The Foundation of Death. A Study of the Drink Question. By AXEL and ZADIB BABXBS GUSTAPSOX. Fifth Edition. London: Hodder & Stoughton. A most important work which will always be, as G. R. Sims has described it, "The Bible of Temperance Reformero," and presents a storehouse of facts and arguments on the inseparable connection between drunkenness and crime. That nearly all the crime, most of the vice, and a great part of the poverty in every land are really the results of drink is a fact which, in the face of the evidence here concentred in a focus, is indisputable, as is the direct or indirect origin of much disease not commonly ascribed to the abuse of alcohol, we freely admit ; and that moderationis a most elastic expression applied by numbers to an indulgence which is in reality physiological excess, we have always maintained ; but we maintain also that there is such a thing as true moderation, perfectly innocent and innocuous to body and mind alike. But while the scandalous scenes enacted at certain shipwrecks instanced by the authors prove too clearly that, as they truly say, expense alone prevents a large proportion of the population from drinking themselves to death, the examples of Bessbrook in Ireland, Pullman city in America, and several other estates and towns where no taverns are permitted, show that this measure alone would suffice to transform whole districts into something not far removed from earthly paradises ; we assert, without hesitation, that in the drink traffic, unlike other trades, the usual laws of supply and demand do not hold good, that they are actually inverted, The supply, that is the ' -opportunities or temptations, creating the,demand, instead of the demand creating the requisite supply ; andtifca*fls a lamentable fact, which no arguments drawn from necessity can explain away, that in any populous neighbourhood the drink shops far exceed in number those of the butchers, bakers, drapers, or others who minister to the real wants of the people. All this we freely admit, and in default of true temperance we hail the spread of teetotal principles among all classes, especially the labouring population. But we positively refuse to accept the position taken up by the Gustalsons, that alcohol is " out and out a poison " in any quantities and under all circumstances dietic or therapeutical. In one sense indeed all drugs are poisons. The ancient Greeks rightly had but one word, m that Noah, finding it, planted it, and that in the very same Paradise. fay j n W } 1 i c j 1 it W as planted it grew up, bloomed, and bore fruit, which Noah pressed, and swallowing its juice became drunken.* * Adam Fabroni, an Italian writer of the eighteenth century, in a work on the Art of making Wine, attributes to Mutardi-ben-Yasif, an Arab author (13 f. 10), the following curious legend of the vine : " Noah, being come out of the ark, ordered each of his sons to build a house. Afterwards they were occupied in sowing, and in planting trees, the pippins and fruit of which they had found in the ark. The vine alone was wanting, and they could not discover it. Gabriel then informed them that the devil had desired it, and indeed had some right to it. Hereupon Noah summoned him to appear in the field, and said to him, ' Oh, cursed ! why hast thou carried away the vine from me ? ' ' Because,' replied the devil, ' it belonged to me.' ' Shall I part it for yon ? ' said Gabriel. ' I consent,' answered Noah, ' and will leave him a fourth.' ' That is not sufficient for him,' said Gabriel. ' Well, I will take half,' replied Noah, ' and he shall take the other.' ' That is not sufficient yet,' responded Gabriel; 'he must have TWO-THIRDS, and thou ONE ; and when thy WINE shall have boiled upon the fire until two-thirds are gone, the remainder shall be assigned for your use.' " Dr. F. B, Lees, in his Temperance Text-Book (London, 1884), cites DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 9 As to the planting of the vine by Noah, the Talmud and Jjj other Jewish writings give essentially similar descriptions. Satan plant- In Baring Gould's (op. cit.) the following version is quoted in s the vine - from Jalkut, Genesis folio 6a : " Bowed under his toil, dripping with perspiration, stood the patriarch Noah labouring to break the hard clods. All at once Satan appeared to him and said, ' What new- undertaking have you in hand, what new fruit do you expect to extract from these clods ? ' " 'I plant the grape,' answered the patriarch. " ' The grape ! Proud plant ! Most precious fruit ! Joy and delight to men ! Your labour is great, will you allow me to assist you ? Let us share the labour of pro- ducing the vine.' " The patriarch in a fit of exhaustion consented. Satan hastened and got a lamb, slaughtered it> and poured its blood over the clods of earth. ' Thence,' said Satan, ' shall it come that those who taste of the grape shall be soft spirited and gentle as this lamb.' " But Noah sighed. Satan continued his work ; he caught a lion, slew it, and poured the blood upon the soil prepared for the plant. ' Thence shall it come,' said he, 'that those who taste the juice of the grape shall be courageous as the lion.' Noah shuddered. " Satan continuing his work, seized and slew a pig and drenched the soil with its blood. ' Thence shall it the following from a still earlier work (than Fabroni's), Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (London, 1693) : " Noah and his sons planted all sorts of trees, but when they came to look for the Vine, it could not be found. Then it was told Noah by the Angel, that the Devil had stolen it away, as having some right to it. Wherefore Noah cited the Devil to appear before the Angel ; who gave judgment that the vine should be divided between them into three parts, whereof the Devil should have two [as much as to say that its fermented wine does twice as much evil as good] to which both parties consented. This was the decision of Gabriel : That when two-thirds of the liquor of this fruit should be evaporated am ay in boiling over the fire, the remainder should be lawful for Noah and his posterity to drink. And thou knowest that we Mussulmans generally obey this law in preparing our WINE. Let the Devil, therefore, in the name of God, have his share in the tempting fruit, for when that which inebriates [the al-ghol, or evil-spirit] is separated by fire from the rest, this liquor bedomes pure, holy, and blessed. This is the sentence of the ancients." Vol. v. Lett. 12. 10 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. come,' said he, ' that those who drink of the juice of the grape in excess, shall be filthy, degraded, and bestial a? swine.' " Dr. J. Hamburger * gives a similar version : "As Noah was occupied planting the vine, Satan drew near. ' What do you plant there ? ' he asked. ' A vine,' said Noah. ' Of what kind ? ' ' Its frnit is sweet,' replied Noah, ' whether fresh or dried, and it also gives wine which rejoices the heart of man.' ' So ! Let us be com- rades in this planting,' said Satan. ' So be it,' answered Noah. Satan then went away and returned with a lamb, a lion, a pig, and an ape, which he killed one after another so that the vine should be drenched with their blood. Then turning to Noah he said, ' These are the signs of the power of wine, We see man before he has taken wine as innocent as the lamb ; but soon after enjoying it, he is subjected to various changes. The temperate enjoyment of wine makes him brave as a lion, the intemperate use of it turns him into a pig.' " Colin de Plancy gives a Mussulman tradition as follows : " When Ham had set out the vine, Satan brought and poured upon it a peacock's blood. When its leaves began to appear he poured over them the blood of an ape ; when the grapes began to form he watered them with the blood of a lion, and upon the ripe fruit he spilled the blood of a pig. The vine thus nurtured with the blood of these four animals has acquired these properties : the first glass of wine animates the drinker so that his vivacity is great and his colour heightened ; in this condition he resembles the peacock. When the fumes of the liquor rise to his head, he becomes as gay and full of antics as an ape. When he has become drunken he rages as the lion, and in the height of this condition he falls and grovels like the pig sprawling out in heavy slumber." In the Midrasch Eabboth it is stated that when Noah was working on his vine plantation he was thus addressed by the Arch-Da3mon : " I have shared in thy labours, beware that thou dost not trench on my boundary lest I do thee harm." Noah did not heed the warning, but * Real Encyclopedic fUr Bibel in Talmud (Breslau, 1870), part 1, pp. 1039-1042. DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 11 * drank to excess, and passed the boundary of the domain of the daemons, and lay naked in his tent." In the Midrasch Bereschit Rabba, by Dr. Auguste Wiinsche, we read that Rabbi Jochanan finding in the Hebrew letters which give the story of the vine, that those spelling the -word "woe " occurred fourteen times, warned his people against the use of wine. According to Tabari, an Arabian historian,* Ham, for origin of the having laughed at the drunkenness of his father, was P ur P le g ra P- cursed by Noah that his skin should become black, as well as all the fruits which were to grow in the land he should inhabit \ and thus came the purple grape, which was the white grape before Ham transplanted it. 4. Let us also examine the mythological web which Summary of both veiled and denned the spiritual needs and religious and character inclinations of the ancients, and essentially formulated the of Bacchus- character and shape of the drink question among them. worehl P- We know that among the ancient Romans, Bacchus was the God of wine, and that the infamous Bacchanalia, sup- pressed by the Senate's decree (B.C. 186), were the chief expression of Bacchus- worship among them. But Bacchus-worship was not confined to Rome, neither did it originate in Rome, nor was the sensual form the only or even the chief observance, as we shall see later on. In the first periods of historic times, Bacchus-worship was an adoration of all the active forces in nature, espe- cially those of generation. We may therefore be justified in supposing that when certain exciting properties of wine were discovered by the Bacchantes, they attached especial value to it, so that to the sensually inclined the praise and love of wine became identical with Bacchus-worship. Aristophanes, in the fourth century B.C., calls wine the milk of Venus. Bacchus had, beside his local names, innumerable other names signifying the countless various manifestations and properties in man, beast, and plant, which he was supposed to inspire, create, or enjoy. He bore different names, also, in different countries. The original Several myths designate Noah as the original Bacchus, ^g^t,, be and of these the myth in India, about Satyavarman, is the Noah. * Died A.D. 922. 12 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Noah said to be Saturn, to whom is at- tributed the discovery of wine. Similarity between Greek and Egyptian Bacchus- worship. Bacchus- worship and the serpent. most striking As the ninth chapter of Genesis relates how Noah planted a vineyard, made wine, got drunk, and was in a shamef ul state discovered by his three sons Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; so the East Indian Purana (tradition) tells of Satyavarman who, in a disgraceful condition of drunkenness, was seen by his three sons Shema, Chama, and Yapeti. But Satyavarraan of India was Adonis in Phoenicia, and this divinity, again (Selden, De Diis Syr., Syntagma 11), was the same as Osiris among the Egyp- tians, Dionysos or Bakchos in Greece, and Bacchus or Liber in Rome. Exactly how and where Bacchus-worship originated is not known, and the order of its spread is also matter of dispute. But these points, though so interesting, being non-essential to our purpose, we may not linger on them. Morewood (pp. cit.) states, according to Bockhart, that Cadmus first brought the worship of Bacchus among the Grecians, and that wine was introduced to them by the Syrians. He also thinks that Noah was the same as Saturn, and Plutarch attributes the discovery of wine to that deity. On the other hand, Alfred Maury, in his His- tory of the Religions of Ancient Greece (Paris, 1869), main- tains that Greece had its Bacchus- worship independent of the Egyptian Osiris-worship, and that it was when regular communication between the two countries was established, during the Saitic dynasty, that the Greeks first discovered the similarity between their own and the Egyptian Bacchus- worship. As the ancients had several Bacchuses, so they had also more than one parentage for the god, whose father was in all cases the same, namely Jupiter, but not so the mother. In Egypt the mother of Osiris (the Sun, and later on, the Nile, which fructified the land) was Isis, goddess of the fruitfulness of earth and the source of wisdom, which is granted only to those who " by persistence in lives sober, temperate, and isolated from sensual pleasures, voluptuous- ness, and passions, aspire to participation in the divine nature." But the Greeks and Romans attributed their Bacchus to a dual, really a triple motherhood. Two of the three were, however, of essentially the same nature, Semele and Proserpina the ravished daughter of Ceres, whom Jupiter DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 13 approached under the guise of a snake, the reptile which plays so important a part in the Bacchus rites (the serpent and the forbidden fruit !). A golden image of a serpent was placed in the lap of the newly initiated, the satyrs were represented with serpents coiled around their heads, and the serpent was consecrated to Bacchus. In these ceremonies wine was indispensable, the worshippers were drunken, and the infamous character of these orgies are the lasting obloquy of the peoples who tolerated them,* In the mythologies of India, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc., the serpent itself was worshipped as the divinity of death, as is seen often in the designs graven on ancient tombs. The serpent was also placed at the head of the graven images of Hecate, the goddess of the kingdom of the dead (Genesis ii. 17), and in all sorcery and necromancy the serpent has been an essential factor. Another strange symbol of Bacchus are the horns. In Egypt the bull Apis was consecrated to Bacchus; in Phrygia, Zagraeus (Bacchus) was represented with horns. A horned image of him is often seen in the front of public-houses in England. Drunkenness and sensuality were, however, but one Eieusinian side of the ancient Bacchus-worship ; another phase as m y steries opposite to it as light is to darkness were the so-called Eleusinian mysteries, especially the " greater mysteries," which were observed in the Attican city of Eleusis on the Eleusinian Bay. According to Strabo, the Eleusinian temple could at one period accommodate from twenty to thirty thousand people at a time. What is known with certainty about the " greater mysteries " of the Eleusinian Bacchus- worship is very limited. The works of the few writers of antiquity who ventured to treat of these mysteries such as Melanthius, quoted by Athenseus and by the Scholiast of Aristophanes ; Hiceus, spoken of by Clemens of Alexandria ; and one or two more have tracelessly disappeared. All we know is that the Eleusinians worshipped Bacchus as the son of Ceres (in Greece, Demeter, the same as Isis in Egypt), and that their worship chiefly consisted of contemplations and demonstrations of the unity of God and the immortality * See Juvenal, vi. 321, and Lactantius, Just., div. 120. 14 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. of the soul. From two extraordinary papers on the subject of the Eleusinian Mysteries, contributed by Mr. Henry M. Alden, editor of Harper's Magazine, to the Atlantic Monthly, during 1859-60, we quote these few passages as revealing more of the elusive and subtle spirit of the theme than any modern writing we are acquainted Avith, and as not being outdone in this quality by any of the native ancient authors : " The story of the stolen Proserpina is itself an afterthought, a fable invented to explain the mysteries. The Elensinia are older than Eleusis older than Demeter, even the Demeter of Thrace certainly as old as Isis, who was to Egypt what Demeter was to Greece the Great Mother of a thousand names, who also had her repeatedly endless sorrow for the loss of Osiris. . . . The worship of this Great Mother is not more wonderful for its antiquity in time than for its prevalence as regards space. To the Hindu she was the Lady Isani. She was the Ceres of Roman mythology, the Cybele of Phrygia and Lydia, and the Disa of the north. According to Tacitus (Germania, c. 9) she was worshipped by the ancient Suevi. She was worshipped by the Mus- covite, and representations of her are found upon the sacred drums of the Laplanders. She swayed the ancient world from its south-east corner in India to Scandinavia in the north-west ; and everywhere she is the ' Mater dolorosa.' And who is it, reader, that in the Christian world struggles for life and power under the name of the Holy Virgin and through the sad features of the Madonna? . . . And what do we read on the tablet of Isis ? ' I am all that has been, all that is, all that is to be ; and the veil which is over my face no mortal hand has ever raised.' Not to Demeter nor even to Isis do the Eleusinia primarily point, but to the human heart, 'I am the First and the Last Mother of Gods and men. As deep as my mystery, so deep is my sorrow. For lo ! all generations are mine. But the fairest fruit of my holy garden was plucked by my mortal children, since which Apollo among men and Artemis among women have raged with their fearful arrows. My fairest children, whom I have brought forth and nourished in the light, have been stolen by the children of darkness. By the flood they were taken, and I wandei-ed forty days and DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 15 forty nights upon the waters ere again I saw the face of the earth.' . . . Life in its central idea is an entire and eternal solitude. Yet each individual nature so repeats, and is itself repeated in, every other, that there is insured the possibility both of a world revelation in the soul and of a self-incarnation in the world ; so that every man's life, like Agrippa's mirror, reflects the universe, is made the embodiment of his life is made to beat with a human pulse. We do all, therefore, Hindu, Egyptian, Greek, or Saxon, claim kinship both with earth and the heavens, with the sense of sorrow we kneel upon the earth, with the sense of hope we look into the heavens." Haggeiimacher, in his able work on the subject pub- lished in 1880, says that the mysteries dealt with the symbolic representation of the myth about Demeter and the immortality of the soul. We find also that such great men of the past as Pindar and Plato in Greece, Cicero, the slave philosopher Epic- tetus, and the noble and learned Emperor Marcus Aurelius in Rome, were enthusiastic admirers and zealous advocates of these mysteries. They were abolished by Emperor Theodosius the Great (379-397), in the same general decree which extinguished the sacrificial fires on all the yet remaining altars of polytheism. 5. Historic records of the nations of antiquity are replete with proofs that the chief destroyer of individual and national greatness was drink. The early Medes and Persians gave rigorous education to their youth, who were brought up on a regimen of bread, cresses, and water, in order to accustom them early to temperance, and to strengthen their bodies. Nor were the four great Asiatic monarchies of antiquity, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia, conquered and destroyed by the sword until their earlier characteristics of manliness, patriotism, and morality had been sapped by drunkenness and debauchery. The vast Assyrian power whose foundation reaches Assyria and beyond historic record, after incorporating Iran, Syria, drink - Babylonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, etc., was at last subdued by the rebel sober provinces of Media and Babylonia ; and that prince of voluptuaries, Sardanapalus, last independent ruler of Assyria, when he saw that all was lost, betook himself to the funeral pyre, together with his women, his 16 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. servants, and his treasures. We are told that his motto was " Eat, drink, play, and know that thou art mortal ; drain present delights, there is no voluptuousness after death." Media and Familiar, but always impressive, is the account history gives us of the visit of the young twelve-year-old Cyrus to his grandfather, King Astyages of Media. The little fellow, destined later to overthrow Media and Babylonia, and to found the great Persian monarchy, was so astonished and disgusted at the riotous drunkenness of the Median court, that he refused to touch the wine, a custom expected of him as cupbearer to his grandfather. He could not understand now the people were willing to drink till they had fallen into such a bestial state. " You seemed," he exclaimed, turning to his grand- father, and referring to a recent banquet "you seemed to have forgotten yourself, to not know that you were the king, and when you wished to dance you could not stand ! My father drinks merely to quench his thirst." And time brought the days when this Cyrus subjugated Media and deposed his grandfather (B.C. 559). A few years after, when combined against by Babylonia and Lydia, Cyrus was defeated just outside the walls of Babylon. But Nabunahid (Belshazzar) the victor, instead of following up his success, arranged in its celebration that infamous feast in the midst of which the ominous " Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin I " was flashed along the wall by the unknown hand, and during this fatuous debauch, Cyrus, re-gathering his remaining forces, stormed the unprepared city, and slew Belshazzar in his cups. Persia and Persia,* in its turn becoming weakened and emasculated driuk ' by wine and the habits it generates, passed under the con- quering hand of Alexander the Great,f the same who for * Persian history attributes the discovery of fermentation to Jemsheed, a monarch who lived very soon after the Flood. Being exceedingly fond of grapes, he on one occasion thonght to save some for fntnre eating by packing them away in a jar. Of course, \v)ien he next resorted to them, he fonnd in the stead of the luscious fruit, wine. Tradition says that Jemsheed's beautiful cup, carved out of ruby, and filled with " the elixir of life, lies buried under the ruins of Istakhar." t Alexander's physician, Androcydes, warned him in these words : DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 17 a time withstood the corrupting influences of Persian sybaritism, and the intoxications of his own triumphs, but of whose death by intemperance Seneca writes : '' Here is this hero, invincible by all the toils of prodigious marches, by all the dangers of sieges and combats, by the most violent extremes of heat and cold, here he lies, con- quered by his intemperance, and struck to earth by the fatal cup of Hercules." It is difficult to imagine more horrible deeds than were done by some of the Persian rulers when under the influence of drink. On the plea of giving his people proof that wine had no effect on his nerves, Cambyses ordered his cup- bearer the son of his chief officer Prexaspes to go to the opposite side of the room, and there to stand quietly with his left arm raised over his head. Prexaspes was present, but before he could even imagine what was to happen, Cambyses had taken aim with a bow and arrow and shot the boy through the heart. He then had the heart cut out from the youth's yet trembling body, and held it triumph- antly before the wretched father's eyes, exclaiming that he desired that this proof that wine did not harm him should be made known to his subjects ; yet it is to be observed that Cambyses (according to Herodotus) confined drinking to himself, his army being allowed only water. This fiend married his own sister, and in a drunken debauch kicked her to death during her pregnancy. What views about drinking were held in ancient Persia is apparent from such facts as, for example, that preferment in office largely depended on how much a man could drink without losing his reason. Indeed, Cyrus, who fell in a duel with his brother Artaxerxes, had urged, among other reasons why he should be chosen before his brother, that he could drink a greater quantity than Artaxerxes " with- out being inebriated, or his passions disagreeably excited." And Athenaeus (the Greek grammarian from Naukratis in Egypt) mentions that one of the Dariuses desired no greater encomium than that it should be engraved on his " When you are about to drink wine, O King, remember that you are about to drink the blood of the earth ; hemlock is a poison, and wine is a poison to hemlock ! " Pliny, lib. xiv. chap. v. The commentators understand this to mean that wine, being so powerful an agent (a poison to a poison), ought to be dreaded by mankind. C 18 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. tomb that he could drink a very great quantity of wine without being drunken.