards. 
 Before breakfast is the best time, for then the body is 
 rested and in good condition. The temperature of the 
 room should be comfortable, and the body should be 
 briskly rubbed with a coarse towel so as to cause a glow 
 over the entire surface. 
 
 People who are sensitive to changes of climate, and 
 who chill easily, or who become depressed and languid 
 after an ordinary bath, generally find that adding salt to 
 the water makes them comfortable. Sea bathing has a 
 number of things that make it attractive as a popular exer- 
 cise. The sea water and air are tonic and stimulating, 
 and the surf and sunshine are added attractions. 
 
 Persons with delicate skins have to be careful about 
 using hard water, that is, water containing too much 
 lime, and they are also compelled to protect themselves 
 carefully against the action of wind and sun. 
 
 Chaps. Chapped lips and hands are caused by the 
 skin drying till it cracks. This is caused by a hot or cold 
 dry wind. A preventive is to rub on the skin a mixture 
 of four parts of rose water and one part of glycerine, or 
 some other oily compound that forms a coat or protec- 
 tion for the surface. 
 
 Cosmetics. The practice of using paint and powder 
 for beautifying the complexion is one of the dirtiest and 
 most unwholesome tricks of civilized women. A painted 
 face never deceives. The red paint a greasy Indian 
 streaks on his copper-colored cheeks, and the rouge some 
 women put on theirs, are equally beautiful to the wearer. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 163 
 
 If paint and powder could be counted merely as dirt, 
 they might be passed by as signs of bad breeding, or 
 attempts to cover up some physical blemish; but they are 
 not so harmless as dirt. Even compounds as innocent 
 as starch fill the pores of the skin and throw back waste 
 materials into the circulation. Many cosmetics, as skin 
 " beautifiers " are called, are made from poisonous min- 
 erals, such as arsenic and lead. These poisons enter the 
 pores, pass to the blood through the absorbents, produc- 
 ing serious and sometimes fatal results. Many foolish 
 women have ruined ordinary complexions by the use of 
 powders and lotions. Their faces have become rough 
 and covered with blotches and pimples. 
 
 It is every one's duty to look as pretty as possible, but 
 made up faces are not beautiful. The best complexion is 
 made by good respiration, digestion, and circulation, 
 which are the results of proper food, sleep, and exercise. 
 Nature's cosmetics cost but little. If the skin looks 
 shiny or oily, as it is apt to do in warm weather, the 
 addition of a few drops of ammonia to the bathing water 
 makes an improvement. Ammonia is good to add to the 
 water of a full bath, as it removes oil and makes the skin 
 fresher and sweeter. If the skin is dry and scaly the 
 rose water and glycerine lotion restores its softness. 
 
 The practice either of dyeing, or of oiling, the hair is 
 not so common as formerly. Hair dyes are injurious for 
 the same reasons that cosmetics are. Bleaching the hair 
 is also injurious. Besides destroying the gloss and soft- 
 ness of the hair, the bleaching material is liable to be 
 absorbed by the skin. 
 
 Lead Poisoning. The readiness with which the 
 pores of the skin take up materials is shown in many 
 cases of poisoning. Painters who get white lead from 
 
 paint on their hands are often attacked with a serious 
 n-p 
 
164 HYGIENE. 
 
 illness called "painter's colic." They are also subject 
 to a form of paralysis, caused by lead poison. People 
 who handle lead much in any form are liable to be 
 poisoned through the pores of the skin. 
 
 Poison Oak. Poison oak and poison ivy also act 
 through the absorbent system. Contact with the growing 
 plant is generally necessary to poison a person, but some 
 people are so susceptible that they are poisoned by the 
 pollen of the blossom blown on them by the wind. Tar 
 soap has been found to be a simple remedy for the poi- 
 soning by California poison oak. 
 
 Clothing. Besides being kept clean, the skin should 
 be protected by proper clothing. Loose, light garments, 
 thin in summer and thick in winter, are best. Flannel 
 should be worn next the body at all seasons, if possible, 
 to protect against sudden changes. For winter use flan- 
 nel seems absolutely necessary. Clothing keeps in the 
 warmth of the body. The nap of woolen goods and the 
 fur of animals tangle the air among their fibres, and this 
 film of air forms an extra coat for repelling the cold. 
 
 In California, where the difference is great between day 
 and night temperature, much care should be taken in 
 regard to warm clothing. Catarrh is prevalent on this 
 coast, and much of it could be prevented by wearing flan- 
 nel next to the body all the year around and having 
 fires in the houses mornings and nights during foggy or 
 damp seasons. 
 
 Since offensive waste material is being constantly ex- 
 haled as perspiration, it is necessary frequently to change 
 clothing, both for health and sweetness. Soiled garments 
 are offensive in every way. The same clothing that is 
 worn during the day should not be worn at night. Fresh, 
 loose garments should be worn at night, and the covering 
 on the bed should be light and warm. Blankets are 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 165 
 
 better in this respect than quilts and comforts. Respi- 
 ration and circulation being slower during sleep, night 
 air generally cooler than day air, and the body not able 
 to resist the effects of exposure when the brain is asleep, 
 it is important to have night clothing warm and of the 
 best material for protection. 
 
 Colds. A change in the weather, keeping on damp or 
 wet clothing, riding in the wind, or sitting in a draft 
 when warm, chills the surface of the skin, closes the 
 pores, checks the perspiration, and gives what is called a 
 cold. Care and proper clothing will generally prevent 
 colds. 
 
 Taking cold depends very much on the general con- 
 dition of the body and mind. If a person has been 
 overtaxed, is addicted to alcoholic drinks or other intem- 
 perance, or is under severe mental strain, he is less able 
 to resist exposure than one who is in good mental and 
 physical condition. 
 
 The intimate connection of the mucous membrane of 
 different parts of the body is shown by the effects of a 
 cold. A cold in the head causes inflammation and swell- 
 ing of the mucous membrane of the nose, and so dulls 
 the sense of smell. Articles of food are tasteless, mainly 
 because their odor cannot be perceived. The inflam- 
 mation extends to the lining of the throat, and causes 
 sore throat, and may go to the bronchial tubes and 
 lungs. The tube that extends to the throat from the ear 
 is closed, and air cannot get into the middle ear, so there 
 is dullness of hearing. The lining of the eyelids is also 
 affected, and the eyes become watery and often blood- 
 shot. The mucous membrane that extends to the air 
 cells of the bones is swollen, and causes headache. 
 
 As different systems sympathize with one another, the 
 difficulty may extend to the stomach, and a slight cold 
 
166 HYGIENE. 
 
 is something that ought to be taken care of and cured, 
 to prevent serious results. 
 
 Corns are a hardening of the cuticle, and result from 
 wearing too loose or too tight shoes. 
 
 Skin Diseases. Skin diseases, as they are called, 
 are generally the result of disorder of some other system 
 than the skin. When the skin is pimply, it is well to 
 find out if digestion and circulation are not at fault. 
 
 Burns. Burns and blisters, if small, are easily cured 
 by keeping water on the part burned. If a hand or a 
 finger is burned, keep constantly dipping it in water, or 
 pouring water on it till all pain leaves. Then put on a 
 bit of plaster to keep poisonous substances from reaching 
 the circulation. 
 
 An extensive burn is more serious, and if it covers 
 much surface is apt to cause inflammation of the lungs. 
 In this case, the work of the skin is thrown on the lungs, 
 and they become congested from overwork. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 167 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 
 
 Food is anything taken into the body to build up 
 tissues and keep up the required heat of the system. 
 Generally it means only the liquid and solid material 
 that enters the alimentary canal, but its largest usage 
 includes also air taken into the lungs. In this chapter 
 only liquids and solids are considered. 
 
 Compounds. In order to know the action of food it 
 is necessary to know something about its composition. 
 Each kind of food is made of a number of substances, 
 and is what is called a compound. A compound is some- 
 thing composed of simpler materials, called elements. 
 Wood, rocks, and water, bone and all the tissues of the 
 body, and all food materials, are compounds. 
 
 Elements. An element is something that cannot be 
 divided into two different substances. Water is a com- 
 pound of two elements, called oxygen and hydrogen, 
 and a chemist can separate it into its elements, but he 
 cannot take oxygen or hydrogen and divide them into 
 two other substances. They are already in the simplest 
 form possible. There are altogether about sixty-five ele- 
 ments, and all the substances in the world are composed 
 of two or more of these. About twenty elements are in 
 common use, and the rest are rare. About sixteen are 
 found in the body. 
 
 Changes. When a compound is decomposed, as wood 
 and coal are when burning, its elements are set free and 
 they unite with other elements to form new compounds. 
 Compounds are destroyed, but elements are indestructi- 
 ble. Such changes are going on all the time inside as 
 
168 HYGIENE. 
 
 well as outside of the body. When we walk or work or 
 think, parts of our muscles and nerves are broken up by 
 the effort, and new products, called waste material are 
 formed. 
 
 Whenever a compound is broken up and new ones are 
 made from its elements, heat is produced. Heat is not 
 an element. It is called a force. The heat produced by 
 burning coal makes the steam that drives an engine. 
 The heat made by rapidly burning wood warms our 
 houses. But when things are broken up slowly the heat 
 is less, and there is no fire. You know how hard it is to 
 get warmed by a slow-burning fire. Blow it that is, 
 drive in the oxygen and then there is plenty of heat. 
 
 Oxidation. Wood decomposes in the woods, produc- 
 ing heat, but it takes so long a time to rot away that the 
 heat is never felt. Iron rusts in the damp air. You can 
 scrape off the rust from locks and hinges, and if they are 
 exposed a long time they break easily; that is, they are 
 burned up. When people wish to keep iron work from 
 rusting they coat it over with paint. It was oxygen 
 that made the fire burn brighter, and it is oxygen that 
 rusts or burns up the iron slowly; and so ordinary rust- 
 ing, decaying, or burning, is called oxidation. 
 
 Something very much like this takes place in our 
 bodies. Did you ever think what keeps you warm? It 
 is the oxygen burning up the tissues of the body, and the 
 tiny fires are all over wherever blood carries oxygen, and 
 food builds up tissue. If wood is not added to the fire 
 it soon burns out, and nothing is left but ashes. If food 
 is not taken in regularly, the body dies. Suppose a per- 
 son can get no food. For a little while the small fires 
 go on till all the fat of the body is used as fuel, then the 
 muscles waste till there is little left but skin and bone, 
 and the person starves to death. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 169 
 
 After a person is full grown he changes very little in 
 weight, although every day he eats several pounds of 
 food. The food goes for fuel, for no matter how the 
 weather changes, the body temperature must be kept at 
 about 99, or serious consequences result. 
 
 Muscular Force. If a person works hard he eats 
 more than when he is idle. That means that some of 
 the food he has eaten is changed to another force, called 
 muscular force. An engine draws a train because of heat 
 force, made by burning up wood or coal. A horse draws 
 a wagon, or a man carries a load, because of a force called 
 muscular energy, made in his body by burning up food. 
 This force is sometimes called " work power." 
 
 The body contains fats, a number of different com- 
 pounds, like muscle and blood, and some mineral sub- 
 stances, like lime, soda, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus, 
 and in order to keep working it must get a constant 
 supply of the same substances from food. Oxygen unites 
 with tissues and changes them to simpler compounds. 
 
 Some of these new compounds are exceedingly harm- 
 ful. These must be carried away, and new compounds 
 must come immediately to supply the places of worn out 
 tissues, or muscles and nerves are poisoned and starved 
 and the person becomes diseased. This is why we eat 
 and breathe. No food is the same as the part of the body 
 it renews, but the different foods must contain the ele- 
 ments needed by all parts of the system. 
 
 Vegetables and meat are taken, ground up, rolled 
 around, dissolved, and changed, and their elements pulled 
 apart and rearranged so that they are no longer meat and 
 vegetables when they reach the tissues, but a new mate- 
 rial. Each tissue picks out from this substance in the 
 blood what it needs and lets the rest go on. A diet that 
 contains many compounds is best for supplying all needs. 
 
170 HYGIENE. 
 
 Kinds of Pood. Food can be divided into two prin- 
 cipal kinds: 
 
 Inorganic. Water and other minerals. 
 
 Organic. 1. Starch; 2. Fats; 3. Proteids, or Albumin- 
 oids. 
 
 Inorganic Foods. Inorganic foods are those which 
 are not derived from any living thing; for example, lime, 
 salt, water. Organic foods, as vegetables and meat, are 
 those that are obtained from living things. The inor- 
 ganic foods are generally taken in as liquids, or as part 
 of organic material. Lime, which forms an important 
 part of the bones, is taken partly in drinking water and 
 partly in combination with various foods. 
 
 Salt. Salt is added to different foods in its natural 
 condition. It is a necessity. Even wild animals, like 
 deer and buffalo, go long distances to find places where 
 salt springs have dried up, and they lick the ground for 
 the salt. Such places are called " salt licks." 
 
 When people are deprived of salt they soon become 
 diseased, and the skin is especially disordered. (See 
 "Scurvy" in Glossary.) Salt is taken as a flavoring to 
 many foods and improves the taste of most kinds. The 
 elements that form it are broken up, and one of them 
 unites with some other substances to form gastric juice. 
 
 Water. Water makes a part of every tissue, and 
 forms a large portion of all the liquids and solids taken 
 into the system, so that a person can live longer on water 
 alone than on solid food alone. It is given off from the 
 body with all excretions, especially of the kidneys and 
 skin. A good quantity of pure water used daily goes far 
 toward keeping a person well. 
 
 Pure Water. Absolutely pure water is very rare and 
 it is insipid. Distilled water is pure. Rain water that 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 171 
 
 has just fallen comes next in purity. It is, however, 
 only pure in the country, for in cities and towns the rain 
 water in coming down washes dust, germs, and gases 
 from the air, and is far from pure. All water was origin- 
 ally rain water. Ordinary drinking waters contain 
 various minerals, as lime, soda, sulphur, or iron. They 
 get these materials from the earth, through which they 
 seep, and most people prefer water that has some taste 
 of mineral. 
 
 Impurities in Water. Great care should be taken 
 to have drinking water free from all impurities. It is 
 often polluted by the drainage of kitchens, stables, or 
 sewers. Limpid and clear-looking water is not always 
 pure, for organic matter, which is most harmful, is often 
 in solution, or in such fine particles that it cannot be 
 seen ; while muddy water that leaves a sediment on stand- 
 ing, though more offensive to look at, is less objectionable 
 to drink. Unless the source of the water is above sus- 
 picion the water should be filtered and boiled. 
 
 Water is the only fluid needed by the tissues. When- 
 ever any other liquid except milk or water is used for a 
 drink, it is either absolutely injurious, as alcoholic drinks, 
 or is a mixture of good and bad, as tea and coffee. 
 
 Organic Food. Organic food is divided into three 
 classes the proteids, the fats, and the starches. The 
 principal work of proteids is to build all the important 
 tissues, and of the fats and starches to cause the warmth 
 of the body. Proteids are also called albuminoids, because 
 they all bear a resemblance, in use and characteristics, to 
 albumen, the chief of the tribe. 
 
 Proteids. The proteids all have the following char- 
 acteristics: They harden, or coagulate, under certain cir- 
 cumstances, some on exposure to heat, some on exposure 
 to air, and some on exposure to certain poisons. They 
 
172 HYGIENE. 
 
 contain a substance called nitrogen; they are complex 
 compounds; they easily decompose; they are bad odored 
 when they decay; they are all tissue builders. 
 
 The principal proteids are albumen, fibrin, gluten, and 
 casein. 
 
 The common sources of albumen are eggs and wheat. 
 The white of eggs is nearly pure albumen, and this is the 
 reason why eggs are such important and nourishing 
 articles of diet. They have been called the perfect food, 
 because they contain all classes of food albumen in the 
 white, and fat and sugar in the yolk. 
 
 Fibrin is found in blood and the fibres of lean meat, and 
 the principal fibrin foods are beef, mutton, pork, lamb, 
 veal, poultry, game birds, fish, and shell fish. They vary 
 in nutritive qualities and digestibility. 
 
 Gluten is the sticky part of wheat flour. It is also 
 found in oats, peas, and beans. It is so much like fibrin 
 that it is called vegetable fibrin. 
 
 Casein is the curd of milk; it also forms a part of peas 
 and beans. 
 
 p a ts. Fats are taken into the body as fat meat, but- 
 ter, milk, animal and vegetable oils, and oily nuts and 
 seeds. 
 
 Starches. The starch class gets its name from one of 
 its members, starch, which is used in laundries, and from 
 corn-starch, which is used for making puddings; but 
 sugars and gums also belong to this class. They are put 
 together because they are similar in action, and gum and 
 starch can be changed into sugar. This change goes on 
 outside and inside the body. Starches are generally 
 formed by plants, but some are made by animals, as 
 sugar of milk and glycogen. Starch is found in most 
 grains, unripe fruits, and in vegetables. Sugars come 
 from sugar cane, maple trees, beets, and some other 
 plants. Gums exude from many trees, as from peach and 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 173 
 
 plum trees, but are not of much use as common articles of 
 food. Starch is changed to sugar and sugar to fat by the 
 chemistry of the body. 
 
 Mixed Diet. Each class of food contains some of the 
 materials needed in the body. No class eaten alone will 
 keep the system in health. A mixed diet has been 
 found to be the most beneficial. If albuminoids, fats, 
 starch foods, salt, and the right drinks are used, it does 
 not so much matter which of the many articles contain- 
 ing them are eaten as how they are cooked and how 
 they are eaten. In ordinary meals the classes of food 
 are intimately connected, as in oatmeal and milk, pork 
 and beans, bread and butter, meat and potatoes, crackers 
 and cheese. 
 
 Good Bread. Bread is one of the staple articles of 
 proteid food. When it is made of coarse flour, it is more 
 nutritious than when made of finely bolted flour, because 
 much of the best tissue-making material is sifted out of 
 the white flour. Graham or bran bread is the best bread 
 of all. It should, however, be home-made of sweet bran 
 flour, for too much of the baker's graham bread is made 
 of a little bran mixed with inferior or spoiled flour, and 
 sweetened to make it pass. 
 
 Oatmeal and cracked wheat are deservedly popular 
 foods, for they are good tissue makers. 
 
 The Best Meats. Of meats, beef and mutton are the 
 most nourishing, and agree with the greatest number of 
 people. Pork is generally harder to digest. Lamb, veal, 
 and the meat of young animals are more tender, but they 
 are not so easily digested. 
 
 Fish contains more water than other meats. Shell fish 
 are rather to be counted luxuries than articles of ordi- 
 nary diet. They are generally easy to digest. Cheese is 
 a nutritive food for people with whom it agrees, but it is 
 
174 HYGIENE. 
 
 so compact that it is difficult for the digestive juices to 
 penetrate it. It should be well chewed. 
 
 Beef Tea. Beef tea is not exactly an article of food; 
 that is, it cannot take the place of regular diet for any 
 length of time. When made from meat that is finely 
 chopped and left to stand in cold water for some time, it 
 forms a refreshing drink, and is good, in connection with 
 other foods, for delicate people and invalids. It is a good 
 drink to drive out chill, and to relieve a sense of fatigue 
 and faintness. 
 
 Butter. Butter, and fat of meat are the usual forms 
 of fat food. Many people, whose taste rejects fat meat, 
 do not get enough fat material, because of a popular 
 notion that butter must be eaten sparingly. The system 
 needs a great deal of fatty food, and butter is one of the 
 most palatable articles of its class. Let the children put 
 the butter thick on their bread if they crave it. Of 
 course, an unnatural appetite for this, as for any food, 
 should be checked. Cream is a good fat food. 
 
 Olive Oil. Oil of olives deserves to be used much 
 more than it is. When this is made of olives and is not 
 adulterated, it is sweet and palatable; but, too often, it is 
 mixed with other oils that spoil its taste, and cause it 
 soon to become rancid. 
 
 Vegetable Diet. Some believe that the diet should 
 be confined to vegetables, and that all the classes of food 
 are found in plants. It is true that all classes of food 
 are found in plants, but frequently they are connected 
 with hard plant fibre in such a manner that it takes a 
 larger bulk of material to satisfy hunger, and a much 
 longer time for the food to digest. Meats contain a larger 
 amount of proteids and fats to the pound than do vege- 
 tables. They are a concentrated food, easily obtained, 
 easily prepared, easily digested, and in common use. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 175 
 
 Some articles of diet, harmless in themselves, become 
 injurious if taken together. For example, lobster and 
 milk, or cherries and milk have been known to produce 
 dangerous illness. 
 
 Fruits. Fruits are very popular and very important 
 substances, that cannot readily be put with ordinary 
 classes of food. They contain sugar, water, and some 
 inorganic materials, but they are not eaten so much for 
 these things as for the vegetable acids and flavors they 
 contain. They are necessaries in warm climates. 
 
 Spices and Condiments. There are a number of 
 articles used with foods that are not in themselves either 
 meat or tissue makers. They are spices and flavors, and 
 are called condiments; for example, pepper, mustard, 
 horse-radish, vanilla, lemon, and the different herbs 
 used in dressing meats, as thyme and sage. They stim- 
 ulate the flow of digestive juices, and make food taste 
 better, and, no doubt, used with moderation, are bene- 
 ficial. Used in excess they blunt the sense of taste, and 
 help to cause dyspepsia. 
 
 Stimulants. Substances like tea, coffee, and alcohol, 
 although differing greatly in results, are materials taken 
 not for their food principles, but because they nerve up, 
 or stimulate, the system. They belong to a class of sub- 
 stances called stimulants. 
 
 A stimulant is something that, when taken in the 
 body, excites the nerves unnaturally, and its effects are 
 shown by various lively mental or physical actions. 
 Ordinary objects stir the nerves in a natural manner; 
 as, for example, color excites the optic nerve, odors stir 
 the olfactory nerve, and cold and heat affect nerves of gen- 
 eral sensation; but stimulants cause an over excitement, 
 and use up, or waste, force. They act like a spur on a 
 tired horse, and often tax the system beyond endurance. 
 
176 HYGIENE. 
 
 Tea and coffee are harmless stimulants, if taken in 
 moderation by grown people. The nerves of children 
 are so easily excited, and the bodies of children are form- 
 ing so rapidly, that they need all their nerve impulse for 
 the purposes of nutrition and growth, and it is injurious 
 for children to use tea or coffee, or any other nerve stim- 
 ulant. 
 
 If the nerves are kept over excited by foods and 
 drinks, or improper living, a person becomes what is 
 called nervous; that is, he is irritable and ill tempered, 
 and has, at no time, proper self-control. A good deal of 
 the weakness and violent temper of people is due to the 
 use of poor food and too many stimulants. 
 
 Coffee and Tea. Coffee and tea both contain the 
 same stimulating principle, which is called caffeine or 
 theine. 
 
 Tea is the dried leaves of the tea plant that grows in 
 China and Japan, and great care is taken in its prepara- 
 tion. Pure tea contains other substances besides caffeine, 
 but it is for this principle that it is used. Much of the 
 cheap tea is a mixture of fresh tea leaves, old leaves that 
 have been drawn for making tea, and the dried leaves of 
 native plants. 
 
 Coffee is the seed of a plant that grows in tropical 
 countries in Asia, America, Arabia, and Persia. The 
 seed is roasted. Coffee, as usually prepared with milk 
 and sugar, becomes a nourishing drink. 
 
 The stimulating principle of tea and coffee makes these 
 drinks restful and refreshing for many grown persons. 
 If they produce no injurious effects, such as indigestion, 
 or irritability, or wakefulness, they are harmless. They 
 are in common daily use with a great majority of people 
 in civilized countries. Each grown person should judge 
 for himself whether he can safely use them. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 177 
 
 Soldiers, after long marches, and other men exposed to 
 extreme heat or cold, have proved that coffee is a most 
 beneficial drink. But used too often, or too strong, tea 
 and coffee are causes of much of the minor misery of the 
 world in the shape of bad temper, headache, dyspepsia, 
 and general irritability. 
 
 Chocolate and cocoa contain a small amount of the 
 stimulating principle of coffee, but they are more nutri- 
 tious, because they also contain some fats and proteids. 
 
 Condition of Food. The ease with which food di- 
 gests depends very much upon its condition and prepara- 
 tion. All meats should be so fresh that there is about 
 them no odor of decay, and all vegetables should be crisp 
 and unwilted. 
 
 Dried and salted, smoked, or pickled meats are not so 
 nutritious as fresh, because the salt and smoke have hard- 
 ened their tissues. Even a great deal of cooking cannot 
 make them as desirable as freshly killed meat. 
 
 Canned meats form a good substitute for the fresh 
 article, if good meat is put in good cans and the meat is 
 not allowed to stand in the cans till it spoils after it is 
 opened. Cheap canned goods should be looked upon 
 with suspicion. 
 
 Much discredit has been brought on this useful kind 
 of food by unprincipled canners, who use spoiled or im- 
 pure meats, or tin adulterated with lead, or let solder fall 
 in the cans, or cook the meat in copper vessels. 
 
 The acids of the meat act on the lead and copper of 
 the can and kettle and on the solder, and dissolve enough 
 of these poisons off into the food to cause serious illness 
 and sometimes death. 
 
 This is the cause of some of the cases of poisoning 
 that occur from eating tinned meat. ,0ne other cause is 
 that people sometimes allow open cans of meat to stand 
 
178 HYGIENE. 
 
 till the meat undergoes a first stage of decay, in which it 
 acts as a poison. Canned foods should be emptied into 
 earthen or glass dishes as soon as the cans are opened. 
 
 The strange thing about this stage of decay is that it 
 forms a most active poison, and yet no change in the meat 
 can be detected by the senses. Stewed chicken*, and indeed 
 all kinds of meat are liable so to change if kept too long. 
 
 Cooking. The object of the various ways of cooking 
 is, besides tempting the appetite, to prepare articles so 
 that they remain as short a time as possible in the food 
 canal. An overworked stomach, like anything else over- 
 worked, soon becomes feeble and finds fault with every 
 exertion. Its grumbling is our pain. 
 