* As the great Asiatic monarchies fell first by wine and then by the sword, so Egypt, the history of whose vast and highly civilized power reaches back over three thou- sand years before Christ, fell likewise into the slough of drink and licentiousness, and was conquered by the Persian province (B.C. 332). Subsequently, Alexander the Great took it ; then Greek culture gradually drove away the Egyptian, and, after the battle of Actium, it became a Roman province till conquered by the Arabs in A.D. 641. Egypt and The Egyptians, whose country was famous for its corn, drink ' are regarded as the earliest brewers, and it is claimed that they knew how to extract the juice of barley nearly two thousand years before Christ ; but when they learned to ferment it, does not appear. They very eai'ly used what they called grain wine at their libations (the religious ceremony of pouring wine either upon the ground or on a sacrifice living or dead in honour of a deity) . Herodotus tells us that beer or wine drawn from barley was the liquor principally used, and he describes the clergy as feasting upon the sacrifices and quaffing the sacred wine. From about four to three hundred years before Christ, the Egyptians had a number of grain-wine manufactories at Pelusium on the Nile. But the ancient Egyptians knew also how to make intoxicating drinks from fermented juices, such as those of the palm, fig, and pomegranate. The condition of Egypt, before its invasion and desola- * The Classical Journal for April, 1813, gives this specimen of old Persian poetry. The first is a gliazal l from Shefalce. " With your liver intoxicated with blood, it is delightful to reel like a flame ! intoxicated with blood it is delightful to wallow on the ground! whilst jovial, to plunder the bower like the breeze, to cull the rose, on which the gardener has bestowed his willing care, ia delightful. But in a drunken fit, never be thon so weak as to rise up the first to make peace, because to be angry afresh is delightful." 1 The ghazal is a form of Persian poetry introduced into German literature by Eiickert and Platen, and consists in repeating the rhymes of the first two lines in the fourth, sixth, and eighth lines, etc., the intervening lines not rhyming, and the measure being a matter of option. DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 19 tion by the Persians, as regards temperance and morality was, as we know, most lamentable. Men and women gloried in drunkenness and shame. The few remnants of sculpture and painting that remain from the art of those days give ample proof of the state of the people at that time. Masters are represented as carried home from their banquets in sottish unconsciousness. The dames are repre- sented struggling with nausea from their too copious bibbing, and hurrying the maids with the necessary bowl. Josephus speaks of them as the most debauched people. Yet great efforts had been made from time to time to Temperance save Egypt from this evil. Several of the Pharaohs issued stringent mandates against drunkenness, and the ominous ceremony apparently not commanded of placing in the centre of the banquet tables, when the wine was " beginning to tell," a skeleton crowned with a funeral wreath, dates from those days. Among the many devices to check intemperance, was a law that the friends and relatives of the dead should abstain from all wine and luxuries for a certain time (from forty to seventy days subsequent to the death) according to the rank and station of the departed ; the higher the rank or importance the longer was the abstention to be observed, which is significant of the great respect really felt for temperance. " If," as Morewood so eloquently says of ancient Egypt (op. cit.), "a secret glow of veneration arises for a nation so long distinguished in the annals of antiquity for all that was majestic and mighty, whether we consider its almost superhuman structures, its profound erudition, its wonder- ful inventions, or the splendour, pomp, and glory which surrounded its early inhabitants," how different the feeling which presses on the heart of him who, standing to-day in the shadow of the Sphinx, sees only the lonely Nile and the far-stretching torrid sands, both alike as dumb and vestige- less to him of those nobler realities as are its strong lips and fixed unsleeping eyes ! But, in speaking of antiquity, we generally mean not the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, or even the Egyptians, but the Greeks and Romans. The other great nations, with the exception of the Jews, have left but small 26 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. traces in literature, science, and art, in comparison with those of Greece and Rome, who for so many centuries, mutually and antagonistically, but absolutely, ruled the whole civilized world for the time, politically, intellectually, and morally. Notwithstanding which, they exist no more. Who can point to a living, genuine remnant of either of these nations ? What destroyed them ? Is there danger that through the same causes, great civilized powers of our time may in their turn collapse and disappear ? Greece and In speaking of Greece, thought always reverts to the two contrasting rivals, those republics of Athens and Sparta, so long dominating all the others. Athena. i n Athens the severe laws of Draco condemned to death any person convicted of being drunk. The wise laws of Solon (JDiog. Laert. in Solon i.) condemned an archon (the highest public functionary in Athens after the abolition of royalty, B.C. 1068) to a heavy fine for the first time he was intoxicated, and in case of relapse to death. A citizen seen to enter a drinking shop was dishonoured for ever, and no more was required to cause the banishment of a senator from the Areopagus (high court of Athens). Spart*. In martial, brave, but cruel and perfidious Sparta where domestic affections were crushed out by law, and the common decencies and moralities held in contempt in accordance with the Lycurgan institutions, which among other things enjoined common public baths for both sexes, and placed no restraint on the sexual appetites they did fear the results of drinking. In fact, it is claimed that Lycurgus himself gave the command that annually the helotes (slaves) of Sparta should be intoxicated, and of the orgies ensuing among them the youth should be made spectators, to infuse in them aversion to drink. Not only in Athens and Sparta was this rigour shown ; Pittacus of Mitylene (island of Lesbos) punished crimes committed in drunkenness with double penalties. But in Greece, as in the great monarchies of the East, drunkenness prevailed against the efforts at restraining it. Wine culture, after passing from Persia and Syria to Greece and the Archipelago, was brought later on to Italy and Southern France. DKINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 21 In the first days of Rome wine was almost unknown. Rome and Even as late as the second Samnite war (327-304) the drlnk - Dictator Papirius vowed a small cup of wine to Jupiter as the most costly gift, if he should be victorious ; which he was (309). That is, almost a hundred and fifty years after the foundation of Rome, wine was rarer than gems. And for centuries after the Samnite wars, though wine was imported in increasing quantities, drinking habits did not become general, until the time of Julius Caesar, when it began to be cultivated in Italy. During the reigns of Augustus and his immediate successors, wine culture and wine making became a passion among the Romans. During the empire it abounded, and history shows beyond question that enervation, loose morals, corruption, and crime in- creased among the Romans in almost an exact ratio to the increase of their habits of drinking. Even the Stoics those severe philosophers who held that human conduct must be restrained within the exact interpretation of the four cardinal virtues, Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude even they sometimes intoxicated themselves for the " refreshment of their souls." The women were as abandoned to drink and loose-living, and prided themselves on being able to stand as much wine as the men. And most conspicuous in these debaucheries were the Cassars, and the emperors Caligula, Nero, Vitel- lius, Domitian, etc. And yet in this very Rome, steeped in drunkenness, licentiousness, and crime, the Vestal Fire was kept inviolate and sacred, and we find, in Tacitus (Annals, xv. 36), that even Nero, upon venturing into the temple of Vesta, was " seized with a sudden tremor throughout his body, cither from dread of the Deity or in an access of the fear with which the recollection of his ill-deeds ever pur- sued him ; " and the same multitudes who could abandon themselves to all excesses of the Bacchanalia approved the condemnation to living burial of a vestal on mere suspicion of impurity, and could callously look on at the whipping to death (according to law, Livy, xxii. 57) of a vestal's paramour so little was it understood *hat national safety depends on character, not on the inviolability of shrines. Have these lessons of the past borne fruit in the present ? But Rome had not always been such a cauldron of Temperance seething vices. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Romulus promulgated a law which permitted the husband to kill his wife for drinking wine, as for committing adultery. The death penalty for adultery, as we know, was frequently inflicted in the early days of Rome, and Pliny (book xiv. chap. 13) relates that a certain Ignatius Mecennius, having killed his wife for having drunk wine, was acquitted by Eomulus ; and Fabius Pictor, in his Annals, states that a Roman lady was starved to death by her own relations, because she had picked the lock of a chest in which were the keys of a wine-cellar ; and Pliny also assures us that Cneius Domitius, a Roman judge, in a like case sentenced the defendant in these lines : " That it seemed she had drunk more wine, without her husband's knowledge, than was needful for the preservation of her health, and that therefore she should lose the benefit of her dowry." The custom of greeting women by kissing on the mouth is said to date from this time, (!) and to have been adopted in order to discover if they had tasted wine. That the famous vine-planting edict, which forbade throughout the empire the further culture of the vine, and commanded the destruction of one-half the vines then flourishing in its vast dependencies, was issued by Rome's worst debauchee, the Emperor Domitian, signifies how profound was the dread of the effects of drinking upon the nation's life and prosperity, even as felt by one of its most supine votaries. This edict remained in force for a hundred and eighty years, and then the Emperor Probus abolished it as far as France, Spain, and South- Western Hungary were concerned. Seneca's de- The terrible consequences of wine drinking in ancient the results of Rome are memorably described by Nero's famous teacher, intemper- ^he noble Stoic philosopher Seneca, in his 95th Epistle, cient Rome. 16 : " These excesses result in pallor, quivering of the nerves in the wine-soaked body, and a leanness from indigestion, more pitiful than the emaciation of hunger ; uncertain and unsteady gait, distension of the bowels, which are forced to continually take in more than they are constructed to hold or make use of, yellow and blotched complexion, deterioration and rottenness of the fluids of the system, cramping of the hands from hardening of the ligaments, dullness and torpor of the nerves, alternating with tremor. And the indescribable faintness of these DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 23 victims, the torments they suffer by reason of disordered sight and hearing, creeping headaches, etc., etc., what language can convey ? " As with Babylon, so with Syracuse during a drunken Syracuse, debauch in celebration of victory, it was reconquered by the vanquished. Sober Carthage, sinking under drunken and licentious Carthage habits, fell a prey to her rival Rome, yet Rome did not learn the lesson. Julius Caesar, in his Commentaries, wrote of the Sueves The Sueves. that martial people who filled the heart of Germany, from the Danube to the Baltic that they prevented even the importation of wine, so convinced were they of its destructiveness to strength and virtue. But these also fell to drink and then to the sword. As to the Jews, all readers of the Old Testament know The Jews, that in spite of the patriotism, the marvellous coherence and vitality which makes the race unique among the nations the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were strangled by the vine ; and as to the Mohammedans, usually and justly m h 2 | a j|g 0l>am " regarded as the most abstemious of peoples, private me drunkenness is terribly prevalent among them nowadays, though perhaps less so in Turkey than in Tunis and other Mohammedan countries.* * It is well known that the prophet Mohammed rigorously con. demned drunkenness, and it is related of him that in the fourth year of the Hegira, while his forces were contending with neighbouring tribes, some of his principal men, betaking themselves to play and drink, quarrelled in the heat of their cups, and raised such broils among his followers as to threaten the overthrow of all his designs, to prevent which mischiefs in the future, he forbade the use of wine, and also all games of hazard, for ever. Both to strengthen and illustrate this commandment, he told the allegory of the two angels, Arut and Marat (Prideaux's Life of Mahomet), who were sent from Mohammed's heaven to administer justice in Babylon in her ancient days : to wit, a that once a woman, whose affairs had been arranged for her by these angelic judges, invited them to dinner. She placed wine before her guests, and though God had enjoined them not to touch wine, they drank, and then tempted the woman. She pretended to yield to their wishes, but made the conditions that first one of the angels should carry her to heaven, and the other should bring her back again. On coming into the presence of the Almighty, she told Him how she had been tempted, and had saved herself by seeking shelter 24 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Thus the history of the past offers a vast array of concurrent testimony that as long as drink was un- known to a nation, it remained comparatively strong and prosperous ; and that in the measure that nations have succumbed to drink, they have lost their independence, and passed in the most terrib 1 ? harlotry from master to master, until given over by the gangrene of decay to oblivion. with Him. In reward for her chastity, the Almighty changed her into the morning-star, and the angels were given their choice of being punished for their sin at that time or in the future. They chose immediate punishment, and were suspended by the feet with an iron chain in a pit near Babylon, where they are doomed to remain until the day of judgment. For which reasons God forbade His servants ever to use wine. And in the Koran we read, " Wine and gambling are abominable inventions of Satan. Beware of forgetting God, because the demon would employ wine and gambling to fire in us the flame of impurity, and turn us away from adoration and prayer." Some of the sultans and caliphs took extraordinary measures to prevent drunkenness. Soliman I. ordered that melted lead should be poured down the throats of drinkers. CHAPTER IL HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERT OF DISTILLATION. 6. ALTHOUGH mediaeval history gives us many both, in- teresting and instructive facts as to the effects of drink and the efforts made to combat the evil during the dark and early Middle Ages, its record in the main is so similar to that of antiquity with the exception that condemnation of the habit became more general, yet weaker, and indul- gence more universal and excessive -that we need not here dwell upon it,* but proceed at once to the history of the discovery of distillation. Owing to two acts of shamef nl barbarity, we are left in Reasons for nearly the same uncertainty regarding the discovery of regafdin^the distillation, as by chance, we are in regard to the discovery discovery of of the physical fact of fermentation. All the ancient duitiU * Uon - Egyptian works on alchemy, some of which in all probability would have solved the question still baffling us, as to when, where, how, and by whom the art of spirit distillation was first discovered, were ruthlessly destroyed by the Roman Barbarities of Emperor Diocletian in his superstitious fear lest the Egyptians should, by converting all available metals into gold, secure the means to regain their independence. And three hundred years later, when Egypt was taken from the Romans by Caliph Omar's chief commander Amru, that barbarian destroyed the famous Ptolemeian Library at Alexandria, reputed to have numbered 700,000 volumes, explaining his irreparable villainy on the silly pretext that * Those who wish to pursue inquiry in this direction will find abundant information in Morewood's Inebriating Liquors (1838) ; Rev. Father Bridgett's Discipline of Drink (1876) ; Mr. Samuelson's History of Drink (1878) ; and in the works to which these anthorp refer. 26 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. if the contents of these books agreed with the Koran they were useless, if against it they were pernicious, and, therefore, in either case, their destruction was proper. Reasons why That such a secret as the art of distillation should be confined to recondite works, and not spread, but indeed be guarded from general knowledge, is not very surprising when the position of the discoverer (or participant in the discovery) is considered. He might at first have imagined that he had at last found that life elixir which in the dark ages seems to have been the one ray of hope to man ; and though experiment must soon have disproved this theory, he was still, unless sheltered by exceptionally high and favoured station, in danger of his life from the machinations of public and private avarice; and, again, subject to total loss of the special advantages of his know- ledge, should it be widely disseminated. Distillation, generally speaking, may be said to have preceded the knowledge of fermented drinks, because who- ever first condensed (and any one might have done so) some of the steam rising from boiling water, would be the first distiller, and in a like sense he who should be the first to (for any reason) boil fermented liquor, and condense some of its vapours on a cool surface, would, whether he knew it or not, be the first spirit distiller. But so long as such facts were accidents that is, not results of man's understanding or intention, but occurring without attracting observation to the processes they were practically not discoveries. Defintdonsof Distillation* is "the volatilization of a liquid in a distillation. c i ose( j vesse i by heat, and its subsequent condensation in a separate vessel by cold." f But the ancients applied the term to most operations of transformation, purification, and analysis. Some solids as well as liquids may be dis- tilled (but not all of them) ; for example, iodine, arsenic, chlorides of mercury, etc. Spirit. Spirit is a term which, though specially applied to alcohol, is applicable to any liquid produced by distillation. Spirit distil- Spirit distillation is the operation of extracting spirit lation. from a substance by evaporation and condensation. * Latin, de and stillare ; Italian, distillare; French, distiller; Spanish, destilar to flow or fall in drops. t Webster's Dictionary. HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 27 Spirit distillation merely sifts out the alcohol. Alcohol boils at 173 Fahr., while water reaches its boiling point at a temperature of 212 Fahr. Consequently cider or grape juice, or any other liquid containing sugar when subjected to heat, after fermentation, boils out the alcohol first, which, in the form of steam, passes off and can be condensed in a separate vessel. The point in this process, therefore, is to cease heating as soon as the temperature rises much above the boiling point of alcohol. Beatification is the re-distillation of what has already been distilled. Its object is to separate more completely the water which has been vaporized with the alcohol and some impurities. 7. The original discovery of spirit distillation * is very Discovery of naturally sought for in those countries of antiquity dis- i^nath-i" tinguished for the greatest civilization and culture, and buted to the writers on the subject are tolerably unanimous in pointing Far *' to the Far Eastf and, most of them, to China. J " Humboldt China, says that the process used by us in making sugar was broug'ht from Oriental Asia, and that even the cylinders placed horizontally and put in motion by a mill with cauldrons and purifying apparatus, such as are to be seen * " There runs an old German legend, prevalent to this day in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, -which details circumstantially his Satanic Majesty's claim to this important invention. The monarch of the infernal regions, so the story goes, was once fairly outwitted by a Steinbach man, who tricked the great enemy of mankind into entering an old beech-tree, where he found himself trapped without power of escape, and did not regain his freedom till the tree was cut down. As soon as he was liberated, Old Nick rushed frantically to his dominions to see how things had fared during his absence. To his dismay he found hell empty. Casting about him for some means of refilling Pandemonium with lost souls, he hit upon the idea of inventing brandy. Delighted with this happy thought, he hurried at once to the city of Nordhansen, and set up a distillery there, which was so successful that all the rich men of the place came to him to learn this new art of brandy-making, and in due time, abandoning their other business, became distillers themselves. ' And thus,' says the old chronicler of the legend, ' it happened that to the present day there is no other place in the worjd where there is so much of brandy burned as at Nordhausen.' " Licensed Victuallers' Gazette, July, 1880. t The Asiatic Journal of 1840 cites an old Hindu manuscript, according to which a distilled liquor resembling brandy, called Kea-sum, was known in India from most ancient times, J Samuel Morewood, 28 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. in the West Indies, are purely of Chinese origin, and were in use at a period long anterior to the visit of any European to that country. ... In China, a country which has preserved its civil polity for so many thousand years, the Retsonscited art of distillation was known far beyond the date of any theo!inl^ g of its authentic records. . . . That the Chinese were to have been versed in all the secrets of alchemy, or, rather, in that d^overersof branch of it which had for its object a universal panacea. d !v'| llatio ] ?' l n o before this fancy engaged the speculations of European ing the elixir practitioners, there is abundant proof, since some of their w ' te - empirics have from an early period boasted of a specific among their drugs which insures an immortality like that conferred on Godwin's ' St. Leon.' The search after this elixir vitce originated, it appears, among the disciples of the philosopher Lao-kiun, who flourished six hundred years before Christ. Not content with the tranquillity of mind which that teacher of wisdom endeavoured to in- cnlcate, and considering death as too great a barrier to its attainment, they betook themselves to chemistry, and after the labour of ages in a vain endeavour to prevent the dissolution of our species, and after the destruction of three of their emperors, who fell victims to the immortalizing draught, they, like the alchemists of Europe, ended their researches under the pretence of discoveries which were never made. " The Emperor Vu-Ti, who reigned in the year 177 B.C., when about to put one of his ministers to death for drink- ing a cap of this liquor which had been prepared for him- self, was convinced of his weakness and folly by the following wise and sensible remonstrance of his minister: " ' If this drink, sire, hath made me immortal, how can you put me to death ? But if you can, how does such a frivolous theft deserve it ? ' " * Dr. Baer, of Berlin, in his Alcoliolismus (1878), says that " Santschu, a spirit distilled from various grains in China, but especially from rice, has been a common drink in China and Japan for several hundred years." That the Arabs knew anything of distillation previous to their intercourse with the Chinese Empire (in A.D. 715) is contested. * Da Halde, Annals of the Monarchs, TO], i. p. 177. HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 29 Dr, Magnus Huss, in his excellent work AlcoJiolismus (Stockholm, 1849-1851), says that "the art of distillation was first discovered in Arabia, but as regards arrack at least, the Chinese and Indians seem to have been their teachers." But there is ample reason for supposing that spirit dis- Distillation tillation was practically known in Arabia long before the m Arabla - time generally accepted as the earliest. There seems little doubt that the Geber (Abou-Moussah Diafar-el-Soli) knew Geber the process of distillation. According to Leo Africanus,* Geber lived in the seventh century, according to others in the eighth. He was called Prince because of his great learning. Several of his works in Arabic, and one English translation, are to be found in the British Museum. In his Liber Investigationis Magisterii, Geber himself describes distillation and redistillation, and proves that he under- stood the processes and the value of the retort (vessel in which substances are subjected to distillation or decom- position by heat). " Distillation is the raising of aqueous vapour in any vessel in which it is placed. There are various modes of distillation. Sometimes it is performed by means of fire, sometimes without it. By means of fire the vapour either ascends into a vessel or descends, as when oil is extracted from vegetables. . . . When we distil oil by means of water we obtain fair and clean oil. . . . By means of water, then, we must proceed with every vegetable, and things of the same nature, to ascertain their elementary parts. ... If not pure at first, put it back until it becomes sufficiently pure. . . . N.B. At first it will send over only the water with which it was moistened, then the liquor to be distilled. "t Whether Geber knew about alcoholic distillation is not distinctly stated. That, however, he or some disciple of his probably did so, we are led by a variety of circumstances to infer, and Morewood (op. cit.} quotes the saying that " Al-Mokanna, the veiled prophet, whose life and actions Ai-Mokan- Are so beautifully detailed by Moore in his Lalla RooJch, n ' 8death - when likely to be taken by the troops under the command of Almohdis' general, in the year Hegira 163, or 980 of * Hist. Crit. Philosophice, vol. i. p. 136. t Cited from Geber by Samuel Morewood, in his History of Inebriating Liquors, Dublin, 1838. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Rhazes, the Moorish physician. Albucassi: a Moorish physician. Raimundus hullns. Arnoldus oar era, to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, after poisoning his whole family and followers, threw himself into a vessel of aquafortis." 8. As regards Europe, it appears certain that Rhazes (Mahommed Aboubekr ibn Zakaria el Rhazi, 850-923), the celebrated Moorish physician, called the phoenix of his age on account of his vast learning, practised spirit dis- tillation. Dr. J. Friend, in his History of Physic (London, 1726, vol. i.), says, "As to distillation, M. Le Clerc fixes the epoch of it in the time of Avicenna " (a Moorish physician who died about 1036), " who, as he supposes, first applied this sort of knowledge in the way of medicine; ... if it be, as perhaps it may be ... derived from the Arabians, the honour of the invention ought rather to be restored to Rhazes." Hoefer, in his great work, History of Chemistry, says positively that Rhazes knew how to distil spirit from grain, but for some reason his discovery did not become a matter of general knowledge. Two hundred years later another distinguished Moorish physician and chemist, Albucassis, or Aboul Casim (Chalaf Ben Abbas el-Zahravi, died A.D. 1106), is claimed to have discovered the art of distillation, and in his case at least there are positive proofs. The Arab historian, Wiistenfeld, in his History of Arabian Physicians and Naturalists (1840), demonstrates with documents that Albucassis knew how to make brandy, which disposes of the erroneous but familiar assertion resting on the unsupported statement of Anderson in his History of Commerce that distillation was discovered so late in the twelfth century as 1150. And yet it was first in the days of Raimundus Lullus (1234- 1315) and Arnoldus Villa-Novus (1238-1314) that the us. knowledge of distillation began to be spread. Raimundus Lullus, born on the Spanish island Majorca, was first a theologian of eminent merits, but falling in love with a charming girl who was afflicted with cancer, he gallantly attacked physic and chemistry in the hope of learning how she might be cured, and his studies in chemistry were so thorough that he afterwards became one of the most famous of alchemists. He improved upon the crude mode of spirit distillation by using carbonate of potassium for the elimination of water.* * Ars magna IfulU, or " Lullus's great art," was an ingenious HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 31 Of Arnoldus Villa-Novus, Professor of Medicine at Montpelier, France, Dr. Thomson (System of Chemistry, vol. ii. 1817) says, " He was the first to form tinctures and introduce them into medicine ; " and citing from Crell's Annals (1796), Dr. Thomson adds, " He is said also to have been the first who obtained the oil of turpentine." He is chiefly known for the zeal with which he advocated the use of alcohol, being as identified with its spread as Friar Hernandez with that of tobacco, and as Peter the Hermit with the recovery of the Holy Grave. 9. When we consider that the alchemists whose Reasons for philosophy, founded by Hermes Tresmegistus, was based m?sts >C heiief on Aristotle's doctrine of four elementary substances of the in alcohol, universe, air, water, fire, and earth had been constantly labouring for hundreds of years, by means of various com- binations, to extract from these elements the universal essence of life, is it wonderful that on obtaining this mysterious spirituous fluid, comprising ingredients of all these elements, yet baffling their efforts at analysis, they should at once cry out that at last was discovered the philo- sopher's stone, the fifth element, the quintessence, the elixir of life ? The Adepts (those credited with having found the philosopher's stone, and therefore perfect in alchemic art), judging from the burning sensation it produced, and the fact that it is obtained only by the well-managed and care- ful application of heat, believed that spirit contained the principles of fire.* Is it wonderful that when they found out their terrible mistake, they were exceedingly loath to acknowledge it, the belief of the masses being the only plank for their otherwise absolutely lost reputation ? Is it strange that the masses of the nations who had been for centuries kept in feverish expectancy of the great or the attempt at systematic arrangement of the ideas necessary in general knowledge and ordinary communication, letters to be used as signi- fying the fundamental ideas, and mathematical figures to indicate their relations. Going at last as a missionary to Mauritania (north, west coast of Africa), he was stoned to death at the age of eighty, by the natives. * The North American Indians seem by natural instinct to have reached a similar conclusion in their simple effective appellation fire-water. 32 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. discovery, should, on hearing the " lo triomphe ! " of theii wisest leaders, make the eager chorus of that cry and clamour for the poisoning draught which they believed to be the " Wator of life " ? various 10. When first discovered, the distilled spirit was afcohol. f0r known by a variety of names, such as aqua ardens, aqua- fortis (now applied only to nitric acid), vinum ardens, vinum adustum (burnt), spiritus ardens, etc. Arnoldus Villa- Novus called it aqua-vitce or aqua-vini. Raimundus Lullus often called it aqua ardens and aqua vitce ardens. It was also called mercurius vegetabilis, because bodily substances capable of being evaporated through circulating heat were termed mercurial, as it is by means of intense heat that mercury in the form of fumes is expelled from metallic minerals. " This name, however," says H. Kopp, in his History of Chemistry (Braunschweig, 1847), "came into disuse in the sixteenth century, and from that time forth the term alcohol became more general." Derivations In the word alcohol the Arabic article al is prefixed, as 0rd > n the word aZ-chemy, to denote the superlative degree of the cohol, or in Arabic, kohl ; in Chaldaic, cohal ; in Hebrew, kaal ; which means fine, that is, exceedingly fine and subtle. This word was used in Arabia as the name of an almost ethereally fine powder with which the Eastern dames were wont to tinge their eyebrows and eyelashes; hence because this fluid was found in Arabia, and was among fluids as fine and volatile as this cosmetic among powders, Euro- peans gave to it the same name.* According to Walter Johnson, it is founded upon the Eastern superstition of the earth being infested with wicked spirits, and that when the first effect of this newly dis- covered drug was seen upon men, the Arabians imagined the persons to be possessed of a devil, which had either assumed the form of the liquid, or entered the body along with it, in which case they would in fright exclaim, " Al ghole, Al ghole," the evil ghost or spirit.f And even when this notion was put aside, the vast amount of mischief * Rev. Dr. J. Guthrie, in his Temperance Physiology (Glasgow, 1877), thinks the word alcohol is " probably derived from the Arabic kahala, equivalent to the Hebrew cachal, to paint." t Webster gives the word Algol (Arabic al ghul), destruction, calamity. " thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou Last no name to be known by, let us call thee Devil J " Cassio in Othello, Act ii. sc. 3. HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 33 which the liquid still wrought amongst mankind caused the retention of the name " Al ghole," which in course of time has been corrupted to alcohol. " Kopp thinks," says Dr. Baer (op. cit.J, " that the word came from the Arabic technique, and meant powder and to pulverize, and that the spirit drawn over the carbonate of potassium to free it from water, was first called spiritus alcalisatus (alkali meaning salt), and thereafter by trans- position spiritus a\co\isatus, which term went into alcool spiritus vini. So, for example, does Libavius* put together vini alcool and vinum alcalisatum. Says Dr. Huss (op. cit.}, "When we remember that just at that period the medical science was at its lowest ebb, the masses placing their trust especially in arcana and universal remedies, we find it quite natural that a remedy so generally praised and so agreeable to the taste should become a household article, and from a medicinal The spread become a dietetic necessity, at first on the pretext of its of alcoho1 - antidotal and strength-giving properties, but soon also on account of its intoxicating nature, in cot as well as castle. And with such rapidity and avidity did this abuse spread, that by the middle of the seventeenth century, its use was common among all classes, and chemistry was required to find new means of production in order to satisfy the cravings for drink. And this was found in the distillation of all kinds of grain and fruit, and lastly potatoes." * Libavius, who died in 1616, wrote the first chemical text-book, called Alchemia. 34 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. CHAPTER III. PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 11. THUS far, we have taken a brief survey of the drink- ing customs among the ancients, of the effects of the habits and the notions then prevalent; and have touched on the discovery of distillation, and the spread of the use of alcohol as a life-elixir, as a medicine, and as a beverage. But before dealing with the effects of alcohol on man, since distilled as well as fermented drinks became common in Europe, it will be necessary to say something about chemistry and physiology in order to be intelligible to the great masses who have so little time to keep abreast with the progress of scientific knowledge, but who use their narrow opportunities with an eagerness and energy de- serving far more respect and attention than they receive. That power of ancient thought over modern investiga- tion, of which we have spoken, is practically illustrated by the history of chemistry.* The Terminology of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, for example arranging and denning technical terms is not yet wholly displaced, and his general theories still underlie modern realism. A writer on almost every subject, Aristotle wrote also on plants and animals, and thus really originated the sciences of botany and physiology; and though these works are now regarded as among his weakest efforts, and notwith- standing the patent errors in them, they were, owing to * Chemistry, that branch of science which treats of the composition, decomposition, and changes of substances ; chemist, a person versed in chemistry ; chemically, according to the natural laws of chemistry ; chemicals, substances producing chemical effects ; molecule, an in- divisible compound of matter ; atom, indivisible ultimate of matter. PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 35 the weight of his great name, paramount over all other authorities for two thousand years, other investigations being fenced within the lines he had drawn. It was by the demonstration of the famous Irish philo- The dis- sopher and chemist, R. Boyle (1627-1691), of the existence SfJa of chemical elements, that Aristotle's " four elements " elements, theory was finally and definitely disproved. Two of the chief elements in all life-combinations, nitrogen and oxygen, were not discovered, however, till 1772 and 1774 respectively, the former by Rutherford and the latter by Priestley and Scheele. But Lavoisier was the first to use these discoveries in laying the foundation of a philo- sophical science. From Boyle's time and until the time of Auguste Lavoisier's Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) it was supposed that the ttetaSfdr* more complex compounds in the animal and vegetable oxidation, worlds were peculiar, that is, foreign to the mineral or inorganic, and were termed organic compounds because they are highly complex substances which constitute organic bodies, to distinguish them from the substances composing the mineral creation, which were termed in- organic compounds. He dispelled this notion, and showed that just as oxygen, by combustion of carbon, forms carbonic acid, and, in combination with hydrogen, water in external nature ; so the oxygen in the inhaled air pro- duces corresponding changes in the carbon and hydrogen it finds in the animal organism. While engaged in most important experiments, he came under the condemnation of the tribunal of the Eevolution, and though he begged them to grant him only fourteen days more in which to complete his experiments, that the results might be saved to mankind, he was brutally told that 1'rance wanted neither scholars nor chemists, and was hurried to the guillotine.* * " The man is thought a knave or fool Or bigot plotting crime, Who, for the advancement of his kind, Is wiser than his time. For him the hemlock shall distill ; For him the axe be bared ; For him the gibbet shall be built { For him the stake prepared. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The founda- tion of scien- tific physi- ology laid in 1850, in the cell dis- covery. The estab- lishment of organic scientific physiology in 1855. Lavoisier had lived, however, to found the chemico- physiological science, indicating the intimacy and inter- dependence existing between all parts of the physical universe, and in this pointing ont to us the vast scope of scientific physiology. But immediately upon his death his theories were scouted as the dreams of a visionary, and even so late as 1835 the famous German physiologist Joannes Miiller, in his Handbook of Physiology, ridiculed them, saying that the theory of water formation from hydrogen was invented to support that of combustion, but afterwards founded his brilliant chemico-physiological school on the basis laid by Lavoisier.* It was first by the establishment through Schwann one of Muller's most competent disciples and Von Mohl, of the theory of the cell, termed by Professor Huxley the "basis of life" (185051), that a stable foundation for scientific physiology was laid ; and the probable truth of the cell basis of life has been demonstrated by the vast structure already reared on that slender beginning. Thus physiology, from being regarded merely as the science of the organs and their functions in animals and plants, has become what the name indicates (physiology Greek, physis, nature, and logos, discourse) the science of nature, though its investigations of the inorganic world, the plants, and even of the animals, are daily becoming more experimental in order to obtain clues for solving some of the manifold mysteries of the human organism. From about 1855 dates the scientific researches in organic f physiology, and chemico-physiological science is therefore not quite thirty years old. In that time it has Him shall the scorn and wrath of men Pursue with deadly aim ; And malice, envy, spite, and lies Shall desecrate his name. But truth shall conquer at the last ; For round and round we run, And ever the right comes uppermost And ever is justice done." CHARLES MACKAT. * With Morvean, Lavoisier formed the modern chemical nomen- clature. t The term organic is now applied simply to the compounds of oarbon, irrespective of their complexity (Baker's Physiology). PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 37 made tremendous progress, but has not yet solved all the mysteries of physical life, nor can it be fairly expected that it should have done so within such a period, though many seem to have expected it. 12. Alcohol has played a very prominent part in HOW alcohol chemical researches from the first, and for several reasons. ^hi e n t In the experiments made with it, when the demand became subject for greater than could be supplied by the original methods, venation!" it was soon found that it possessed marked and highly- valuable properties for chemical purposes, e.g. the power of solving with some notable exceptions, as we shall find later on most chemical substances, and of mixing in almost any proportions with most fluids. Then the demand made by both drinkers and abstainers, and more and more imperatively made, for information as to the exact effects of drink on the human system, has further stimulated the scientific study of alcohol, so that researches in this direction have been disproportion- ately greater than those referring to other chemical compounds. Until 1828 it was supposed that there was only one Discovery of kind of alcohol (viz. ethyl-alcohol the name being derived ^$Jyi from the first syllable in the Greek word aither, ether, and andam'yi another Greek word, hyla, wood, hence wood-ether which alcohol8< is the name for the spirit of wine), but in that year Dumas and Peligot proved that the distilled spirit of wood known in trade as methylated (or methyl-alcohol, from Greek, meta, with, and hyla, wood, hence wood-spirit) spirit, discovered by Taylor was an alcohol. In 1839 the spirit extracted from the starch of potato was found to contain amyl very largely, and was called amt/Z-alcohol, from the Greek word amylon, meaning fine meal or starch. Alcohols The great have since been discovered by the hundred, necessitating gr^pTand elaborate systematizations of the various series in groups varieties of and divisions. Of all these series and groups of alcohols we are chiefly, if not exclusively, concerned with the first or fatty series so called because they w_ere looked upon as pro- ductive of fat. Of these, only two, ethyl and amyl, require extensive treatment, though five of these groups are generally found together in all alcohols, viz. : 38 THE FOUNDATION OP DEATH. Methyl, or, according to Gerhardt, in Greek numerals, protyl or 1st. Ethyl, deutyl or 2nd. Propyl, trityl or 3rd. Butyl, tetrylor4th. Amyl, pentyl or 5th. To show the reader how complex even this series is, we may mention that each of these five groups contains several kinds, and the number is constantly increasing. As an 'Sample, Basset, the French chemist, in his great work on Distillation, published sixteen years ago, mentions : 79 kinds of methyl. 17 butyl. 15 propyl. 9 amyl. 7 ethyl. The elements All alcohols * are composed of three elements, viz. of alcohol, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. Oxygen. Oxygen (Greek, oxys, sharp, and genein, to generate, so called because originally supposed to form an essential part of acids) is a gaseous element, without positive taste, colour, or smell, but possessing strong chemical attraction, and forming about one-sixth part of common air. Its slow combination with other elements results in oxidation, and its sudden combination in combustion. Hydrogen. Hydrogen (Greek, liydoor, water, and genein, to gene- rate), the lightest of all known gaeeous elements, is found in small but variable proportion in the air. Its increase produces rain, and it forms about one-ninth part of water. It is colourless, highly inflammable, and forms an essential part of almost all organic bodies. Carbon. Carbon is a non-gaseous, non-metallic element. It forms the chief element in charcoal, enters largely into mineral coals, and in its pure crystallized state forms the diamond. It is combustible, and predominates in all organic compounds. In its chemical properties it differs from other elements in this respect, that it is capable of * "Alcohol is the collective name of a class of organic unions which in their characteristics and modes of formation stand close to the ordinary ethyl-alcohol. They are all neutral, but unite, when freed from the watery elements, with acids, making compound ethers, from which they can again be restored by the addition of the elements of water." Brockhaus' Conversation-Lexicon, vol. i. (1884) Ed. 13, now iu process of publication. PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 39 uniting with hydrogen in various definite proportions, thus forming the vast variety of hydro-carbons, and when also combined with oxygen giving rise to the carbo-hydrates which are found throughout the vast plant world. The chief substance among the carbo-hydrates, from The natural which alcohol is derived, is sugar a most varied and ai 1 vastly extended substance not confined to the plant world, but spreading throughout the whole dominion of life. Scientists group sugars according to their different views. The simplest arrangement, I find, is one of three groups : First group. Glucose (Greek, glykos, sweet), which comprises principally grape sugar, fruit sugar, and inosite a sweet found in many plants, but chiefly belonging to the muscles of the heart and tissues of the lungs of the higher animals. becond group. The true sugars, viz., cane-sugar, lactose (Latin, lac, milk) or milk sugar. The third group mostly contains cellulose, or the chief substance for cell formation, i.e. starch, dextrine or starch- gum, and gluten. From all these various sugars alcohol can be obtained ; by direct fermentation from the glucose, and by the conversion of the second and third groups into glucose, and then into alcohol. Alcohol has also been obtained, though in small amounts only, by synthesis, or chemical composition. Fermentation is the general name applied to the first The processes of nature's taking to pieces some organic com- *" pound or body, either for further construction of organic life-supply ; or for dissolution into elements the principle of life having fled. Fermentation (Latin, fervere, to boil) was a term ori- ginally used concerning all phenomena where a liquid or pasty mass was seen to lift or bubble, discharging gas with- out an apparent cause. Chemically it means a reaction in which an organic compound under the influence of a ferment changes in a determined sense at the expense of the substance. It is now known that all fermentation is the work of The nature, so-called micro-organisms,* or active organisms so small tofluenaTaf ferments 6L * Micro-organisms called bacteria at once set feeding on the dead life. tissues ; but if excluded, or even through chemical processes stopped in their enterprises, fermentation ceases. 40 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Generation of yeast that, as Professor Miigge, of Gottingen, states (in his work on Ferments and Micro-parasites, published at Leipsic, July, 1883) : " They stand on the border of invisibility, even to the eye armed with the best optical means, and yet, with their undreamt-of spread and deeply invading activity, play a most important role in the household of nature and the existence of man. They cause the destruction of life- less organic substances, occasion the oxidation of otherwise non-oxidable stuffs. They provide the plants continually with their chlorophyl " (Greek, Jdooros, light green ; phyllon, a leaf) " the green colouring matter of the leaves and stalks of plants excite the most diverse fermenta- tions, and to us they are an indispensable means of pre- paring our ordinary foods. . . . On the other hand, they live as parasites on our cultivated plants, and bring about their degeneration and death. They produce at times the severest diseases, both in lower and higher animals, and at times threaten man with murderous epidemics. ... In air, in earth, water, everywhere we find these same little organisms; we recognize them in our nearest surroundings, in the home, in the food, as permanent companions, and incidentally as formidable enemies. Most of these im- portant little lives are plants of very elementary structure and the simplest procreative processes, but of extraordinary powers of multiplication. A few of them belong to the lowest animals." 13. As we have seen, alcoholic fermentation, though known from prehistoric times, was not understood. Later it was observed as limited to sweet substances, but the secret of the fermentation processes had remained unsolved till our day. The real nature of the alcoholic ferments or yeasts as living fungi, was first discovered in 1835 by Cagniard Latour, and in 1837 the already mentioned German, Schwann, proved that the atmosphere is always charged with ferments. Since then microscopic science, headed by such men as Kolliker, Pasteur, Liebig, Nageli, and others, has succeeded in revealing a universe of micro- scopic plants and animals. The yeast plant, a very low form of vegetable life, consists of simple vesicular cells destitute of chlorophyl, which sprout at one or both ends of the mother-cell, fill with part of its contents, assume its form and size, and PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 41 in turn give birth in rapid succession to new cells ; the whole forming a beaded network of indefinite form. By alcholic fermentation, glucose is resolved into from 30 to 31 per cent, alcohol, 50 per cent, carbonic-acid gas,* and a small portion of other compounds, the chief of them being from 2'5 to 5'6 per cent, glycerine, and 0'4 to 0'7 succinic acid, etc. All fermentations can be divided into two groups: The lethal the one for maintaining life, and the other for producing "kolioikf death and dissolution into original elements. Alcoholic fermenta- fermentation belongs to the latter group, because, as far as known, alcohol can never be obtained from any living organism, substance, or chemic compounds containing life death and decay being necessary pre-conditions for its natural production. And as alcoholic fermentation is a saccharine fermentation, and as saccharine fluids are inherent in all organic compounds saccharine ferments being spontaneously present wherever saccharine fluids exist and as all organic compounds are subject to the law of death and decay, it follows that all organic sub- stances, in a certain proportion to their saccharine con- tents, may be productive of alcohol, i.e. be alcoholizable. And these facts have been practically demonstrated in the various domains of nature by recent chemical experiments, though the alcohol discovered has been small in quantity, owing probably to its volatility and proneness to oxidation and further dissolution. Thus, for example, we are told by the French scientist saccharine Muntz, that he had found traces of alcohol in water, and [^ex^ains that he had reason to believe that the carburetted body the traces of indicated by Boussingault and De Saussure as being fi^ter?""