 Cooking prepares food for the quick action of the 
 digestive juices. All foods, except ripe fruits and melons, 
 are improved by cooking, for this process softens the 
 fibres of vegetables, breaks apart the coating of starch 
 granules, softens the granules themselves, softens fibres 
 and fats of meat, and loosens their connective tissue. 
 
 Eggs digest best when soft-boiled, poached, or scrambled. 
 If they are boiled from five to fifteen minutes they are 
 very difficult to digest, but when boiled half an hour or 
 more they are easily digested. Frying is apt to fill their 
 pores with a heated fat that is exceedingly hard to digest. 
 
 Roasting is the best way of preparing meat. If meat 
 is put in a hot oven, the heat immediately coagulates the 
 albumen on the outside, and this keeps all the nutriment 
 in and the meat cooks in its own juices. Broiling acts in 
 much the same way. 
 
 Boiling dissolves out the best part of the meat and 
 leaves the rest tasteless fibres. If meat is boiled, it 
 should afterward stand in the liquor in which it was 
 boiled, in order to absorb the juices that have boiled out. 
 Frying meat is objectionable, for the same reason that 
 frying eggs is. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 179 
 
 Roast pork takes longer to digest than any other meat; 
 but pig's-feet, boiled and eaten with vinegar, digest the 
 quickest of ordinary meats, and this shows that the kind 
 of food is not as important as the way in which it is pre- 
 pared. 
 
 Cooking changes some of the starch into sugar, and 
 softens simple starch, so that it is easily acted on by 
 digestive juices. For this reason some unripe fruits that 
 would give pain if eaten raw, can be comfortably eaten 
 when cooked. 
 
 There is another forcible reason for having food well 
 cooked. Many insects lay their eggs on leaves of plants, 
 and most animals are infested with parasites. A parasite 
 is some inferior creature, like a worm, that lives in the 
 food canal or the muscles of a higher animal, and feeds 
 by absorption on the digested food of the canal or on the 
 lymph and plasma between the fibres of muscle. Many 
 of these degraded animals get into the human system in 
 our food and drink. Beef, pork, mutton, fish, and game 
 are infested by various parasites. 
 
 One of the most common parasites is the tapeworm. 
 It is called so because it is flat. One kind comes from 
 pork; another from beef. They fasten themselves to the 
 walls of the food canal and absorb the food that would go 
 to make tissues, and thus they cause sickness, and even 
 death. 
 
 There is another worm found in pork. If uncooked 
 pork that contains these worms is eaten, the worms are 
 freed from the meat by the digestive juices when the food 
 is digested, and they bore their way through the walls of 
 the canal and bury themselves in the muscles (Fig. 80). 
 
 Intestinal worms, that trouble children, have only one 
 way of getting into the body, and that is through the 
 mouth with food and drink. Cooking food thoroughly, 
 and boiling water, will kill the eggs and the parasites. 
 12 p 
 
180 HYGIENE. 
 
 Different Tastes. There; is a great difference among 
 people as to proper and improper articles of diet. Many 
 cannot eat veal or lamb, fresh fish, or crabs and lobsters. 
 It is not a matter of taste .with them, but these foods 
 make them sick. Many other kinds of food have injuri- 
 ous effects, but are liked or disliked from custom or indi- 
 vidual taste, such as limes, olives, fresh figs, tomatoes, 
 olive oil. 
 
 Custom has much to do with taste in food. The peo- 
 ple of Rome are said to prefer their bread a little sour. 
 Some persons prefer meat that is tainted; some eat cheese 
 from which others turn with disgust. Sour, spoiled, and 
 foul odored food cannot be as safe and nourishing as 
 sweet and fresh material; but apart from this the matter 
 of individual taste and comfort must guide people in the 
 selection of diet. 
 
 Occupation. Occupation has much to do with the di- 
 gestion of foods. A farmer or other out of door worker can 
 eat salt pork and potatoes daily without inconvenience, 
 because his muscular exercise, in the outside air, causes 
 his organs to work well. The oxygen burns up the fat 
 and turns it to energy or work. A student or book- 
 keeper or storekeeper, shut up in the house and fed the 
 same diet, would be apt to get dyspepsia. 
 
 Seasons. Food should be changed to suit the season. 
 In the winter, when the outside air is so cold that it is 
 constantly stealing away the warmth of the body, more 
 fuel food must be taken. That is the time for fats and 
 starches and much meat. In the summer, on the other 
 hand, one does not need so much warmth. A lighter meat 
 diet and the cooling juices of fruits are needed. 
 , The differences between the diet of different nations is 
 a good indication of the differences of climate. In the 
 Arctic regions . it is necessary to eat much fat. The 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 181 
 
 Esquimau must make a little furnace of his body for 
 burning up all the blubber he can get to keep from freez- 
 ing to death. The equatorial man needs to cool himself 
 with the juices of limes and oranges, and eats but little 
 fat. 
 
 The different classes of food are digested and absorbed 
 in different parts of the food canal. 
 
 Mouth Digestion. The saliva of the mouth, if well 
 mixed with starches, changes them to sugar, and this is 
 absorbed in the stomach. If they are not well mixed 
 the gastric juice stops further digestion of starch and 
 the food passes on to the intestine, where it is digested 
 by intestinal juices. 
 
 Stomach Digestion. Proteids are dissolved and 
 absorbed in the stomach, if they have been well ground 
 up, if no other substance interferes with their digestion, 
 and if the stomach is not overloaded. If they are not 
 digested in the stomach, they also pass on to the intes- 
 tinal juices. 
 
 Intestinal Digestion. Fats are merely broken up 
 and melted on the way to the intestines, but not made 
 fine enough to seep through the walls of the alimentary 
 canal. They are digested and absorbed in the intestines. 
 If more fat is eaten than is needed for immediate heat 
 and motive force, it is stored up as yellow masses among 
 the tissues of different parts of the body. The starch 
 foods are also changed to fat. 
 
 Liver Digestion. The liver has the power of con- 
 verting all kinds of food into an animal sugar, called 
 glycogen, and this remains in the liver till needed, or goes 
 among the tissues, and is changed to fat, and is used or 
 stored up according to the requirements of the system. 
 
 Regularity in Eating. Food should be taken reg- 
 
182 HYGIENE. 
 
 ularly. If the habit of eating between meals is formed, 
 the stomach gets no time to rest. Its time for rest and 
 re-creating its tissue is when no food is being digested. 
 Many delicate people are not able to eat enough at one 
 meal to keep them till the next. They should have more 
 than three meals daily, but the hours of eating should be 
 regular. Much depends on the articles eaten. A hearty 
 meal of vegetables and meat will last longer, and give 
 better results in energy and thought, than a light meal 
 of grains and fruits. 
 
 Adulteration. An adulteration is a cheap substance 
 added to a good material, in order that dishonest persons 
 may make more money. The cheap stuff costs much 
 less than the good article, and the mixture is sold for the 
 same price as the pure material. 
 
 Nearly all articles of food, such as milk, tea, coffee, 
 sugar, flour, pepper, mustard, are adulterated. Some- 
 times the base material does no great harm, as chicory 
 added to coffee; but in other cases the cheaper article is 
 directly injurious, as vinegar made from mineral acids, 
 sugar or flour mixed with clay. The clay can be detected 
 in sugar, because it cannot melt. Powdered sugar is 
 seldom pure. 
 
 How Digestibility of Foods was Learned. You 
 
 may be curious to know how foods were classified and 
 how the different action of the organs and juices was 
 learned. It is partly a matter of experience, of eating 
 the article and noticing its effect; but that is a slow 
 and limited process. Many experiments have been 
 made on dogs and other lower animals. 
 
 The most satisfactory of these experiments was made 
 on a man who had a gunshot wound in his stomach. The 
 wound healed, and left an opening about four fifths of 
 an inch across, over which a little flap of mucous mem- 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 183 
 
 brane hung. This little curtain could be moved aside, 
 and the action of gastric juice on different articles 
 noticed. The condition of substances entering the stom- 
 ach from the gullet, after being acted upon by the saliva 
 alone, could also be noticed, and thus the uses of both 
 the saliva and the gastric juice could be determined. 
 The effect of irritants and unfriendly substances was 
 also observed. The man was a Canadian, named Alexis 
 St. Martin, and the study of his stomach was made by 
 Dr. Beaumont in 1822. 
 
 Good health depends upon good digestion, and good 
 digestion depends on the proper kind, amount, and con- 
 dition of food, and the healthy action of the food canal. 
 The great aim of digestion is to get the food dissolved 
 and absorbed quickly, and anything that interferes with 
 digestive action is liable to cause disease. 
 
 Bad teeth, too little of the digestive juices, or such 
 juices of a poor quality, and inflammation of the mucous 
 membrane, are the principal troubles of the food canal. 
 They are caused generally by carelessness, by eating too 
 much, by improper and badly prepared food, by indi- 
 gestible fruits and vegetables in hot weather, rich and 
 highly spiced food, and by alcoholic drinks. Liver and 
 stomach troubles are to blame for many of the diseases 
 of other organs. 
 
 A few things need be remembered in order to under- 
 stand the liability of the food canal to injury, and the 
 reason other organs are affected by its diseases: 
 
 1 . The destination of food, and the necessity of having 
 good food and no injurious material. 
 
 2. The delicacy of the mucous membrane, and its 
 number of blood vessels and glands. 
 
 3. The microscopic size of glands and villi and lac- 
 teals. 
 
 4. That the liver is the first place to which the food 
 
184 HYGIENE. 
 
 goes from the stomach, and the changes produced by that 
 gland. 
 
 5. The nature of irritation and inflammation. 
 
 The Teeth. The teeth are the first organs connected 
 with the preparation of food. They should grind all foods 
 to the finest pulp, so as to have the particles small and 
 the saliva well mixed with them. If food is eaten and 
 swallowed slowly there is little danger of overcrowding 
 the stomach, for as it goes down gradually it is dissolved 
 and absorbed, and soon the appetite is satisfied. Bolting 
 food hurries down more than the stomach needs, and 
 packs it in so fast that the stomach is stupefied and can- 
 not protest against the amount. 
 
 In order to have the teeth work well they should be 
 clean and all cavities be kept well filled. Particles of 
 food are apt to crowd between them and cause decay, 
 and decayed teeth make the breath offensive, and pro- 
 duce much suffering. Brushing the teeth with clean 
 water after each meal is a good habit. The use of gritty 
 tooth powders should be avoided, as they scratch the 
 enamel. 
 
 Hot or very cold foods cause the enamel to crack, and 
 when the enamel protector is injured, the softer dentine 
 is more readily destroyed by acids of the mouth and food. 
 Tobacco makes the teeth yellow, and the breath offensive. 
 Care of the teeth, and slowness in chewing and swallow- 
 ing, are the first steps toward good digestion. 
 
 Mucous Membrane. The thinness of the upper 
 layer of mucous membrane allows the dissolved food to 
 pass through readily, but it also allows injurious articles 
 to pass .quickly through to the delicate vessels below, 
 and consequently mucous membrane is liable to get out 
 of order if not well treated. 
 
 Pain is not always the first warning of a disordered 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 
 
 185 
 
 mucous membrane. As in a cold the whole lining of the 
 air passages is affected, so in derangements of the lining 
 of the food canal all parts may sympathize; and it often 
 follows that the covering of the tongue is an indication 
 of the condition of parts that cannot be seen, and this is 
 the reason the doctor first looks at a patient's tongue. 
 A furred tongue is a tongue having a thick, whitish coat, 
 and this shows that some part out of sight is disordered. 
 It is often connected with a bad taste in the mouth. 
 
 ARTICLES OF DIET TO AVOID. 
 
 Underdone meat. 
 Stale meat. 
 Stale canned meat. 
 Cheap canned meat. 
 Stale vegetables. 
 Kept over cold meats and vege- 
 tables. 
 
 Unripe raw fruits. 
 Over ripe raw fruits. 
 Very sour vinegar. 
 Sugar that will not melt. 
 Candy that does not melt easily. 
 
 Very green pickles. 
 
 Hard-boiled eggs. 
 
 Boiled shreddy meat. 
 
 Half burned meat. 
 
 Sour bread. 
 
 Bread or cake that tastes of soda.' 
 
 Fried foods. ' 
 
 All alcoholic drinks. 
 
 Lobster and milk. 
 
 Cherries and milk. 
 
 Anything that tastes musty. 
 
 Hot bread or biscuit. 
 
 HABITS TO AVOID. 
 
 Eating too fast. 
 
 Talking of disagreeable or wor- 
 rying topics at the table. 
 
 Eating too much or too little. 
 
 Eating wrong articles. 
 
 Drinking unboiled water, and 
 eating much fruit in cholera 
 seasons. 
 
 Tasting unknown articles. 
 
 Laughing violently while eat- 
 ing. 
 
 Half chewing food. 
 
 Drinking much while eating. 
 
 Drinking very hot or very cold 
 water. 
 
186 HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 
 ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
 
 General Effects. A stimulant is something taken 
 into the system that excites unnatural and generally 
 rapid action of one or more of its organs. A narcotic is 
 something that, in small doses, relieves pain and pro- 
 duces sleep; in larger doses causes profound sleep, or 
 lethargy, and often convulsions; and in extreme doses 
 produces death. 
 
 Stimulants and narcotics are classed as drugs, and as 
 such are useful, but none of them should he taken with- 
 out the advice of a skilled physician. 
 
 Use and Danger. When organs become diseased 
 and cannot work, death is apt to follow soon if something 
 is not done. Then stimulating drugs are used to spur 
 them on or drive them to work. Nearly every organ 
 answers to some spur. When the body is diseased, often 
 some system is so out of order that there is intense and 
 violent pain. Then narcotics are useful to ease suffering; 
 but they are so dangerous in their after effects, and the 
 habit of taking these drugs is so easily ]eamed, that they 
 should never be used without the order of an experienced 
 physician. 
 
 In ordinary health stimulants and narcotics should 
 never be used, for they stimulate organs beyond their 
 strength, or stupefy organs that should be working. If 
 a person's body or brain will not work, it is tired or sick, 
 and natural rest is what is needed. 
 
 Dangerous Common Drugs. Certain dangerous 
 narcotics and stimulants are so common, so easy to ob- 
 tain, so ignorantly and recklessly used, and so deplorably 
 fatal in their effects, that it is every one's duty to know 
 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 187 
 
 about their harmful action. They are of no use to a 
 healthy body. Tobacco and opium and alcohol are dan- 
 gerous common drugs. Opium and alcohol are drugs that 
 enslave with a terrible slavery both body and mind. 
 
 Characteristics of Alcohol. 1. Alcohol is a color- 
 less, spicy, pungent, volatile liquid. 
 
 2. It burns with a hot, colorless flame. 
 
 3. It dissolves many things not soluble by water. 
 
 4. It absorbs water from air and other things. 
 
 5. It coagulates albumen. 
 
 6. It stimulates nerves, and afterwards deadens their 
 action. 
 
 It is classed as a stimulant narcotic poison. 
 
 Uses of Alcohol. Because its flame is so hot and 
 does not smoke, alcohol is of use as a burning fluid. Its 
 solvent power makes it useful in the preparation of med- 
 icines and varnishes. It is used as an antiseptic, or 
 preventer of decay, because it coagulates, or hardens, 
 albumen. The white of an egg placed in alcohol be- 
 comes hard and white as though cooked. In museums, 
 specimens are put in alcohol and water, their tissues are 
 hardened, and they are kept from decay for years. 
 
 The characteristics of alcohol which interest a student 
 of hygiene are its power of depriving materials of the 
 water they contain, of hardening albumen, and of affect- 
 ing nerve matter. 
 
 How Alcohol is Made. Alcohol is not found nat- 
 urally in anything, but is made from fruits and grains by 
 a process called fermentation. The fruits are destroyed, 
 and their elements form new compounds, one of which is 
 alcohol. If any fruit or dampened and sprouted grain is 
 crushed and kept in a warm place, the sugar in it under- 
 goes a change, and before long bubbles of gas begin to 
 come up. 
 
188 HYGIENE. 
 
 This happens when canned fruit is not sealed tightly. 
 The old substance is broken up, and two .new ones are 
 made gas and alcohol. If left alone, the process goes on, 
 and vinegar is the result. That is the reason of the sour- 
 ness of spoiled preserves and canned fruit. 
 
 When alcohol is made, the fermentation is called alco- 
 holic, or vinous, fermentation; when vinegar is made it 
 is acetic fermentation. There is a kind of vinous fer- 
 mentation set up in dough by yeast every time yeast 
 bread is made, and the bubbling gas trying to escape lifts 
 up the sticky dough. Some alcohol is made, but is 
 driven out of the bread by heat when bread is baking, 
 for, you remember, alcohol is volatile. 
 
 Pure alcohol is never drank. Even alcohol diluted 
 with water is not a beverage, but there is a great number 
 of drinks in common use of which alcohol forms the chief 
 part and the destructive principle. They are called alco- 
 holic drinks or beverages. Their use has caused and is 
 causing more evil and misery than can ever be estimated. 
 Their work is a slow, progressive destruction. 
 
 The proportion of alcohol differs in different drinks. 
 Cider made from crushed apples, perry from crushed pears, 
 wine from crushed grapes and small fruits, and beer 
 made from sprouted grains, contain from two to fifteen 
 per cent of alcohol. The rest is water, sugar, and the 
 peculiar flavor of the fruit or of some material put in to 
 flavor it. These are called fermented and malt liquors. 
 Other common drinks, which contain from fifty to sixty 
 per cent of alcohol, are called distilled liquors. They 
 are whisky, brandy, rum, and gin. 
 
 Distillation. Distillation is a process of purifying a 
 liquid by heat. When chemists want water free from 
 any mineral or organic impurities, they distill it. The 
 impure liquid is put in a large boiler, and boiled. From 
 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 189 
 
 the boiler a tube extends to another vessel. Sometimes 
 the tube is coiled and sometimes straight, and on the 
 way between the boiler and receiver it is kept cold. 
 Sometimes it is coiled up in a vessel filled with ice. As 
 soon as the liquid boils in the boiler, its steam goes 
 through the tube; here the cold tube condenses it, turn- 
 ing it back to a liquid, which drips slowly out of the end 
 of the tube into the receiver. 
 
 Examples of condensation are seen on ice pitchers in 
 hot weather, and on kitchen window glass in cold 
 weather, and both cases mean that the moisture of the 
 air coming in'contact with a cold surface becomes visible 
 as drops of water. 
 
 In making the stronger kind of liquors, different sub- 
 stances, as fermented grain and potatoes, or weaker 
 liquors, as wine and cider, are taken and distilled, and 
 the alcohol quickly flies away from the heat, to be con- 
 densed with other volatile substances by the cold pipe. 
 
 Pure alcohol is made by frequent distillations to remove 
 as much water as possible. Gin and rum have flavors 
 added to give them their characteristic taste. 
 
 Adulterations of Liquor. Many of the liquors in 
 daily use are largely adulterated with poisonous drugs, 
 which add to their deadly effects. The drugs are cheaper 
 than the simple liquor. 
 
 Large Doses. It is not possible for a person to 
 drink as large quantities of distilled liquor at a time as 
 of water. Large drinks have been taken by mistake, or 
 on wagers, which have killed people instantly, or caused 
 death within a few hours. 
 
 Change. There is a difference of opinion as to the 
 change that alcohol undergoes in the body. So much 
 leaves the system in an unchanged state, that it has, 
 
190 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 given rise to the opinion that none of it is ever changed. 
 Probably a small portion is oxidized, since alcohol has 
 a value as medicine, and as it also causes fatty degen- 
 eration, which is a chemical change of tissue. 
 
 Alcohol Not Food. Alcohol is not a builder of 
 tissue. It is a compound in which there is no nitrogen. 
 Nitrogen is an important part of muscle, nerve, and all 
 the principal tissues of the body; therefore, as alcohol 
 contains no nitrogen, it cannot build nitrogen com- 
 pounds, and does not act as a food. It is to a certain 
 extent a fat producer, but the fat may be made at the 
 expense of, or in place of, muscle or other tissue (page 
 158). 
 
 No Protection Against Cold. Alcohol will not 
 prevent chill, nor act as a protector against cold. The 
 first flush of warmth that comes to the surface of the 
 body after drinking is caused by paralysis of the small 
 nerves, and the surface blood vessels distend with warm 
 blood. This gives a false impression of the warming 
 power of alcohol. It merely deranges the circulation. 
 The blood gives off its heat to the outside air, and goes 
 back to warmer parts chilled, and this causes the reaction 
 and chill that is apt to follow the drinking of alcoholic 
 liquors. 
 
 Exposure to extra cold in winter, after the system is 
 relaxed, is apt to be followed by serious consequences. 
 It has been the experience of Arctic explorers that men 
 cannot use alcohol as a protection against cold. 
 
 Does Not Protect Against Heat. Nor is it a 
 protection against heat, for in hot regions the drinking 
 men are the first victims of the climate. Nothing that 
 interferes with the resisting power of the system can be 
 beneficial when the body is subject to much exposure. 
 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 191 
 
 Does Not Prevent Disease. Nor can alcohol act so 
 as to prevent disease; but, on the other hand, it causes 
 many diseases and gets the body in condition for taking 
 many others. It weakens the body and takes away its 
 power of resistance. The system of a healthy person 
 repels, or fights against, anything that disorders any func- 
 tion of its organs, and this is called resistance to disease. 
 
 Experience, for ages, has shown that this vigorous 
 resistance of a healthy body is destroyed by alcohol. 
 Intemperate people are first to fall under exposure to cold 
 and heat, or when attacked by lung diseases, or when 
 cholera and smallpox and such diseases are common. 
 
 Causes Special Diseases. Not only does it weaken 
 the system so that a person is more liable to general dis- 
 eases, but there are special disorders of function and organ 
 that can be traced to alcohol. It is a cause of dropsy, 
 one form of pneumonia, two kinds of liver disease, and 
 a disease of the kidneys. 
 
 The two characteristics of alcohol its thirst for water 
 and its power to harden albumen account for much of 
 its dangerous action; but the reason of its ability to in- 
 duce fatal change in some tissues is not understood. 
 
 Degeneration. The two important changes produced 
 by this drug are called fatty and fibrous degeneration. 
 In the former a tissue loses its characteristic, and is 
 changed to a fatty substance. The cells of muscle, nerve 
 matter, liver, and kidney, may be so altered that their 
 function is destroyed. 
 
 In fibrous change the connective tissue increases, 
 hardens, and crushes the flexible cells in its meshes till 
 they get too small to work. By referring to pages 200 
 and 201 an idea can be gained of the effect on the body, 
 or on part of it, of increasing the connective tissue at the 
 expense of cells. 
 
192 HYGIENE. 
 
 Injures the Stomach. The stomach is affected by 
 its use in two ways. Much of the food is albuminoid, 
 and the digestive juices contain albumen. Alcohol hard- 
 ens albumen, and thus the material that should have 
 been dissolved so as to pass through the walls of the 
 stomach and intestines stays undigested in the food canal 
 longer than it should, and dyspepsia ensues. The stom- 
 ach is lined with mucous membrane, This is irritated 
 and inflamed by alcohol, and, if the drug is much used, 
 causes ulcerations, or hardening of the stomach walls, 
 and makes them too tough for fluids to penetrate. 
 
 Injures the Liver. As the blood filters through the 
 liver the alcohol causes fibrous and fatty changes (p. 
 199). 
 
 Injures the Heart. The tissues of the heart may be 
 altered, or its walls so dilated by overstrain that they 
 break. 
 
 Injures the Lungs. The lungs may have their air 
 cells hardened, or their capillaries so gorged with blood 
 that the liquid of the blood oozes out, and causes dropsy. 
 
 Injures the Brain. On the brain the effect of alcohol 
 as a destroyer of tissue or function is more terrible than 
 on other organs, for it affects the will power, and produces 
 unconsciousness. Insanity is justly considered the most 
 fearful disease of the human race, and alcohol produces 
 a temporary insanity which allows a man to walk and 
 talk, without having the will power to control his mus- 
 cles, voice, or ideas. 
 
 Different alcoholic drinks have different effects, and 
 any of them may affect different individuals in different 
 ways. Except in cases of habitual drunkards, all the 
 tissues of the body may not be affected. Sometimes one 
 organ and sometimes another is diseased most, as is the 
 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 193 
 
 case when a number of people take cold, the cold affect- 
 ing the lungs of one, the head of another, and the joints 
 of a 'third. 
 
 The slowness of alcohol's action in destroying tissue, 
 the uncertainty, till too late, as to which organ is 
 attacked, and the seeming safety of some persons till a 
 strain comes, keep unthinking people from appreciating 
 its deadly effects; but if a person has ever seen a drunken 
 man or woman, if he has seen the physical disease and 
 mental misery that come from drinking alcoholic liquors, 
 and knows that drunken fathers and mothers are apt to 
 have idiotic, imbecile, and diseased children, he knows 
 that alcohol is a dangerous, poisonous drug, that is abso- 
 lutely injurious to a healthy body. 
 
 ALCOHOL. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS. CAUSING 
 
 1. Affinity for water Corpuscles, capillaries, liver 
 
 cells, air cells, and muscle 
 cells to shrink. 
 
 2. Coagulates albumen Plasma, digestive juices, food, 
 
 and muscles to harden. 
 
 3. Degenerates tissue Liver, heart, blood vessels, 
 
 kidney, and brain to change 
 tissue. 
 
 4. Deadens function of nerve matter. . Loss of muscular control and 
 
 loss of will and mental fac- 
 ulties. 
 
 NARCOTICS. 
 
 Opium. Opium is one of the commonest of narcotics. 
 It is made from the juice of a poppy, cultivated in India 
 and China. From this juice a number of differently 
 named substances are made, as morphine, laudanum, 
 paregoric, and soothing syrups. 
 