^ and earth. * Carbonic-acid gas forms 0'03 to 0'06 per cent, of the atmo- sphere. It streams forth from active volcanoes, as well as from many fissures in the earth, e.g. the Dog Cave at Naples, the vapour caves at Pyrmont, Vichy, Hauterive, the Death Valley in Java, etc. Carbonic-acid gas is generally formed in plant or animal decom- positions; for instance, wood, tallow, oil, are changed by atmo- spheric combnstion into carbonic acid and water. Where organic substances are richly strewn in the ground there is also much carbonic acid, hence the presence of so much of this deadly gas in coal mines, etc. Animals expirate carbonic acid gas, because through oxidation, organic substances are resolved into carbonic acid gas and water. 4)2 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. present in the atmosphere was alcohol. And there is every reason to believe this to be a fact, there being always in the air, as in the water, saccharine compounds. So also, when we are told that there is alcohol in the soil, we have reason to credit it. We know the soil consists chiefly of the material residue of organic and inorganic decomposition, and of course in earth, as in air and water, alcohol is a product of the decompositions of saccharine particles. May not the carbonic-acid gas, or deadly vapour found especially in coal mines, be a residue in no small degree of the carbonic-acid gas formed in far distant ages by the alcoholic fermentation of the organic matter which has \J been through succeeding ages turned into coal ? And may it not be that the alcohol obtained through dry dis- tillation i.e. through heat and exclusion of air is to some extent only the released product of natural ancient fermentations ? * Alcohol in I n the preparation of bread the yeast changes the starch into dextrine or grape sugar. In the further fermentation the grape sugar changes about 2 per cent, of the flour into carbonic acid and alcohol ; the carbonic-acid gas causes the sponginess of the dough, the alcohol in the baking evaporates. Bread kept for some days in a warm room through the action of spontaneous ferment re-acquires alcohol from, according to Bolas, 0'12 to 0*32 per cent., and if left longer it is soured by the formation of acetic acid into sour bread.f * " ALCOHOL FROM SMOKE. The latest instance of the utilization of waste products is that effected at Elk Rapids, Michigan, with the gaseous matter given forth by a blast furnace in which are manu- factured fifty tons of charcoal iron a day. In the case to which we refer, the vast amount of smoke from the pits, formerly lost in the air, is now turned to account by being driven by suction or draught into stills surrounded by cold water, the results of the condensation being first, acetate of lime ; second, methyl-alcohol ; third, tar ; the fourth part produces gas, which is consumed under the boilers. Each cord of wood produces 29,000 cubic feet of smoke, 2,900,000 feet of smoke handled in the twenty-four hours producing 12,000 Ibs. of acetate of lime, 200 gallons of alcohol, and 25 Ibs. of tar." Louis- ville Medical News, March 17, 1883. t "Some New York bakers are, it appears, exercising their minds with the reflection that about one thousand gallons of alcohol are daily wasted in the ovens of the Empire City, and they have PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 4 But alcohol has also been detected in the wastes of Alcohol in living organisms. Gutzeit claims to have found ethyl and |g^g S p[^s methyl alcohols mixed with butyric and acetic ethers in and animals growing plants parsnips, and in Anthriscus cerefolium and Heracleum giganteum and other plants. Alcohol as a purely natural product is not confined to the plant world. According to attested results of ex- periments by Bechamp, alcohols and acids are constant and immediate outcomes of animal death, so that very shortly after death takes place alcoholic fluids are obtain- able from the tissues. But it is claimed that alcohol is to be found not only in dead but even in living animals. Marcownicoff detected alcohol in the urine of diabetic patients, and recently it has been proved that in the excrements of all healthy per- sons alcohol is traceable, and the reason is not very far to seek. The glucose in the body is acted upon by the always spontaneously present ferments of glucose ; alcohol and carbonic acid must be the result. 14. As alcohol is one of the chief products in the first chemical combination in organic decomposition, so it is but natural that it should possess strong potential tendencies towards further dissolution, and as oxidation is the chief agent in dissolution, so alcohol has a strong been making inquiries as to how they may save the spirit. It is a fact that wherever yeast fermentation is allowed to set in, there alcohol is produced, and that it is quite possible, by condensing the vapours from a batch of bread in the process of baking, to recover quite a considerable quantity of alcohol. But the New York bakers are would-be plagiarists. Some years ago a company was started in London to make bread and recover the alcohol, but owing partly to the bad arrangements adopted, and partly to the opposition of rival bakers, the scheme was a failure. The rival bakers adopted the simple expedient of announcing that their bread was sold " with all the gin in it ; " and strange to say they obtained the public custom, although there was no more alcohol in their bread than in that made by the company. It is quite possible to obtain a small quantity of alcohol from the vapours arising from a baker's oven, but any attempt to kill two birds with one stone in this case results in the practical escape of both; for if the bakery is converted into a distillery the bread is spoilt, and the spirits are scarcely worth the trouble, seeing that they can be made cheaply enough by legitimate means, and any attempt to make them illegitimately would bring on the baker all the rules and regulations of the Excise." Echo, January 26, 1884. 44 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. attraction to oxidation, and rapidly goes over from one combination to another, gradually freeing the atoms until finally only the original elements of its composition namely, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen remain, set free to enter into new conbinations. ihten- The irresistible tendency of alcohol to dissolve things aicohoHo i* 1 * their elements, by means of oxidation and hydration, decompose is shown in the very process of distillation, for notwith- ments. 6 " standing the elaborate precautions to obtain what is called pure alcohol we see the alcohol itself proceeding some of it into further stages of dissolution by freeing one or more atoms belonging to alcoholic compounds, such as acetic ethers and aldehydes. As an example of the successively rapid changes towards absolute dissolution which alcohols pass through if free to do so, we may cite changes peculiar to ethyl-alcohol, the most common, least intoxicating, and with which we are most concerned. Its chemical formula C 2 H 6 0, or two parts carbon, six parts hydrogen, and one part oxygen, easily changes. H being freed, we have acetic ether ; another H being removed, there is aldehyde. With this result, double the and we have acetic acid or spirit of vinegar, etc. (any alcoholic drink exposed only for a short time to the air changes in part into these compounds). All acids substitute an O for H 2 thus : Formic CH 2 2 Acetic C 2 H 4 Oj Methylic . Ethylic . Propylio . Butylic . Amylic Caproylio CH 4 O C 2 H 6 C 3 H 8 C 4 H 10 O C 5 H I2 C 6 H U Propiomc ... C 3 H 6 2 Butyric C 4 H 8 2 Valeric C 5 H 10 0, Caproic C 6 H 12 2 15. Methyl and ethyl alcohols have been found useful in various ways in civilization methyl in particular,because of its comparative cheapness. Methyl-alcohol, as methy- Various uses lated spirit (which is ethyl-alcohol mixed with methyl- tor alcohols, akohoi t Suc j 1 an ex tent as to spoil it for drinking, is very extensively used in varnishes, in methyl-aniline colouring, oil for spirit lamps, and for dissolving resin and fatty substances generally, essential oils, ethers, alkaloids, most organic acids and certain of their salts. It enters largely into the manufacture of candles, india-rubber, and collodion, in which shape it is especially used by photographers, for PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 45 aromatic waters, cleansing of glass, etc. Pettenkofer, the Munich chemist and physiologist, discovered some years ago how to restore faded oil paintings, by means of alco- holic vapours. Aldehyde is principally used in silver amalgamation on glass. 16. But in nothing is alcohol more used than in Sources of intoxicating drinks, in all of which it forms the chief intoxicating principle. The alcohol is obtained from grapes, drinks, whence by fermentation wine, and by distillation of wine, wine alcohol, which, containing about 30 per cent, of water, yield the true brandies ; tree fruits apples, pears, peaches, etc., which, by fermentation, produce ciders, and whose distillations give apple, pear, and peach spirit, and whose dilution by water gives the fruit brandies. By similar processes, currant, lemon, and other brandies are obtained. But the chief sources of alcohol are potatoes, sugar refuse, and grains ; of the latter especially barley, rye, and maize, because of the abundance of starch which they contain, which by diastatic ferment is turned into dextrine, then grape sugar, then spirit. The process of glucose development in grain is called Malting, malting, by which the grain, first being caused to sprout in warm moisture, is then slowly heated till the life principle is extinct. The spirit from sugar refuse is called rum; that from various potatoes, barley, rye, and maize, whiskies and gins. The j gins are flavoured with strong aromatics, especially juniper berries, lemon peel, and turpentine. Barley is chiefly used in the manufacture of beers. And beer is a com- paratively weak alcoholic drink in a state of second fermentation, generally flavoured with hops. Fermented milk is called koumiss, and in Russia, by distillation of koumiss, a brandy called araca asa is obtained. Arrack is a brandy obtained from rice ; absinthe a cordial of alcohol flavoured with wormwood ; tafia is a brandy fx'om molasses, and hirsch a brandy from the cherry. 46 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. CHAPTER IV. ADULTERATIONS. Universality 17. ALL adulteration is induced by desire for profit, and adulteration, therefore its un scrupulousness is limited only by the pro- bability of success. Detection and consequent loss is the only thing the adulterator fears. When we remember these facts, together with the marvellous adulterability * of alcoholic liquors, we can no longer wonder at its vast extension, and the employment therein of all kinds of poisons. The chief means of all kinds of liquor adulterations is, of course, water, because while it costs nothing, it gives a greatly increased, though fictitious, value to the drink by increasing its volume. That water makes the liquor less harmful is no justification for its employment, and those who do justify it ignore the moral character of the act, at the same time that they tacitly imply the harmful consequences from drinking liquor. But we find also our strongest poisons, such as strychnia, stramonium, sulphuric acid, oil of clove, bitter almond, sugar of lead, used together with innocent mixtures, all of which in certain proportions * In his work on Alcohol and its Physical Effects (New York, 1874), Colonel Dudley says " With few exceptions the entire liquor traffic of the world is not only a fraud, but perhaps without all the dealers being aware of the fact it amounts to a system of drugging and poisoning. The business of making adulterated liquors has been so simplified that any novice who knows how to make a punch or a cocktail can learn in a short time to make any kind of liquor that will pass muster with nine-tenths of the community." Bouchardat says, " The wine sold by retailers consists of alcohol, colouring matters, water, and a very small quantity of natural wine." ADULTERATIONS. 47 are disguisable in alcohol, as well as subs tit utable for it. Alfred Fournier, in his celebrated article in the New Dic- tionary of Medical and Surgical Practice (Paris, 1864), says of thirty-six samples of spirits and brandy retailed at low price in the Faubourg of Rouen, and seized by the police, twenty-one contained sulphuric acid, and five acetic acid. And Dr. Parkes (Hygiene, London, 1878) gives no less than Enumeration nineteen poisons in his formidable table of adulterations. Among these are ferrous sulphate, sulphuric acid, essentia bina, colocynth, colchicum, cocculus indicus, strychnine, tobacco, copper, and lead. A " Practical Man " (London, 1826), in giving recipes for adulteration, says that in a certain adulteration of brandy other " fermentable matters are added to the must before the fermentation has taken place ; " and of the depravity of another adulteration he adds, " The acid used in combina- tion of counterfeit brandy is commonly called spirit of nitre, and some distillers use quicklime in rectifying their spirits. " "In 1820 another work, very able and thorough for its time, entitled Wine and Spirit Adulteration Un- masked; tells us that " spirits of wine are generally made from the fruits and refuse of all other spirits and compounds put together and distilled." Here is a short simple recipe for making old Jamaica rum : " Sixty gallons proof spirit and one pound of rum essence " (rum essence is composed from acetic ether, saltpetre, wine ether, butyric-acid ether, birch-oil tincture, oak bark, etc., mixed). Very simple, but just think of drinking corn whisky while supposing it to be Jamaica rum ! Dr. Riant gives a recipe for making rum of new- scraped leather, oak bark, oil of clove, tar, and molasses alcohol. 18. The liquors most 'adulterated are the wines, and Reasons for for many reasons. The art of vinification to even the *f wtoS* 10 " most skilled and honest wine-makers is a very difficult science. The accidents of manufacture, such as season, fervidity of fermentation, prolonged access of air, and numerous others, materially affect the colours and flavours of the wines, and, indeed, the present public taste long accustomed to only same-tasting wines, because of their adulterations would have nothing to do with pure wines 48 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH which wanted the familiar factitious flavours. Thus even the would-be honest wine-dealer has hardly any alter- native to the selling of adulterated wines ; and chemical science has discovered abundant means and methods both for adulteration and for artificial manufacture. We find that wine adulteration commences from the moment the fruit is gathered. Says Dr. Thudichum, in his lecture on Wines (London, 1869) " Spanish, Portuguese, and French wines of the South are plastered ; that is to say, plaster of Paris is dusted over the grapes immediately after they are gathered, or while they are in the press, or while they are in a state of must." Rhine wine Mr. Walter McGree ("Pedro Verdad "), in his A Boole about Sherry (London, 1876), a trenchant essay on sherry adulteration and the incapacity displayed by the appointed Government analysts for its detection, quotes the following concerning the Rhine wines : " In the district of Neuwied, things have come to a sorry pass indeed. The evil has been imported by wine- dealers from abroad, who come in numbers every autumn, and, whether the vintage promises well or ill, buy up the growing grapes, and make from them five or six times the quantity of wine which the press of an honest ~ vintner would produce. The reader will ask, 'How is that possible ? ' Here is the explanation. " During the vintage, at night, when the moon has gone down, boats glide over the Rhine, freighted with a soapy substance manufactured from potatoes and called by its owners sugar. This stuff is thrown into the vats containing the must ; water is introduced from pumps and i wells, or, in case of need, from Father Rhine himself. I When the brewage has fermented sufficiently, it is strained j and carried away," Port wine 19. For some centuries past, ports and sherries have itonsT ra " been the principal wines drunk in England. Before the Select Committee on Wines (House of Commons, 1852), Cyrus Redding stated that though the annual export of port wine amounted to only twenty thousand pipes, no less than sixty thousand were consumed ; a goodly amount being I concocted out of Cape wines, cider, and brandies, etc., most of the spurious ports being concocted in th? London docks, presumably for exportation. AbULl'ERATIOtfS. 4J) Mr. Vizetelly, the British Wine Commissioner to the Vienna Exposition, writes in his Wines of the World (London, 1875): "Nowadays spurious port is produced on a large scale at Tarragona, in opain, which imports con- j siderable quantities of dried elderberries, presumably for deepening the colour, if not actually for adulterating the so-called ' Spanish Reds.' A couple of years ago I tasted scores of samples of fictitious ports in every stage of early and intermediate development, rough, fruity, fiery, rounded and tawny, in the cellars of some of the largest manufac- turers at Cette, and saw some thousands of pipes of con- verted Rousillon wines lying ready for shipment to England and various northern countries, as vintage port." Mr. Shaw, in his Wine, the Vine, and the Cellar (Lon- don, 1863), relates this illustrative anecdote, told by Lord Palmerston to a deputation waiting upon him : " I remember my grandfather, Lord Pembroke, when he placed wine before his guests, said, ' There, gentlemen, is my champagne, my claret, etc. I am no great judge, and I give you these on the authority of my wine merchant ; but I can answer for my port, for I made it myself.' " Mr. Vizetelly (op. cit.) says about sherry : " The wine I^ which forms the bulk of the bettor class of sherries ition imported into England is of the third quality, and is < known as raya. In its natural state it is sound and dry, of a pale greenish yellow colour, and has no particular character. Much of the low-class sherry shipped from Cadiz is blended, moreover, with poor white wine from the Contado de"ffiebla. When the wine is designed for ship- ment, it is sweetened and flavoured to disguise its deficiencies of taste, and coloured in order that it may be palmed off as old and matured colouring matter and reddish-brown liquid strongly charged with sulphate of potash then to prevent fresh fermentation, proof spirits are added." Mr. Walter Burton, late of Her Majesty's Customs, asserts that of many thousand tests which he had made at the London Customs House, the average showed 37 per cent, of proof spirit, while some exhibited as much as 50 per cent. Mr. James Denman, in his pamphlet, Wine as it should be (London, 1866), cites the following significant advertise- 50. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. ment from a prominent London morning journal, Septem- ber 29th, 1866 : " Partner Wanted. A practical distiller, having been experimenting for the last seventeen years, can now produce a fair port and sherry by fermentation, without a drop of grape juice, and wishes a party with from 2000 to 3000 capital, to establish a house in Hamburg for the manufacture of bis wines. Has already a good connection in business." And a writer on Wine and the Wine Trade in the Edinburgh Eevieiu (July, 1867) says " All the refuse wine, red or white, old samples, heeltaps \ of bottles, half-tasted glasses, are thrown down and passed ' away into the collecting barrel just as the cook throws any kind of meat and soup liquor into his stock-pot and ' with the addition of a little spirit and colouring matter, it comes out very good eighteen- shilling port. Mr. Shaw has shown us how ' curious old brown sherry' * is made already I by the aid of ' the doctor.' " Km** 1 leader In a leading article in the Times (December 10th, 1873) we read : " The correspondence which we have lately published on the manufacture of the liquid sold in this country under the name of ' Sherry,' seems calculated to shake even the robust faith of the British householder in the merits of his favourite beverage. The correspondence had its origin in the fate of an unfortunate gentleman who was found, by the verdict of a coroner's jury, to have died from an over- dose of alcohol, taken in fonr'gills of sherry ; and, as it proceeded, it gradually unfolded some of the mysteries of the processes by which the product called sherry is obtained. In the first place, it seems that the grapes, before being trodden and pressed, are dusted over with a large quantity of plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime), an addition which removes the tartaric and malic acids from the juice, and leaves sulphuric acid in their stead, so that the ' must ' contains none of the bitartrate of potash which is the natural salt of wine, but sulphate of potash instead, usually in the proportion of about t\vo ounces to a gallon. Besides this, the common varieties OL must ' receive an additional *~At present termed by publicans the drink of all nations, and not limited to wines by any means. (Dec. 10, 1873) on sherry adulteration. ADULTERATIONS. 51 pound of sulphuric acid to each butt, by being impregnated with the fumes of five ounces of sulphur. When fermenta- tion is complete, the wine may contain from a minimum of about 14, to a maximum of 27'5 per cent, of proof spirit; but it is not yet in a state to satisfy the demands of the English market, neither can it be trusted to travel without undergoing secondary fermentation or other changes. It is therefore treated with a variety of ingredients to impart colour, sweetness, and flavour ; and it receives an addition of sufficient brandy to raise the alcoholic strength of the mixture to 35 per cent, as a minimum, or in some cases to as much as 59 per cent, "of proof spirit. When all this has~b~een done, it is shipped in the wood for England, where it is either bottled as ' pure ' wine, or is subjected to such further sophistications as the ingenuity of dealers may suggest. " Surely it would not exceed the duty of a Government which has done so much to protect the population from disease, by enforcing sanitary regulations drainage, house- cleaning, etc. to interfere vigorously and repress this abominable traffic." 20. All wines intended for export are "fortified " that is, alcoholized on the pretext that only by this method can they be prevented from souring, a questionable statement when asserted of any well-made and matured wine. It is, however, accepted as a truth by the various European Governments, and naturally the cheapest stuff that will answer the purpose is used in this fortification. . Mr. Vizetelly says, " It is notorious that Spaniards are I not dram-drinkers, yet for a long time Spain imported 1: annually some 1,600,000 gallons of British spirits. " It is true that it does so no longer, but simply because Prussia, where it markets to-day, furnishes it with a cheaper article distilled from potatoes and beetroot. It is notorious, moreover, that spirit of the same low class is extensively used in England to fortify port wine in bond. The Custom returns give the total number of ' operations,' as fortifying of wine in the docks is delicately termed, at 820 for the year 1872." The Daily Telegraph (September 12, 1883), in a leader Daily-Me- an the political relations between Germany and Spain, says 52 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Spanish wine "Not only does Spain in politics approach Germany; tured from in their commercial negotiations her statesmen have made manv concessions to Prince Bismarck. The Peninsula furnishes a kind of medium between the raw alcohol of Germany and the palates of the wine-driukers of the world. Spain imports vast quantities of spirits from the North, mixes them with her own wines, exports them as genuine products of her soil to France, where, stamped with the names of famous localities or firms, they, like the Tricolor, make the tour of the world. This French demand for Spanish wines so steadily increases, owing to the ravages of the phylloxera, that out of the produce of her own soil Spain could not possibly meet the demand. Hence the commercial importance of her friendship for Germany." This information as to the character of Spanish wines reads curiously side by side with the statements, in the London morning papers (December 7, 1883), that England is about to conclude a commercial treaty with Spain, the nature of which can be judged from these innocent y he D *i% -A comments of the Daily News' Madrid correspondent : correspon- " Even the most extreme pretensions of the Spanish proposed 1 "* wine-growers only aimed at getting thirty-two or thirty - wme-adul- four degrees for the ultimate limit of the one shilling duty treatywith in a definitive treaty some day, and that limit would Spain. include fortified wines as well as natural." Thus not only are there to be special facilities for importing, and poison- ing the English with vile German whisky flavoured with Spanish wines ; but apparently a premium is to be offered to Spain for declining the less vile but costlier British spirits for German, which, excepting under the guise of Spanish wines, would not be drunk in this country ! Ex-Custom It was but a few years ago that the ex-Custom officer, Burton^ ' Mr - Walter Burton, drew public attention to the fortifying expose of of wines in the Custom wine-houses and under the actual from~Stv king superintendence of Government officials, potato spirit "A wine-iobber," he' remarks, "having, say, 1000 in London * ,-, f jj J.