 Opium that is used for smoking is a brownish, sticky 
 gum. It is put in a peculiar kind of pipe and smoked, 
 . and the smoke has the stimulating and the narcotic effect. 
 
194 HYGIENE. 
 
 It is used a great deal in this way by the Chinese and 
 eastern nations, who do not use alcoholic beverages. 
 
 Opium produces a kind of intoxication that is as 
 destructive to its victim as that of alcohol, but does not 
 lead to similar acts of violence to others and the destruc- 
 tion of property, that alcoholic intoxication is apt to 
 produce. A small quantity causes stupor, which ends in 
 death to one who is not used to it; but the opium smoker 
 from habit can take a dose that would kill a person un- 
 used to the drug, though he finally reaches a point where 
 it is death to stop and death to continue. 
 
 When the habit becomes fixed, an attempt to break it 
 produces such painful effects on the system, that it is 
 next to impossible for an opium slave to free himself. 
 And the consequences are as bad if he keeps on, for the 
 drug finally kills. 
 
 Used frequently, it disorders the different organs, 
 causing dyspepsia, an irregularity of secretion and of 
 the nervous system, and an aversion to mental and 
 physical work. It blunts the moral sense, and weakens 
 the will, till it is said of opium takers that they are 
 generally untruthful and dishonest. Finally, the nerv- 
 ous system, so overtaxed, is unable to work, and the 
 digestive organs fail to act, and the victim dies of starva- 
 tion. There is very little danger of a person becoming 
 an opium slave through smoking unless he so wills, but 
 there is great danger of unconsciously falling a victim to 
 the other forms of this drug, and against which all should 
 be warned. 
 
 The substances, morphine and laudanum, made from 
 opium, affect the body much as opium does; they are 
 given as painkillers by physicians, and sometimes the 
 patient, without fully understanding his danger, admin- 
 isters a dose to himself for some slight pain or for wake- 
 fulness. He repeats it as he thinks he needs it, until, 
 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 195 
 
 before he realizes, he has formed the habit, which takes 
 more than usual strength of will to break. 
 
 In the first place, every one should school himself to 
 endure slight pain, and so develop strength; and in the 
 second, no painkiller or soother should be given with- 
 out a doctor's order. Paregoric, which is a sweetened and 
 diluted laudanum, is often given to babies to make them 
 sleep. This is a dangerous practice, for, besides deranging 
 the child's system, the drug may develop in his brain 
 a desire for narcotics, or a toleration of them, that may 
 wreck his life. Soothing syrups are generally prepara- 
 tions of opium, and they should never be used. A child 
 that is well sleeps as much as it needs to, and a sick child 
 should not be drugged to insensibility. 
 
 Bitters. Bitters and quack medicines are prepara- 
 tions in which some cheap material is generally mixed 
 with alcohol, and the habit of using them is frequently 
 only an excuse for taking alcoholic liquors. The folly 
 of doctoring one's self with unknown medicine, for an 
 unknown disease, is obvious enough to any one but the 
 taker of patent medicines. 
 
 Tobacco. Doctors have about given up the use of 
 tobacco as a drug, because of its dangerous and uncertain 
 effects, but the mass of people ignorantly regard it as 
 harmless. It contains a poison called nicotine. It is 
 an exciter of the nerves, and so induces heart disease 
 by forcing the heart to over exertion. It irritates the 
 mucous membrane, and thus produces diseases of the 
 nose, throat, lungs, and stomach. 
 
 It dulls the hearing and eyesight. But its greatest 
 evil to growing people is that it stunts growth by stimu- 
 lating the glands to excessive secretion. The glands 
 form their secretions from the albuminoids in the blood, 
 and if these materials are used up by the glands, for no 
 
196 HYGIENE. 
 
 useful purpose, the tissues, which are made of the same 
 materials, suffer and are unable to develop. 
 
 In this way a growing boy robs his body and does not 
 grow to be a full sized, well developed man. No matter 
 what may be said for or against the use of tobacco for 
 men, there is no doubt that this drug stunts the bodies 
 and dulls the mental faculties of young boys, and should 
 never be used. One of the most dangerous forms of 
 tobacco is the cigarette. Its use among boys is so com- 
 mon and so pernicious that laws have been made against 
 the sale to minors of tobacco in this form. 
 
 Cigarettes are worse in many ways than other forms of 
 tobacco. They are made of stumps of cigars picked up 
 in the street, that may come from diseased mouths, and 
 of cheap refuse of other cigars. The smoke of the paper 
 is added to the tobacco smoke and is drawn quickly into 
 the lungs. The porousness of the cigarette allows the 
 heat as well as smoke to enter the mouth. 
 
 Cases of death have been known to occur from excess- 
 ive cigarette smoking. The commonest result, however, 
 is a breaking down of health and a weakening of the 
 mind, which leaves the cigarette slave a miserable wreck, 
 to keep on living long, wretched years when life is a 
 burden. 
 
 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES. 
 
 A poison is something that injures or destroys the tis- 
 sues if taken into the system. An antidote is something 
 taken to prevent the action of poison. A number of 
 common poisons that are used for killing rats or gophers, 
 or for poisoning flies, may poison children, if carelessly 
 left within their reach. Poisons should always be plainly 
 marked, and hidden away. 
 
 Milk and the white of raw egg are substances that it is 
 safe and beneficial to give in nearly all cases of poisoning. 
 
POISONS. 
 
 197 
 
 Many poisons harden albumens, and when a hard mass 
 is made around a poison it cannot destroy tissue. Soon 
 after the egg (which is the best common antidote) is 
 taken, give an emetic to remove the poison from the 
 system, for if it is left the gastric juice will dissolve the 
 egg and liberate the poison. 
 
 SOME COMMON POISONS, AND HOW TO TREAT CASES OF POISONING. 
 
 Remedies. 
 
 Poisons. 
 
 Antidotes. 
 
 Give an emetic 
 
 (Mustard and water. Hot 
 water. Tickle throat with 
 finger or feather to pro- 
 duce vomiting.) 
 
 Morphine . . . 
 
 
 Laudanum 
 
 Strong Coffee. 
 
 Stramonium 
 Water Hemlock. . . . 
 Tobacco 
 
 Keep the person 
 awake by any 
 means. 
 
 Strychnine. . 
 
 
 Arsenic (Rat's-bane). } Magnesia. 
 Flypaper poison. 
 Paris Green. 
 
 Sugar of Lead } Epsom Salts. 
 
 White Lead. 
 
 Never use an emetic, for 
 these are burning sub- 
 stances, and would burn 
 coming up as well as going 
 down. 
 
 f Ammonia } Cooking Soda. 
 
 Lunar Caustic (Ni- 
 
 trate of Silver). . . J- Common Salt. 
 Corrosive Sublimate 
 (Bug Poison) ........ J- White of 
 
 and Milk. 
 Oxalic Acid (Salts of 1 
 
 Lemon) [ Chalk ' 
 
 Any strong acid. . . . j Magnesia. 
 [ Blue Vitriol }. Eggs. 
 
 Sting of insects . 
 
 . } Ammonia. Com- 
 mon Soda. 
 
 Snake bites . ; . J- Whisky or Brandy in 
 small doses, a pint 
 or more. 
 
198 HYGIENE. 
 
 DISEASES TO AVOID. 
 
 Dyspepsia: A disease of the stomach caused by want of 
 quantity or quality of gastric juice; it affects digestion. 
 Hasty and irregular eating, worry, and too much food 
 are causes. 
 
 Drunkard's dyspepsia: A congestion of the vessels of 
 mucous membrane, enlargement and change of the 
 tissue of the glands, affecting stomach digestion. 
 Cause, alcoholic drinks. 
 
 Gastric irritation: An inflammation of the mucous mem- 
 brane, causing imperfect digestion and fever. Caused 
 by too hot or too cold liquids, errors of diet, and alco- 
 holic drinks. 
 
 Gastric dilation: Increase of the cavity of the stomach, 
 with changes in the tissues of its walls. The cause is 
 sometimes cancer, often excessive beer drinking. 
 
 Intestinal dyspepsia: A disease resulting from decompo- 
 sition of chyme; its causes are over eating, worry, want 
 of exercise, improper food, and immoderate use of 
 tobacco. 
 
 Diarrhoea: A derangement of the intestines that occa- 
 sions weakness and pain; caused by over eating, and 
 by impure water and food. Acute diarrhoea comes 
 from eating improper and indigestible food, and from 
 exposure to hot and changeable weather. 
 
 Cholera morbus: An acute pain, caused by irritation of 
 the mucous membrane of intestines, brought on by irri- 
 tating drugs, hot weather, and eating unripe fruit or 
 vegetables. 
 
 Cholera infantum: An inflammation of mucous mem- 
 brane of the stomach and intestines, produced by im- 
 proper food, impure air, and uncleanly surroundings. 
 
DISEASES TO AVOID. 
 
 199 
 
 Dysentery: Diseased condition of the mucous membrane, 
 brought about by inattention to proper habits of eat- 
 ing, to an insufficient supply of pure air, and by lack 
 of cleanliness of person and surroundings. 
 
 Jaundice: A disease of the bile ducts, caused by malaria 
 and by over eating. 
 
 Biliousness : An enlargement of the liver, and an excessive 
 fullness of its vessels, caused by malaria, excess in 
 eating and drinking, and by alcoholic drinks. 
 
 Fatty degeneration of the liver is a change of normal 
 liver cells into fat material, and one of the principal 
 causes is the use of alcoholics. The liver, as the 
 
 T. II. 
 
 FIG. 81. I. Three Lobules of Normal Liver. 
 II. Fatty Degeneration of Liver. 
 
 largest gland of digestion, receives a great deal of 
 the blood from the food canal. It has a great deal to 
 do. All goes well with the liver when the lobules 
 are like Fig. 81, I., and under the microscope the 
 
200 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 zigzag capillaries produce a pretty effect; but if fat 
 comes (Fig. 81, I. 1), all trace of capillaries and liver 
 
 FIG. 82. Hob-nailed Liver. 1. Intralobular Vein ; 2, 2. Connective 
 Tissue; 8. Lobule. 
 
 FIG. 83. Section of Abnormal Liver. 1. Fat Cells in place of Hepatic 
 Cells ; 2. Connective Tissue much increased. 
 
DISEASES TO AVOID. 201 
 
 cells disappears. There is a loss of structure that, if it 
 extends to many lobules, means death. 
 
 In Fig. 82 there is another change shown. The cells are 
 crowded in little patches, and the wide path of con- 
 nective tissue shows the cause. This is a case of fibrous 
 change. 
 
 In Fig. 83, it is not difficult to recognize the material. 
 Compare it with Fig. 81, I. Compare Figs. 81, 82, 83, 
 in regard to connective tissue, fat, and liver cells. 
 These are not fancy pictures, but drawn for this book 
 from pieces of human liver, put under the microscope, 
 to show how alcohol affects this organ. 
 
 Hob-nailed liver, or gin drinker's liver: A disease where 
 connective tissue increases and crowds the liver cells 
 till they shrink and harden, and the whole organ be- 
 comes contracted in bunches. Caused by use of alco- 
 holic drinks (Fig. 82). 
 
202 HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 
 
 Secondary Diseases. The organs of circulation are 
 generally affected more in a secondary manner, that is, 
 by the diseases of other organs, than by a primary dis- 
 order of their own function. This is especially true of 
 the blood. If anything interferes with the action of the 
 glands of the food canal, or of the organs of respiration, 
 these organs are not able to act normally on the blood 
 that comes to them, and it is easy to perceive how, in 
 this case, a different and harmful fluid comes through 
 the blood vessels. This is an illustration of the depend- 
 ence of organs on one another. The way to prevent bad 
 blood is to remove the cause that is destroying the func- 
 tion of the organs that prepare and purify blood. The 
 heart, as a muscular organ, is liable to diseases of mus- 
 cle (p. 158), but its other tissues, the valves and the heart 
 cover, are sometimes disordered. 
 
 Diseases of Valves. The valves shut up in order 
 to give the blood a constant single direction. All the 
 valves are liable to diseases which shrink them so they 
 cannot shut tightly, or thicken them so they cannot fully 
 open, and consequently some of the blood flows back 
 against the current. 
 
 Imagine the disease (which is one of the most com- 
 mon) of the valve between the left auricle and left ven- 
 tricle. The contraction of the auricle drives the blood 
 into the ventricle; then the ventricle contracts and, 
 instead of the valve shutting tightly, and thus causing 
 all the blood to go to the aorta, it only partly closes and 
 some of the blood is forced back into the auricle. But 
 enough blood to fill the auricle has just come down from 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 203 
 
 the lungs, and the two crimson tides meet. Some is 
 pressed back to the lungs and acts as an obstruction, and 
 some presses on to the disabled valve, and again, by the 
 same process, a return current starts for the lungs. So 
 it keeps on with every beat of the heart, till the lung 
 capillaries are distended, then the liquid of the blood 
 oozes through their thin walls into the lung tissue and 
 inside the pleura. 
 
 This constant flowing backward also interferes with 
 the right auricle and ventricle, for it causes them to get 
 overfull so that their walls dilate and thus become thin. 
 The venous blood from the system, always having its 
 quantity increased by the products of digestion, also gets 
 a set-back and crowds into the capillaries. Here again 
 the liquid of the blood oozes through the thin walls. 
 This obstruction of circulation, whatever valve may be 
 the cause, if long continued produces the disease called 
 dropsy. 
 
 Dropsy is an unnatural accumulation of liquid from 
 the blood in the cavities or tissues of the body. The 
 injury to valves is caused by excessive overwork, or heart 
 strain, a forcing of the valves to open and shut oftener 
 than they are able. 
 
 Inflammation of the heart sac and the accumulation 
 of water in the heart sac are secondary diseases. Often 
 they are a result of Bright's disease of the kidneys, and 
 this disease is caused by excess in eating and drinking 
 and by the use of alcoholic liquors. 
 
 Suppose any one were foolish enough to put water in 
 his watch, or sprinkle dust on the small wheels, what 
 would be the consequence? Suppose the watch were 
 alive and could feel the pain of these foreign substances, 
 and that the life of a human being depended on its keep- 
 ing on running, and you have a pretty good idea of the 
 
204 HYGIENE. 
 
 consequence of disorders of the valves and the cover of 
 the heart. 
 
 Faintness. Sometimes a person becomes pale, loses 
 consciousness, and falls down in what is called a faint. 
 It means that the brain has not enough blood. Some- 
 thing like want of food, a fright, or other great nervous 
 excitement interferes with circulation, and this stops the 
 function of the brain. The person should be placed with 
 . his head lower than his feet; in extreme cases, a pillow 
 or cushion can be put under the legs, so that the blood 
 can go back to the head readily. 
 
 Bleeding. A knowledge of the different ways in 
 w T hich blood flows from veins or arteries is of great service 
 when a blood vessel is cut. There is not much harm in 
 small wounds, but when large vessels are cut there is 
 danger of the blood flowing out so freely as to cause 
 death. Blood goes from arteries in jerks, or spurts; and 
 from veins, in a steady flow. 
 
 Cold water, or cold articles, placed near, but not on the 
 wound (for fear of removing the forming clot), chill the 
 vessels of the surface, so that they contract and send the 
 blood to other parts of the body. Pressure causes the 
 blood to move slower, and to give that which is exposed 
 to the air a chance to coagulate. Almost all an ordinary 
 person can do is to apply something cold, and press the 
 wound, and put on soft cloths to absorb the blood and 
 help in coagulation. If these do no good, and the wound 
 is on one of the extremities, tie a cloth tightly near the 
 wounded part, between the wound and the heart, if an 
 artery is cut, for the arterial current is flowing toward 
 the wound; or on the side away from the heart, if a vein 
 is cut. 
 
 In ordinary nose bleed press hard against the side of 
 the nose where the bleeding occurs, till a clot is formed. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 205 
 
 Wounds. Wounds, especially those on the hands, no 
 matter how small, should be well covered with plaster. 
 This keeps the many injurious substances that come in 
 contact with the surface from entering the circulation by 
 way of the absorbent vessels. Always keep a cut well 
 covered. 
 
 Cutting corns till they bleed is dangerous, because 
 some material from the knife, or from the stockings, may 
 enter the blood, and cause what is called blood poisoning. 
 
 Regulation of Blood Supply. There is not enough 
 blood in the body to keep all the tissues and organs work- 
 ing their best at the same time, so when one set of organs 
 works another rests. This means that the blood vessels 
 are more expanded and the flow of blood faster in the 
 exercised part, and the blood vessels contracted and the 
 flow of blood slower in the resting part. The resting 
 tissues get only enough blood to keep them healthy, 
 while the exercised tissues get much more. The regula- 
 tion of amount of blood is done by the muscular walls 
 of the smaller blood vessels under the influence of nerves. 
 Such changes in amount of blood take place constantly. 
 The alimentary canal calls for extra blood during diges- 
 tion; the muscles during exercise; the brain during 
 study; and as the supply is not enough for all to have, 
 at the same time, the amount needed for hard work, any 
 attempt to carry on the active work of many organs at 
 once causes serious disturbance of function. Conse- 
 quently, one cannot study well after a full meal, for the 
 digestive organs need the blood, and the brain also needs 
 it. Violent exercise after a full meal acts the same. 
 When the brain is overworked and the face flushed, 
 weariness and headache may be prevented by some exer- 
 cise that calls the blood to the muscular system. When 
 a person is chilled by exposure, that is, the blood has 
 
206 HYGIENE. 
 
 been driven by cold from the surface, one may avert seri- 
 ous consequences by rapid exercise, or a brisk rubbing of 
 the body with coarse towels, till the surface is aglow. 
 
 Cold Feet and Hands. Many people suffer a great 
 deal from cold feet. The cause may be imperfect circula- 
 tion or poor blood. Hands and feet ought never to be 
 habitually cold. Their coldness is a reflection on the 
 good sense of their owner, if he is in ordinary health, for 
 it means bad habits of some kind. 
 
 If change of habit, such as sleeping more, taking more 
 fresh air exercise, changing diet, or removing tightly laced 
 clothing and tight shoes, so as to allow the general circu- 
 lation to remedy and cure the inconvenience, does not 
 answer, there is something the matter that needs the 
 attention of a physician. 
 
 Congestion. Congestion is the unnatural accumula- 
 tion of blood in any part of the body, and is caused by 
 an obstruction, or by something that calls the blood 
 faster than it can get away. It is usually accompanied 
 by swelling, because the tissues get overfull; redness or 
 inflammation, and heat, because of the quantity of blood; 
 and pain, because the nerves are crowded. A mosquito 
 bite is a local congestion, caused by the poison of the 
 insect. 
 
 Kidneys. The kidneys, as organs for excreting much 
 of the waste matter, are liable to many diseases. These 
 diseases come from overloading the system with more 
 good material than can be worked up, or taking in stim- 
 ulants and irritants, and highly spiced foods, that the 
 body has no need of, or from exposure to cold and damp, 
 and all these acts throw more work on these organs than 
 they can do. Alcohol probably causes more kidney dis- 
 eases than all other things put together, because it has 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 
 
 207 
 
 no use to serve, there is no demand for it in a healthy 
 body, and it must be exhaled. There is one form of 
 disease, called Bright's disease of the kidneys, which 
 frequently has alcohol for a cause, and it induces disorders 
 of many other organs. In fact, if the kidneys do not 
 cast out the waste matter, it goes through the whole 
 body, poisoning its tissues. 
 
 THINGS TO AVOID. 
 
 Over work. 
 
 Over excitement. 
 
 Violent temper. 
 
 Anything that violently in- 
 creases heart action. 
 
 Developing one part of the 
 body, as the muscles, at the 
 expense of another. 
 
 Bad air. 
 
 Bathing soon after hearty 
 meals. 
 
 Exposure to damp and cold. 
 
 Use of stimulants and nar- 
 cotics. 
 
 Too few hours of rest. 
 
 Skinning or handling animals 
 that have died of disease. 
 
 Bathing after violent exercise. 
 
 Sudden checking of perspira- 
 tion, as sitting in a draft, or 
 putting cold water on face 
 and head when over heated. 
 
208 HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 Need of Heat. No animal can live without regularly 
 taking oxygen into its lungs. About one fifth of the 
 bulk of common air is oxygen, and this is just the right 
 proportion for breathing purposes. When common air is 
 drawn into the lungs the oxygen is pulled through the thin 
 walls of the air sacs and the capillaries by the corpuscles, 
 and carried by them all over the body. The corpuscles 
 are as ready to give it up as they are to take it. The 
 tissues need it in order to rebuild themselves, and so all 
 over the body oxygen is constantly changing its place, 
 and when it unites with any tissue it produces heat or 
 motion force. 
 
 Heat. By this changing action which takes place in 
 the capillaries, the heat of the entire body is kept about 
 99. If there is a variation of two degrees either way, 
 there is sickness. Generally the body temperature is 
 higher than that of outside air. People get very uncom- 
 fortable when the thermometer marks anything near 100, 
 because the extra heat of the body cannot be radiated, 
 or given off', to air that is about the same heat as the 
 body. 
 
 Sometimes one part of the system works faster than 
 the rest, and gets warmer, as the muscles of the legs 
 when we walk. A great deal of heat is produced by the 
 exertion of walking, and the muscles get warmed up; but 
 the blood, hurrying along, takes much of the heat away to 
 other portions of the body. This is part of the reason 
 why walking warms the whole system. 
 
 Blood, besides carrying food and oxygen to all parts, 
 acts as a regulator of temperature. For example, if the 
 

 CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 209 
 
 surface of the body gets chilled, the blood hurries in to 
 warmer, or working, parts to get warm, and warmer blood 
 goes to the surface, and with proper care the whole body 
 is thus kept comfortable. 
 
 Carbon Dioxide. In the burning of tissues a bad 
 gas is formed, which the blood carries off to the lungs and 
 skin, where it is exhaled. It is called carbon dioxide, or 
 carbonic acid gas, which means that it is made of two 
 parts of oxygen and one part of an element called carbon. 
 It is this gas in expired air that puts out a candle and 
 turns lime water white (see p. 110). It is a colorless 
 gas, without odor or taste, and these characteristics make 
 it more dangerous, because we cannot detect it in the air 
 by sight, smell, or taste. 
 
 When inhaled in large quantities it is suffocating, but 
 not poisonous, and it prevents breathing, not so much by 
 destroying tissues, as poisons do, as by crowding away 
 oxygen, for even two gases cannot fill the same place at 
 the same time. 
 
 Being heavier than air, it sinks down in wells and 
 collects in low levels of mines, and often suffocates men 
 at work there. Miners call it "choke damp." 
 
 Carbon dioxide is formed by the breathing of all ani- 
 mals, by decay and burning, and is present in varying 
 quantities in air. Plants use it up. They take it in 
 somewhat as we take in air, and in their tissues they 
 break it up, and, keeping the carbon for their own use, 
 they give out the oxygen. Thus plants supply animals 
 with oxygen, and animals are always forming the carbon 
 dioxide which plants need. Even in aquariums, the 
 small animals would, by breathing, soon fill the water so 
 full of this gas that they would all suffocate, and for this 
 reason some water plants are put in to use up carbon 
 dioxide, and to supply oxygen. 
 
210 HYGIENE. 
 
 Organic Matter. Besides carbon dioxide the expired 
 air contains organic matter in invisibly fine particles, 
 which acts something like poison. It is the most danger- 
 ous part of expired air. This organic matter is the waste 
 material from tissues, and is impure and foul even com- 
 ing from healthy lungs, but when it conies from diseased 
 lungs and bodies it is often the source of contagious dis- 
 eases. Sometimes people forget, or do not know, that it 
 is as necessary to breathe pure air, and plenty of it, as it 
 is to eat good food. The breathing organs are often 
 wronged in two ways: by tight lacing and by breathing 
 bad air. 
 
 Effect of Bad Air. If there are foul gases in the 
 air, or if the air has been rebreathed several times by 
 people in a close room, the blood does not get a proper 
 amount of oxygen, and so keeps its carbonic acid gas and 
 organic materials, and goes circulating with them among 
 the tissues. This is what causes people to feel dull and 
 drowsy, or to have a headache, or to faint in a crowded 
 room. Daily breathing of bad air causes lung diseases, 
 -a kind of oxygen starvation. Outside air is changing 
 constantly and is mixed by the wind and heat, but air 
 in the houses is apt to be heavy and impure. 
 
 Ventilation. Making arrangements to drive bad air 
 out and admit pure air into houses is called ventilation. 
 It is a subject that deserves more thought than it gen- 
 erally receives. The great trouble is to avoid a draft 
 while getting pure air. In most parts of California the 
 matter is more easily settled than in places where there 
 is extreme cold. There are two good rules to follow in 
 ventilation: first, see that no sewer gas, or impure air 
 from drains, can enter the house; second, keep the win- 
 dows open, day and night, as much as possible. 
 
 In schools the frequent recesses give the teacher a 
 
CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 211 
 
 chance to open the windows and allow the air to change. 
 In winter a good fire should be made, all the windows 
 opened for a few minutes to drive out bad air and let in 
 good, and then the windows should be closed, except a 
 small opening at the top, and the cold air warmed up 
 before the children come in from play. In the rainy 
 season the windows can be thrown wide open, and the 
 children take exercise in light gymnastics while the room 
 is being ventilated and is getting back to a comfortable 
 temperature. 
 
 A room that is used much should be frequently aired, 
 or there should be some way of having the air constantly 
 circulating. This is especially true of sleeping rooms. 
 Open fireplaces, or ventilators connected with heated 
 chimneys, are excellent means of ventilation. 
 
 The temperature of air has nothing to do with the 
 amount of oxygen it contains. Cool air, that is con- 
 sidered comfortable, in a shut up house in summer may 
 be dead, stagnant, and nearly destitute of oxygen; while 
 air from the outside, in winter, that has been warmed on 
 its way into a house, will have all the needed oxygen. 
 Oxygen is the necessary part of air, and it is not made 
 inside of houses. The practice of shutting windows in 
 summer to keep rooms cool, and to keep out the hot air, is 
 as bad as shutting them in winter to keep out cold air. 
 Excessive sunlight and severe cold can and must be kept 
 out, but oxygen must get in. Outside air is better than 
 house air under almost any circumstances, and inside air 
 can generally be kept warm and pure in winter, and 
 cool and pure in summer, if people will spend the time 
 and thought on ventilation that health requires. 
 
 Sensitiveness to impure air ought to be taught in 
 school. One has only to go from out-doors into a room 
 that has been filled a short time with people, or a 
 sleeping room that has been occupied with the windows 
 
 14 P 
 
212 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 5, 
 
 a 
 
CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 213 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
214 HYGIENE. 
 
 shut to keep out night air, to appreciate the foulness of 
 expired or dead air. People in such rooms do not notice 
 its badness, for the system gets used to it, and does not 
 give any warning until the tissues are starved and stu- 
 pefied, and then come headache, dullness, sleepiness, or 
 nausea and faintness. 
 
 There are cases where people have died quickly from 
 bad air when a number were crowded in a small room. 
 In Calcutta, in 1756, one hundred and forty-six English- 
 men were imprisoned in a room that was eighteen feet 
 square, and had only two windows. One hundred and 
 twenty died during the night. In 1857, an English offi- 
 cer shut two hundred and eighty Sepoys in a round tower, 
 and forty -three died during the night. These are extreme 
 cases, but there are others like them where strong men, 
 as prisoners, have died immediately, or in a few days, 
 from breathing bad air; but, generally, the harmful 
 effects are slow to show themselves, and the diseases 
 they produce are not traced back to their cause. 
 
 Compressing the Chest. With a world full of pure 
 air, a woman with her lungs crushed together by tight 
 corsets cannot get enough air to keep her healthy. Dif- 
 ferent nations have different ways of deforming them- 
 selves. The Chinese children of the higher classes have 
 their feet crushed into a mold, so that they cannot 
 develop, and the ladies 7 feet are thus made to look some- 
 thing like cows' feet. The Flat-head Indians tie boards 
 to the heads of babies, and squeeze the skull out of shape. 
 Civilized people sometimes put corsets on the girl chil- 
 dren, to squeeze the flexible ribs in on the soft organs, 
 and make wasp-like waists. One result is just as fash- 
 ionable and pretty as the other, but the waist deformity 
 is most injurious, because it crowds the vital organs out 
 of place, and causes disease. 
 
CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 
 
 215 
 
 FIG. 86 (Copied). Deformed Waist, with organs pressed out of posi- 
 tion. Dotted lines give normal size of waist and position of organs. 
 
 Fortunately, tight lacing is going out of fashion, and 
 before long an extremely small waist will indicate a per- 
 son of ignorance, or bad taste. Compare Fig. 84, which 
 is taken from a celebrated Greek statue, in which the 
 proportions are considered perfect, and Fig. 85, from a 
 recent fashion plate. A study of Figs. 84 and 85 will be 
 profitable for any one who wants to know what tight 
 lacing does. Fig. 86 shows the position of organs in the 
 trunk cavity, and how closely they are packed together. 
 The dotted lines show the normal shape of the body and 
 
216 HYGIENE. 
 
 position of organs, and the strong lines show the position 
 organs assume when the waist is squeezed in. 
 
 Effect of Pressure. Normally the organs are smooth, 
 and closely packed in the trunk, and they move easily on 
 one another in the motions of respiration and digestion. 
 When pressed they must go somewhere, and they crowd 
 each other; for as the trunk does not increase in size, the 
 objects it contains must pack more closely together, their 
 cells are crowded, and none of the organs have room 
 enough for natural motion. 
 
 Sometimes a woman has an increase of fat, and tries 
 to lace it down, instead of getting rid of it, if she does 
 not want it, by careful diet and exercise. Lacing fat 
 makes matters worse, for this inert material wrapped 
 around the organs takes up the room, and helps crush 
 the vital organs out of shape, and interferes with their 
 functions. 
 
 One has only to remember that the lungs are two elas- 
 tic cavities filled full of delicate-walled sacs, that dilate 
 and relax, as the air goes in and out, under pressure of the 
 ribs and diaphragm; and then to imagine multitudes of 
 the poor little cells crushed in by the bony walls of the 
 chest, with their walls pressed together so tightly that no 
 air can enter, and he easily understands how tight lacing 
 can produce lung disease. 
 
 Dyspepsia, heart and lung diseases, and sluggish cir- 
 culation are caused by compressing the chest, and many 
 headaches, poor appetites, and ill tempers would be pre- 
 vented, if some people were not just as silly as the Chi- 
 nese and the Flat-headed Indians. 
 
 The Pneumo-Gastric Nerve. There is a large 
 cranial nerve that goes down to the chest and sends its 
 branches to the stomach, heart, and lungs, and has con- 
 trol over their action. It has something to do with the 
 
CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 217 
 
 feeling of nausea and faintness caused by disagreeable 
 odors and horrible sights. The paralysis of this nerve, 
 and some others connected with it, causes the serious and 
 sometimes fatal result produced by a blow on the stom- 
 ach. Since it passes down from the skull through the 
 canal of a part of the neck vertebrae, any dislocation or 
 injury of the upper portion of the neck is liable to press 
 bones against it and paralyze it, thus causing immediate 
 cessation of respiration and heart action. 
 
 To this is due the instantaneous effects of hanging, and 
 it is the reason why a broken neck is apt to be more fatal 
 than the breaking of any other part of the spinal column. 
 
 Diseases of Lungs and Throat. The delicacy of 
 the mucous membrane of nose, throat, and air sacs, 
 makes these parts subject to disease. Many of the 
 throat and lung diseases might be prevented -by proper 
 care about breathing pure air, and avoiding exposure to 
 cold and wet. Some of these diseases are inherited, but 
 it does not follow if a person comes of a consumptive or 
 weak-lunged family that he must suffer with or die of 
 lung disease. It is possible to increase the lung capacity 
 by breathing exercises, to avoid breathing bad air, and so 
 to care for diet, clothing, and general hygiene as to make 
 naturally unhealthy lungs healthy, and thus escape 
 hereditary disease. The habits that make persons sick 
 are inherited, or learned early, and these habits have as 
 much to do with health as have the peculiarities of the 
 body with which we are born. 
 
 Tobacco. Any form of tobacco is an irritant to the 
 mucous membrane. Ordinary smoke makes the eyes 
 smart, but the smoke of tobacco has a greater stinging 
 power. Tobacco is chewed, smoked, or inhaled as a 
 powder called snuff, and in all cases comes first in contact 
 with the mucous membrane. It causes inflammation 
 
218 HYGIENE. 
 
 and final hardening. In the nasal passages the mem- 
 brane gets thicker and interferes with the nerve of smell, 
 and induces a disease of the membrane called smoker's 
 catarrh. Sometimes the lips and throat become sore from 
 use of tobacco, and the disease is called smoker's cancer. 
 
 Alcohol. Alcohol injures the lung tissue, because of 
 its power of absorbing water and increasing connective 
 tissue. It hardens the cells. Unfortunately, no one ever 
 takes beer and whisky in microscopic doses, but micro- 
 scopic parts of the body are those they act on: the air 
 sacs, the liver cells, the muscle cells, and the cellular 
 walls of the lungs and throat and stomach. 
 
 Exposure to Wet or Cold. By careless exposure 
 the vessels of the skin become contracted, and waste mat- 
 ter cannot be exhaled. The lungs try to do the extra 
 work and sometimes succeed. Other times they are over- 
 taxed and become congested and inflamed. The first 
 thing to do after exposure is to rub the body well, to get 
 up a glow and start perspiration. 
 
 Bad Air. Bad air is the source of many diseases. 
 Air may be bad from two causes: it may have too little 
 oxygen, or it may contain injurious substances, either 
 dust or germs. 
 
 If it has too little oxygen the blood goes back to the 
 body blue and unwholesome. This kind of bad air is 
 oftenest found in un ventilated houses. Dust in the air 
 causes irritation of the air passages. Then such workmen 
 as weavers, grinders, miners, millers, hatters, and cigar 
 makers, who spend most of their time in places where 
 there is much dust flying, breathe in the fine particles 
 and are liable to throat and lung diseases. This kind of 
 bad air is found in shops, mines, and factories. 
 
 Germ and Contagious Diseases. But the worst 
 
CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 219 
 
 kind of bad air is that which contains poisons, or germs. 
 Germs are microscopic forms of life that float in air or in 
 water, and many of them when they get into the human 
 system cause serious diseases. It is not settled that most 
 of the serious contagious diseases, that are called germ 
 diseases, are really caused by live germs. Some believe 
 they are caused by poison in the air. But whether it is 
 a poison or a germ, it is surely in the air and water, and 
 as surely is produced by filth that should have been deeply 
 buried or burned. 
 
 About eighteen fevers and other diseases are traced to 
 this source, and about six of them are contagious and 
 are the worst scourges of the human race. Cholera, 
 small-pox, yellow fever, diphtheria, typhoid fever, and 
 scarlet fever are some of these diseases. The germs, or 
 poisons, are breathed in with the air, and if a person is 
 in a condition to take the disease, disorders begin in the 
 functions of the different organs. So, in the first place, 
 the condition of the person's body makes him liable to dis- 
 ease or able to resist it; and this power that some have of 
 resisting contagion is the reason that every one does not 
 perish in an epidemic. People of careless and intem- 
 perate habits are the first to be affected. 
 
 As there is a material, no matter how small, that causes 
 these results, this material can be carried in clothing, 
 bedding, and on crockery, spoons, and wall paper used 
 in the sick room. In case of any of the diseases named, 
 clothing, bedding, wall paper, and all fabrics used about 
 the patient should be burned, and the crockery and cut- 
 lery should be destroyed or thoroughly washed with 
 disinfectants. A disinfectant is something used to purify 
 from contagious matter. It should be of a kind that 
 kills the germ, or destroys the poison. Burned sulphur, 
 sulphate of iron, and carbolic acid are disinfectants. 
 
 The less frequent occurrence of epidemics among civ- 
 
220 HYGIENE. 
 
 ilized people, and the fact of many of these diseases 
 originating among ignorant and filthy people in modern 
 times, show that the greater care of modern people for 
 hygienic conditions is a check to contagious diseases. 
 Carelessness about drains, cesspools, stables, and slops 
 that may pollute the air and drinking water, and the 
 keeping of rotting vegetables in dirty cellars, are the ori- 
 gin of many serious epidemics that are sometimes called 
 mysterious. 
 
 Effect on Other Systems. Although the diseases 
 come from the air, it does not follow that they confine 
 their effects to organs of respiration. They cause derange- 
 ment of functions of all organs. Many fevers have for 
 cause, after the bad air is taken in, a derangement of the 
 sympathetic nervous system. Diseases of the lungs and 
 air passages more often come from irritants and want 
 of oxygen in the air and excess of coldness than from 
 exposure to germs or poisons. The common forms of 
 disease of the breathing organs affect the mucous mem- 
 brane of all parts, the tissue of the lungs, and the serous 
 membrane, or pleura. 
 
 DISEASES OF THROAT AND LUNGS, AND CAUSES. . 
 
 Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of 
 
 nasal passages, caused by exposure to damp and cold; 
 
 inhaling dust; the use of tobacco. 
 Sore throat is an inflammation of the membrane of the 
 
 throat, caused by exposure. 
 Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, 
 
 caused by exposure to changes of climate. 
 Chronic bronchitis is caused by exposure and by the use 
 
 of alcoholic liquors. 
 Pneumonia is a disease that thickens the walls of the air 
 
 cells, caused by exposure and alcoholic liquors. 
 
CARE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS. 221 
 
 Congestion of the lungs is an excessive fullness of capil- 
 laries of air cells, caused by over exertion, excitement, 
 exposure to hot or cold air, alcohol, and Bright's dis- 
 ease of the kidneys. 
 
 Consumption is a disease of cells that destroys lung tis- 
 sue, and is generally inherited. 
 
 Pleurisy is a disease of the pleura, called " stitch in the 
 side." When acute, it is caused by exposure or mus- 
 cular exertion. 
 
 Chronic pleurisy is caused by alcohol and Bright's dis- 
 ease, or is the result of acute pleurisy. 
 
HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 
 CARE OF THE ORGANS OF THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 Dulled by Want of Exercise. The special senses 
 are generally more acute in savages and in the lower ani- 
 mals than they are in civilized men, because the procur- 
 ing of food and the protection against enemies in these 
 cases depend on personal quickness. Their dullness in 
 civilized people is an example of loss of power through 
 want of exercise. 
 
 The senses serve as protectors. They teach people 
 what things are injurious to touch, taste, smell, hear, and 
 look at. If their warnings are heeded, they keep on 
 noticing objectionable things, but if their cautions are not 
 attended to, they soon cease to give any unpleasant im- 
 pressions of particular smells, tastes, sounds, and sights, 
 and they are then said to become tolerant. 
 
 This toleration, or stupidity, often causes disease of 
 other organs. 
 
 Affected by General Diseases. The senses are 
 affected by. general disease, and the partial failure of 
 some sense is often the first sign of some deeper seated 
 disorder. This is especially true of affections of the nerv- 
 ous system. General rules of hygiene, as to cleanliness, 
 air, and proper food, apply equally to organs of special 
 sense as to general organs of the system. There are a few 
 particular directions for the care of special senses. 
 
 Effect of Irritants. Anything that irritates the 
 mucous membrane disturbs the nerve which it holds. 
 This is true of tobacco, spices, and strong medicines, 
 which deaden the sense of taste and smell. Some of 
 them injure hearing and eyesight as well. Exposure to 
 cold and wet inflames the membrane of the nose, mouth, 
 
CARE OF THE ORGANS OF THE SPECIAL SENSES. 223 
 
 ears, and eyes, and often causes dullness of taste, smell, 
 hearing, and sight. The organs of hearing and sight are 
 too delicate to be interfered with. If deafness is caused by 
 a swelling in the throat that closes the tube leading from 
 the middle ear to the throat, then it will pass away when 
 the swelling goes down. If it is caused by an accumula- 
 tion of ear wax in the outer ear, great care should be 
 taken to get it out. Never, under any circumstances, 
 scrape the ears with pins or hard objects, for they are apt 
 to injure the tympanic membrane. Use soft cloths and 
 warm water. 
 
 Care of Eyes. There are a number of ordinary de- 
 fects of vision which should be referred to an eye doctor 
 as soon as they are detected. These are shortness of 
 sight, or any difficulty of seeing that causes a strained 
 feeling, or any pain of the eyes, or a dimness of sight. 
 No one should doctor his own eyes, or allow an ordinary 
 physician to do so, for there is danger of causing a more 
 serious injury. Nor should a person attempt to fit him- 
 self with spectacles. 
 
 The best condition of mind in regard to the eyes and 
 ears is ignorance of all eye and ear diseases, and a firm 
 conviction that the first defects or pains of these organs 
 must be referred to an aurist or oculist. Nothing should 
 be done that causes a strain to the eyes. 
 
 The habit of bending the head close to the book in 
 studying or reading has two evils. It induces near- 
 sightedness, because the eyes are too near the object, and 
 it causes the humors of the eye to press forward and the 
 blood to accumulate in the face. 
 
 When there is an unsteady motion or a flickering light, 
 the crystalline lens and the iris and muscles cannot ad- 
 just themselves to the rapid changes, and in their effort 
 to do so they cause a temporary strain, or perhaps a per- 
 manent injury. 
 
224 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 THINGS TO AVOID. 
 
 Irritants. 
 
 Exposure to heat, co'ld, or ex- 
 cessive sunlight. 
 
 "Using hard objects for cleaning 
 the ears. 
 
 Putting cotton in the ears. 
 
 Boxing the ears. 
 
 Putting liniments in the ears. 
 
 Studying or reading with the 
 head bent. 
 
 Studying with strong light in 
 
 the eyes. 
 
 Studying when lying down. 
 Studying on cars or where there 
 
 is unsteady motion. - 
 Studying with book near the 
 
 eyes. 
 
 Using unknown eye lotions. 
 Using the eyes for fine work at 
 
 twilight or in badly lighted 
 
 rooms. 
 
CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 
 CARE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 No part of the body is independent of the rest; and the 
 brain, its ruler, is seriously affected by a disorder of any 
 of the systems. 
 
 Needs of the Brain. All the brain needs is good food 
 to nourish it; good red blood to oxidize its tissue; good 
 impressions and thoughts to stimulate its growth; and 
 good rest to recreate its tissues, and then it promises 
 good results in healthy physical and mental manhood or 
 womanhood. Fortunately, the good things for the brain 
 are within the reach of all. 
 
 Facts to Remember. In order to take proper care 
 of the nervous system, a number of facts, some of them 
 often forgotten by Americans, must be recollected: 
 
 1. Brain is material, capable of being acted on by 
 material, but originating, as a high product, an immate- 
 rial something, called thought. 
 
 2. The nervous system of a baby has to be taught 
 before it can control the body. 
 
 3. The nervous systems of children are busier than 
 those of grown people, in controlling additional growth 
 and learning, thought and action. 
 
 4. The brains of children have fewer convolutions, that 
 is, less gray matter and less thought and motive power. 
 
 5. Habits are signs of the way the nervous system has 
 learned to act. 
 
 6. Knowledge is a result of brain experience. 
 
 7. The experience of children is limited. 
 
 8. Their judgment of important matters of diet and 
 hygiene is not to be relied on. 
 
 Material for Brain Building. The nervous system, 
 
226 HYGIENE. 
 
 like any other, needs good food and pure air for rebuild- 
 ing its tissue. It is not necessary to eat special brain 
 food, for any food that will nourish the general system 
 will build up the brain. The amount of blood that goes 
 to the brain is an indication of the amount of work done. 
 If nourishing food in sufficient quantity is not taken, there 
 is faintness; if too much food is constantly taken, or if 
 it is mixed with injurious articles, or if the blood has 
 not enough oxygen, there is stupor and dullness. 
 
 Injury to the Brain. Certain stimulants and nar- 
 cotics act on nerve material, and destroy the function of 
 the brain. Brain tissue may not be any more seriously 
 injured by these things than other parts are, but the conse- 
 quences are more vital. Alcohol has a destructive action 
 on the brain and nerves, in increasing the connective 
 tissue and in causing fatty degeneration; but long before 
 these extreme effects begin, in fact, on the very first dose, 
 alcohol stimulates, and then deadens or stupefies the 
 nerves. This last action is shown by secondary effects on 
 the other organs. 
 
 When a glass of alcoholic liquor is taken by one not 
 used to it, the face gets red and warm. This means that 
 the liquor affects the nervous system, so that the small 
 nerves which control the capillaries cannot act, and the 
 capillaries become filled with warm red blood, which 
 shows red, and can be felt warm on the surface. 
 
 Sometimes, if much is taken, there is a feeling of faint- 
 ness and nausea, and the large cranial nerve that goes 
 down to the stomach tries to get up enough disturbance 
 to cause the injurious liquid to be thrown off by vomiting. 
 Other nerves are stimulated, and, with some people, the 
 cerebrum is more active for a time, and with others, it is 
 more stupid; but it soon begins to act in a confused and 
 irregular manner. Thoughts are crowded and uncertain, 
 and the man has ideas and impulses that would never 
 
CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 
 
 occur to him when he was sober. The will power and 
 common sense power that come from experience seem 
 paralyzed, and his impressions of common objects and 
 judgments of his best friends are distorted, uncertain, and 
 unnatural. 
 
 The cerebellum, which controls muscular action, loses 
 its power, and at first there is an irregular and spasmodic 
 action, a staggering and tottering, and then the person 
 falls dead drunk, powerless and unconscious. It is diffi- 
 cult to say which is the more pitiable sight, the stage of 
 silliness and spasmodic action of thought and motion, or 
 the stage of complete paralysis. 
 
 It would seem as though nerve matter acted with alco- 
 hol much as some animal does in the grasp of a powerful 
 enemy, struggling fearfully until completely overpowered. 
 
 Narcotics, like opium, do not excite the person to deeds 
 of mad violence as alcohol sometimes does. They sooner 
 envelop him in unconsciousness. Like alcohol they 
 destroy will power, at first, without taking away con- 
 sciousness, and the consequence is that the sense of time 
 and place and personality is changed and the mind is 
 filled with fantastic ideas. These ideas are by no means 
 always as pleasant as is commonly supposed. Sometimes 
 they are as horrible and terrifying as bad dreams. Before 
 the stupor comes that follows the taking of narcotics, the 
 slave to them may undergo fearful mental torture. 
 
 Neither opium nor alcoholic preparations act at first 
 the same on all persons, but their final results are mer- 
 cilessly the same for all men in deranging functions of 
 organs, and in destroying moral sense and will power. 
 
 The effect that stimulants and narcotics have on the 
 will and morals of people is the worst thing about these 
 terrible drugs. Physical slavery is bad, but a mental 
 and moral slavery that is brought on by personal weak- 
 ness is the most terrible form of servitude. 
 
 15 P 
 
228 HYGIENE. 
 
 Exercise. The brain can increase its capacity for 
 work by exercise, just as the lungs and muscles can in- 
 crease theirs, and it can also become almost useless by 
 want of exercise. Thought and study are the exercise of 
 the brain. Thinking makes the power to think. Certain 
 parts of the brain can be used to the injury of others, 
 as when a person educates his business or musical facul- 
 ties at the expense of the rest, so that his judgment of 
 anything out of his line of thought is as unreliable as 
 that of a child. 
 
 Fatigue. After a person has been working or study- 
 ing hard there comes a time of weariness, if the work is 
 continued; even after a short pause to take fresh air and 
 food there is still fatigue; if stimulants are taken there 
 is a momentary rush, and then if rest is not taken there 
 is a break down. No body or brain can work continu- 
 ously. There is a great deal of intemperate use of both, 
 and the penalty falls heaviest on the nervous system. 
 Some people forget that the brain has other functions 
 than that of producing thought. It controls the volun- 
 tary motions and a person can get fatigued, to the point 
 of falling down, by work that has not developed a single 
 thought, and his brain needs rest in such a case just as 
 much as though he had exhausted it by mental calcula- 
 tions. 
 
 There is considerable harm in the statement that 
 change of work is rest. It is true only in the limited 
 sense that change of work, within certain limits, is rest. 
 A person cannot work to the point of exhaustion with his 
 muscles and then turn for rest to severe mental labor, nor 
 can he get rest after fatiguing mental work by exhaustive 
 muscular action. The strain is too great and the sys- 
 tem breaks. Exhaustion is a call for cessation of work. 
 
 There is a great deal of talk about overtaxing young 
 
CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 
 
 people's brains by study. Very few persons are intem- 
 perate in the matter of study alone. In most cases where 
 the health of young people is broken down it will be 
 found that they have been trying to carry too much, to 
 keep up habits of social or other dissipation, or to carry 
 a load of worry and fret, at the same time they are study- 
 ing. If a person is careful about hours of rest and work, 
 and about general hygiene, he can do much more brain 
 work than the average student does, without the slightest 
 inconvenience; but if he adds to his healthy mental 
 effort the irritations of fashionable life and the waste 
 stimulus of fretting, he will be apt to destroy his health. 
 Fret and worry kill more than work and study. The 
 shortening of life is not the commonest nor the worst 
 penalty for overtaxing strength. The most deplorable 
 effect is the wrecking of health, when the victim of any 
 dissipation lives for years, broken in body and mind, 
 and useless to himself or others. 
 
 Change. Too long continued work is wearying. 
 When studying, a person should put all his mind on the 
 work for a short time, then stop, move about to start the 
 circulation of blood and get fresh air, then sit down again 
 to hard study. 
 
 Time for Application. A child of from six to twelve 
 years should not study one subject closely more than from 
 fifteen to twenty minutes at a time; and from twelve to 
 sixteen years not more than twenty or thirty minutes. 
 This means close concentration on one subject. Too often 
 careless, inattentive, lazy work is called study. To study 
 to learn one must learn to study, and close application for 
 a short time is what fixes ideas in the brain. 
 
 Sleep. Sleep is the great restorer. During sleep the 
 respiration and circulation are slower and, at that time, 
 when the brain is not constantly getting new impulses, 
 
230 HYGIENE. 
 
 the tissues are rapidly repaired. A person should wake 
 up in the morning bright, refreshed, and clear headed. 
 The number of hours of each day to be spent in sleep 
 varies with occupation and individuals, but generally 
 eight hours is considered a good allowance. The use of 
 sleep is to get rest, and when a person is rested he has 
 had enough sleep. Under ordinary circumstances a per- 
 son should be allowed to sleep till he wakes of his own 
 accord. 
 
 Sleeplessness. Sleeplessness, or the inability to sleep 
 a proper number of hours, may be caused by approaching 
 disease, or it may be the effect of bad habits. If change of 
 diet, of hours of eating, of ordinary habits, or an increase 
 of exercise and fresh air do not produce natural sleep, a 
 person must appeal to the educated gray .matter in the 
 brain of some physician. Soothing, or sleep, draughts are 
 dangerous. 
 
 Dreams. Bad dreams and troubled sleep are often 
 the effect of bad digestion, eating late meals or not eating 
 regularly, or of bad respiration and circulation. Dream- 
 ing is not so much a matter of mind as of body, for a 
 criminal with good digestion can sleep more sweetly than 
 the noblest man living who suffers with dyspepsia. 
 
 Sleep of Children. Children and young people natu- 
 rally sleep more than old people. Youth is the time of 
 great tissue changes. They are getting larger bodies all 
 the time, and nothing should be allowed to interfere with 
 their long hours of sleep. Children should never be 
 allowed to get "nervous." When irritability and ill 
 temper shall be considered physical ills to be treated as 
 measles and stomach ache, fewer people will have to bear 
 the affliction of other persons' nerves. 
 