-L. 'inn n t -L. docks, under gallons ot wine, can add thereto 1UU gallons or spirit, on* ma king a total of 1100 gallons of wine, thereby converting in a few minutes 200 gallons of crude potato spirit diluted with London water, and costing about one shilling per i gallon, into, it may be, a ' special sherry ' or ' vintage port.' JThere is, as far as I am aware, no record kept of the ADULTERATIONS. 53 quantity of spirit so turned into wine ; but seeing that a large staff of officers are continuously employed in super- intending such operations, the increase to our stock in wines from this source must be considerable. It is for the public to say whether this system of manufacturing wine at their expense is to be continued. It is bad enough to have flavoured spirit and water imported into this country under the guise of wine, but it is still more objectionable to pay public officers to legalize the manufacture of such compounds in our own docks and warehouses to thp manifest injury of the revenue and of the public health." Such sherry is what is had "at taverns and refreshment bars at public dinners, and which figures on the wine list ^ of the majority of hotels at six shillings the bottle." The Licensed Victualler's Simple Guide (London, 1878), wine rectifi- under head of Fortifying says, " It frequently happens c" 1 ' 011 ^itu that wines left in the docks a long time become what is chalk termed 'pricked' (a tendency to acidity). Indeed, they yertlself^" often reach England in such condition ; in this case it is late as ISTS. well to have them racked on to spirit. Any merchant or agent can superintend the operation. When port is absolutely sour, it is good to drop a pound of prepared chalk into the pipe, and allow it to remain three days ; then fine with eggs, and, when bright, rack off with the highest proportion of spirits allowed by the Customs. This process leaves a little flatness, but is a frequent restorative, and renders the wine useful, at any rate for blending purposes." 21. Dr. Brinton, in his work on Food and its Digestion (London, 1861), says, " The addition of brandy to wine is, of course, a rank adulteration." Dr. McCulloch, in his Art of Making Wine, observes that " the admixture of alcohol decomposes the wine." Dr. Garrod, in writing on the causes of gout, says, " The wines to be carefully avoided are port, sherry, madeira, and any in which the fermentation has been checked by the addition of alcohol." The writer of the article on Wine and the Wine Trade The per- (Edinburgh Review, July, 1867), a propos of these legalized nici01 ? 3 adulterations, says, "It is, we think, very questionable of hetero- whether wines of different vintages, but of the same mixture of country, should be mixed at all, as is now universally done 54 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. in bond for home consumption. Chemically, they cannot perfectly agree ; and in order to keep the peace among them, more alcohol is poured in to pay the constable. But there can be no question whatever of the atrocity of pouring all kinds of wine, white and red, of all countries and all ages, sweet and sour and bitter, into vats, as is now done in the docks, adding spirit to them to keep them from perishing, as they do with preparations in our museums, and then exporting them to other countries. .But do they always go to other countries ? The evidence of the authorities of the Customs at the docks tells a very different tale. Mr. Cole, Comptroller of the Customs in the London Docks, among numerous other examples of heterogeneous mixtures of wines vatted in these docks, gives us the following, dated October 16, 1850 : '"Spanish wine, 1529 gallons; of Fayal wine, 544 gallons ; of French wines, 4492 gallons ; of Cape wines, 689 gallons ; of Portugal wine, only 117 gallons, with 155 gallons of brandy, the result obtained being 7526 gallons, minus 8 gallons loss ; and the grand result is 7534 gallons of port wine.' " And the celebrated physician and chemist, Dr. Bergeron, of Paris, says that alcoholization of wine introduces in wine a proportion of alcohol which, not being intimately associated with the other principles of the "must" in the labour of fermentation, finds itself there in a kind of free state, and acts with the same suddenness and energy on the organism as diluted alcohol. As to champagnes, Wetherbee says, in his Toxicology, that a "portion of so-called champagne wines is composed of the expressed juice of turnips, apples, and other vegetables, to which sufficient sugar of lead is added to produce the necessary sweetness and astringency." The Guide (London, 1874) counsels wine merchants to clt ai- cloudy and musty wines with sugar of lead, and Dr. ^ rfila ' In llis work on Pi sons (Paris, 1852), says, " Of all drinking the frauds this is the most dangerous. Sugar of lead ad .^ rated gives a sweet, astringent, metallic taste, constriction of the throat, pain in the stomach, vomiting, fetid eructation, thirst, coldness of limbs, convulsions, delirium, etc." This, then, is the explanation of the terrible splitting headaches ftfter fashionable champagne suppers. ADULTERATIONS. 55 Dr. Baer states that in the adulteration of wines the colouring matters play a deadly part. "Not only light wines, but mixtures, in which there has never been any grape juice, are artificially dyed and brought into the trade as precious red wines. To this end vegetable dyes are used, such as mallow-bloom, whortleberries, elderberries, cochineal, and logwood , . . and in modern times the aniline dye fuchsia, especially dangerous because of the arsenic it contains. Verr serious symptoms have followed a"tew days' use of this albuminuria, colic, emaciation, etc. . . . Certain processes resorted to in wine cooperage are very unhealthy . . alkalies carbonate of lime and quick- lime are added to fix the superfluous acids, and plaster of Paris to heighten the colour and increase its power of keeping. In the sulphurating of the wine casks, when the sulphur is obtained from arsenic, arsenical pyrites also may gain access to the wine." 22. At the close of his work on Wines (London, 1880), Beeraduiter. Mr. Vizetelly devotes some attention to beer, and says that ation- "the popular notion that the intoxicating influence of English beer is due exclusively to its alcoholic strength is an erroneous one, for there are many beers containing only a very small quantity of alcohol, that are highly stupefying, . most likely due to the use of cocculus indicus." Of course the chief adulterations used for beers are water and salt. To conceal the water dilution, and as substitutes for'Tiops, a number of bitter stuffs are used. Picric acid, aloes, quassia, buckbean, cocculus indicus, and gentian supply the taste of hops ; phosphoric acid the hop aroma ; and for the headings or froths there are concoctions of alum, copperas, sweet wort, molasses, and cocculus indicus. As a substitute for alcohol, the cocculus I indicus berry, which in its poisonous power surpasses j alcohol, is being imported in steadily increasing quan- tities into England. A querist in the Pharmaceutical j Journal (for 1874) pointed out that " the stocks for a ; previous month had been 1066 bags,' 1 and asked, " Is there any legitimate use for the same ? " The Lancet declared : not, and, had " no hesitation in affirming that a very large portion of it is put into malt liquor to give it strength and headiness. A viler agent could not well be introduced j into beer than the berry, the stupefying effects of which 56 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. are so well known that it is frequently used to kill fish and biixls." As substitutes for malt and sugar, unmalted c^rain, rye, maize starch, syrups, and glycerine are used. To give age, or rectify stateness, oil of vitriol or sulphuric- acids are chiefly employed. Sulphate of iron is the in- gredient which gives it the metallic bitter taste so loved by beer- drinkers. Lime and lead composites are resorted to for neutralizing the acids. The narcotic Another intoxicant, though generally regarded as non- alcoholic, is the lupulin, the pollen from the hop-flower. It contains ethereal oil, tannic acid, bitter stuffs, resin, etc., and the narcotic effect is chieflv due to the resinous part. CHAPTER V. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS; OR, EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL ON THB PHYSICAL ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS. " Delight not in meats and drinks that are too strong for Nature, but always let Nature be stronger than your food. " Let your food be simple, and drinks innocent, and learn of wisdom and experience how to prepare them aright." Aphorisms 25 and 32. Tryon. 1691. " Two lives go to make up the life of a nation. There is, first of all, the individual life, and then the collective life of the individuals, which makes what we call ' the life of the nation ; ' but if I may be forgiven for saying so, far before the life of a nation is the life of every individual soul who forms a part of it and if the question of the proper use of alcoholic drinks is important for our welfare as a nation, surely in a much stronger sense it is important for us, as individual souls, fraught with all the business of eternity upon our backs, to determine what is the right use of alcohol. Now, if this question is important in this twofold aspect, what a solemn sense of responsibility must be upon the shoulders of those who come forward to speak about it, and especially upon the shoulders of those who come fox-ward and speak about it with authority ! Two things, as it seems to me, are necessary : one is, that he who presumes to speak authoritatively upon this subject shall know it ; and the next is that, however dear a certain side of the question may be to him, he should speak about it not with the mere desire to succeed, not with the desire of triumph, but with a loving, reverent, solemn desire to state the truth about it, and nothing but the truth." An Enemy of the Race, Lecture by Sir Andrew Clark, London. " When I think of the terrible effects of the abuse of alcohol, I am disposed to give up my profession, to give up everything, and go forth upon a holy crusade, preaching to all men Beware of this enemy of the race ! " Alcohol in Small Doses, Lecture by Sir Andrew- Clark, London. 23. THE greatest physiologists are agreed that the proper Dr. L. Her- length of life allotted to man cannot be known. Dr. L. S'humV^ 3 Ijfp-litnil, 58 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Hermann, of Zurich, in the recent edition of his Physiology (Berlin, 1882), says, " For all animal life there exists a tolerably certain life-limit, so that we mnst regard the extinction of function as a normal process ; but as to man the typical life-limit is not definable because of the many harmful conditions that accompany civilization." The present average age of man is not over fifty years, while, according to the Old Testament, from two hundred to six hundred years was once not an extraordinary life- limit, and both marriages and child-births after one hundred years of age are recorded among the ancient people of God. The question raised at this point by reference to such records as these, is of course not one of faith or doctrine ; but one of rational inference that an average longevity greater than any reached in our day, or within modern history, was the probable basis of such statements. Herodotus (Book III. chap, vi.) says of the Macrobians (Ethiopians) in the time of Cambyses, that they were remarkable " for their beauty and their massive pro- portions of body, in both of which they surpassed all other men . . . they lived to be a hundred and twenty years old, and some to a longer period, and yet they fed on roasted meat and used milk for their drink." Dr j R Dr. John Richard Farre, when examined before the Farre's Parliamentary Committee appointed in 1834 to inquire the^ame 11 into the cause and extent of drunkenness, gave it as his point. opinion, based on the evidences of revelation and both sacred and profane history, that " by the last grant of Providence to man, his life is one hundred and twenty years," and that where diseases arising from other causes do not shorten it, the reason why so few attain that age is to be found in the use of drink, in which the masses of the community continually indulge. He instanced the deaths of Pitt and Fox as due to the use of alcohol, by which they sought to supplement energies already too exhaustingly taxed. Professor Professor P. Flourens, of the College de France, in his epigram! work on Human Longevity (Paris, 1854), considers one hundred years to be the normal length of man's life. " Few men, indeed," he says, " reach that age, but how many do what is necessary to reach it ? With our way of living, our passions and worries, man no longer dies, but U * c^ v PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 59 kills himself! To prolong life, thai is, io make it last as long as the constitution indicates that it should, there is a means and a very certain means, and that is to live soberly." And within the present short limit of life what an infinite amount of disease, and of disease-aborted powers, we find bound up ; for as deliberately as he kills himself, matter - does man poison and thwart himself during the period which nature is able to eke out. Even now individual cases occur of life-limit reaching and exceeding one hundred years, as in the year 1881 deaths were recorded in England of some ninety-one persons of one hundred years and upwards, the oldest one hundred and twelve. But this fact points only to general Alcohol a possibilities, and it is my purpose here to show that science ia'abbre- ' and observation have furnished proof that the chief enemy Bating life. of the longevity and health of the race is alcohol. The main cause is ignorance we mean the pernicious ignorance ignorance which knows a thing in a general sense, without cause of the acting upon this knowledge in a particular sense, and use ? f . thereby developing both knowledge and practice into a a true science of living, in our own individual behalf and for others. We are here concerned with this form of ignorance in regard to the general physical laws of the construction of the body and the maintenance of its health,* and with * Every man knows that his physical body is his means for being and doing. He knows that to this end he must respect, care for yes, revere his body. And the inherent law of self-defence and self-preservation by ignorance so often sadly perverted into self- destruction seeks to teach this fact. Nobody, when the matter is brought plainly before him, will hesitate to admit that he ought to live in such a manner that all his faculties, capacities, and powers should receive the best development and activity ; but in practice this truism is almost unknown. And with our social life and institutions, only an exceedingly small pro- portion of mankind, even -with the best intention in the world, could approximately reach this ideal. Sufficient and agreeable rest, enough of undisturbed sleep, congenial and healthy occupations, sufficient amount and variety of healthy foods, fresh and pure air and water, healthy dwellings, these are all essential for bodily vigour and health ; but to how many of the toiling millions who labour for bread, either by muscle or brain, are these essentials vouchsafed ? On the other hand, how many of those so-called fortunate ones, 60 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. especial reference to the use of alcohol, which but for this ignorance would not have continued to this date an ingredient in our beverages. The inherent 24. Before considering definite theories as to what manifested alcohol does and becomes after it enters the living organism, in organic ft | s we ]i that the starting-point of thought should be that of the marvellous 'apparently mechanical wisdom in- herent in organic life, which makes all portions of our being unite with unanimity and harmony to utilize that which is useful, to reduce and reject that which is not; and by which the body, previous to disease, signifies un- mistakably its approval or disapproval of the treatment it receives as, for instance, in hunger or thirst, its intima- tions are imperative, irresistible, and can be silenced only by obedience or death. It is essential, also, to bear in mind that this very power enables the body like the mind to adapt itself to such gradual derangement and degradation of the great mass of its minor requirements as produce imperfect con- ditions, which by habit become chronic or second nature. The chemical 25. Chemical analysis has demonstrated that the theTuman human body contains from fifteen to seventeen chemical body- elements : Carbon, 13'5 ; hydrogen, 9'5 ; nitrogen, 2'5 ; oxygen, 72'0; phosphorus, 1*15; calcium, 1'3 ; with minute quantities of fluorine, sulphur, and iron. These elements form the various organic compounds which make up the body, but as all of them are extremely unstable * in who conld command all these blessings, are wise enough to value them more than the satisfaction of loose desires, sensations, and passions ? * "The animal organic compounds are characterized by their complexity, for in the first place many elements enter into their composition. . . . Again, many atoms of the same element occur in each molecule. This latter fact no doubt explains the reason of the instability of organic compounds, as many of them are unsaturated bodies, or, in other words, bodies containing atoms which are not satisfied according to chemical law by combination with equivalent atoms of other elements. . . . Another great cause of the instability arises from the fact that many organic compounds contain the element nitrogen, which may be called negative or undecided in its affinities, and may be easily separated from its combination with other elements. From the foregoing it is evident that animal tissues, containing as they do these organic nitrogenous compounds, are extremely prone to undergo chemical decomposition, and this is PHYSIOLOGICAL EESULTS. 61 their character life and health necessitating their constant change, dissolution, and elimination the body requires HO constantly a re-supply of renovating materials which are broadly called food. Whatever, therefore, contains any of the above-mentioned elements in a form chemically soluble and assimilable by the body, is in that proportion a food. By " food," therefore, is meant any substance, in solid, Definition of liquid, or gaseous form, which, when taken internally, f d ' supplies some needed substance or force ; in a word, any- thing which, taken internally, supplies with innocency to the tissues any requirement of the body, is food. Besides fresh air, pure water, and salt, the body needs constant supply of tissue and force-supplying foods. Nearly all foods have their origin in the constructive action of plant life. Sometimes we take the materials directly from the vegetable kingdom, and sometimes from the flesh of animals who have subjected the coarser vege- table products to a preliminary digestion. Latent energy, in the complex organic substances known as food, is thrown out upon their decomposition into simpler forms of material. Upon the amount of the force thus released, and upon the decomposibility of the organic compound, depends the food value innocency in relation to the body being assumed. Foods may be broadly divided into three classes : First, Regular foods such alimentary materials as are three usually considered food. Regular^ Second, Condimentary foods those which please the Condime'n- palate and smell, including spices and sauces. These mentary' 1 ' 6 " should be used with great discretion, in order that the appetite may not be vitiated. Third, Supplementary and Incidental foods foods suited to irregular conditions, to diseases, etc. ; such as some medicines, certain substances which in particular states of health are useful to expel poisons or impurities, to remove obstructions, repair damages, etc. Generally, however, only such substances as properly ^ foods. especially the case since they also contain a large quantity of water, a condition most favourable for the breaking up of complicated com- pounds." W. Mbrrant Baker's Handbook of Physiology. London, 1880. 62 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The process of nutrition. The nature and twofold mission of the blood. Water the belong to the first class are commonly accepted as foods. These have been divided into many groups, but the only accurate division is the chemical one, viz., the nitrogenous and the non-nitrogenous : the nitrogenous,* such as albumin (the white of an egg, vegetable albumin in cereals and in the juices of plants ; fibrine, the coagulating ingredient in blood, and the gluten in cereals, etc.) ; and the non-nitrogenous, divided into two groups, viz., the fats or hydro-carbons, and starch and sugar or the carbo- hydrates. The change of foods t into tissue and the releasing of its energy is a series of intricate processes. After being mingled with the saliva, the food enters the stomach, where it is thoroughly mixed with the gastric juice, and as soon as any portions are fit for blood-making, they are drawn into the blood, while the residual matters are carried off through the intestines. 26. Blood is tissue in solution (that is, food prepared for renewal of tissue, and food which, having been used in tissue-making, has become waste), and in its coursing through all the parts of the body it fulfils the double mission of feeding and of scavenging the tissues. The blood consists chiefly of two compounds the blood-plasma or serum, a colourless fluid, in which the blood-corpuscles float ; and the blood-corpuscles themselves, which contain the colouring matter. The principal function of the corpuscles seems to be to carry backwards and forwards between the lungs and tissues, the oxygen which they require and the carbonic acid which they give out. Upon the sufficiency, healthful- ness, and normal circulation of the blood, therefore, the health and the life of the individual depend. But although foods are vitally important for the * It is a carious fact that, although the bulk of the atmosphere consists of no less than 75 per cent, of nitrogen, still the living body is unable to obtain any of it direct from the atmosphere; and as nitrogen is an element that does not exist in all foods, it has been found convenient to divide foods into the two classes here mentioned. t The harder the mental or physical labour, the more easy of digestion should the foods be, their mastication should be the more thorough, and after eating the digestive process should be further assisted by rest. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 63 support of life, water is even more important. Water is paramount the medium or vehicle in which all the chemical changes of g 6 ^^ the the body are pei-formed, and in this sense it is an essential auxiliary to the food-materials of the body. Dr. "W. B. Dr w B Carpenter, in his prize essay On the Use and Abuse of Carpenter Alcoholic Liquors in Health and Disease (London, 1849), paramount says, " It is through the medium of the water contained in importance the animal body that all its vital functions are carried on. life. No other liquid than water can act as the solvent for the various articles of food which are taken into the stomach. It is water alone which fortns all the fluid portion of the blood, and thus serves to convey the nutritive material through the capillary pores into the substance of the solid tissues. It is water, which, when mingled in various pro- portions with the solid components of the various textures, gives to them the consistence which they severally require. And it is water, which takes up the products of their decay, and by the most complicated and wonderful system of sewerage, convevs them out of the system." Dr. Austin Dr. Austin Flint, in his Physiology of Man (New York, 1866), says, ^ ont concerning water, that it " is by far the most important of the inorganic principles. It is present at all periods of life, existing even in the ovum. It exists in all parts of the body ; in the fluids some of which, as the lachrymal fluid and perspiration, contain little else and in the hardest structures, as the bones or the enamel of the teeth." He supplies the following table of Quantity of Water in the various parts of the body parts per thousand : 904 905 933 960 990 997 Of the Functions of Water, he says "As a constituent of organized tissue, it gives to cartilage its elasticity, to tendons their pliability and toughness ; it is necessary to the peculiar power and resistance of the bones, . . . and to Teeth . 