 Simple diet, regular meals, absolutely no stimulant or 
 narcotic (tea, coffee, alcohol, or soothing syrups), fresh 
 
CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 
 
 air, plenty of sleep, and simple amusements, ought to 
 give an ordinary child a healthy body, and help a sick 
 child to become stronger. These are things that a child 
 is not experienced enough to understand, and upon which 
 the wisdom of the parent should insist. 
 
 Habits. A child learns as much from observing the 
 habits of grown people as from being taught ways of act- 
 ing. A habit is merely an easy way of doing or think- 
 ing, and it may be a good or a harmful way. It is not 
 easy at first to learn a habit. The brain is conscious of 
 something to be done, but the nerve matter has never 
 carried the impulse to do it to a muscle, or learned the 
 way to think that thought, and there is, perhaps, a re- 
 sistance, and the new impulse has to crowd itself along 
 and break its way. 
 
 The first attempt at action, or thought, is as awkward 
 as a child's first writing, and we say the task is difficult; 
 but the second time the impulse goes over the white nerve 
 road it is easier, and by repetition each time easier, till 
 the habit is learned, and then it sometimes happens that 
 something that was learned with much care and thought, 
 as walking, becomes an almost unconscious action. 
 
 As with hand craft, so with thought craft, the way has 
 to be made, and then it becomes easy for impulses to go 
 in certain directions. The day's thoughts travel beaten 
 paths, and it is much a matter of personal will whether 
 people allow bad thoughts, like wild beasts, to go raging 
 through their brains, or require good thoughts peacefully 
 to travel their own familiar pathways. If, from faulty 
 training, or wrong surroundings, impulses that a person 
 does not want have obtained the right of way, the only 
 proper thing to do is to start better impulses on other 
 tracks near by, so that the last impulses crowd the other 
 paths till there is no thoroughfare for the wrong impulses. 
 
232 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 Self-control. The habit of self-control is the most 
 important that can be acquired, and it means not only 
 control of eating and drinking and physical acts, but 
 also of mental and emotional impulses. Violent temper 
 is a form of intemperance that not only leaves an after 
 feeling of personal meanness in a right minded person, 
 but it seriously affects secretion, circulation, and diges- 
 tion. It is one of the forms of excitement that brings 
 on heart disease. 
 
 Excesses. Over study, over play, over excitement, in 
 fact, any physical and mental excess, injures the health 
 by interfering with the comfortable and constant nerve 
 function that controls different organs. Any great strain 
 on the cerebro-spinal system must be equalized by a pull 
 on the other systems, and the weakest of them always 
 gives away first, and the secondary effect may not be 
 referred to its proper cause. 
 
 As a person's health and character depend on his 
 habits, and as good habits are as quickly learned as bad 
 ones, it is important that parents and teachers should 
 pay much attention to the forming of children's habits. 
 
 That which excites the nervous system of children to 
 unnatural action, such as unhealthful food, drink, and 
 mental stimulants, robs them of some power to regulate 
 the growth of the body, and the result is small bodies, 
 or diseased bodies or minds. 
 
 THINGS TO AVOID. 
 
 Bad air. 
 Bad food. 
 Stimulants. 
 
 Excess in eating and drinking. 
 Excitement. 
 
 Excess in novel reading or any 
 stupefying brain work. 
 
 Excess of studying or mental 
 work. 
 
 Formation of injurious habits. 
 
 Exercising one set of mental fac- 
 ulties at the expense of others. 
 
 Doing too little brain work. 
 
 Fret, worry, waste brain effort. 
 
CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 233 
 
 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Congestion of the brain is an overfullness of the blood 
 vessels of the brain. It has many causes, and the pre- 
 ventable ones are excess in eating and drinking, in use 
 of alcohol, and in mental labor. 
 
 Cerebral fever is an inflammation of the membrane of 
 the brain, whose preventable causes are overworking 
 the brain, sleeplessness, and alcoholism. 
 
 Inflammation of the membranes and nerve matter of the 
 spinal cord. There are a* number of diseases of the 
 spinal cord that are caused by exposure to damp and 
 cold, by alcohol, by injuries, and by other diseases. 
 
 Neuralgia is a disease of the nerves, accompanied with 
 acute pain. Its preventable causes are worry, great 
 mental exertion, bad air, exposure to cold and damp. 
 
 Paralysis is a suppression of the motor and reasoning 
 power of the nerves, and of the function of gray cells. 
 It may be partial or complete. It is due to injury to 
 nerve centers, caused by escape of blood in the brain 
 cavity, pressure of blood vessels, mineral poisons (as 
 for example, lead), fibrous degeneration, and injury to 
 spinal cord. 
 
 NECESSARIES OF 
 LIFE. 
 
 Good food 
 
 Pure air 
 
 Regular exercise . 
 
 Frequent baths . . 
 Moderate thought. 
 Plenty of sleep . . 
 
 ORGANS THEY 
 AFFECT. 
 
 Alimentary canal. 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Muscles . 
 
 Skin .... 
 Brain .... 
 All systems 
 
 THEIR USE. 
 
 Builds all tissues. 
 
 Builds tissues, makes heat. 
 
 Strengthens muscles and in- 
 vigorates system. 
 
 Free pores. 
 
 Develops gray matter. 
 
 Rests and permits renewal 
 of tissues. 
 
234 HYGIENE. 
 
 TESTS OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 The models below are to emphasize the dependence of sys- 
 tems upon one another, and to show the physical action of 
 ordinary injuries, and to test the memory of the pupil. 
 They can be varied almost indefinitely at the will of the 
 teacher. 
 
 A bee stings the hand. What happens ? 
 
 Answer. The nerve of sensation takes the message 
 to the gray cells of the brain and we are conscious of pain. 
 The nerve of motion takes down an order to the muscles 
 to contract and draw the hand away from the cause of 
 injury. The poison of the sting produces an irritation 
 of tissue, which brings to it more than the usual amount 
 of blood, and this causes heat and inflammation; gorged 
 with blood, the tissues are enlarged, making a swelling, 
 and the swelling presses against the nerve, making more 
 pain. This extra impression is carried to the brain, and 
 the judgment of educated cells orders the application of 
 lotions. 
 
 A finger is cut. What happens before it is healed ? 
 
 Answer. The sensory nerve carries an impression of 
 pain to the gray cells. The cerebral cells, working as 
 they have learned, order the wound to be pressed or to be 
 bound up. If the wound be small, the blood soon coagu- 
 lates and shuts the opening. In healing there is a call 
 for forming material which is circulating in the blood. 
 This tissue maker was manufactured in the stomach and 
 liver, from albuminoids. It seeped through the walls of 
 the stomach, was reorganized in the liver, went to the 
 ascending vena cava, to the right auricle, right ventricle, 
 pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary veins, left auricle, 
 left ventricle^ aorta, artery of the arm and hand, till it 
 reached the capillaries, and soaked through their thin 
 
TESTS OF KNOWLEDGE. 235 
 
 walls, bathing the tissues, and there it mends the cut por- 
 tion. If the person is weakened by disease the healing 
 process is slow. If some blood-preparing organ is dis- 
 ordered,, then the proper material is not made, and the 
 wound, instead of healing, becomes a sore. The same 
 thing may happen by some foreign substance getting into 
 the cut and poisoning the tissues. 
 
 Bone mending: The mending of broken bone involves 
 the same nervous action, digestion, absorption, circula- 
 tion, except that carbonate of lime taken in solution in 
 water and in combination with other foods, must be 
 added to the proteid material, and the nerve cells of the 
 brain are not able of themselves to bring about a cure 
 without the aid of a surgeon. 
 
 A person has studied till his head aches, and his feet are cold. 
 How does he change matters ? 
 
 Answer. The gray nerve cells order some active serv- 
 ice. The motor nerves cause muscles to contract. Con- 
 traction produces heat, motion, and a demand for oxygen. 
 The blood carries the extra heat to different parts of the 
 body. The demand for oxygen causes quicker respiration 
 and circulation. The blood pressure on the brain, caused 
 by over study, that made his head ache, is relieved by the 
 equal distribution of blood, and the feet that were cold, 
 because of imperfect circulation, become warm when they 
 get their share of blood. 
 
 Fat is deposited in the cheek. How does it get there ? 
 
 Answer. In two ways: First Starch is eaten, is 
 changed by saliva to sugar (or sugar is eaten). It is 
 absorbed by the blood vessels of the stomach, carried to 
 the liver by the portal vein, changed to glycogen, carried 
 to heart, to lungs, to heart again, to artery of neck and 
 face, and deposited by capillaries in the cheek. Sec- 
 ond Fat is eaten, is digested by bile and pancreatic 
 
236 HYGIENE. 
 
 juice, absorbed by villi, carried by lacteals to the thoracic 
 duct, to the left vein under the clavicle, then to the heart, 
 and from the heart as above. 
 
 Name other injuries that require proteid food, and 
 trace its way on its journey to repair the injury. 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 237 
 
 MEMORY QUESTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 What is health? 
 
 How can people keep healthy? 
 
 Why should a person study hygiene? 
 
 What is disease ? 
 
 What causes catching diseases and others? 
 
 Describe heredity, with illustrations. 
 
 Who are the persons most interested in hygiene, and why? 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 
 What will keep bones healthy? 
 
 Why are children's bones more liable to injury than those of older 
 persons ? 
 
 How are they injured? 
 
 Name seven ways of getting deformed. 
 
 How does standing crooked affect the ligaments? 
 
 Upon whom should a person depend for a straight, strong body? 
 
 In what two ways does clothing affect bones? 
 
 In what three ways do tight and high-heeled shoes injure? 
 
 Why are children often hungry? 
 
 What two substances are good bone food? 
 
 Why should a broken limb not be allowed to swing? 
 
 What should be done first when a limb is broken? 
 
 What is the difference between a sprain and a broken bone? 
 
 What should be done with a sprain ? 
 
 In what two ways are colds often taken? 
 
 What part of the bones is affected by colds ? 
 
 What should be done after a person has been exposed to rain? 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 What is one of the first laws of health? 
 
 Why must our muscles be used? 
 
 What effect has exercise on the heart? On circulation? 
 
238 HYGIENE. 
 
 Why should not children exercise too hard? 
 
 Name six kinds of exercise. 
 
 What are the reasons that walking is so good exercise? 
 
 What adds to the pleasure of walking? 
 
 What three effects has over exertion? 
 
 Why are athletes not often long lived? 
 
 What is lumbago? 
 
 Name another disease that comes from exposure to wet or cold. 
 
 Why is it dangerous to sit in wet clothing? 
 
 Describe fatty degeneration. 
 
 What would be the effect if an order to contract came to a muscle 
 that was part fat? 
 
 Draw fatty and normal heart muscle, so as to show the difference 
 between them. 
 
 What causes palpitation of the heart? 
 
 Describe trichina in muscle. 
 
 How can any one avoid enlargement or palpitation of the heart? 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 Why should the skin be kept clean? 
 How does it get unclean? 
 
 What is a rule to follow as to frequency of baths ? 
 What should be the effect of a bath ? 
 Why is cold water generally best? 
 Why should baths be frequent in California? 
 What are the advantages of sea bathing? 
 How are chapped hands caused? 
 What are cosmetics, and why are they used? 
 Name three ways in which they injure the skin ? 
 What are the poisons used ? 
 How can a person get a good complexion ? 
 Why are hair dyes and hair bleaching injurious? 
 Are there any pores in the skin of the scalp? 
 How is painter's colic caused ? 
 Does lead injure in any other way ? 
 Describe poisoning by poison ivy. 
 What is the reason flannel makes good clothing? 
 Why should clothing be frequently changed ? 
 Give three reasons why blankets make good bedding. 
 What conditions make it easy for a person to take cold ? 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 239 
 
 Describe how a cold affects various parts of the mucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 What causes corns ? 
 
 How can a slight burn be cured? 
 
 How does an extensive burn sometimes affect the lungs, and 
 'why? 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 Elements, Compounds, and their Action. Define food. Why do 
 we have to understand the composition of food ? 
 
 What is a compound? Define element, and give example. 
 About how many elements are there? How many found in the 
 body? What becomes of elements when compounds are destroyed? 
 Is heat an element ? How is it produced ? 
 
 What is the difference between wood burned up and wood 
 decayed in the forest? What is iron rust? How do people keep 
 iron from rusting? What part of the air rusts it? What makes a 
 fire burn brighter? How does a person keep warm without a fire? 
 How does a person starve? What becomes of the food a person 
 eats after he is full grown? Describe work power. What are the 
 compounds of a body called? What effect has oxygen on com- 
 pounds? What becomes of the new compounds formed? What 
 happens if new material is not supplied ? 
 
 If a person wants to increase his muscle, is lean meat the only 
 thing to eat? 
 
 What happens to meat and vegetables that are eaten? 
 
 Kinds and Classes of Food. Name the two kinds and the classes 
 of foods. What is the difference between organic and inorganic 
 food? 
 
 Describe salt as a food. Where does the lime for bones come 
 from ? Why do people need much water ? 
 
 What does ordinary drinking water contain ? What makes water 
 often impure? Why can water look clean, and still be harmful? 
 If one is suspicious of the water, what should be done with it ? 
 
 How do the classes of organic foods differ in use? Name the 
 characteristics of proteids. Name the principal proteids. Describe 
 albumen. Where is fibrin found? How does fibrin differ from 
 gluten? In what two compounds is casein found? 
 
 Where are fats found? Are there any vegetable fats? 
 
240 HYGIENE. 
 
 Name the members of the starch class. Why are they put 
 together? Are any of the starch class of animal origin? 
 
 Why is a mixed diet necessary ? If a mixed diet is taken, what 
 things are most important? In eating oatmeal and milk, which 
 furnishes proteids and which fats? In eating pork and beans, 
 which article gives starches, which proteids, and which fats ? T6 
 which class does beefsteak belong? Potatoes? Cheese? Crackers? 
 Why are oatmeal, cracked wheat, and graham bread good food? 
 
 Which are the most nourishing kinds of meat? What kinds of 
 meat are hardest to digest? Why is cheese hard to digest? What 
 is beef tea good for? What are the three common sources of fatty 
 foods? Why is a meat and vegetable diet generally better than 
 an exclusively vegetable diet? What foods should not be eaten 
 together ? What needs are supplied by fruits ? 
 
 What are condiments, and of what use are they ? 
 
 Define a stimulant. Why should not children use tea and coffee ? 
 
 Describe tea ; describe coffee. How does strong tea affect people ? 
 What is the name % of the stimulant in tea, coffee, and chocolate? 
 Why is chocolate the most nourishing ? 
 
 Condition and Preparation of Foods. Why should meats be fresh? 
 What is the disadvantage of salted and smoked meats? In how 
 many ways are canned goods injurious? What are the advantages 
 of canned goods ? What is the use of cooking food ? What is the 
 best way of cooking meat, and why ? What happens if meat to be 
 boiled is put in cold water ? 
 
 What is a parasite ? How does it get into food ? What harm does 
 it do in the system? Name two kinds. Where does each come 
 from ? How can they always be prevented ? 
 
 Taste, Climate. Give illustration of individual taste and pecul- 
 iarity in food. What difference does occupation make? How 
 should diet differ with the seasons ? How should diet differ between 
 people of the tropics and those of Arctic regions ? 
 
 Digestion. Where are different classes of food digested? Why 
 should meals be regular? Define adulteration, and tell how it 
 harms food. 
 
 What led to the classifying of foods? How was St. Martin con- 
 nected with the food question? Upon what does good health 
 depend? 
 
 Diseases. What effect do bad teeth have? Why does mucous 
 membrane easily get out of order? Name a common form of stom- 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 241 
 
 ach disease, and how to avoid it. Name five other diseases of 
 alimentary canal, and their causes. What is the cause of bilious- 
 ness? What is jaundice? Describe fatty degeneration of liver, 
 and its effect. Examine table of habits and articles to avoid, to 
 find which you should conquer in yourself. What is the reason 
 each should be avoided ? 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 
 Define a narcotic. 
 
 What is the use of stimulants and narcotics? 
 Why are they dangerous? 
 Why should a person learn about them? 
 Name three dangerous common drugs. 
 Name six characteristics of alcohol. 
 What three uses has alcohol? 
 Describe fermentation. 
 How is vinegar made? 
 
 Why does bread dough sometimes get sour? 
 Is pure alcohol used as a drink? 
 How much alcohol in wines and cider? 
 What else is found in alcoholic beverages? 
 Which are most dangerous drinks, and why? 
 Describe distillation. 
 
 Where can you see examples of condensation? 
 What adds to the deadly effects of alcoholic drinks? 
 What is the effect of large drinks of alcoholic liquor? 
 Why is alcohol not a food? 
 Why will it not protect against cold? 
 Is it a protection against the heat of hot climates ? 
 Why does it not protect against disease? 
 What effect has alcohol on the general system? 
 Name three diseases it causes. 
 How does it affect tissues and cells ? 
 
 Describe its effects on stomach; liver; heart; lungs; brain. 
 Does it benefit any of these? 
 
 Does it affect all tissues and organs of every one who uses it? 
 Why is it that some people do not consider it injurious? 
 Of two people nearly alike, which will have the better chance in 
 life, the man who drinks, or the man who does not, and why? 
 
242 HYGIENE. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON NARCOTICS AND OTHER POISONS. 
 
 What is opium made from? 
 
 Where is it used most? How is it used? 
 
 Why is there danger of its being used in California? 
 
 How does it differ, in effect, from alcohol? 
 
 How does it affect the brain ? 
 
 What systems does it affect? 
 
 How does it kill people? 
 
 What are other forms of opium ? 
 
 Which is most dangerous, and w r hy? 
 
 What is the harm of using soothing syrups to quiet fretful chil- 
 dren? 
 
 What are bitters ; quack medicines ; and the harm of using them ? 
 
 Why have doctors nearly given up the use of tobacco as a medi- 
 cine? 
 
 What is the poison of tobacco? 
 
 How does it affect the heart? 
 
 What effect has tobacco on the mucous membrane and organs 
 contained by it? 
 
 How does it affect the glands, and what is the harm done? 
 
 What effect has it on growing boys, and why? 
 
 Define a poison; an antidote. 
 
 How can a child get poisoned ? 
 
 What is a common antidote, and how does it act? 
 
 What should be done for a child who has taken laudanum ? 
 
 Why not use an emetic when any one has taken oxalic acid? 
 
 What will be good to take ? 
 
 How does egg act on blue vitriol? 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 
 What generally causes diseases of the circulatory organs? 
 How does the blood get out of order? 
 Where must it be doctored? 
 What parts of the heart are often affected? 
 What is the use of valves to a heart? 
 What happens if the valves get thick? Get thin ? 
 Describe the result if the valve between the left auricle and ven- 
 tricle should get too small. 
 Define dropsy. 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 243 
 
 What causes disease of valves? 
 
 What effect has inflammation of serous membrane of heart? 
 Why do people faint? 
 
 How can any one tell when an artery is cut? 
 Why is cold water sometimes put on the surface near a wound? 
 Why not put it right on the wound? 
 What is the use of pressure ? 
 
 How can ordinary nosebleed be checked, and why? 
 Why should wounds be covered? 
 Why is it dangerous to cut corns? 
 What is the cause of cold feet? 
 How can cold feet be prevented? 
 What is congestion? 
 Why are kidneys liable to disease? 
 What causes such disease? 
 
 Examine table " Things to Avoid," and tell why each thing 
 should be avoided. 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 How much of the air is oxygen? 
 What part of the blood carries it? 
 Why do tissues need it? 
 
 Where is heat produced? What is body temperature? 
 Why are people uncomfortable when the weather is 99? 
 How does the heat of the body get equalized? 
 Describe carbon .dioxide. 
 
 Where does it come from, and what becomes of it? 
 What is the most harmful part of expired air? 
 What is the effect of breathing bad air? 
 Define ventilation. 
 What is the difficulty about it? 
 How can a school room be ventilated? 
 What two things are good for ventilating rooms? 
 Can cool air ever be impure ? 
 Give an example of warmed pure air. 
 What is it in the air that makes it good? 
 How can any one tell if air in a room is bad? 
 Give two illustrations of sudden death from want of ventilation. 
 What is the harm of compressing the chest? 
 What organs are affected? 
 16 P 
 
244 HYGIENE. 
 
 Will tight lacing lessen fat? 
 What does it do to it? 
 How does lacing produce lung disease? 
 What other diseases are increased by it? 
 What effect has pressure on the pneumo-gastric nerve ? 
 Why is it dangerous to strike a person in the stomach? 
 Why are the breathing organs liable to disease? 
 What effect has tobacco? 
 Why are cigarettes most harmful? 
 How does alcohol affect lungs and air tubes? 
 What effect has exposure to cold and wet? 
 How many kinds of bad air can you name? 
 Describe germs, or poisons, in air. 
 
 Why does one person catch contagious diseases and another 
 escape? 
 
 Why should bedding, etc., from a sick room, be burned? 
 What are disinfectants, and why are they used? 
 What means should every one take to prevent germ diseases? 
 Name five diseases of breathing organs. 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 
 Why are the senses of savages more acute than ours? 
 
 What is meant by toleration? 
 
 What affects special senses? 
 
 What would a disease that destroys the sense of touch be called? 
 
 What will keep taste, touch, and smell in good working order? 
 
 How can the hearing be injured? 
 
 Why should a person not doctor his own eyes? 
 
 How does stooping over injure the eyes? 
 
 Why should not a person read on the cars? 
 
 Examine the table, and tell why each habit should be avoided. 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 
 What does the brain need? 
 
 Why does the brain need so much? 
 
 What follows from the brain being material ? 
 
 Does food ever stimulate? 
 
 Is it necessary to eat brain food? 
 
MEMORY QUESTIONS. 245 
 
 How does alcohol act on the brain? 
 
 What is peculiar about the ideas of a person drunk on opium ? 
 
 Can a person easily break the habit of taking stimulants and 
 narcotics? 
 
 Can any one increase his brain power? 
 
 flow does overwork affect the brain? 
 
 Can any one get rest by changing from one exhaustive labor to 
 another? 
 
 What is the commonest cause of children and young people break- 
 ing down? 
 
 How should a person study? 
 
 How long ought you to study with concentration? 
 
 What effect has sleep on the systems ? 
 
 How should a person feel when he wakes up? 
 
 How can ordinary sleeplessness be avoided? 
 
 What often causes bad dreams? 
 
 Why should children sleep long hours? 
 
 What can keep children from getting " nervous? " 
 
 What is a habit? 
 
 How are habits of sitting, eating, walking, formed? 
 
 How can one form habits of thought? 
 
 What is the use of self-control? 
 
 What does it mean? 
 
 What is the reason anger should be avoided? 
 
 Why should children be taught? 
 
 Why should they not be allowed stimulants and exciting amuse- 
 ments? 
 
 Why does a child of ten not know as much as his parents ? 
 
 Why does he think he knows more? 
 
246 GLOSSARY. 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Abdomen. The lower part of the trunk between the pelvis and 
 
 the diaphragm. 
 
 Accommodation. The adjusting of parts of the eyeball, so that a 
 clear image is formed on the retina. This is done by the 
 contracting or expanding of the iris and by changing the liga- 
 ment attached to the crystalline lens. The lens is flexible and 
 the ciliary muscle either contracts or relaxes, and causes the 
 ligament to change the shape of the lens. The lens modifies 
 the light entering the eye. 
 Acetab'ulum. The hollow, or socket, of the hip bone in which the 
 
 head of the thigh bone fits. 
 
 Acids. Substance generally sour. They may be of vegetable, min- 
 eral, or animal origin. 
 
 Acetic Acid. The acid in vinegar formed from a kind of fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 Malic Acid. Acid of sour apples. 
 
 Citric Acid. The acid from lemons and limes. 
 
 These three are vegetable acids. 
 
 Hydrochloric or Muriatic is a mineral acid, and is made of 
 hydrogen and chlorine; and sulphuric acid, made of sulphur, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen, is another. 
 
 Butyric acid obtained from butter, palmitic from palm oil, 
 and stearic from stearine, a kind of hard fat, are examples of 
 animal acids. These are called fatty acids and are not sour. 
 Action of the Heart. The heart alternately contracts and relaxes. 
 Both auricles contract at the same time and then relax, then 
 almost immediately the ventricles do the same. The contrac- 
 tion is called systole and the dilation diastole, and they cause 
 the beating of the heart. The auricles have to drive the blood 
 only a short distance and have their walls quite thin, but the 
 ventricles have more work to do, and their walls are thicker 
 and stronger. The relaxation, or diastole, when the auricles 
 are filling, allows time for a pause, and the pauses are the rest 
 times of the heart muscle Altogether the pauses amount to 
 about nine hours a day. 
 
 Adam's Apple. The projection in the front of the larynx, most 
 strongly marked in men. It is so called because of the fancy 
 that the tempting apple of Eden stuck in Adam's throat. 
 
GLOSSARY. 247 
 
 Ad'ipocere. A soft, brownish, waxy substance, into which the fat 
 and muscles of animals are changed by immersion in water 
 or alcoholic liquors, and sometimes by burial in damp places, 
 under some unknown circumstances. 
 
 Adipose (Fat). A tissue made of rounded masses of fat bound 
 together by connective tissue. 
 
 Air. A mixture of gases that surrounds the earth. It is made of 
 oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas), and 
 water vapor. Often there are particles of dust and organic 
 germs. 
 
 Albino. A person, or lower animal, with white skin and hair, and 
 no pigment to the iris, so that the eyes look pink from the 
 blood vessels showing. 
 
 Albu men. A thick, sticky substance found in vegetables and in 
 animal solids and fluids. It is nearly pure in white of egg. 
 
 Albuminoid. Resembling albumen. A group of substances some- 
 what like albumen in composition and characteristics. 
 
 Alcohol. A fine black powder used for painting the eyebrows ; after- 
 wards used for fine distilled spirits. 
 
 A white liquid obtained from fermentation of liquids and 
 distillation of their product. It is present in all liquors. 
 
 Aliment. Food, nourishment, that which supplies material for 
 natural growth. 
 
 Alimentary Canal. The long twisted tube that extends from lips to 
 anus, by which the food is ground up, digested, absorbed, and 
 the waste portion expelled. It includes mouth, larynx, gullet, 
 stomach, small and large intestines. 
 
 Alkali. A substance, like soda or potash, that is caustic, or burn- 
 ing, and unites with fats to make soaps. 
 
 Alkaline. Substances that act somewhat like soda or potash. Lime 
 does this, and water with too much lime is sometimes called 
 alkaline. 
 
 Alve'olus (plural, alveoli). The hollow, or cavity, in the jaw in 
 which are set the teeth (teeth sockets). 
 
 Amyloids. A group of foods, the starches, which includes gum, 
 starch, and sugar. 
 
 Annular Ligament. A band of ligament to keep tendons in place, 
 as at the wrist and ankle. 
 
 Aor'ta. The great trunk of the arteries, which goes from left ven- 
 tricle. It is divided into ascending portion, the arch (a part 
 which curves backward), and a descending portion; and it 
 gives off branches to all parts of the body. 
 
248 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Appendages. Of ear : All parts except tue inner ear, which is called 
 the essential part. Of eye : All parts except the eyeball, which 
 is the essential organ of sight. Of skin : Hair, nails, and teeth, 
 oil and sweat glands, and their ducts. 
 
 Appetite. A desire for food due to the condition of the mucous 
 membrane of the stomach when food is needed by the tissues. 
 
 Ar'bor Vi'tse. The tree-like arrangement of gray matter and white 
 matter seen in a section of the cerebellum. 
 
 Are'olar Tissue. A loose kind of connective tissue containing many 
 spaces or cells. Sometimes it is called cellular tissue, and it is 
 found between skin and muscles. 
 
 Artery. A blood vessel to carry blood from the heart. Arteries 
 remain open after death, and the ancients thought they were 
 air tubes. 
 
 Articulations (Joints). The places where two or more bones are 
 formed. 
 
 Asphyxia. A suspension of respiration from drowning, or from 
 exposure to suffocating gases. 
 
 Assimilation. The making alike. As the tissues wear out they take 
 from the blood liquid food, something unlike them, but having 
 the same elements, and of this they make their own particular 
 kind of tissue. 
 
 Astig'matism. A trouble of the eyes where a blurred image is made 
 on the retina, because of irregular refraction of light. 
 
 Banting. Bantingism. A method of reducing undue corpulence by 
 abstaining from fatty, starchy, or sugary food. Called so from 
 William Banting, of London. 
 
 Biceps. A muscle in the front of the arm that has its origin from 
 the shoulder joint by two heads. 
 
 Bicuspid. A tooth with two points. 
 
 A valve of the heart, between left auricle and ventricle, hav- 
 ing two flaps of membrane. (Mitral valve.) 
 
 Bilateral Symmetry. A shapeliness caused by two sides being equal 
 and alike, as the sides of the human body. 
 
 Bile (Gall). A golden brown, bitter, sticky fluid secreted by liver, 
 and stored in bile bladder. Considered a secretion and an 
 excretion. 
 
 Bladder. A sac in animals used for holding liquids, as the bile 
 bladder, or cyst, for holding gall or bile, and the urinary blad- 
 der, connected with the kidneys, for holding urine. 
 
GLOSSARY. 249 
 
 Blushing. To grow red and warm. Caused by some mental or 
 nerve stimulus which checks the action of smaller nerves of 
 capillaries, and then the blood fills these vessels on the sur- 
 face, giving rise to warmth and color. 
 
 Bone. The hard white substance which supports the body. It is 
 composed of mineral and animal matter. The mineral is cal- 
 cium carbonate, phosphate and fluoride, sodium chloride, and 
 magnesium phosphate. The bone tissue is arranged around 
 microscopic canals, called Haversian (Havers, proper name) 
 canals, which branch in all directions through the bone. From 
 these canals little wavy tubes, called canaliculi, extend and 
 connect them with elliptical hollows, called lacunx. 
 
 Bronchus (plural, bronchi}. A branch of the windpipe. There are 
 two. One branch enters the right lung and the other the left 
 lung. They subdivide again and again, forming the bronchial 
 tubes, which end in the air sacs. 
 
 Bunion. An enlargement of a small membranous sac (bursa), usu- 
 ally on the inside of the first joint of the large toe. 
 
 Burns. Injuries by fire. If they are slight, no serious results follow ; 
 but if much of the surface is injured congestion of the lungs 
 may set in, because so much extra work is thrown on the lungs 
 by the destruction of exhaling organs of the skin. 
 
 Bur'sae Mueo'sse. Small sacs full of sticky liquid situated under the 
 tendons at the joints. Bursa} can be seen by pressing the thick 
 part of the palm of the hand near the wrist. 
 
 Caecum. The beginning of the large intestine. 
 
 Caff'ein. A brittle, white substance obtained from coffee. It is the 
 stimulating principle, and is also found in tea, Paraguay tea, 
 and chocolate. Theine is a name that was given to the tea 
 principle before it was learned that it is identical with caffein. 
 
 Canal. Alimentary (p. 247). 
 
 Auditory. The bony tube of the outer ear that extends from 
 the cartilage part, pinna, to the membrane of the tympanum. 
 This canal is almost an inch long and a quarter of an inch wide. 
 Lachrymal. Two small canals on the inner side of the eyes 
 connecting small openings on the lids with the nasal duct, to 
 carry off tears. 
 
 Semicircular Canals of the Ear. Three canals in internal ear 
 said to have something to do with equilibrium of body, for 
 when they are destroyed the balance of the body is lost. Their 
 best known function is connected with hearing. 
 
250 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Spinal. The hollows in the vertebras through which the 
 spinal cord passes. 
 
 Canaliculi. The small, wavy tubes in the bones that connect the 
 Haversian canals with the lacunae. 
 
 Carbohydrates. A group of substances composed of carbon, hydro- 
 gen, and oxygen, in which hydrogen and oxygen are in the 
 same proportions as in water. These substances are cellulose, 
 opium, starch, and sugar. The amyloids or starches. 
 
 Carbon. An element that occurs in three forms, as coal, as diamond, 
 and as graphite, or so called black lead. 
 
 Ca'seine (written also Casein). A nitrogenous substance found in 
 plants and animals. In milk it is the part that curdles and 
 forms the curd for making cheese ; in vegetables it is found in 
 leguminous plants, as pease and beans, and is sometimes called 
 legumine. 
 
 Cat'alepsy. A sudden suspension of volition and sensation. 
 
 Cauda equina (Horse' s tail). A name given to the mass of nerves 
 that extends from the end of the spinal cord at the second 
 lumbar vertebra through and to the end of the spinal canal. 
 
 Cellulose. The vegetable fibre that forms the walls of cells. It can 
 be changed into starch and sugar. In the food canal it is use- 
 ful in keeping the mass of food distended so that the digestive 
 juices can penetrate and surround the food particles. 
 
 Cer'ebro- Spinal System. The part of the nervous system that is 
 composed of brain, spinal cord, cranial and spinal nerves. 
 
 Ceru'men (Ear wax). A kind of bitter, yellow, thick oil secreted 
 from glands in the ear that are something like the oil glands 
 of the rest of the skin. 
 
 Chloral. A liquid made by the action of a gas called chlorine on 
 alcohol in sunlight. It produces sleep. It is a dangerous drug 
 that enslaves something as alcohol and opium do, by com- 
 pelling increase of dose till a person has formed the "chloral 
 habit." This habit deranges the organs of the body and weak- 
 ens the mind. 
 
 Chloroform. An oily liquid used to lessen pain and produce insen- 
 sibility during surgical operations. It is volatile and has a 
 pungent odor. It is a dangerous drug and should never be 
 used unless by a physician's order. 
 
 Ciliary Muscles and Processes. The muscles are connected with the 
 choroid coat and help in accommodation. The processes are a 
 number of folds of the choroid coat radiating backward from 
 the junction of the cornea and choroid, 
 
GLOSSARY. 251 
 
 Coats of Brain. The membranes that cover the brain are three in 
 number. Next to the bone the membrane of connective tissue 
 is a kind of periosteum which nourishes the bone and lines the 
 cranial cavity, and it is called dura mater. The second coat, 
 called arachnoid, is in two layers, and between these layers 
 there is a liquid. The third membrane, called pia mater, is next 
 to the brain and nourishes it. 
 
 Cocaine. A preparation from a South American plant (cocoa) which 
 produces insensibility to pain when applied to the surface of the 
 body. It is used by dentists as a local pain killer. 
 
 Coccyx. The end of the spinal column, formed of a few small 
 imperfect vertebrae, and supposed to look like a cuckoo's bill. 
 
 Color Blindness (Daltonism}. An imperfection of eyesight which 
 makes it impossible for the person afflicted to tell the difference 
 between certain colors. Generally the colors are red and green, 
 the person not being able to tell ripe cherries from the leaves 
 except by shape. Another form is inability to tell the differ- 
 ence between green and blue. It is called Daltonism from John 
 Dalton, who first made the disease known, his own eyes being 
 . so affected. Much of the so called color blindness is, however, 
 mere color ignorance. 
 
 Colum'nse Carnese. The fleshy columns of the heart to which are 
 attached the chordee tendin'e&, or tendon cords, which keep 
 the flaps of the ventral and tricuspid valves from pushing 
 through the openings when the ventricles contract. 
 
 Conjunctiva. The mucous membrane that covers the front part of 
 the eyeball and the inner surface of the eyelids. 
 
 Constipation. An overfull condition of the large intestine, caused 
 generally by want of regular exercise, proper diet, and care- 
 lessness about regular daily evacuation of contents of bowels. 
 The accumulation of waste material causes disease. Regu- 
 larity in getting rid of egesta is one of the most important 
 habits for preserving health. 
 
 Corpus Callo'sum. A band of white nerve matter that binds together 
 the hemispheres of the cerebrum. 
 
 Corpus'cles. Small bodies. Those of taste and touch are made of 
 nerve material. 
 
 Delirium Tremens. A disease produced by long or excessive use of 
 alcoholic liquors. Connected with physical disorder and weak- 
 ness are strange delusions. The person imagines he is perse- 
 cuted, is surrounded by horrible creatures, and his sight and 
 hearing give him distorted and unnatural impressions of objects. 
 
252 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Digestibility of Foods. The ability of foods to be worked over into 
 - a substance of which to make tissues dependent upon their 
 hardness, structure, and the manner they are prepared. All 
 nutritive articles are not easily digested, therefore the value of 
 food depends as much on digestibility as on nutritive quality. 
 Cheese is nutritive, but not easily digested. 
 
 Dipsomania. An uncontrollable thirst for alcoholic liquors. A form 
 of insanity produced by indulgence in liquor, or oftener by 
 inheritance from parents addicted to alcoholic liquors. 
 
 Drainage. Carrying off waste water. The ground around a dwell- 
 ing house should be well drained, and the drainage should be 
 so directed that the waste water cannot pollute the wells or 
 springs. Carelessness about drainage is the source of sickness. 
 
 Dreams. The thoughts of a person asleep. The action of thought 
 centers when not under control of the will. 
 
 Duode'num. The first part of small intestine, so called because its 
 length is about twelve fingers' breadth. 
 
 Eges'ta. The solid part that remains after food is digested and which 
 leaves the body by the rectum. It consists of the cellulose of 
 vegetables, pits and skins of fruit, and waste nitrogenous matter. 
 
 Elbow Joint. This joint is made by the articulation of the humerus, 
 with the radius, and the ulna. The head of the radius rolls 
 around the ulna, so that the radius crosses over the ulna. This 
 gives extra freedom to the hand. Extend the hand palm up- 
 ward. By motion of the forearm turn the palm down, and 
 the rolling action of the radius will be understood. The end 
 of the ulna extends beyond the joint, forming a process called 
 "funny bone," or olecranon process. 
 
 Elements. The elements of the body are fourteen in number: Oxy- 
 gen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, fluorine, 
 chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron. 
 
 Emotion. An agitation or stirring of the mind or soul. An impulse 
 of gray nerve matter that does not produce muscular action. 
 Examples of emotion are fear, anger, terror, pity, revenge, 
 love, hate. 
 
 Emulsion. A milky looking liquid formed by breaking up oil in 
 minute particles, the substance changing it being often an 
 alkali. The fatty foods are made into an emulsion by the alka- 
 line pancreatic juice before they are absorbed by the villi. 
 
 En'dolymph. The fluid contained in the membranous bags, or laby- 
 rinth, of the internal ear. That which surrounds the bags is 
 called perilymph, 
 
GLOSSARY. 253 
 
 Ethmoid. A bone of the skull. It forms the top of the nasal cavity 
 and contains sieve-like openings, through which branches of 
 olfactory nerves pass. It also forms part of the walls of the 
 orbital cavity. 
 
 Eusta'shian Tube. The tube that connects the throat and middle 
 ear, and serves as a passage for air to regulate sound. 
 
 Excretory Organs. The skin, lungs, and kidneys are organs of excre- 
 tion. They take from the blood gas, liquid, and solid waste 
 material in suspension. The skin excretes water, the lungs 
 carbon dioxide and water, and the kidneys water and urea. 
 
 Fats. A class of foods called hydrocarbons, which contains carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen. It includes fat meat, animal oils, and 
 oils of nuts and seeds. The fats contain the same elements as 
 the starches, but not as much oxygen, so they unite in'the body 
 more readily with oxygen, and thus give more energy than 
 starches. 
 
 Fenes'tra. A small opening or window. The oval (ovalis) window, 
 or fenestra, and the round (rotunda) window, are openings 
 in the bone between labyrinth and middle ear. They are closed 
 with membrane. 
 
 Ferments. A class of nitrogenous substances that cause fermenta- 
 tion. Each digestive juice has a ferment, that of saliva being 
 ptyalin; of gastric juice being pepsin; of bile and pancreatic 
 juice, pancreatin, or trypsin; of intestinal juices, unknown. 
 
 Fibula. The small bone of the leg. The large one is called tibia, 
 or shin bone. 
 
 Fi'brin. The net work of elastic albuminous fibres that draws all the 
 solid parts of blood together in forming a clot is called fibrin. 
 Vegetable fibrin, called gluten, is in tough, whitish masses. 
 The albuminous matter of muscle is sometimes called muscle 
 fibrin, but more properly is myosin. 
 
 Follicle. A follicle is a little pouch or pocket. The follicles of the 
 hair are depressions of the cuticle. In the small intestine there 
 are a number of pouches connected with the formation of intes- 
 tinal digestive juice, which are called follicles of Lieberkiihn. 
 
 Fora'men (plural, foram'ina). An opening. Generally it is a small 
 opening, but it is large in the foramen magnum, the opening 
 in the base of the skull, the passage for the spinal cord. The 
 fenestra ovalis and fenestra rotundum of the ear are foramina. 
 Numerous foramina can be found at the base of the skull, and 
 in the long bones, where they serve for entrance and exit, of 
 nerves and blood vessels. 
 
254 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Ganglion (plural, ganglia). A mass of nerve matter consisting of a 
 number of nerve cells and radiating fibres. There are ganglia 
 connected with the brain, spinal cord, and sympathetic sys- 
 tem, and they vary in size from microscopic dimensions to 
 about an inch long. 
 
 Glands. Glands are organs that either form a new fluid from the 
 blood for the use of the body, or modify the blood as it passes 
 through them. They vary in size, and attend to secretion and 
 excretion. They are divided into two classes : those with ducts, 
 and those without them. The ductless glands are : the lacteals 
 (mesenteric) of the intestines, the lymphatics of the lymphatic 
 system, the spleen and thyroid and thymus glands of the neck 
 (function unknown), and the supra renal capsules (function 
 unknown). The glands with ducts are: the gastric of the 
 stomach, the intestinal (glands of Brunner, and follicles, or 
 crypts of Lieberkiihn) of the intestines, the kidneys, the lach- 
 rymal of the eye, the liver, the mucous of the mucous mem- 
 brane, the oil (or sebaceous) of the skin, the pancreas, the 
 perspiratory (sweat, or sudoriparous) of the skin, and the sali- 
 vary (parotid sublingual, submaxillary) of the mouth. 
 
 Glucose. A kind of sugar obtained from most fruits, and also formed 
 by action of sulphuric acid on starch, or cellulose. It is not as 
 sweet as cane sugar. It is also called grape sugar, or starch 
 sugar. Saliva changes insoluble starch into soluble sugar. 
 
 Glycerine. A sweet, sticky, yellowish liquid, obtained from fatty 
 substances in soap making. Its stickiness makes it useful for 
 putting on chapped skin to keep the air away. 
 
 Gly'cogen. An animal starch. It is a white powder when pure. It 
 is made by the liver from the proteid and starch foods, stored 
 in liver cells, and given out as sugar when needed by the body. 
 
 Hsem'oglobin. The larger, solid part of the colored corpuscles of the 
 blood is called haemoglobin. It is composed of carbon, hydro- 
 gen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and iron. It contains much 
 iron. It has a great affinity for oxygen, and when the corpus- 
 cles contain a quantity of this gas, and the blood is red, the 
 haemoglobin becomes oxy-hsemoglobin. 
 
 Hasn'eesh. Indian hemp. A narcotic that is used in the East to 
 produce sleep insensibility to pain. It sometimes causes con- 
 vulsions. 
 
 Hyoid Bone. A small U-shaped bone at the base of the tongue for 
 the attachment of muscles. 
 
GLOSSARY. 255 
 
 Indigestible Substances. Indigestible material is that which either 
 from its structure or preparation cannot be acted on by the 
 digestive juices. Husks and seeds of vegetables, some of the 
 tissues that bind meats together, and badly cooked food, are of 
 this class. With various excretions they form what is called 
 egesta, and pass from the body by the way of the large intestine. 
 
 Indigestion. Inability to digest food. This causes various forms of 
 dyspepsia, which may be accompanied with loss of appetite, by 
 pain on eating, or merely by general uncomfortableness. Indi- 
 gestion may be due to natural weakness of the digestive organs, 
 but is generally caused by bad habits of eating. 
 
 Inorganic Foods. Inorganic foods are derived from the mineral king- 
 dom, and are generally simpler than the organic foods. They 
 are compounds of lime, iron, magnesium, carbon, oxygen, 
 nitrogen, sulphur, fluorine, chlorine, and phosphorus, and are 
 taken in the body as water or as part of organic food. 
 
 Insalivation. Moistening the food with saliva. This commences 
 the digestion of starch food, and also softens the mass so that 
 it can be easily swallowed. 
 
 Intercostal Muscles. Muscles between the ribs, which aid in respi- 
 ration. 
 
 Intestines. The smaller is in three parts: duodenum, ileum, jeju- 
 num ; and the larger consists of caecum, colon, rectum. 
 
 Iris. Muscular disc in front of the crystalline lens. It has fibres 
 running around the disc and others radiating from the pupil 
 to the edge of the disc. The iris gives color to the eye, and 
 is an appendage to the choroid coat. 
 
 Koumiss (kumiss). A fermented intoxicating drink made from 
 mare's milk originally by the Calmucks. 
 
 Lactose. Milk sugar; an animal sugar found in milk. 
 
 Legu'min. A kind of vegetable caseine that is found in pease and 
 beans. 
 
 Legu'minous. Relating to plants that have pods, legumes, like pease 
 and beans. The order of such plants is Papilionacex. 
 
 Lens. A glass that changes the direction of light. The crystalline 
 lens acts on light in the same way as a glass lens of the same 
 shape. 
 
 Lu'nula. The small half-moon places at the bases of the nails. 
 They are white because of scarcity of papillae. 
 
 Lymph. The liquid in the lymphatics. Also the liquid (of another 
 kind) that is inside (endolymph) and outside (exolymph) of 
 the membrane sacs of the inner ear. 
 
256 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Marrow. There are two kinds of marrow, the red and the yellow. 
 The red, less in quantity, is found in the small space of the 
 spongy part of bones. The yellow, much more in quantity, Is 
 found in the hollow shafts of the bones. 
 
 Massage. A pressing, or kneading, of the muscles in order to 
 develop them. A kind of treatment that serves somewhat in 
 the place of exercise for invalids. Sometimes called " Swedish 
 movement cure." 
 
 Mastoid Process. A large process just back of the ear, for the 
 attachment of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. * 
 
 Medulla Oblonga'ta. The largest part of the spinal cord. It is 
 inside the brain box, and from it are given off most of the 
 cranial nerves. 
 
 Meibomian. The oil glands along the edge of the eyelids. Their 
 secretion keeps the lids and lashes soft. 
 
 Mesentery. The serous membrane that surrounds and holds the 
 intestines in place. It contains many small glands connected 
 with the digestive system that are called lacteal or mesenteric 
 glands. 
 
 Mouth and Pharynx Absorption. Most of the digested food is ab- 
 sorbed by the stomach and intestines, but a limited amount of 
 liquid is absorbed by the lining of mouth and pharynx on the 
 way down. 
 
 Mucus. A secretion of the glands of the mucous membrane, and 
 it is for keeping the membrane soft. 
 
 Mumps. An inflammation and enlargement of the parotid glands. 
 
 Nerve Material. There are three kinds of nerve material : a gray in 
 cells, a gray in fibres, and a white in fibres. The gray fibres 
 are connected with the sympathetic system. 
 
 Neurilem'ma. The nerve sheath or membrane that covers a fibre of 
 nerve. Sometimes it is interrupted, as in Fig. 66, III. 
 
 Nitrogen. A negative kind of gas. It has few characteristics, and 
 is chiefly noted for the readiness with which it breaks away 
 from its combinations. It forms a part of all easily decaying 
 organic substances, and nearly all inorganic explosives. 
 
 Nitrogenous. Containing nitrogen, as nitrogenous foods, or the 
 proteids. 
 
 Odontoid Process. The peg-like process that extends from the front 
 of second vertebra, and is held in the hollow of the first ver- 
 tebra. It enables the head to rotate. 
 
GLOSSARY. 257 
 
 Organs of Corti. In the cochlea of the internal ear there are a 
 number of little rods of membrane that help stimulate the 
 nerve of hearing in that part of the ear. They are called rods, 
 or organs, of Corti. 
 
 Pan'creatin. The ferment principle of the pancreas is called pan- 
 creatin. It is also called trypsin. This ferment acts on fats. 
 
 Papilla (plural, papillx). Small projections of the upper part of the 
 true skin are called papillae. The teeth, hair, and nails grow 
 from them. The papillae of taste are of three kinds filiform, 
 fungiform, and circumvallate and can easily be seen on the 
 tongue. 
 
 Pelvic Girdle. The innominata bones are so called, the legs being 
 the appendages. 
 
 Pep'sin. The ferment of the gastric juice is called pepsin, and it 
 digests proteids. 
 
 Peptone. Peptone is a soluble substance made by gastric juice act- 
 ing on the albuminoids in the stomach. 
 
 Pericardium. The serous membrane that incloses the heart is 
 called the pericardium, or heart sac. 
 
 Perichon'drium. The fibrous membrane that surrounds cartilage. 
 
 Periosteum. The bone cover. 
 
 Peritone'um. The serous membrane that lines the walls of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 Petrous. The portion of the temporal bone that holds the essential 
 organs of hearing is called the petrous portion. 
 
 Pinna. The cartilage part of the outer ear, sometimes called auricle. 
 
 Plasma. The liquid of the blood. About nine tenths of it is water; 
 the remainder is albumen, oil, sugar, salt, soda, and waste 
 material. Plasma carries gas, and contains the nutritive parts 
 of the food. 
 
 Proteids. The nitrogenous foods are called proteids. They are lean 
 meat, eggs, cheese, milk, pease, beans, and grains, and any veg- 
 etable or animal tissue containing albumen, fibrin, or casein. 
 
 Protoplasm. A simple gelatinous substance found in growing parts 
 of plants and animals. It is the primary material from which 
 cells and tissues are made. 
 
 Pfy'alin. The ferment of the saliva. 
 
 Radius. One of the bones of the forearm. It articulates with the 
 carpal bones, and is the bone on which the ulna rotates. 
 
 Rectum. The lower part of the large intestine. 
 
258 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Reflex Action. Action caused by impulse from a nerve center with- 
 out consciousness. A number of nerve centers of the spinal 
 cord, brain, and sympathetic system control ordinary motions 
 independent of the direction of the mind. 
 
 Respiration. The breathing of air in (inspiration) and out (expira- 
 tion) of the lungs. When mainly thoracic action, as in women, 
 it is called thoracic respiration ; and when mainly by the abdo- 
 men, as in men and children, it is called abdominal respiration. 
 
 Respiratory Food. Fats which oxidize readily are sometimes called 
 respiratory foods. 
 
 Re'te Muco'sum. The inner layer of cuticle which contains the pig- 
 ment granules. 
 
 Ru'gse. The folds of the stomach. 
 
 Sacrum. The five consolidated vertebrae which form a wedge 
 between the parts of the innominata. 
 
 Saliva. The white, frothy alkaline liquid of the mouth. Ptyalin, a 
 ferment, is part of it. 
 
 Sarcolem'ma. The sheath around fibres of muscles. 
 
 Scurvy. A skin disease brought on by a diet of salted meats and 
 too little vegetables and acid juices of fruits. 
 
 Serous Membrane. A white, smooth membrane that covers organs 
 and lines cavities not exposed to the air. It is pleura of lungs, 
 pericardium of heart, mesentery of intestines, and peritoneum 
 of walls of abdomen. 
 
 Serum. The watery liquid of the blood left when blood coagulates. 
 
 Sewer Gas. A name for any injurious gas that comes from the 
 drains which carry off waste water. Such drains should be 
 arranged with traps and ventilators that prevent the gas from 
 entering houses. 
 
 Shoulder Girdle. The sternum, scapula, and clavicle form the 
 shoulder girdle, and the arms are its appendages. 
 
 Sighing. A deep inspiration followed by a sudden expiration, caused 
 by fatigue, bad air, or some mental emotion. 
 
 Sight. The defect called near, or short, sight is where the eyeball 
 is too long and the image is not formed on the retina. Far or 
 long sight is where the eyeball is too short. Both defects to be 
 remedied by glasses. 
 
 Sneezing. A spasmodic involuntary forcing of air through the nose 
 and mouth, caused by an irritation of the mucous membrane. 
 
 Snoring. Hoarse breathing sounds, caused by vibrations of palate. 
 
GLOSSARY. 259 
 
 Soap. A substance formed by the union of fatty acid and an alkali 
 (as soda or potassa). The fatty foods are, part of them, made 
 into a kind of soap in the intestines. 
 
 Sobbing. A convulsive respiration. 
 
 Stammering. Irregular action of vocal organs. When not caused 
 by malformation of organs, it is the result of defect in action 
 of nerve centers, and can be overcome by deliberate articula- 
 tion. 
 
 Suspensory Ligament. The ligament that holds the crystalline lens 
 in place. The ciliary muscles acting on the choroid coat alters 
 the position of the ligament and helps in accommodation. 
 
 Syno'via. A thin liquid secreted by the synovial membrane to oil 
 the joints. 
 
 Tabular Bones. Flat bones. 
 
 Tartar of Teeth. A hard substance that attaches itself to the teeth, 
 and is made of mucus, animal matter, and phosphate of lime. 
 
 Tendon of Achilles. The strong tendon at the heel of the gastroc- 
 nemius muscles. Called from a fabulous story of Achilles, a 
 Grecian hero, being held by the heel in the River Styx, and 
 being made invulnerable except the place on the heel by which 
 he was held. 
 
 Tonsils. Glandular almond-shaped bodies on the sides of the back 
 of the throat. 
 
 Trichina Spiralis. The " meat worm," or "flesh worm," from 
 measly pork. 
 
 Ulna. The smaller bone of the forearm. 
 
 Urine. The excretion of the kidneys which is held in the urinary 
 bladder. 
 
 Valves. The heart, veins, and lymphatic vessels are furnished with 
 valves. In the last two vessels they are pocket valves. The 
 semi-lunar valves of the ventricles are also of this kind, but the 
 valves between ventricles and auricles are more like the flaps of 
 a tent. One, the mitral, or bicuspid, has two flaps, and the 
 other, tricuspid, has three flaps. 
 
 Ventricles. There are three organs that have ventricles. The 
 brain has hollows called ventricles, the heart has two ventricles, 
 and the larynx has a ventricle on each side, between the true 
 and false vocal membranes. 
 
 Winking. An involuntary action of the eyelids when the eyes are 
 threatened. 
 17 P 
 
260 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Wrist Drop. A form of partial paralysis often caused by lead poi- 
 soning. 
 
 Yellow Spot. The spot on the retina on which there is the greatest 
 amount of nerve cones, and which is most sensitive to light 
 impulses. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS. 
 
 Amount of water in body weighing 145 pounds : 108 pounds. 
 
 Amount of food daily: 16 ounces meat, 19 ounces bread, 3/^ 
 ounces fat, 52 ounces water. 
 
 Amount of saliva in 24 hours : about 3> pounds. 
 
 Amount of gastric juice in 24 hours : from 8 to 14 pounds. 
 
 Amount of intestinal juice in 24 hours : about 1 pound. 
 
 Amount of pancreatic juice in 24 hours : about 1}^ pounds. 
 
 Amount of bile : about 2% pounds. 
 
 Duration of digestion : from 3 to 5 hours. 
 
 Amount of blood in the body : from 16 to 18 pounds. 
 
 Size of red corpuscles : ^^W of an inch. 
 
 Size of white corpuscles : WTO of an inch. 
 
 Average frequency of heart beat per minute : 72. 
 
 Velocity of blood in arteries: about 16 inches per second. 
 
 Length of time for circuit of blood : about 20 seconds. 
 
 Amount of air in and out at each respiration : from 20 to 30 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 Amount of residual air always in lungs: about 100 cubic inches. 
 
 Entire amount of air going in and out of lungs in 24 hours : about 
 400 cubic inches. 
 
 Composition of air: nitrogen, 79.10; oxygen, 20.81 per 100 parts. 
 
 Amount of carbonic acid exhaled in 24 hours : 14 cubic feet. 
 
 Rate of transmission of nerve force : about 100 feet per second. 
 
 Length of spinal cord: 16 to 18 inches; weight, ]} ounces. 
 
 Number of chemical elements in body: 16 to 18. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ^ PAGE. 
 
 ABDOMEN 10 
 
 ABDOMINAL RESPIRATION 
 
 (see Respiration) . . . 258 
 ABSORBENT SYSTEM . . 97-8 
 ABSORPTION, intestinal . . 75 
 
 Lymphatic 97 
 
 Lacteal 79 
 
 Stomach 73 
 
 By skin 60 
 
 Of albuminoids . . . .172 
 
 Of fats 172 
 
 Of starches 172 
 
 ACCOMMODATION .... 246 
 ACETABULUM . . . . . 246 
 ACHILLES' TENDON (see 
 
 Tendon) 259 
 
 ACID, animal (butyric, 
 palmitic, stearic) . . . 246 
 
 Mineral (hydrochloric 
 or muriatic, sulphuric) . 246 
 
 Vegetable (acetic, cit- 
 ric, malic, oxalic) . . . 246 
 ACTION OP THE HEART . 89, 246 
 
 ADAM'S APPLE 246 
 
 ADIPOCERE 247 
 
 ADIPOSE 247 
 
 ADULTERATION 182 
 
 AIR 208,210,247 
 
 AIR SACS 109 
 
 AIR TUBES 109 
 
 ALBUMEN 247 
 
 ALBUMINOIDS . 247 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ALCOHOL, 186; brain, 192; 
 heart, 192; kidneys, 193; 
 liver, 192; lungs, 192; 
 stomach, 192 ; tissues, 
 218; will, 192, 227; bev- 
 erages, 188. Causes dis- 
 eases (fatty and fibrous 
 degeneration, 191 ; gen- 
 eral, special, 191). Char- 
 acteristics, 187. In large 
 doses, 189. Narcotic, 186. 
 Not a food, not a protec- 
 tion against heat, cold, 
 disease, 190. Poison, 193. 
 Stimulant, 186. Uses . . 187 
 ALIMENT (food) .... 247 
 AMMENTARY CANAL . 62, 167, 247 
 
 ALKALI 247 
 
 ALKALINE SUBSTANCES . . 247 
 
 ALVEOLI 247 
 
 AMYLOIDS 247 
 
 ANATOMY 15 
 
 ANKLE 9 
 
 ANNULAR LIGAMENT . 39, 41, 247 
 
 ANTIDOTES 197 
 
 AORTA 247 
 
 APPENDAGES of eye . . . 248 
 
 Of ear 248 
 
 Of skin 248 
 
 APPETITE 248 
 
 AQUEOUS HUMOR .... 137 
 ARACHNOID (see Coats of 
 Brain) 251 
 
262 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ARBOR VITJE 248 
 
 AREOLAR TISSUE .... 248 
 
 ARTERIES 86 
 
 ARTERY, gastric .... 94 
 
 Pulmonary 94 
 
 Renal 94 
 
 ARTICLES OF DIET TO AVOID 185 
 ARTICULATIONS . . . .28, 248 
 
 ASPHYXIA 248 
 
 ASSIMILATION . , . . . 248 
 
 ASTIGMATISM 248 
 
 ATLAS VERTEBRA .... 30 
 AUDITORY CANAL, nerve 
 
 organ 134 
 
 AURICLE OF HEART ... 88 
 AXIS VERTEBRA 30 
 
 B 
 
 BALL AND SOCKET JOINT . 29 
 
 BANTING 248 
 
 BATHING 161 
 
 BEEF 173 
 
 BEEF TEA 174 
 
 BICEPS MUSCLE .... 39 
 BICUSPID VALVE, 89 ; teeth . 68 
 BILATERAL SYMMETRY . . 248 
 
 BILE 76,248 
 
 BITTERS 195 
 
 BLADDER, gall, urinary . . 248 
 BLEEDING (hemorrhage) . 204 
 
 BLIND SPOT 138 
 
 BLOOD 83 
 
 BLOOD CORPUSCLES (see Cor- 
 puscles) 83 
 
 BLUSHING 249 
 
 BODY 9 
 
 BONE, 20; composition, 25; 
 cover, 24; color, 24; 
 classes, 21; structure, 24; 
 
 uses 31 
 
 BRAIN . . 112 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 BRAIN BOX ...... 21 
 
 BRANDY ....... 188 
 
 BREAD ....... 173 
 
 BREATHING (see Respira- 
 tion) ....... 258 
 
 BREASTBONE (sternum) . 18-20 
 BRIGHT'S DISEASE .... 203 
 
 BROKEN BONES ..... 154 
 
 BRONCHUS ...... 249 
 
 BRONCHIAL TUBES . . 109, 249 
 BUNION ....... 249 
 
 BURNS ...... 166, 249 
 
 ....... 249 
 
 c 
 
 ....... 249 
 
 CAFFEIN ....... 249 
 
 CANAL, alimentary, 62, 247; 
 auditory, 134 : lachrymal, 
 136; spinal ..... 115 
 
 CANALICULI ...... 250 
 
 CANINE TEETH ..... 67 
 
 CANNED MEAT ..... 177 
 
 CAPILLARIES ..... 85 
 
 CAPSULAR LIGAMENT ... 29 
 CARBOHYDRATES .... 250 
 
 CARBON . . . ' . . . .250 
 
 CARBONATE OF LIME ... 26 
 CARBON DIOXIDE .... 209 
 
 CARDIAC OPENING .... 70 
 
 CARPAL BONES ..... 22 
 
 CARTILAGE ..... 9-12 
 
 CASEIN ....... 172 
 
 CATALEPSY ...... 250 
 
 CAUDA EQUINA ..... 115 
 
 CAVITIES OF BODY AND HEAD. 9 
 CELLS ........ 12 
 
 CELLULAR TISSUE (see Are- 
 olar tissue) ..... 248 
 
 CELLULOSE ...... 250 
 
 CEMENT . . 67 
 
INDEX. 
 
 263 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 CENTRUM OF VERTEBRAE . . 33 
 
 CEREBELLUM 113 
 
 CEREBRO-SPINAL SYSTEM 115,116 
 
 CEREBRUM 113 
 
 CERUMEN (ear wax) . . .250 
 CERVICAL VERTEBRAE ... 23 
 CILIARY MUSCLES, processes. 250 
 
 CHAPS 162 
 
 CHANGES IN BLOOD . . . 101 
 
 CHEST 9 
 
 CHILDREN'S BONES . . . 153 
 
 CHLORAL 250 
 
 CHLOROFORM 250 
 
 CHORDS TENDINE^ (see 
 Columnse carnese) . . . 251 
 
 CHOROID 137 
 
 CHYLE 75 
 
 CHYLIFICATION (digestion) . 74 
 
 CHYME 74 
 
 CHYMIFICATION (digestion) 73, 74 
 
 CILIA 105 
 
 CIRCULATION OF BLOOD . . 83 
 ClRCUMVALLATE PAPILLAE 
 
 (see Papilla) 257 
 
 CLASSES OF BONES. ... 21 
 
 CLAVICLE 20 
 
 CLOTHING 164 
 
 COAGULATION 85 
 
 COATS OF THE BRAIN . . . 251 
 
 COCAINE 251 
 
 COCCYX . . . . 20, 23, 251 
 
 COCHLEA 133 
 
 COCOA 177 
 
 COFFEE 176 
 
 COLD FEET 206 
 
 COLDS 165 
 
 COLON (see Intestines) . 81, 255 
 COLOR BLINDNESS (Dalton- 
 ism) 251 
 
 COLUMNS CARNEY . . . 251 
 COMPRESSING CHEST . . . 214 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 COMPOUNDS 167 
 
 CONCHA 133 
 
 CONDIMENTS 175 
 
 CONJUNCTIVA 251 
 
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE ... 45 
 
 CONSTIPATION 251 
 
 CONSUMPTION 221 
 
 CONVOLUTIONS OF BRAIN . 113 
 
 COOKING 178 
 
 CORNEA 136 
 
 CORNS 166 
 
 CORPUS CALLOSUM .... 251 
 CORPUSCLES, of blood, 83; 
 
 of touch, 128 ; of taste . . 251 
 
 COSMETICS 162 
 
 COSTAL RESPIRATION (see 
 
 Respiration) 258 
 
 CRANIAL NERVES .... 121 
 CRANIUM (brain box) ... 21 
 CRYSTALLINE LENS . . . 137 
 
 CUTICLE 49 
 
 CUTIS VERA (true skin) . . 52 
 
 D 
 
 DALTONISM (see Color blind- 
 ness) 251 
 
 DANDRUFF 50 
 
 DEGENERATION, fatty, fibrous 
 
 158, 191, 199 
 
 DELIRIUM TREMENS . . . 251 
 DELTOID MUSCLE .... 41 
 
 DENTINE 67 
 
 DERMIS 52 
 
 DIAPHRAGM 45, 104 
 
 DIARRHOEA 198 
 
 DIASTYLE (see Action of the 
 
 heart) 246 
 
 DIET 173, 174, 185 
 
 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. . 252 
 
 DIGESTION 181 
 
 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS .... 81 
 
264 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 DIGESTIVE PROCESS ... 64 
 DIGESTIVE ORGANS .... 63 
 
 DIPSOMANIA 252 
 
 DISEASE, 151 ; of alimentary 
 canal, 198 ; of bones, 155 ; 
 of circulatory system, 202 ; 
 of kidneys, 206; of lungs 
 and throat, 217, 220; of 
 muscles, 157; of nervous 
 system, 233; of skin . . 166 
 
 DISTILLATION 188 
 
 DORSAL VERTEBRAS . . . 23 
 
 DRAINAGE 252 
 
 DREAMS 252 
 
 DRUM OF EAR (see Ear^ . . 133 
 DUCT, pancreatic, 63; bile, 
 
 63; salivary 65 
 
 DUCTLESS GLANDS (see 
 
 Glands) 254 
 
 DUODENUM (see Intestine) . 252 
 DURA MATER (see Coats of 
 
 brain) 251 
 
 DYSPEPSIA 198 
 
 E 
 
 EAR, bones 133 
 
 EGGS 172, 178 
 
 ELBOW JOINT 252 
 
 ELEMENTS 167 
 
 EMETICS 197 
 
 EMOTION 252 
 
 EMULSION 252 
 
 ENAMEL 66 
 
 ENDOLYMPH 252 
 
 ENERGY 169 
 
 EPIDERMIS 48 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS 106 
 
 ETHNOID BONE 253 
 
 EUSTACHIAN TUBE .... 253 
 EXCESSES . 232 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 EXCRETION 57 
 
 EXCRETORY ORGANS . . . 253 
 
 EXERCISE 156 
 
 EXPIRATION (see Respira- 
 tion) 258 
 
 EXTENSORS 41 
 
 EYE 135 
 
 F 
 
 FACE 7 
 
 FAINTNESS 204 
 
 FAT 46 
 
 FATS 253 
 
 FATTY DEGENERATION . . 191 
 FENESTRA, ovalis, rotunda . 253 
 
 FERMENTATION 187 
 
 FERMENTS 253 
 
 FIBRES OF MUSCLES ... 37 
 
 FIBRILS 40 
 
 FIBRIN 253 
 
 FIBULA 253 
 
 FILIFORM PAPILLA (see Pa- 
 pillae) 257 
 
 FISH 173 
 
 FLEXORS 41 
 
 FLOATING RIBS 39 
 
 FLUIDS 12 
 
 FOLLICLES 253 
 
 FOOD 170 
 
 FORAMEN 24, 253 
 
 FRECKLES 51 
 
 FRONTAL BONE . . . . 18, 20 
 
 FRUITS 175 
 
 FUNCTION OF BRAIN, medulla 
 
 oblongata, spinal cord . 119 
 FUNNY BONE (see Elbow 
 joint) 252 
 
 FUNGIFORM PAPILLA (866 
 
 Papilla) 257 
 
 FURRED TONGUE ... 185 
 
INDEX. 
 
 265 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 GALL (see Bile) 248 
 
 GALL BLADDER 248 
 
 GANGLION 254 
 
 GASTRIC, digestion, 181; 
 fever, 198; glands, 73; 
 
 juice 73 
 
 GERM DISEASES .... 218 
 GLANDS, intestinal, 74; gas 
 trie, 73; kidneys, 99; 
 lachrymal, 136; lym- 
 phatic, 99; liver, 75; 
 meibomian, 256; oil, 58; 
 pancreas, 75 ; parotid, 65 ; 
 salivary, 64; spleen, 100; 
 sublingual, 65 ; submaxil- 
 lary, 65; sudoriparous or 
 
 sweat 254 
 
 GLIDING JOINTS 29 
 
 GLOTTIS 106 
 
 GLUCOSE 254 
 
 GLUTEN 172 
 
 GLYCERINE 254 
 
 GLYCOGEN 76, 254 
 
 GRAINS 172 
 
 GRAPE SUGAR (see Glucose) 254 
 GRAY NERVE MATTER . 114, 225 
 GULLET 63, 69 
 
 H 
 
 HABITS TO AVOID . . 153, 231 
 
 HAEMOGLOBIN 254 
 
 HAIR, follicle, 53; structure 54 
 
 HASHEESH 254 
 
 HAVERSIAN CANAL (see 
 
 Bone) 26, 249 
 
 HEAD 7 
 
 HEALTH 151 
 
 HEARING, nerve, organs, 
 
 sense . - 132-135 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 HEART, auricles, ventricles, 
 89; muscle, 44; motions, 
 
 90; valves 89 
 
 HEAT 208 
 
 HEMORRHAGE (see Bleeding) 204 
 HEPATIC ARTERY, capil- 
 laries, cells, veins . 94-95-96 
 
 HEREDITY 152 
 
 HIGH-HEELED SHOES . . . 154 
 
 HINGE JOINT 28 
 
 HIP BONES 32 
 
 HIP JOINT 29 
 
 HUMERUS .... 18, 19, 25 
 HUMORS OF THE EYE . . 139 
 
 HUNGER 62 
 
 HYDROCARBONS (see Fats). 253 
 HYGIENE ..... .15, 151 
 
 HYOID BONE 255 
 
 I 
 
 IDEAS 118 
 
 ILEUM 63,244 
 
 INCISORS 67 
 
 INCUS ... 133 
 
 INDIGESTIBLE SUBSTANCES . 255 
 
 INDIGESTION 255 
 
 INHERITANCE (see Heredity) 152 
 INNOMINATA, bone .... 20 
 INORGANIC FOOD .... 170 
 
 INSALIVATION 255 
 
 INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION . 59 
 INSPIRATION (see Respira- 
 tion) 258 
 
 INTERNAL EAR 134 
 
 INTESTINAL CANAL. ... 63 
 INTESTINES, coats of, 74; 
 digestion of, 79 ; folds of, 
 74; glands of, 74; large, 
 79 ; length of, motion of, 
 small, 74; villi of ... 77 
 IRIS . 137 
 
266 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 IVY POISON 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 14, 164 
 
 JAWS, lower, upper ... 20 
 JEJUNUM (see Intestines). . 63 
 JOINT OIL (see Synovia) . . 28 
 JOINTS, 28 ; ball and socket, 
 29 ; immovable, 30 ; hinge, 
 28; movable, 29; gliding, 
 29 ; pivot, 30 ; suture . . 30 
 
 KIDNEYS ...... 99, 206 
 
 KINDS OF DIGESTION ... 79 
 KNEE CAP ...... 20 
 
 KNEE JOINT ...... 28 
 
 KOUMISS . . 255 
 
 LABYRINTH 133 
 
 LACHRYMAL CANALS, duct, 
 
 gland, lake 136 
 
 LACTEALS 78, 97 
 
 LACTOSE 255 
 
 LACUNA (see Bone) . . . 249 
 
 LARYNX 106 
 
 LEAD POISON 163 
 
 LEGUMIN 255 
 
 LEGUMINOUS 255 
 
 LENS 255 
 
 LIGAMENTS 20 
 
 LIMBS 9 
 
 LIVER 75, 95 
 
 LONG SIGHT (far sight) (see 
 
 Sight) 258 
 
 LUMBAR VERTEBRA ... 23 
 LUNGS, 110; position, 111; 
 
 elasticity, 111 ; sacs . .109 
 LUNULA 256 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 LYMPH 256 
 
 LYMPHATIC ABSORPTION . 97 
 
 M 
 
 MALAR BONE . . . . 18, 19 
 
 MALLEUS 133 
 
 MARROW, red, yellow. . . 256 
 
 MASSAGE . . 256 
 
 MASTICATION 71 
 
 MASTOID PROCESS .... 256 
 MAXILLARY BONES .... 20 
 
 MEATS 173 
 
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA . . . 256 
 MEMBRANA TYMPANI . . . 133 
 MESENTERY (see Serous 
 
 membrane) 258 
 
 METACARPAL . . . . 20, 22 
 
 METATARSAL 20 
 
 MILK TEETH 68 
 
 MITRAL VALVE 90 
 
 MOLAR TEETH 68 
 
 MORPHINE 194 
 
 MOTOR NERVE 117 
 
 MOUTH AND PHARYNX AB- 
 SORPTION 256 
 
 Mucous GLANDs(see Glands) 254 
 
 MUCOUS MEMBRANE ... 49 
 
 Mucus 256 
 
 MUMPS 256 
 
 MUSCLES, 36; action, 40; 
 contractility, 36; shape, 
 
 40; structure 37 
 
 MUSCULAR TRAINING ... 42 
 MYOPIA (see Sight) . . . 258 
 
 1ST 
 
 NAILS 55 
 
 NARCOTICS .... 193, 227 
 NASAL CAVITY 69 
 
INDEX. 
 
 267 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 NERVE CELL, 114; fibre, 
 material, 256; function, 
 116 ; motor, 117 ; sensory, 
 117; gray, 114; white, 
 114; educated, 118; cross- 
 ing of ....... 119 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM .... 112 
 
 NEURILEMMA ..... 256 
 
 NICOTINE ....... 196 
 
 NITROGEN ....... 256 
 
 NITROGENOUS POODS (see 
 Proteids) ...... 257 
 
 NOSE BLEED ...... 204 
 
 o 
 
 OCCIPITAL FORAMEN (see 
 Foramen) ...... 253 
 
 ODONTOID PROCESS . . . 257 
 (ESOPHAGUS ..... 63, 71 
 
 OIL GLANDS ...... 57 
 
 OLFACTORY LOBES, nerves . 131 
 OLIVE OIL ....... 174 
 
 OPIUM ........ 193 
 
 ORBIT ........ 140 
 
 ORGANIC FOOD ..... 170 
 
 ORGANS OF CORTI .... 257 
 
 OSMOSIS (osmose) . . .79, 109 
 OSSICLES (ear bones) . . . 133 
 OXIDATION ...... 168 
 
 OXYGEN ....... 110 
 
 PALATE, hard, soft ... 69 
 PALPEBR^S (eyelids) . . . 135 
 PALPITATION OF HEART . . 159 
 PANCREAS ...... 75 
 
 PANCREATIC JUICE .... 75 
 
 PANCREATIN ...... 257 
 
 PAPILLAE, 257; touch, 52; 
 taste, 129; of teeth, 53; of 
 skin, 53 ; of nails, 56 ; hair 53 
 
 PARALYSIS . . 
 PAREGORIC . . 
 PARIETAL BONE . 
 PAROTID GLAND 
 PELVIC CAVITY . 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 . 233 
 
 . 193 
 
 18, 20 
 
 . 65 
 
 9 
 
 PELVIC GIRDLE 257 
 
 PEPSIN 257 
 
 PEPTONES 257 
 
 PERICARDIUM 257 
 
 PERICHONDRIUM .... 257 
 PERILYMPH (see Endo- 
 
 lymph) 252 
 
 PERIOSTEUM 257 
 
 PERISTALTIC MOTION ... 73 
 
 PERITONEUM 257 
 
 PERMANENT TEETH ... 69 
 
 PERSPIRATION 59 
 
 PHALANGES 20, 22 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY 15 
 
 PIA MATER (coats of brain) 
 
 ' 112, 251 
 
 PIGMENT CELLS .... 51 
 
 PINNA (ear) 133 
 
 PLASMA 257 
 
 PLEURA Ill 
 
 PLEURISY 221 
 
 PNEUMO-GASTRIC NERVE . . 216 
 
 POISONS 197 
 
 PORTAL SYSTEM, vein . 94, 95 
 PREMOLAR (bicuspid) . . 68 
 
 PROTEIDS 257 
 
 PROTOPLASM 257 
 
 PTYALIN 258 
 
 PULMONARY CIRCULATION, 
 
 92 ; artery, 91 ; vein . . 91 
 
 PULP CAVITY 67 
 
 PULSE 87 
 
 PUPIL OF EYE 136 
 
 PYLORUS 72 
 
268 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 , PAGE. 
 
 RADIUS ....... 258 
 
 RED CORPUSCLES (see Cor- 
 
 puscles) ...... 83 
 
 RED MARROW (see Marrow). 256 
 RECEPTACULUM CHYLII . 14, 98 
 REFLEX ACTION ..... 258 
 
 REGULARITY IN EATING . . 181 
 RESPIRATION, 103; abdom- 
 
 inal, 258; thoracic . . .258 
 RESPIRATORY FOOD . . . 258 
 REST ........ 157 
 
 RETINA ....... 138 
 
 RETE MUCOSUM ..... 258 
 
 RIBS . . ...... 31 
 
 RICKETS ....... 155 
 
 258 
 
 s 
 
 SACRUM ....... 258 
 
 SALIVA ....... 258 
 
 SALIVARY GLANDS .... 64 
 
 SALIVIN-PTYALIN . . . 258 
 SALT ........ 170 
 
 SARCOLEMMA ..... 258 
 
 SCAPULA ....... 21 
 
 SCLEROTIC ...... 136 
 
 SCURVY ....... 258 
 
 SEBACEOUS GLANDS (see 
 
 Glands) ...... 254 
 
 SEDATIVES (narcotics) . . 194 
 SEMICIRCULAR CANALS (see 
 
 Canals) ...... 249 
 
 SEMILUNAR VALVES . . 89, 90 
 SENSATION .... 118, 130 
 
 SENSES, special .... 127 
 
 SENSORY NERVES .... 117 
 
 SEROUS MEMBRANE . . . 258 
 SERUM OF BLOOD .... 258 
 
 SEWER GAS ...... 258 
 
 SHAFT OF BONE . 21 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 SHOULDER GIRDLE .... 258 
 
 SIGHING 258 
 
 SIGHT, far, near .... 258 
 
 SlGMOID FLEXURE .... 63 
 
 SKELETON 18, 19 
 
 SKIN 48 
 
 SKULL 21, 31 
 
 SLEEP 229 
 
 SMELL 131 
 
 SNEEZING 259 
 
 SNORING 259 
 
 SOAP 259 
 
 SOBBING 259 
 
 SOOTHING SYRUPS .... 193 
 
 SOUND 135 
 
 SPHENOID BONE 20 
 
 SPINAL COLUMN 23 
 
 SPINAL CORD 115 
 
 SPINOUS PROCESSES ... 24 
 
 SPLEEN 100 
 
 SPRAINS 155 
 
 STAMMERING 259 
 
 STAPES 133 
 
 STARCHES 172 
 
 STARVATION 168 
 
 STERNUM 20 
 
 STIMULANTS .... 175, 186 
 
 STOMACH ....... 72 
 
 STRIPED MUSCLE .... 40 
 
 SUBLINGUAL GLANDS (866 
 
 Glands) 254 
 
 SUBMAXILLARY GLANDS (S66 
 
 Glands) 254 
 
 SUDORIFEROUS = Sudoripa- 
 rous glands (see Glands) . 254 
 
 SUGAR 172 
 
 SUNBURN 51 
 
 SUPERFLUOUS FAT (see Bant- 
 ing) 248 
 
 SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT . . 259 ' 
 SUTURES . 30 
 
INDEX. 
 
 269 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 SWEAT GLANDS (see Glands) 254 
 SWEET BREAD (see Pancreas) 75 
 SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM . . . 122 
 
 SYNOVIA 259 
 
 SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE . . . 28 
 SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION . . 92 
 
 SYSTEMS 13 
 
 SYSTOLE (action of heart) . 246 
 
 TABLES, bone, 20; muscle, 
 41 ; breathing organs, 111 ; 
 special senses, 140; skin, 
 61; digestive organs, 81; 
 alcohol, 193 ; antidotes . 197 
 TABULAR BONES .... 259 
 
 TARSAL BONES 20 
 
 TARTAR, of teeth . . . .259 
 
 TASTE 129 
 
 TASTE CORPUSCLES (see Cor- 
 puscles) 83 
 
 TEARS 136 
 
 TEETH, 66; milk, 69; per-, 
 manent, 69; incisor, 67; 
 canine, 67; bicuspid, 68; 
 molar, 68; structure, 67; 
 
 hygiene of 186 
 
 TEMPERATURE 208 
 
 TEMPORAL BONES .... 21 
 
 TENDONS 11, 43 
 
 THEINE 176 
 
 THIGH BONE 20 
 
 THORACIC DUCT .... 79 
 THYMUS GLAND (see Glands) 254 
 THYROID GLAND (see Glands) 254 
 
 TIBIA 20 
 
 TIGHT LACING 214 
 
 TISSUES 12 
 
 TOBACCO 195, 217 
 
 TONGUE 66, 129 
 
 TONSILS , . 259 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 TRACHEA 104 
 
 TRICEPS MUSCLE .... 41 
 
 TRICHINA SPIRALIS . . 159, 259 
 
 TRICUSPID VALVE .... 90 
 
 TRYPSIN (pancreatin) . . 257 
 
 TURBINATED BONE .... 20 
 
 TYMPANUM .... 133, 134 
 
 U 
 
 ULNA 259 
 
 UNSTRIPED MUSCLE ... 40 
 
 URINARY BLADDER . . . 248 
 
 URINE . . 259 
 
 VALVES OF HEART (bicus- 
 pid = mitral, tricuspid, 
 semilunar), 259; of lym- 
 phatics, of veins . . . 259 
 
 VEINS 88, 94 
 
 VENA CAVA, inferior, 88; 
 portal vein, 94; superior . 88 
 
 VENTILATION 210 
 
 VENTRICLES OF BRAIN . . 259 
 VERMICULAR MOTION ... 72 
 VERMIFORM APPENDAGE . . 80 
 
 VERTEBRAE 33 
 
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN ... 23 
 VESTIBULE OF EAR . . . 133 
 
 VILLI 78 
 
 VITREOUS HUMOR .... 137 
 
 VOCAL CORDS 108 
 
 VOLUNTARY MUSCLES ... 36 
 VOMER 20 
 
 w 
 
 WALKING 156 
 
 WARM BATHS . . . . . 161 
 WATER, 170; impurities of . 171 
 WHITE CORPUSCLES (see Cor- 
 puscles) 83 
 
270 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 WHITE NERVE MATTER (see 
 Nerve material) . . . 256 
 
 WINDPIPE 104 
 
 WINKING 260 
 
 WORRY . 229 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 WOUNDS 205 
 
 WRIST DROP . . 260 
 
 YELLOW SPOT 
 
 260 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 THis chapter is introduced to furnish an order of gym- 
 nastic exercises convenient to be observed in the school 
 room. As the stationary desks in common use leave lim- 
 ited room for practice, the free hand exercises (i. e. those 
 without apparatus) are most readily available. Still, 
 many of the movements can profitably be carried out with 
 dumb-bells. While no originality is claimed, except in 
 arrangement, it would be difficult to credit the exercises 
 to their originators, as they are described in most of the 
 books devoted to gymnastics, and seem to be common 
 property. 
 
 Additional exercises can be improvised by combining 
 the various movements mentioned in the following table 
 with the different positions given in the same table. Also, 
 by hand, head, or arm movements, with charges in differ- 
 ent directions, or by alternation of parts of two related 
 exercises, as is illustrated once or twice in the third series. 
 
 The great secret of continued interest in gymnastic 
 exercises is the requirement of strict accuracy in their 
 performance. By this is meant exactness of time at which 
 a movement is performed, and perfection in the accom- 
 plishment of all the details of the movement. 
 
 Time of Movement. Unless otherwise stated, the 
 movements are to be made on the accented beat of the 
 music, while on the unaccented beat the part moved is 
 brought back to position. To secure exactness, it is nec- 
 essary to have the movements made very quickly, leaving 
 an appreciable time for the part moved to remain at rest 
 
274 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 in the position assumed. The same direction is to be 
 observed in recovery of position. In some of the exer- 
 cises, double time is to be taken. In these cases, the 
 movements and recovery of position are all made on the 
 accented beat, the time between being used as rests. This 
 will be indicated by the direction, Double Time. 
 
 Accuracy of position implies an absolute sameness 
 of position on the part of all the individuals of the class. 
 When the direction is to thrust the arm upward, for in- 
 stance, it is expected that the hand, forearm, and upper 
 arm will form a vertical straight line, the elbow and wrist 
 being unbent. 
 
 Music adds much to the enjoyment of these exercises, 
 either a march or galop being suitable. But while learn- 
 ing a new movement, counting in clear, quick tones will 
 be found most effective. The counts will be from one to 
 eight, and at first the word "and" may be introduced 
 between the counts to mark the instant for recovery of 
 position; as, One, and; Two, and; etc. 
 
 Dress. The dress should be such as to impede as little 
 as possible the free movement of the muscles. For girls, 
 a blouse waist is recommended, with long, loose sleeves 
 coming high up on the shoulders, and sufficient length 
 under the arm to allow the arms to be raised easily to a 
 vertical position. In dresses designed for calisthenic 
 practice, the bottom of the skirt should not come within 
 six or seven inches of the floor. Corsets or whalebones 
 should not be worn. 
 
 Pull breathing. The exercises will fail almost wholly 
 of their desired result unless accompanied by full, deep 
 breaths. 
 
 Ventilation. As exercise quickens breathing, there 
 is need of an increased supply of fresh air. Open win- 
 
GYMNASTICS. 275 
 
 dows during the time of practice will not be found dan- 
 gerous; the danger from draughts is after the exercise is 
 finished. Sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit is a temperature 
 quite high enough during active work. 
 
 General position. Chest expanded, head erect, chin 
 drawn in, heels touching, and feet at an angle of sixty 
 degrees. 
 
 TABLE OF POSITIONS AND MOVEMENTS. 
 
 POSITIONS. 
 
 1. Closed hands on chest near shoulder, palms facing 
 each other, elbows close to the body. Figure 1. 
 
 2. Hands on hips, fingers front. Figure 4. 
 
 3. Hands upon shoulders, upper arms horizontal at 
 side. Figure 9. 
 
 4. Hands closed and under armpits. Figure 17. 
 
 5. Hands clasped behind head. Figure 23. 
 
 6. Arms outstretched at side, hands closed, palms for- 
 ward. 
 
 7. Arms held vertically upwards, hands closed. 
 
 MOVEMENTS. 
 
 I wrists, 
 elbows, 
 head, 
 body, 
 ^ ankle. 
 
 ( directly, 
 forward 
 
 Twisting 
 
 arms, Charges, (obliquely, 
 
 hands, or <[ backward \ directly, 
 
 head, Steps. | obliquely. 
 
 Isidewise. 
 
 18 P 
 
276 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Swinging the arms in a vertical, horizontal, or oblique 
 plane, is also a movement of value, not included in the 
 above schedule. 
 
 When the positions in two successive exercises differ, 
 the change should be made on the last unaccented beat 
 of the first exercise. 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 1. First position, Figure 1. Thrust 
 the right hand downward four times 
 in succession; the left hand four times. 
 Thrust right and left hands downward 
 alternately four times; both hands 
 together four times (Figure 24). 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 2. In the same order, thrust hands 
 outward at sides. Figure 2. 
 
 3. Thrust upward, the arm assum- 
 ing a position strictly vertical. Same 
 order. Figure 14 shows left arm in 
 this position. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 277 
 
 4. Thrust forward, bringing the arms to 
 a horizontal position level with the 
 
 shoulders. Figure 3. At the 
 close of the fourth exercise, as- 
 sume second position. Figure 4. 
 
 5. At the accented beat rise on toes, and 
 on the unaccented beat let the heel touch 
 the floor. Eight times. 
 
 6. Bend the knees, thus sinking from four 
 to six inches, but keeping the upper part of 
 the body vertical. Eight times. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 7. Raise the shoulders eight times. 
 
 8. Thrust elbows as far back as pos- 
 sible eight times. This movement 
 must be performed with care at first, 
 as there is danger of straining the 
 muscles of the chest. At close of exer- 
 cise drop hands at the sides. 
 
 9. Keeping the arms straight and 
 elbows stiff, bring the hands forward 
 
 and up until the arms are vertical; Fig. 4. 
 
 then lower by the sides. Double time, each movement 
 and recovery of position to be performed on the accented 
 beat. Four times. 
 
 10. Palms toward the front. On the accented beat, open 
 the fingers wide. On the unaccented beat close them. 
 
278 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Perform this finger movement four times in succession, 
 bringing the hands to the chest, first position, on the 
 fourth unaccented beat. 
 
 11. Same as above, except that on the first accented 
 beat the hands are to be thrust outward at the sides, 
 palms forward, and at the same time the fingers are to be 
 opened. 
 
 12. Same as above, thrusting the hands directly up- 
 ward, palms forward. 
 
 13. Same as preceding, thrusting the hands directly 
 forward, palms facing each other. 
 
 14. The hands being tightly closed, thrust them simul- 
 taneously downward, then outward, then upward, then 
 forward, twisting the arms inward each time and 
 performing the action vigorously. 
 
 Bring the hands to the chest after 
 each movement. Repeat. Take 
 second position. 
 
 15. Double time in this exercise 
 and in all the remaining exercises 
 of this series. The left foot is kept 
 stationary during this exercise. 
 The right foot is carried in succes- 
 sion, with a short, springing step, 
 (1) directly forward, (2) diago- 
 nally forward to the right, (3) to 
 the right, (4) diagonally backward, 
 (5) backward, (6) backward to the 
 left, (7) to the left, Figure 5, and 
 last (8) in front to a position in 
 line with the left foot. Figure 6. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 279 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 After each movement the right foot 
 is brought back to its original posi- 
 tion. Care must be taken that the 
 body be not twisted before the 
 seventh movement. In the seventh, 
 the body is twisted to the right, so 
 that the pupil faces exactly to the 
 side of the hall ; the right foot is 
 carried back of the left to its posi- 
 tion. 
 
 16. Bend the head to the right 
 side, recovering position on second 
 accented beat. On the third, bend 
 the head to the left, recovering 
 position on the fourth. Figure 7. 
 Repeat one or three times. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
280 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 17. Turn the head to the right and 
 then to the left. Figure 8. Repeat 
 one or three times. 
 
 18. Bend the head forward and 
 then backward. Repeat one or three 
 times. 
 
 19. Bend the head forward, to the 
 right, backward, to the left, recover- 
 ing position after each movement. 
 Repeat in reverse order. 
 
 20. Steps with left foot as in Exer- 
 cise 15. At'the close of exercise rest 
 for eight beats, on the eighth unac- 
 cented beat assuming position for 
 second series. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 SECOND SERIES. - 
 
 1. Hands on shoulders. The 
 elbows should be out at sides 
 and on a level with the shoul- 
 ders. Figure 9. Thrust right 
 hand down four times, left four 
 times, alternately four times, 
 together four times. At each 
 recovery of position, the elbow r s 
 must be on a level with the 
 shoulders. 
 
 2. Same position. Thrust 
 hands outward at sides in 
 same order. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 281 
 
 3. Same position. Thrust hands upward. Arms vertical. 
 
 4. Same position. Thrust forward. In these four exer- 
 cises care must be taken at each recovery of position to 
 
 bring the shoulders and elbows back 
 to the exact position first assumed. 
 If this is done, these exercises will 
 be found very valuable in developing 
 the muscle just in front of the shoul- 
 der, and in raising and developing 
 the chest. The hands are kept open. 
 5. Second position. Double time 
 in this and the six following exer- 
 cises. Bend the body from the waist 
 to the right side as far as possible. 
 Figure 10. Recover position. 
 Bend the body to the left in the 
 same way. Alternate, two or four 
 times to the right and two or four 
 
 times to the left. 
 
 .yipr 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
282 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 6. Twist the body four or eight 
 times alternately to the right side 
 and to the left side, keeping the 
 lower part of the body as steady as 
 possible. Figure 11. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 7. Bend the body four or eight times alternately forward 
 and backward as far as possible. 
 
 8. Bend forward, to the right, backward, to the left, 
 recovering position between the movements. Repeat in 
 reverse order. 
 
 9. Spring diagonally forward with right foot and sway 
 by bending right and left knee alternately on accented 
 beat, resuming position on fourth unaccented beat. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 283 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 10. Same as preceding, begin- 
 ning with left foot. Figures 12 
 and 13. 
 
 11. Hands closed and hanging 
 at sides. Elbows stiff. Raise the 
 right arm at the side to a hori- 
 zontal or vertical position four 
 times, left arm four times, alter- 
 nately four times, together four 
 times. 
 
 12. First position. Common 
 time. Thrust right hand down 
 and bring it back to position; 
 left hand the same; clap hands 
 quickly six times, twice to each 
 half count. This, with recovery 
 of position, will occupy four 
 counts. 
 
 13. Thrust right hand out at side 
 once, left hand once; clap hands six 
 times. 
 
 14. Thrust right hand up, left 
 hand; clap hands six times. 
 
 15. Thrust right hand forward, 
 left hand; clap hands six times. 
 
 16. On one, rise on toes. On 
 two, bend the knees, thus sinking 
 four to six inches. On three, rise; 
 and, on four, lower heels to the 
 floor. Repeat three times. 
 
 17. First position. Thrust right 
 hand down, then up. Repeat. 
 Thrust left hand down, then up. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
284 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Repeat. Alternate; that is, thrust right 
 hand down and left hand up simulta- 
 neously, Figure 14, and reverse. Re- 
 peat. Thrust both hands down, then 
 both hands up. Repeat. This, it will 
 be noticed, is a combination of the first 
 and third exercises of the first series. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 18. In the same way combine the 
 second and fourth exercises of the 
 first series. Figure 15. At close 
 of exercise keep the hands extended 
 in front (Figure 3). 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 285 
 
 19. Double time. Spring 
 forward with right foot, at 
 the same time carrying both 
 both hands as far 
 backwards as pos- 
 sible in a horizontal line, 
 keeping the elbows stiff. 
 Figure 16. Bring the right 
 foot back to position, at the 
 same time carrying the arms 
 back to the position indi- 
 cated in Figure 3. Repeat 
 three times. 
 
 20. Same with left foot. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 1. Fourth position. Figure 17. 
 Thrust right hand down four times, 
 left hand four times, alternately 
 four times, both together four times. 
 
 Fig. 17 
 
286 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 2. Same position. Thrust hands out at side in same 
 order. Keep arms extended at last movement. 
 
 3. Cross the arms vigorously over the chest eight times, 
 right and left arms being alternately above, as teamsters 
 do to warm themselves. 
 
 4. Second position. Raise the toes and then lower to 
 the floor. Eight times. 
 
 5. Look over the right shoulder 
 toward the feet of your left neighbor, 
 then over the left shoulder toward 
 the feet of your right neighbor, alter- 
 nately eight times. Figure 18. 
 Double time. In this exercise the 
 body may be twisted, but the feet 
 must not be moved. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 6. Arms hanging at the side. Wrist exercise. The 
 hands being firmly closed and the palms toward the 
 body, bend the right hand outward and then inward as 
 far as possible four times, left hand four times, alternately 
 four times, both together four times. If preferred, this 
 exercise and the three following may each be simplified 
 by omitting all but the simultaneous movement of the 
 wrists, performing that movement in each case eight times. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 287 
 
 7. Arms horizontal at sides, 
 palms of the hands downward, 
 bend the hands 
 
 upward and 
 downward in or- 
 der of preceding exercise. Fig- 
 ures 19 and 20. 
 
 8. Hands over head, palms 
 facing each other, bend hands 
 forward and backward in same 
 order. This is a different wrist 
 movement from the preceding. 
 
 9. Hands directly in front, 
 palms facing, bend hands up- 
 ward and downward. Let the 
 hands fall at the side. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 10. Combine last exercise of 
 
 first series with 
 charges (springing 
 steps) diagonally 
 forward four times to right and 
 four to left. Double time. Raise 
 the arms while taking the 
 springing step, and lower them 
 while returning to position. 
 
 11. Arms hanging at sides. 
 Common time. Twist the arms 
 inward four times. Raise the 
 arms so that they are horizontal 
 at the sides; twist four times. 
 
 12. Hands up and arms ver- 
 tical. Twist arms four times. 
 
288 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Arms extended horizontally in front; 
 twist four times. Keep the arms ex- 
 tended in readiness for next exercise. 
 
 13. Elbow exercise. Bend right fore- 
 arm on upper arm four times, left arm 
 four times, right and left alternately 
 four times, and both together four times. 
 
 14. Bring the arms forcibly back to 
 the chest eight times, thrusting the 
 shoulders back. Figures 3 and 21 
 show the two positions of this move- 
 ment. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 15. First position. Thrust right 
 hand to right, Figure 2, and re- 
 cover position. Thrust right hand 
 to left, Figure 22, and recover 
 position. Perform these move- 
 ments alternately four times. In 
 the same manner, thrust left hand 
 to left, then to right, alternately 
 four times. In the same manner 
 both to right, then to left, alter- 
 nately four times. The body is 
 turned successively to right and to 
 left as required by the movement, 
 but the feet are kept firmly fixed. 
 
 16. Arms hanging at sides, hands 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 289 
 
 not closed. In this exercise the elbows are kept unbent 
 as much as possible. On the first accented beat, clap 
 the hands in front; on the unac- 
 cented beat, clap them behind the 
 body. Repeat three times. Clap 
 the hands over the head, then back 
 of the body. Repeat three times. 
 Alternate these movements through 
 a strain. 
 
 17. Hands clasped behind the 
 head. Head held well back. Fig- 
 ure 23. Bend the body to right 
 and left alternately eight times. 
 Double time. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 18. Same position. Bend forward, to 
 the right, backward, to the left, recover- 
 ing position after each movement. Re- 
 peat in reverse order. 
 
 19. Extend right arm diagonally 
 forward, curl left arm over the head, 
 and spring diagonally forward with 
 right foot. Recover position on second 
 accented beat, at the same time letting 
 the arms fall downward. Figure 24. 
 Repeat three times. 
 
290 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 20. Same with left foot, position 
 of arms being altered accordingly. 
 Figure 25. 
 
 MARCHING. 
 
 Calisthenic practice is agreeably 
 and profitably diversified by march- 
 ing. To secure good marching, the 
 pupil must observe the following 
 directions: 
 
 1. Stand exactly opposite the seat 
 from which you have risen, until the 
 instant comes for your line to move. 
 Fi s- %> 2. Beat time lightly before begin- 
 
 ning to march, bringing the left foot to the floor at each 
 accented beat of the music. 
 
 3. Keep the distance uniform between yourself and the 
 one just in front of you. 
 
 4. Begin to march with the left foot. 
 
 For marching, the feet may be placed at a sharper angle 
 than sixty degrees. Indeed, the angle at present desig- 
 nated in military tactics is twenty-two and a half degrees. 
 The body is to be held erect, with shoulders and hips drawn 
 back. The knee is to be bent but slightly in marching, 
 the foot being carried forward in such a way that the ball 
 of the foot and the heel strike the floor at exactly the 
 same time. This will determine the proper length of the 
 step, which for an adult is twenty-eight inches from heel 
 to heel; for children it will, of course, be less. Due 
 
GYMNASTICS. 291 
 
 attention to this method of stepping will develop an easy 
 and almost noiseless movement. 
 
 As the greater part of the exercises in the first three 
 series are for the upper part of the body, a fourth series 
 is added, which consists principally of movements for the 
 feet. It is made up of beating time, facing, marching, 
 and charges, combined with arm movements. The music 
 of "Hail Columbia" will be found to fit the series, the 
 melody to be repeated three times. 
 
 FOURTH SERIES. _ 
 
 1. Hands on shoulders. Figure 9. Spring diagonally 
 forward to the right with the right foot, at the same time 
 bringing the arms upward to a vertical position. On two, 
 recover position. Two times. Twice with left foot. 
 
 2. Same movement of arms, the charge to be made 
 diagonally backward with right foot. Twice. Same with 
 left foot. Drop hands at side. 
 
 3. On the first beat, lift the right foot slightly from the 
 floor, and turn half round on left heel used as a pivot, so 
 as to face the right. On three, turn to the left, thus 
 facing to the front again. On five, turn to left; on seven, 
 to the right, to original position. 
 
 4. Raise the right foot, carrying it a short space diag- 
 onally forward to the right, and bring the toes to the 
 floor. Recover position. Four times. Left foot four times. 
 
 5. Beat time during four beats, lifting each foot and 
 bringing to floor without forward motion. Begin with left 
 foot. Then take eight steps forward, the eighth being 
 merely to place the right foot in position beside the left. 
 
 6. Beat time during four beats. On five, turn to right 
 as in Exercise 3; on seven, to right again, so as to face 
 the back of the room. 
 
 19 P 
 
292 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 7. Take eight steps. Turn twice as in last half of pre- 
 ceding exercise. This brings the pupil to his first position. 
 
 8. Simultaneously raise the right arm to a horizontal 
 position at the side, and the left arm to a horizontal posi- 
 tion in front. Four times. Change, raising right arm 
 in front and left at the side. Four times. 
 
 9. Double time. Spring with right foot to the right, at 
 the same time extending the right arm horizontally at the 
 side, and curling the left arm over the head. Four times. 
 
 10. Same with left foot, position of arms being altered 
 accordingly. 
 
 11. Beat time, beginning with left foot. 
 
 12. Turn to the right, as in Exercise 3; two beats. 
 Eight steps sidewise to the left. Turn to the left. 
 
 1 3. Draw right hand up under armpit twice, left twice, 
 alternately twice, together twice. 
 
 14. Half face, as in Exercise 12; eight steps sidewise 
 to the right; half face. This, it will be observed, brings 
 the pupil back to original position. 
 
 15. First position. Step backward with right foot, at 
 the same time thrusting the hands out horizontally at 
 sides. Recover position. Four times. 
 
 16. Same with left foot. 
 
 17. Beat time. 
 
 18. Eight steps forward. On five, place right foot back 
 of left at right angles to line from front to back of room, 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 293 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 the heels being two or three inches 
 apart. Figure 26. At six, turn 
 on left heel so as to face the back 
 of the room. This movement 
 should always be made to the 
 right. Rest during two beats. 
 
 19. Eight steps back to place. 
 About face, as in preceding exer- 
 cise. Rest during two beats. 
 
 20. Double time. Springing 
 steps forward to the left with right 
 foot, alternating with steps to the 
 right with left foot. Touch the 
 tips of the fingers lightly over- 
 head at each step, and drop the 
 hands at the side while recovering 
 position. Four steps with right 
 foot, and four with left. 
 
 GOOD BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 GRAY'S ANATOMY, Descriptive and Surgical. 
 
 MARTIN'S HUMAN BODY. 
 
 MARTIN'S HUMAN BODY, Briefer Course. 
 
 LEO'S MANUAL OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 KIRKE'S HAND-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
 

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