100 Chyle of man . Bones . 130 Bile Tendons . 500 Urine Articular cartilages . 550 Human lymph . Skin . 575 Human saliva . Liver . 618 Gastric juice Muscles of man ... . 725 Perspiration Ligaments . 768 Tears Mean of blood ... . 780 Pulmonary vapour. Milk of human female .. 887 64 THE FOUNDATION Of DEATH. Drs. Bee- the proper consistence of all parts of the body. It has other important functions as a solvent. Soluble articles of food are introducad in solution in water. The ex- crementitious matters, which are generally soluble in water, are dissolved by it in the blood, carried to the organs of excretion, and discharged in a watery solution from the body." The French physicians, Becquerel and Rodier, in their treatise, Pathological Chemistry as applied to Medical Practice (Paris, 1854), state, as to the constitution of the blood, that it consists of- Water ... ...... ... ... 781-600 Globules ... ... ... ... 135-000 Albnmin ... ... ... ... ... 70'000 Fibrine ... ... ... ... 2'500 Chlorides of sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc. ... 3'500 Dr. Albin And the Danish physician, Dr. Albin Koch, states that Kochont.c by diyiding tbe blood i nto 10 00 part3 we find that it consists of 789 parts of water, 131 of blood-corpuscles, 71 parts albumin, and the remainder are salts, fats, etc. Water, therefore, is the overwhelming need of the system, as the sufferings from excessive thirst prove; death by thirst is more rapid and distressing than by starvation. f ^' ^" s ^ f 0< ^ * s mean * anything which feeds tissue or replenishes force, with innocency to the organism, so by poison is meant anything which, when taken into the body, does harm to it. Division of Poisons may be divided into two groups Absolute twlsgToups^-- poisons, or such as are always hurtful or useless, and Absolute and Incidental poisons, such as are determined in their ill or poison*. 1 * 1 good effect by the condition of the body ; and these may be interchangeable with the second and third groups of foods, according to the condition of the person taking them. Even the regular foods may at times act as poisons, and the absolute poisons act as foods, but such occasions are rare. Any substance not a food, if used as a food, acts as a poison. 28. For an authoritative answer to the question whether alcohol is a food or a poison, we look naturally PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 65 to the physician ; but, unfortunately, the most renowned physicians differ in their opinions on the subject. Although for upwards of four centuries warning voices have from time to time been raised against the use of alcoholic drinks, it is only within the memory of the still living that these voices have been listened to in earnest. During the last thirty years that is, since the establish- ment of a scientific system of physiology scientists have laboured most indefatigably to find out what are the effects of alcohol. Some light has been gained, but only a very few points have been generally accepted as proven. Hun- dreds of able medical authorities have devoted much time and care to watching the phenomena of drink, and the records of these endeavours are a proud memorial to the sincerity and earnestness of the medical profession. The most eminent members of that profession have The present made public the apparently irreconcilable results of "hys'icfans their varied experiments. Others, seeing only the un- ^.^ of certainty and confusion on the subject, have eluded the thVuseof difficulty by declaring the outcry against - alcohol to be alcoho1 ' nonsense, and by affirming that while many perish from excessive drinking, those who drink moderately are benefited, and that if it is not indispensable for the preser- vation of health, it is of great importance to it. A. still greater number the rank and file of medical men yet hold that alcohol is always bad for young people, but that for healthy adults, when taken in very small quantities, one to two ounces daily, it is, if not beneficial, at least harm- less. A few remain neutral as to its effects; and a few- take a decided stand against its use as a drink, but differ widely in almost every instance as to its use and value medicinally. We must, therefore, try, by a collection and careful analysis of comparisons and deductions, to arrive at the result. First, as regards alcohol itself. We saw in chapter iii. The impor- how important a role the recently discovered world of p^y^dby microscopic animals and plants, called ferments, play in the the micro- economy of both life and death; how it is thi'ough the jnthe viable activity of these minute organisms that both animals and world 5 F 66 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. especially to is alcohol a food? organism, traces in the use * people are swept away by what are termed infections diseases : for example, the rinderpest and pleuro-pneumonia among cattle ; the plague, yellow fever, and cholera among men. That, on the other hand, but for the activity of other kinds of these invisible forces, life would be impos- sible ; that it is by means of the diastatic ferments * that digestion becomes possible ; by means of this activity in- soluble albumen becomes soluble (peptone) ; starch and some cellulose are changed into dextrine or grape sugar; fats are split up; and cane sugar, which is insoluble in protoplasm, becomes soluble glucose. (These minute organisms, moreover, are the scavengers of nature.) And we saw that alcohol, which is obtained from the saccharine matters of grapes, cereals, potatoes, beets, etc. that is, from the principal carbo-hydrates is also the educt of digestive or diastatic ferments (ferments that feed on the albuminous accompaniments of saccharine substances), such as those through whose activity starch and cellulose become grape sugar, and cane sugar becomes glucose. _ Can alcohol be called a food on the ground that it nourishes tissue? We have already pointed out that the nutritive powei'S of food depend on the proportion in which they hold compounds of elements which can be made available for the renovation of the body ; and (chap, iii.) that hitherto alcohol has not been found in ^ ne living organism, except possibly in the wastes and refuse, and even in these only in infinitesimal traces, so loth is the body to harbour alcohol. But if science should succeed in discovering traces of alcohol in living tissue, it would be at most only in such infinitesimal quantities as those of copper and lead ; and surely no one, because copper and lead had been found in the body, would suggest that we should supply ourselves with these compounds by the use of salts of copper and lead as foods ! * To these ferments belong the so-called ptyalin found in the saliva, the ferments in the pancreatic juice which change starch into soluble glucose, also the ferments of the liver which act on the glycogen ; other ferments change cane and milk sugar into glucose. The hydrolytic unknown processes of life are supposed to be due to the activity of various ferments. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 67 Dr. A. Baer, of Berlin, in his treatise on Drink Craving Dr. A. Baer (1881), states that " alcohol contains neither albumin, nor ^^ fat, nor any other substance either present in the animal fowl, organism or arising by chemical changes in the body and replacing a part of the same." We see everywhere around us, thanks to the progress of the temperance reform, people sound in mind and body, who never touch alcohol. The following very practical Dr. Klein's testimony to the uselessness of alcohol as a food we find in ^'^J. 10 Dr. L. A. Klein's* lecture t on the effects of the use of lessnessof alcohol during the siege of Paris : food! 101 ** "It was just the time when the wine-merchants are used to buy their stock for the year when the war broke out, so we had plenty of wines of every description. It was distributed by the Government very liberally indeed. " We drank because we had nothing to eat. We found most decidedly that alcohol was no substitute for bread and meat. We also found that it. was not a substitute for coals. You know how cold the weather was during the winter. We of the army had to sleep outside Paris on the frozen ground, and in the snow, and when we got up in the morning we were as stiff as planks. We had plenty of alcohol, but it did not make us warm. We thus found out by bitter experience that alcohol did not make us warm, did not replace food of any kind, and did not replace coals. Let me tell you there is nothing that will make you feel the cold more, nothing which will make you feel the dreadful sense of hunger more, than alcohol." But though the conclusion is clear that alcohol is not Reasons for food, there are reasons for the general belief that it is ; that^cohoi such, for example, as the outward appearances attending is food, its use, the heightened colour, the temporary increase in vivacity of mind and manner and in surface temperature, the lessened requirement of regular foods ; all which seem to indicate that alcohol does, in some kind and degree, feed the system. It is also claimed that alcohol has in critical cases saved life that must else have been inevitably lost ; J * French staff -surge on. f See Medical Temperance Journal, October, 1873. J There have been cases in which alcohol has been said to have supported life. But it also appears to have been proved that life has 68 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. and when to this is added the scientific testimony that it is a product of the chief carbo-hydrate, sugar which is known to be one of the most important foods of the body it is not strange that alcohol should have come to be generally regarded as a food. The validity of all these reasons for such belief will be examined in due order when the particular results to the body from its use come under consideration. Alcohol Wed 29. Here let us try alcohol by some of the general by f t^test3 tests of foods. 1. The regular foods are essential to life. It is positively proved that alcohol is not essential either to life or health. 2. The periodic need felt for regular foods ceases each time after being moderately supplied ; even the momen- tarily importunate demand (caused by some special want) when satisfied also ceases, or, if satiated or persistently denied, may even change to aversion. With alcohol, the desire, if steadfastly denied, will gradually cease; but if satisfied, it begets abnormal craving, and that craving, having once taken hold, becomes the most insatiable of human passions. As Linnaeus said, "Man sinks gradually by this fell poison ; first he favours it, then warms to it, then burns for it, then is consumed by it." * 3. Regular foods, when taken in their proper ratio, are easy of digestion, and give the system a calm increase of vigour. Alcohol deranges digestion and disturbs the action of nerve-tissue. To judge from these tests, therefore, alcohol is not only not a regular food, but, if used as such, acts as a poison. But alcohol is a product of saccharine fermentation ; and sugar is a very important food. Dr. Flint on Dr. Flint says (op. ctf.) the import- " Su^ar is an important element of tood at all periods been maintained by chewing shoe-leather. Does this bring shoe- leather within the category of foods ? Life has also been said to continue qnite anomalously, with a total absence of diet. Is then nothing a food ? Whether alcohol is a supplementary or incidental food is dealt with later on in chapter x. on Therapeutics. * Dissertatio Sistens Inebriantia, by Dr. Linnaeus, Upsala, Sweden, 1762 ; " Agunt adeoqne haec inebriantia ut ignis potentialis, qui in, gradu, favet, calescit, urit, comburit." ance of sugar to nutrition. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 69 of life. In the young cbild it is introduced in considerable quantities with the milk. In the adult it is introduced partly in the form of cane sugar, but mostly in the form of starch, which is converted into sugar in the process of digestion. With the exception of milk sugar, which is only present during lactation, all the sugar in the body exists in a form resembling glucose, into which milk sugar, cane sugar, and starch are all converted, either before they are absorbed or as they pass through the liver. In addition to these external sources of sugar, it is continually manu- factured in the economy by the liver, whence it is taken up by the blood passing through this organ. It disappears from the blood in its passage through the lungs. In the present state of science we are only justified in saying that sugar is important in the process of development and nutrition at all periods of life. The precise way in which it influences these processes is not fully understood." But the body, although richly supplied with and always Sugar never requiring sugar, never converts it into alcohol, not even in converte disease, and hence we see such use of sugar is foreign to the economy of the body. The oxidation of sugar in the body is an innocent process of breaking up into carbonic acid and water. These products are eliminated by the respiration, while the force released is used by the system. Alcoholic fermentation results in two poisonous compounds, tloI alcohol and carbonic acid.* * The lethal or death nature of alcohol * is apparent in its very 1 " The Fermentation of Food in our stomach is performed after a manner imperceptible, wherein all is qniet and silent, provided the Meats and Drinks be of a suitable Quality and not too great in Quantity." But in alcoholic fermentation "when the sleeping silent Powers or original Properties in all sweet Liquors or Juice, are disturbed, as they are in a full or strong Ferment, all the Art in the World cannot incircle or tame them ; for Fermentation is an opposite and contrary motion to Nature and threatens the total destruction of the whole being, as it were, a Death to the United Powers and Uni- form Principles, a destruction of Multiplication and prevention of all farther Progression and does, as it were, in a moment disunite -the original Forms become tumultuous, each Form with a rapid invading Motion laying, as I may say, violent hands on the sweet original Quality . . . for Fermentation in the strictest and best Sense, is no other than a certain vegetative and insensible Delirium of Madness ; all its operations when the Fermented Liquor is strong and Spirituous, Dto alcohol a the ystem, not ven in THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 30. The general effects of alcohol in the animal world Sir A. Carlisle, in his work, On the Pernicious Effects of Fermented and Spirituous Liquors, as p art O f H uman j)i et (London, 1810), says that " no living animal or plant can be supported by such fluids, ... on the contrary, they all become sickly and perish under their influence." In the animal world the poisonous nature of alcohol is easily tested. Put only a few ounces of alcohol in a pail of water in which are living fish, and in a few minutes they will die. Or, expose a fly to alcoholic vapour in a closed vessel, and it will speedily die. The in- In treating of the special effects of alcohol on the aicS on human system, it must be premised that these effects are the human greatly influenced by a variety of conditions, such as the subject' to kind and purity of the alcohol or alcohols taken ; whether various diluted or not ; in large or small quantities ; whether taken conditions, habitually or occasionally ; in health or disease ; by children or adults ; on full or empty stomachs ; the temperament of the taker, etc., etc. Still, excepting in rare instances, and only when the dose taken is very small, the trained observer can always trace harmful results from its use by man ; and if observers of the physiological effects of alcohols on man had generally given due consideration to each of these qualifying conditions, there is good reason for believing that most of the contradictory results of experiments which now exist as a chief stumbling-block in the way of this study would have been reconciled or removed. compounds. The distillate called alcohol often contains a variety of poisonous substances. Besides the ethyl, amyl, and butyl alcohols, there are acetic aldehydes and ethers, essential oils, variously named ethereal and fusil oils, and a number of other volatile unknown com- pounds, all of which, when left at liberty, evaporate and dissipate beyond the ken of man. are in proportion; and the same as being Disbanded from under the Government of its Superior Officers, so soon as a quantity of it is introduced into Man's Body, it plunders Nature of all its Sweet Virtues by drying and parching them up ; and at the same time breaks the Government of the Senses, turning Reason and Wisdom adrift ; so that the Body is in no better Condition than a Ship without either Pilot or Rudder." Tryou's Letters (Letter 37, "Of Fermen- tation"). London, 1700 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 71 31. Alcohol exercises two powerful influences on the Alcohol's two essential means for the maintenance of life foods and hwtfui in- water; viz., retardation of the processes of digestion and fluenceon assimilation ; and interference with the aqueous nature cf the blood, and hence two general harmful results indi- gestion and thirst, both of which are considered curable with alcohol, instead of with light, well-masticated foods and pure water, supplemented, at times in extreme cases of indigestion with artificial pepsine, etc. First, as regards the retardation by alcohol of the its effects in processes of digestion and assimilation of foods. Its effects ^*"H, on the two classes of foods (nitrogenous and non-nitro- genous) is similar, though stronger in the case of nitro- genous foods, the albumen of which it coagulates. Of course the larger and stronger the dose the greater is its influence on digestion. It is a fact of common observation that drunkards may vomit half-digested or wholly un- digested food, hours and days after its ingestion, showing the power alcohol has to prevent digestion. But when alcohol is taken in small doses only, it is said to have quite a different effect that of promoting instead of hindering digestion, by inciting a copious flow of the gastric secretion. The use of artificial means to restore natural processes to their normal state, is the kind of work for which the physician is especially educated, and the means so used come under the general head of medicine. If alcohol acts as a promoter of digestion, it is acting as a medicine, and therefore belongs to the medicine chest and cannot be pre- scribed as a beverage, and should be treated of in this sense under the head of therapeutics. But the fact of the very general belief in and use of alcohol as an excellent aid to digestion makes it necessary to deal with it here. In health, digestion is a natural process, which not only does not require, but would be impaired by artificial pro- motion. In nearly all cases indigestion arises from irregu- larity at meals; poor, badly prepared, ill-cooked, and insufficiently masticated foods ; want of exercise, or undue and ill-timed exercise, etc., etc., all aberrations from tho normal condition of the bod}'. 72 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. A wise physician is familiar with these things, and knows that a return to obedience to the simple laws of health will generally remove indigestion, and that artificial im:ans are the last that can be properly resorted to ; and that when such are required, artificial pepsine and some harmless compounds will serve his purpose. A profuse amount of gastric juice will, no doubt, digest food more rapidly than a small amount, and therefore the abundant secretion of gastric juice provoked by the daily taking of a small amount of alcohol may for some time promote digestion. But to urge digestion is no more desirable than to urge growth. What is pre-eminently desirable is that these processes shall be natural; that there shall be no extortion, which always involves two very bad things exhaustion and waste. By the enormous exudation which alcohol causes from the walls of the stomach it is diluted and rendered less acrid, and unless the dose be large, it is too quickly diluted and absorbed into the blood to enable it to act mischievously on the digestion and the stomach. In this process the intense affinity between alcohol and water plays an important part. Blood, as has been shown, consists overwhelmingly of water, and water is promptly diffused into the alcohol in the stomach, at the same time that the alcohol is absorbed from the stomach into the blood by the water in it. The arrest of the digestion, therefore, is more or less quickly superseded, by the com- pleteness and rapidity of the entrance o the alcohol into the blood. Prof. Dogiei Prof. Dogiel, in a paper on Monatomic Alcohols, read n the to Russian savants at Kasan, in 1873, said that alcohol onts' y can be detected in the chyle of the thoracic duct, as well intone? as in the blood, a minute and a half after its introduction blood. to the stomach. N"ow, the solving agent in the gastric juice is the pepsine, as we know, but this is itself insoluble in alcohol, and when mixed with alcohol, is hindered in its own office by the coagulating influence alcohol exerts on the foods. Drs. Todd and Bowman, in their work, TJie Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man (London, 1856, chap.-xxiv. On Digestion), say, " The use of alcoholic stimulants also PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 73 retards digestion, by coagulating the pepsine., and thereby interfering with its action. Were it not that wine and spirits are rapidly absorbed, the introduction of them into the stomach in any quantity would be a complete bar to the solution of the food, as the pepsine would be pre- cipitated from solution as quickly as it was secreted by the stomach." It must, however, be noted that the alcohol, though Alcohol a apparently helpful at the moment by procuring a profuse gouroeof flow of gastric juice, secures this temporary effect at the cost of great waste of this precious fluid, not only at the time, but by necessitating because of the degradation of the blood of which gastric juice is an outcome larger and larger recurrent demands upon it, while steadily im- poverishing it in quality and weakening the activity of its solving principle, the pepsine ; and the stomach must ulti- mately become bankrupt from these extortions, and indi- gestion, with its train of countless diseases, will ensue. Dr. F. R. Lees, in his essay, Is Alcohol a Medicine ? Dr. F. R. (London, 18G6), admirably sums up the effects of alcohol Jj^ ^ h ' e on digestion and the stomach in these words : effects of " Should it be objected that, though alcohol cannot directly give force, it can aid the stomach to digest more food, which will ultimately supply the material of tissue, I reply, this is a blunder in inference and a mistake in fact. For, firstly, alcohol has no advantage as a local stimulant over a little ginger or pepper, in exciting a flow of juice, but, as an anaesthetic, interferes with perfect alimentation, and, in especial, arrests that change of matter in the body which supplies the valuable material of the gastric juice itself. Hence, secondly, while more fluid may flow, it is not so strong in its digestive power. This, thirdly, agrees with fact, since abstainers have better and more regular appetites than moderate drinkers, and can eat and digest more. Fourthly, alcohol irritates the mucous surface of the debilitated stomach, though it may deaden the feeling of pain for a while. Fifthly, experiments have often proved that alcohol retards digestion, hardening the food and pre- cipitating the pepsine of the digestive juice." The effects of alcohol on the stomach itself, depend upon the rapidity with which the alcohol is drawn into 74 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. hunter, the blood current, which in turn depends greatly upon the amount and dilution of the alcohol ingested, upon the proportion of salts or ethers in it, and the amount and kind of other fluids and foods at the time present in. the stomach ; the health and age of the taker ; the familiarity of his stomach with alcohol ; the power and activity of the excrementory organs, etc., etc., all of which are con- siderations absolutely essential to a scientific use of alcohol as a promoter of digestion, and some of which are quite beyond certainty of calculation. In one word even on the assumption that alcohol may be used as a medicine, it is quite clear that no general prescription of it could ever be justifiable, and that any prescription of it must always be based on a careful diagnosis of each particular case. If the stomach is little accustomed to alcohol and the dose taken is not very large, the damage done by it in a fairly healthy adult organism is comparatively small. The water yielded by the stomach, as well as the increased flow of the gastric juice, for the dilution of the alcohol, together with the rapid absorption of the alcohol into the blood, co-operate to lessen the injury to the mucous membrane of the stomach. Still, the results of the ingestion of alcohol are never innocent, and how little feelings and general signs indicate the real condition of the stomach, even after liberal in- diligence in alcohol, was conclusively demonstrated in Dr. William Beaumont's * Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion (Plattsburg, 1833). His observations were based on the phenomena exhibited in the famous case of the Canadian huntsman, Alexis St. Martin, who was accidentally shot, the ball entering his side and piercing the stomach. He recovered from the wound, but an opening remained, which was used " as a door by which to introduce substances into the stomach, and as a window through which to look in and examine effects." Dr. Beaumont tried St. Martin's stomach with alcohol, and as this hunter had been a man of temperate habits the results were most valuable. After a few days of free in- dulgence in spirits by St. Martin, Dr. Beaumont made * Surgeon- General of the United States army. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 75 these observations by means of the aperture in the patient's stomach : " The inner membrane of the stomach unusually morbid, the erythematous (inflammatory) appearance more extensive, the spots more livid than usual from the surface of some of which exuded small drops of grumous blood the aphthous (ulcerous) patches larger and more numerous, the mucous covering thicker than common, and the gastric secretions much more vitiated. The gastric fluids extracted were mixed with a lai'ge proportion of thick ropy mucus, and considerable muco-purulent matter, slightly tinged with, blood, resembling the discharge from the bowels in some cases of chronic dysentery. Notwithstanding this diseased appearance of the stomach, no very essential aberration of its functions was manifested. St. Martin complained of no symptoms indicating any general derangement of the system, except an uneasy sensation at the pit of the stomach, and some vertigo, with dimness and yellowness of vision, on stooping down and rising again ; had a thin yellowish- brown coat on his tongue, and his countenance was rather sallow, pulse uniform and regular, appetite good, rests quietly, and sleeps as usual." * Thus we find that, in large doses, alcohol arrests diges- Summary of tion and damages the mucous membrane of the stomach, 3^01^ and in the proportion that it is undiluted ; that in small digestion, doses it rapidly leaves the stomach ; that in all except the most minute doses it provokes an extraordinary flow of secretion which is more or less wasted ; that this of itself if alcohol be habitually taken will, by constant overdraw- ing on the natural resources of the blood whence the gastric juice is distilled, impoverish the blood and degenerate the gastric juice, until impaired digestion becomes chronic indigestion. 32. But we shall presently see that the action of alcohol in the blood accelerates this condition, because alcohol degrades the blood itself, and as the gastric juice is incapable of essentially altering alcohol, it follows that the latter passes in an unchanged state into the blood. * The next observations made by Dr. Beaumont instanced the rapidity with which St. Martin's stomach recovered its normal con- dition after a very few days' abstinence, and he adds, "The free use of ardent spirits, wine, beer, or any intoxicating liquors, when con- turned for some days, has invariably produced these morbid changes." 76 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The effects of alcohol on the blood. The food elements in alcoholic drinks. The Lancet on the nutritious elements in wines. As in the case of food, alcohol, in being drawn into the blood current, passes through the liver.* The genera] effects of alcohol on the blood (tissue in solution, both for renovation and depuration) are to some extent similar to those it exerts on the food in the stomach ; it retards the oxidation of the food portions in the blood, and occupies as much as it can of the water contained in the blood. Hence there is an arrest of both the functions of the blood, the renewal of used-up tissue, and the carrying off of the refuse. The fact that alcoholic liquors almost al \vays contain some residual undecomposed saccharine substances, which in themselves are feeding, and the fact that practical ex- periments have shown that under an alcoholic regimen there is an increase of bodily weight; these two facts have greatly helped to spread the error that alcohol is food. We will therefore touch on these two points before proceeding with the question of alcohol and the blood. 33. It has already been shown that alcohol itself is not food ; that if food exists in alcoholic drinks it is not found in the alcohol, and therefore unsweetened spirituous liquors which (minus adulterations) consist almost wholly of alcohol and water, are not feeding a truth made apparent in the lean and wasted appearance of spirit- drinkers. In the case of drinkers of sweetened spirituous liquors this truth is less manifest, and is apparently quite contradicted in the case of the consumer of malt liquors, by a robust and rosy appearance. It has already been seen from Dr. Klein's testimony regarding the use of wine by the French troops during the siege of Paris, that wine, used as food, proved useless and worse than useless. An analytical report in the Lancet (Oct. 26, 1867) says, as to the real amount of nutritious elements found in wines : " In every 1000 grain measui'es of the clarets and burgundies tested, the mean amount of albuminous matter present was only 1 grain, whilst in 1000 grains by weight of raw beef there are no less than 207 grains of such matter. That is, the quantities being equal, beef-steak is * In chapter vi. it will be seen that the organ which, next to the brain, suffers most from alcohol, is the liver PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 77 156 times more nutritious than wine " so far as albumen is concerned. Of course this is not a fixed standard as to wines, which vary in the amount of food they contain (see chap, iv. on " Adulterations ") according to the perfection of the vinification. The poorer that is, the greater the proportion of undecomposed residual food matters, but the more dangerous also are these, especially as producers of gout. But malted liquors, beer, ale, and stout, are commonly Malt liquors supposed to be not only innocent but wholesome and nutritious; and that this notion is spreading appears from the fact that during late years the number of beer- drinkers is on the increase in almost all countries, and for this reason we wish to deal with the beer question more in detail. Some consider malt liquors to be harmless on the erroneous supposition that they do not contain the same alcohols as other intoxicants ; others base their notion of the innocency of such liquors on their knowledge that they ordinarily contain but a relatively small amount of alcohol, and are therefore comparatively harmless. Malt liquors are held to be nutritious because they are prepared from malt, and because malt-liquor drinkers usually grow fat and bear a superficial appearance of health. In chapter iii. it was shown that the intoxicating prin- ciple in all unadulterated alcoholic drinks is the alcohol, and therefore, whether taken in large or small quantities, the tendencies to structural degeneration and the develop- ment of the " drink-crave " are the same in weak beer as in rum or whisky drinkers. The glass of beer prepares the palate for the glass of whisky,* just as the taking of the penny or shilling prepares the way for the theft of the pound. The incipient stages of a downward career are * Beer-drinking is usually the starting-point for becoming a drunkard, and malt liquors are especially dangerous by reason of the salt put into them. In an article on Drinks and Drinking (Eng. lish Mechanic, December 8, 1882), Dr. James Edmunds says, " One reason why beer.drinkers go back so soon and so repeatedly to the public-house is because salt is put into their beer for them ; the salt gives a certain piquancy to the flavour of the beer by irritating the nerves of the tongue, and it serves also to set the kidneys going, and bring the customer back to the public-house." 78 Dr. Lypn Playfair on the relative feeding powers of barley and The food In alcoholic drink is not in the alcohol, but in the residuals. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. nearly always seemingly innocent, but when the sincere mind, perceiving the danger, resists the insidious approach of evil, it quickly discovers that the gentle, scarcely per- ceptible first slips full of specious compromise and self- deception hold the essence of the deepest fall possible. The last point urged in favour of beer-drinking, that it gives bulk and ruddy complexion, and hence that the barley in the beer must be as nutritious as it is in the loaf, it will be seen that this also is fallacious. Malt liquors consist of from three to thirteen per cent, of alcohol, with more or less undecomposed albuminous residues of the saccharine matters in the malt, with some salts and to this extent, therefore, beer is food. But, in the first place, malt is not quite so nutritious as grain. In speaking of the feeding of cattle with malt or barley, Dr. Lyon Playfair says, " Barley in the act of germinating loses a certain amount, both of the constituents which form the flesh and those which form the fat of the animal. A given weight of barley is therefore of greater nutritious value, both as regards the production of muscle and fat, than the same weight converted into malt." * It must be recollected that malt, in being turned into alcohol, goes through a process, like the grape and potato, of organic degradation, and therefore, though malt is food, it does not follow that the alcohol made from malt is food. In fact, if there is food in the alcoholic drinks, whether malted or spirituous, it is not in the alcohol, but in the residual substances that remain undecomposed. The fat in the beer-drinker is composed of these albuminous residues, which, having been alcoholized, resist the action of the various solvents in the system, and therefore, being neither fit for use in the body nor re- ducible to a form in which they can be excreted, they have to be stored away so as to prevent obstruction to the * Dr. Edmunds, writing to us on this point, says : " I am not sure that Dr. Playfair has seen the whole truth in relation to the use of malted grain as food for cattle. Granting that the quantity of energy derivable from malted grain is less than that from unmalted grain, the question remains whether the greater solubility of the saccharized starch in malted grain does not in some cases ensure more perfect absorption into the system, and thus that in food value, for the practical purposes of fattening, malted grain may be of more value than unmalted." PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 79 circulation, and hence, so long as there is room, they are packed away, much of them, under the skin, and thus the fat and healthy appearance of the beer-drinker ! When there is no more room immediately under the skin, the fat has to be deposited in the interior of the body, and hence the common diseases of fatty degeneration of the kidneys, liver, heart, etc. Dr. J. W. Beaumont, in an address on alcohol and ^ . T w nutrition (Sheffield, 1863), alluding to the fact that brewers' men, who almost subsist on malt liquors, are remarkably fat, said, " This is conceded, but their stout- *^ ness does not arise from the alcohol. Where obesity liquor"" results from drinking malt liquors, it is from the nntri- drinker8 - ment contained in the saccharine portion of the con- stituents of the beverage, and not from the alcohol." Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in his paper on the Influence ^ T L of Stimulants and Narcotics on Health (Book of Health, Brunton on London, 1883), says that " Wine has a less powerful local th effect upon the stomach and intestines, and is less likely to destroy the digestive powers, than spirits. At the same time it does not contain any nutritious substances in addition to alcohol, and so it does not tend of itself to fatten. Consequently, the wine-drinker is neither emaciated like the gin-drinker, nor bloated like the beer- drinker. As the beer-drinker takes beer in addition to other nutriment, he has a tendency to become fat and bloated at one time, although he may afterwards become thin and emaciated, from his digestion also suffering like that of the spirit-drinker. Notwithstanding the apparent stoutness and strength of beer-drinkers, they are by no means healthy. Injuries which to other people would be but slight, are apt to prove serious in them ; and when it is necessary to perform surgical operations upon them, the risk of death is very much greater than in others." The credit of the ..discovery that alcohol is a food Dr. Ham- because it tends to increase the bodily weight, belongs to Scoifoi beta Dr. W. A. Hammond, of New York, who, after practical afoodbe- experiments upon himself, explains in his Physiological tusue? fits Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Human System, preserving (Philadelphia, 1863), that alcohol is a food, because it properties - " increases the weight of the body by retarding the meta- 80 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. morphosis of the old and promoting the formation of new tissues, and limiting the consumption of fat." In an address to the New York Neurological Society (1874), Dr. Hammond (its president) reiterated these opinions, enlarging upon them in these words : " There are two facts which cannot be laid aside, and these are, that the body gained in weight, and that the excretions were diminished when alcoholic fluids were taken. These phenomena were doubtless due to the following causes : first, the retardation of the decay of the tissues ; second, the diminution in the consumption of fat in the body ; and third, the increase of the assimilative powers of the system, by which the food was more completely appro- priated and applied to the formation of tissues. After such results," says Dr. Hammond, " are we not justified in regarding alcohol as food ? If it is not food, what is it ? " Hence, Dr. Hammond concludes that alcohol is food, because it preserves tissue ! Irrespective of any scientific knowledge, it ought to be obvious that, if alcohol reduces appetite, and, therefore, consumption of food, and yet increases weight, it must be doing harm. The meaning But it is difficult to understand what benefit is expected preservation ^ ^* e derived from the tissue- preserving properties of oftissue. alcohol. Tissue-preservation, if it means anything, must mean disease, just as much, though in an opposite sense, as fever means disease; because tissue-preserving can mean nothing else but interference with the natural re- novation and depuration of the system, and that can scarcely be pointed to as an advantage, except presumably for prolonging life during starvation a presumption without foundation and possibly in wasting fevers, in which case, however, there would be required an in- telligent computation as to whether or not the retarded oxidation would adequately compensate for the impair- ment of the blood. Health requires a proper balance between want and supply, and anything disturbing this balance produces disease and retarded oxidation, which disturbs both of the processes which make the health balance, can be nothing but disease. As to the increase of his weight recorded by Dr. Ham PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 81 mOnd, it might be due to conditions conti'ary to health. It is really curious what importance is attached to weight. It is well known that people of light weight have as good health, as much energy, capacity, and endur- ance, as heavy people, and very generally more, and that there are both light and heavy people who equally lack these precious blessings. Of course circumstances alter cases. Weight tells in forcing one through a crowd or mob ; boatmen and blacksmiths need it, but neither the athlete nor the boatman will use alcohol to increase his weight ! 34. Let us now return to the consideration of the effects alcohol has on the blood, and in the course of the argument the real character of alcoholic tissue-preserva- tion will also become further apparent. In the opening of this chapter it was pointed out that blood is tissue in solution (water solution). On the main- tenance of the purely aqueous character of the blood, the supply and scavenging of the tissues greatly depend ; and no substance is innocent which, entering the blood, materially alters this condition. Alcohol falls by this test. Its coagulating and dissolving powers which, thanks to the rapidity of its entrance into the blood, are not allowed at once to ruin the digestion and the stomach have freer play in the blood-current, though the profuse dilution does lessen its harmful effects. Alcohol being itself a feebly oxidized body, it is eager Special con- to absorb oxygen wherever obtainable. The life-processes ^influence of the body depend on the combustion which continually of alcohol on goes on in all its parts. As was shown in chaper iii., oxygen is an essential factor in this process, hence the large proportion of oxygen in the body and it is the function of the blood- corpuscles to carry oxygen to all portions of the system. Alcohol, because of its imperfect oxidation, in entering the blood, seizes on this oxygen and takes as much of it as it can; and, of course, the greater the amount of alcohol, the more oxygen does it withdraw from the blood, and hence the more is the com- bustion in the body retarded. And in the ratio that the blood-corpuscles are robbed of oxygen, do they also become degenerated. The German Dr. Carl H. Schulz. as long ago as 1S34 i>. r nr i H. 3 Scbulz on 82 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. alcoholic degeneration of the blood. Dr. Dumas, the physi- ologists Bocker and Virschow, Dr. B&er, Prof. Her- mann, and Prof. Dogiel on the same. demonstrated* that alcohol produces premature decay and death of the blood-corpuscles. " The colouring matter," he says, " is dissolved out of them, the white corpuscles lose their vitality, less oxygen can be absorbed, and less carbon carried off." (Dr. Dumas attributes the alcoholic degenera- tion of the blood to the action of alcoholic ferments feeding on the albuminous portions of the saccharine fluids in the blood.) And later experiments by such physiologists as Bocker and Virfchow led to similar conclusions ; and Dr. Baer, in his Alcolwlismus (Berlin, 1878), quotes Prof. Her- mann, of Zurich, who, after experimenting with blood mixed with alcoholic vapour, describes the result as follows : " It soon became apparent that the yellow blood chains or rolls, separate into their corpuscles, growing gradually paler until they wholly vanish." And Prof. Dogiel (op. cit.) says that alcohol rapidly causes the amoeboid movements of the white corpuscles to cease, and that at a certain con- centration the alcohol dissolves both the white and the red corpuscles. This fact is further confirmed by the con- dition observed in alcoholized blood when out of the body. Prof. Dogiel observed that blood from an animal under the influence of alcohol coagulates more slowly, and yields less fibrine than normal blood. He further found that if ethyl-alcohol be added to blood drawn from an artery, putrefaction is retarded. This would seem to indicate that the rate of putrefaction is very considerably determined by the amount of alcohol present in a corpse. He also found that arterial blood obtained from an intoxicated animal decomposes more quickly than the normal blood. Prof. Dogiel does not explain this, but it seems probable that it is because alcohol prevents healthy blood oxidation, and checks the removal of waste ; thus the blood becomes impaired and fetid, and when let out of the body, the alcohol evaporates, and the decomposing matters already in the body will then, of course, more rapidly break up than would healthy blood.f If the blood contains about * See De alimentorum coctione experimenta nova (Berlin, 1834), and Die Wirkung des Branntweins in der Trunksucht, in Hufeland's Journal fur pr act. Heilkunde, April, 1841. t An indicator of impoverishment of the blood is the hair. In an old work, entitled Letter on the Unwholesomeness and Destructiveness of Fermented, Distilled, and Spirituous Liquors, which PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 83 one per cent, of alcohol the vital functions are extinguished, as the flame of a candle is, in air containing a certain pro- portion of carbonic acid. About one-half per cent, of alcohol in the blood produces drunkenness so profound that all but the purely animal centres of nerve-life are in a state of suspended animation ; life continues, but only as the flame of a candle burns smokingly in air surcharged with carbonic acid. Thus the whole process of nutrition becomes vitiated Alcoholic through the ingestion of alcohol. The blood, impoverished onhTwood* itself, and robbed largely of oxygen (the means necessary in relation to for its purification), can only partially fulfil its offices of ofthTtissues! carrying new matter to the tissues, and of removing the used-up tissue ; and the alcohol, at the same time, hardens both the materials for new tissue -making in the blood, and the refuse matter ; and this refuse, which in tke ordi- nary course of healthy conditions would be cast out, is largely retained. The just mentioned Dr. Bocker, by a well-devised and Results of carefully executed series of experiments, proved that the ^^rhnents presence of alcohol in the living system actually diminished regarding S. , , i v , f , -f M alcoholic the sum total 01 elimination oi efiete matter daily. tissue-pre- The character of the alcoholic tissue-preservation is iervt *" n< further demonstrated in its action on the secretions from the kidneys. It is well known that alcohol increases the quantity of urine, but it is not equally well known that the secretion of urea, which forms about half the solid matter in the urine, and is the chief conveyancer out of the body of nitrogenous waste, is diminished by the action of alcohol, and that the portion by this means left in the body is a deadly poison to it. 35. But the harm alcohol works to the whole nutrition is further intensified by its waste of water. Water, as was said in the introductory remarks on was republished in 1750, Dr. Hales, a-pkyjuil'ffm distinguished for his Cr careful physiological investigations, states " It is the well-known observation of the dealers in hair for wigs, that they can distinguish the dram-drinker's hair by the touch, finding it harsh and dead- ended and unfit for use. ... It is also found that these pernicious drams not only alter the quality, but also, by their drying ana corrosive power, lessen the quantity of hair ; and, what is a melancholy proof of the great prevalence of this wicked practice, there is now so much less hair to be bought among the lower people." 8* THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. physiology, is even more important to life than foods are, and therefore a permanently continued insufficiency in the supply of water is even more injurious than a com- parative insufficiency of food. Water the Water is the means for cleansing the inside as well as ^Ycfeanser outside of the body. If a considerable portion of salt * ofthebojy, meat, for example, has been ingested, water is profusely as S ouL1de! C " secreted for the dilation of its sharp principle and to wash it out. The blood, in consequence of this extra demand, becomes thick and unable to supply the necessary fluids to the tissues ; hence a call for water, i.e., thirst. Now alcohol, besides being dangerous to the digestion, blood, and tissues (in the measure that it is undiluted), and hence forcing the body in self-defence to dilute it with water (as it does an over-dose of salt, for example), * In his prize essay On the Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors in Health and Disease (London, 1849), Dr. William B. Carpenter admirably exposes the assumed resemblance between alcohol and salt as an essential to health, or at least a healthful commodity. He says, " It has been maintained that although alcohol cannot itself serve as an article of nutriment, yet that, like salt, it is a valuable adjunct to other articles ; and that, although in large quantity it may be decidedly noxious, yet that in small it may be very beneficial. Now, strange to say, the substance with which it has been thus com- pared is that of all others to which it will least admit of being truly likened. For salt is not a mere casual adjunct to our necessary food, but is itself an indispensable ingredient of our diet. It is contained in large proportion in the blood, and in every fluid that is secreted from it, and enters into the composition of most of the tissues. It is present, too, in most of the ordinary articles used as food, vegetable as well as animal; and whsn this natural supply is deficient, the instinctive craving, both oi' man and animals, leads them to resort to other sources, from which their bodies may derive the supply necessary for the maintenance of their normal or healthful constitution. Moreover, there is a very beautiful provision in the economy for the immediate excretion of any superfluity of this substance, which passes out of the body nearly as rapidly as it is taken in ; so that it is prevented from ever accumulating to an undue amount in the blood ; and the only mischief which an overdose of it can occasion is the production of a temporary irritation of the stomach, occasioning a craving for water, which speedily works a cure by carrying off the offending matter. Now, all that salt is, alcohol is not. It is not one of the proper components of the blood or of the tissues, and its presence in the circulation is entirely abnormal. There is no in. stinctive or natural craving for it." PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 85 has, as before stated, a chemical affinity for water, and therefore occupies it, in spite of the protests of the body that no more can be spared. And thus we have one source of the " drink-crave," T^ 6 "drink- which, as will be shown later on, becomes at last, by the resuu of degeneration of the nervous system, almost like a consti- thtr8t - tutional need. " If drinking be long continued," says Dr. Dr. Flint on Austin Flint (op. cit.), " the assimilative powers become po *' so weakened, that the proper quantity of food cannot be appropriated, and alcohol is craved to supply a self- engendered want " i.e., the want first engendered by the deluding action of alcohol is met and momentarily beguiled, only to be re-created by the originating agent of the want. The foe is met by the system, at the very entrance (the mouth), by water. Instantly that alcohol enters the mouth, it is mixed with a profuse secretion of saliva, yielded by the salivary glands in obedience to the signal from the nerves in the mouth communicating with them. Of course the same demand for water is made everywhere through- out the body, in order to quench the flames of the burning liquid as it enters the stomach, as it courses through the blood-vessels, and as it is expelled from the system. It is well known that, after a night's drinking bout, the The exaction drinker's mouth in the morning is hot and dry. Why ? ^cohoi 7 Partly, no doubt, because of temporary paralysis of the upon the salivary gland nerves, but also because the drain upon and ^t^f * waste of the water of the system has been too great to admit of a sufficient preparation of saliva in time for breakfast. And when we remember that the body consists of from seventy-five to eighty per cent, of water, and that saliva so essential to digestion under the best circumstances * -is more necessary than ever when the whole nutritive system and processes have been weakened and deranged it becomes still more apparent how much harm alcohol does to the body. Owing to ignorance about alcohol, the drinker, if he T ^ s $ stem ' 8 can, meets the body's demand for water with some alcoholic water mis- * "The ptyalin an albuminous ferment is contained in the saliva, and its function is the conversion of the insoluble starch into soluble dextrine. Hence the mischief done to infants by giving starchy food, they having no ptyalin secreted to digest v" 86 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. understood drink, i.e., alcohol and water, but he feels only partial satis- for faction therefrom, because the water found in the drink he takes has only been enough to partially satisfy the water demand. Drinkers of alcoholic beverages decry water-drinkers for the quantities of cold water they pour down their throats. As a matter of fact incontestable fact alcohol- drinkers take a great deal more of cold water than do water-drinkers. There is, of course, no essential differ- ence in the systemic construction and needs of an alcohol and a pure-water drinker. Both require an equal amount of water for the performance of their life functions. They obtain about the same amount of water from their foods, although, as a rule, the pure- water drinker eats more than the alcohol-drinker, and therefore, perhaps, ordinarily speaking, gets somewhat more water from his food. But as to the ingestion of water as water, the alcohol- drinker must drink a great deal more than the water-drinker, because not only is the alcohol-drinker's system compelled continually to wash out and dilute the alcohol, but the alcohol itself also calls for water on its own account ; hence further thirst, the call for more water ; and the call is met, but only in connection with more alcohol. And the more anxiously the system cries out for pure water to quench its thirst,, the larger and stronger doses does the ignorant victim of alcohol pour down his throat ; and if not stayed by the hand of Mercy, his thirst will not be slaked except by the waters of Death. The mischief 36. But it is not only the blood itself that is harmed toThebfood- ^7 alcohol ; for just as it wounds and scorches the mucous vessels. membrane of the stomach, so it ruins the blood-vessels. Dr. James I n hi s lecture on Alcohol as a Medicine (London, 1867), tbis print. Dr. James Edmunds says " The blood carries certain earthy matters in it in a soluble state, these earthy matters being necessary for the nutrition of the bones and other parts of the body. You all know that when wine is fermented and turned from a weak sweet wine into a strong alcoholic wine, you get what is called a ' crust ' formed on the inside of the bottle. What is that crust ? Why is it formed ? That ' crust ' consists of saline or earthy matters which were soluble in the saccharine grape-juice, but which are insoluble in the PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 8? alcoholic fluid. We find in drunkards that the blood- vessels get into the same state as the wine bottles from the j ' deposit in their texture of earthy matter which has no / 1 business to be deposited, and forms, as it were, a ' bees- . wing ' or ' crust ' in the blood-vessel of the drunkard, in his eye, and in all the tissues of his body. The result is the tissues get weak and brittle, and in performing their duties they break down ; thus the blood-vessels burst under a little unusual strain, and we get apoplexy and sudden death, and paralysis and slow miseries of all sorts." In a letter dated March 24, 1884, Dr. Edmunds thus elucidates this point: "Just as when earthy salts are thrown out of solution in ordinary water by merely boiling it, a fur is deposited inside the kettle ; so the wine, during its maturing process, deposits certain saline earthy matters on the inside surface of the bottles, forming what is called the ' beeswing,' and wines in the blood make similar deposits on the sides of the blood-vessels. The ' beeswing ' looked for by the drinker in the wine-bottle, is looked for by the physician in the eye of the wine-drinker, as the well-known arcus senilis. This arcus senilis is only an out- ward and visible sign of general internal change, such as earthy degeneration of the arteries, fatty degeneration of the heart, cirrhotic degeneration of the liver and kidneys." * And with such attested results on the blood and sir Jam* tissues from the use of alcohol, it is no wonder that Sir Darning James Paget should warn his disciples against operating against on drinkers, even " moderate " ones. operations on " Be rather afraid," he says, " of operating on those, of ^i! whatever class, who think they need stimulants before they j work ; who cannot dine till after wine or bitters ; who | always have sherry on the sideboard ; or are always sipping \ brandy-and-water ; or are rather proud that, because they ; can eat so little, they must often take some wine. Many people who pass for highly respectable, and who mean no * Dr. Henry Munroe, in his lecture on the Physiological Action of Alcohol (Temperance Tracts, New York, 1874), states that "the eminent French analytical chemist, Lecanu, found as much as 117 parts of fat in 1000 parts of a drunkard's blood, the highest estimate of the quantity in health being 8^ parts, while the ordinary quantity is not more than two or three parts ; so that the blood of the drunkard contains forty times in excess of the ordinary quantity." 88 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Various theories as to what be- comes of alcohol after its entrance into the blood. Baron Liebig's theory. Dr. Flint on the function of fat. Dr. C. K. Drysdale on the relative harm, are thus daily damaging their health, and making themselves unfit to bear any of the storms of life." When the effects of alcohol on the nervous system come under consideration, it will be seen how the blood- vessels suffer still further by the paralyzing tendency of alcohol on the nerves controlling the vascular system. 37. The next point regarding alcohol and the blood is what becomes of the alcohol after it has entered into the blood-current. No point in the whole alcohol controversy has been more hotly debated than this, and even to-day the medical world and the physiologists stand divided upon it, in numerous camps, under many leaders. The first really earnest endeavours of science to clear up this point are of comparatively recent date. The first theory to receive any general adherence was that started by Baron Justus von Liebig, some forty years ago, viz., that as alcohol was obtained from the heat -genera ting foods, it must be a heat-generator ; that just as alcohol iu being burned in a lamp is transformed into carbonic acid and water, while its energy is liberated as heat, so likewise is it oxidized in the body, and transformed into the same two compounds ; and hence alcohol must be a heat-gene- rator, and, in that sense, a food. The absolute proof recently obtained that a chief effect of the ingestion of alcohol is the reduction of heat, of course disproves this notion in toto ; but there are various other effects, which, as will be seen later on, militate against Liebig's idea. His theory is, at best, based on pure assumption, viz., that alcohol is to be classed with sugar and fat as special heat-generators of the body. Dr. Austin Flint (op. cit.) says on this point, " There is no sufficient ground for supposing that fat has any such exclusive function " (that of producing heat) ; " its office is in connection with the general process of nutrition." As to sugar, he says, " In the present state of science we are only justified in saying that sugar is important in the process of development and nutrition at all periods of life. The precise manner in which it influences these processes is not fully understood." And Dr. C. B. Drysdale, in a lecture on the death-rate of abstainers and non-abstainers (London, February 25, PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 89 1884), wittily observed that if alcohol was a food, then merits of another heat-producer, paraffin, might as well be counted a < ;ffln < as d in on the same grounds. f^ds ratory Liebig's theory gained numerous adherents, and even to-day holds a place in the medical world. Some fifteen years elapsed before any effective opposition could be made to it, but in 1860 there appeared a work by three leading French physicians, L'Allemand, Perrin, and Duroy, entitled Theories of JV p\The Role of Alcohol (Paris, 18GO), which took the opposite view, declaring that alcohol leaves the body just as it enters it, that is, as alcohol. comes of Prom numerous most careful experiments on animals alcohoL compared with such as it has been possible to make on man which established the identicalness of alcoholic effects on beast and on man, they concluded that alcohol is neither oxidized, i.e., converted into carbonic acid and water, nor changed into aldehydes and acetic acids in the organism, but that it remains unchanged, and is expelled as alcohol through the lungs, skin, and especially the kidneys. Says Dr. Pen-in Perrin, in his article on the Physiological Action of Baue/brs Alcohol in the Encyclopcedic Dictionary of Medical Sciences Bouchardat (Paris, 1865), "There is not found in the blood or the on^hesame expired air any trace of the transformation or destruction of the alcohol. It accumulates in the nerve centres and in the liver, and finally it is excreted through the diverse channels of elimination. Hence the conclusion that the alimentary role of alcohol has no other pretence to a scientific basis than that of an experimental error." Neither of these opposing theories have been universally accepted, and the great body of physicians stand between these two that is, they believe that alcohol is in part oxidized and in part excreted, unchanged ; but they differ widely as to the amount oxidized as well as the form of oxidation. The followers of Bergeron think that most of / f " the alcohol, after remaining some time, is expelled, and a small part only oxidized. <*> Prof. J. Bauer, on the other hand, in his Foods and Dietetic Cure for Sick People, which forms the first part of Prof . Ziemssen's Handbook of General Medicine (Leipsic, 1883), affirms that the greater part of alcohol is oxidized, " being changed into carbonic acid and water," while '' a 90 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. (small portion of the alcohol is in unchanged form put forth, from the body through the skin, lungs, and kidneys." Others as, for instance, Drs. Bouchardat and Sandras, and their large following, who hold that alcohol is partly oxidized and partly excreted claim that the oxidized portion is converted into acetic acid An infinite variety of opinions exists as to how and in what proportion alcohol is oxidized or excreted. Difficulty of 38. It is a difficult matter to deduce a tenable theory certlin^on- from analysis, comparison, and combination of the various elusions. leading opinions on this point. One thing, however, seems clear, that the Liebigian theory cannot be correct, because, were alcohol a heat-generator, the heat of the body must be increased by the taking of alcohol, which, as we now know positively, is not the case. This and other arguments against the theory of Liebig will be considered later on. On the other hand, the failure of the most careful and exact efforts to obtain from the excretions of the body anything like the ingested amount of alcohol, goes strong! y aga'mst the theory that all the alcohol passes through and ouFof the system, unchanged. Alcohol is a baffling and mysterious thing. Other poisons, vegetable as well as mineral, usually single out some specially vulnerable part of the system in which to do their fell work ; but alcohol attacks the whole (with some special preference for the liver and brain), by this diffusion making both the apparent degeneration of the system more generally even, and hence less conspicuous, and the tracing of its results also more difficult. But as under some circumstances portions of alcohol certainly do disappear, it must be that the body, in some manner unknown to us, is able to dispose of a certain amount thereof. If Science would turn its ferreting eye in this direction, it may be that a clue to this mystery would be found in the discovery of some compound in the body of the drinker, A solution^ not existing in that of the non-drinker. It is certainly not b^found in an unreasonable supposition that some of those hydroly tic h h aroiytic f (hidden) ferments, whose office and functions so puzzle the fenweota. physiologist, may have a part in this mystery also. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 91 One thing can be affirmed, that in whatever way t the body may be able to dispose of alcohol, there is \ f , , in that fact no valid argument weighing against the ..', evidence that it is out and out a poieon, foreign to the/ * //* system (being found, if at all, only in infinitesimal traces - in the excrementitious matters), and that it damages and deranges the whole nutritive and circulatory processes, and also, as will presently be shown, particularly injures the nervous system. When alcohol is taken in large doses, we know that some of it is excreted in unchanged form. A small part goes direct from the stomach, out, as refuse ; some is evidently exhaled, judging both from the foetid breath and from the fact that a small percentage of the ingested alcohol can be traced in the exhalations. Dr. E. G. Figg, in his lecture On the Physiological Dr. E. o. Operation of Alcohol (Manchester, 1862), says, "Though I JSSrtf might propound a very ingenious theory to show that the alcohol in human stomach, with its purse-like cardiac opening, is an elastic bottle, and that the affinity of alcohol for water rather than for either of its elements, would preclude the possi- bility of its decomposition, I prefer tangible facts to plausible speculation. Having induced an individual to swallow a glass containing two ounces of spirit (eleven degrees above proof), I made him breathe through a tube, the opposite extremity of which was submerged in a tumbler containing two ounces of water, covered with a bladder skin to prevent evaporation ; the fluid became speedily impregnated with the characteristic odour of alcohol. To meet the scepticism which might endeavour to establish an analogy between this fluid and the essential oil of lavenders or other fragrant substance, the perfume of which has been known to prevade the atmosphere of a room for weeks (without any appreciable diminution in the quantity or quality of the original mass), and to anti- cipate the inference that the bulk of the alcohol had actually been decomposed and appropriated, though from its volatile nature an infinitesimal portion had escaped that process, and was then being discharged at the lungs, T varied the experiment by causing a person intoxicated 92 THE FOUNDATION OP DEATH. for several hours to give sudden short expirations through a tin funnel used for decanting liquids, the narrow ex- tremity of which was in proximity to a gas-jet. The contemporaneous evolution of blue lambent flame an- nounced the presence and density of the spirit." The writer of the article Alcohol in Dr. James Hinton's Physiology for Practical Use (London, 1880) Alcohol says, " If the breath of a person who has drunk so ?n S the ered little even as a glass of light ale, containing three drachms expirations, only of spirit, be conveyed through a test solution of Hinton's chromic acid (one part bichromate of potash in three hun- riiysioiogy ^ dred of pure sulphuric acid, its delicacy is so great that ust P n with a slight satiny feeling, from which I have seen Prof. Neumann discover the alcoholic ten- dencies of a patient; and perspiration is easily induced. Later on, the skin becomes thick and discoloured, some- times red and sometimes sallow, and becomes liable to various diseases, the best known of which is acne rosacea, often called bottle-nose. Besides this, the skin may be affected with inflammation of various sorts, leading to the -:,- \ PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 93 formation of ulcers, vesicular, scaly, or pustular eruptions, I boils, and abscesses." And as the skin, besides its depurating office, is also the moderator-valve of the heat in the body, this affection of the skin is of great consequence to health. As to the action of the kidneys in the elimination of alcohol, an eminent physician writes to us that having with a catheter drawn off the urine from a patient under temporary alcoholic paralysis of the bladder, who was * therefore unable to pass it naturally, he found by careful distillation that this urine contained '2275 per cent, of alcohol ; i.e., rather more than 3-^ of its volume consisted of absolute alcohol. A certain amount of alcohol has been found in various parts of the body of persons who have died in an intoxicated state. L'Allemand, Perrin, and Duroy (op. DTS. L'Aiie- cit.) found alcohol in the proportion of 1'34 per cent, in ^ n p'u" nn ' the brain. They were, however, by no means the first to on alcohol in make such observations. The late Rev. John Guthrie, in thebrain - his Temperance Physiology (Glasgow, 1877), quotes the following from the statement made by Dr. James Kirk Dr. James in an address to the Vale of Leven Temperance Society 8a ie. 0n """' (in 1830) as to a post-mortem examination: '"I dis- ~ sected a man who died in a state of intoxication after a debauch. The operation was performed a few hours after death. In two of the cavities of the brain, the lateral ventricles, was found the usual quantity of limpid fluid. When we smelled it, the odour of the whisky was dis- tinctly perceptible ; and when we applied the candle to a portion in a spoon, it actually burned blue the lambent blue flame, characteristic of the poison, playing on the surface of the spoon for some seconds.' Some doubts having been expressed in regard to these and other cases of alcohol being detected in the brain, Dr. Ogston, of Aberdeen, said at the. time, 'I am happy to be able to add one case to their number. The body of a woman, aged forty, of the name of Cattie, who was believed to have drowned herself in a state of intoxication, was found on the 23rd of August, 1831, in the Aberdeenshire Canal. In company with another medical man, I was requested to examine the body, in order to report the cause of 94 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. death, no one having witnessed the act. We discovered nearly four ounces of fluid in the ventricles, having all the physical properties of alcohol, as proved by the united testimony of two other medical men, who saw the body opened, and examined the fluid.' " Dr. John Dr. John Percy, in his essay* An Experimental In- thifsame yuiry concerning the Presence of Alcohol in the Ventricles of the Brain after poisoning by that Liquid, etc. (Notting- ham, 1839), states that by distilling blood drawn from an alcoholized system, he had been able to obtain a fluid which, by its dissolving camphor and burning with a bluish flame, proved itself to be alcohol. In the brain he found proportionately still more, from which he concluded that a " kind of affinity existed between alcohol and the cerebral matter." Dr. E. G. Dr. Figg (op. cit.) mentions the following noteworthy Figg on the case : " John Carter, a young athletic man, drank a pint of rum at one effort, dying comatose half an hour subsequently. On the authority of a coroner's warrant, two medical men (myself one) opened the body. The month, oesophagus, stomach, cardiac cavities, and lungs presented no appreci- able trace of the rum. Even on opening the cranium, we found nothing to Avarrant a supposition of its presence. On making a section into the lateral ventricles, however, it flowed out in considerable quantities, altered in colour, with its characteristic odour." Herr Kuyper On this same point, the Lancet (October 27, 1883) says n the " In the Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chemie (Journal of Analytical Chemistry) Herr Kuyper records the fact that h e ^g ascertained by distillation the presence of alcohol in the brains and liver of two persons who had fallen into the water when drunk and had been drowned. In one brain he found about one-fifth of a cubic inch of alcohol, and in one liver a little over half a cubic inch." When we come to the consideration of the effects of alcohol npon the nervous system, and the reflex action of the latter on the tissues and vascular system, it will be seen that large doses of alcohol paralyze the nerve centres, and thus the necessary orders for its expulsion, reduction, or change which are given by the nervous system in * A gold inedal was awarded by the Medical Faculty of the University of Edinburgh for this essay. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 95 the case of smaller doses are not forthcoming, and hence the enemy remains in possession of the strongholds until the nervous system can rally sufficient forces to give the requisite commands. 39. The consideration next in order is that of the Effects of effect of alcohol on the temperature of the body. In ?hetempera- warm-blooded animals man included it depends chiefly j eofthe on two conditions, viz., the amount of combustion within the body, and the radiation of heat from the body. These two conditions mutually assist each other in keeping up an even temperature of the body, about 98-6 Fahr. The functions of life are greatly affected by even slight thermal changes, and only a few degrees above or below the normal mean will extinguish life ; therefore any- thing which causes great fluctuations in bodily heat is dangerous to health and life. It is at present gene- rally admitted that alcohol lowers the temperature of the system, but not until recently has this fact been fully established. As early as 1811, Dr. Prout, of Aberdeen, announced Cgnfapstiiat that alcohol reduced instead of increased bodily tern- reduces the perature, as his experiments with moderate doses o alcohol had shown a reduction in the exhalation of carbonic by Drs. acid. In 1845 the German physician Dr. Nasse, and in 1848, Drs. Dumeril, Dumarquay, and Lecompt reached Dumarq^ similar conclusions. In 1852 the Germans Lichtenfels LichteSS and Frohlich proved that not only moderate but small ^ n r d r a ^ s c doses of alcohol caused reduced temperature. Were Dr. Smith, V Liebig's theory of alcoholic combustion into carbonic acid ^A'VTB*' and water correct, the amount of carbonic acid exhaled Dujardiu- would be increased, as well as the heat raised. In 1850, Dr. Davis, of Chicago, U.S., published the results of his extensive series of experiments as to the effects of different articles of food and drink on the tem- perature of the body, as well as the amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs. He says " These experiments proved conclusively that during the active period of digestion after taking ordinary food, whether nitrogenous or carbonaceous, the temperature ot the body is always increased ; but after taking alcohol, in the form of either fermented or distilled drinks, it begins 96 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. to fall within half an hour, and continues to decrease for from two to three hours. The extent and duration of the reduction was in direct proportion to the amount of alcohol taken." Notwithstanding these and many other convincing testimonies by Dr. Edward Smith,* of London, for ex- ample the question remained almost at a standstill until the publication in the Practitioner of September, 1869, of Prof. Binz's article on the Influence of Alcohol on the Temperature of the Body. This revived the issue. Prof. Binz stated that from numerous experiments which he had made with small doses of alcohol, using the centigrade thermometer, he had found that the experiments proved that small quantities of alcohol lowered the temperature considerably. Half a glass of light hock, or a small glass of cognac, caused a fall of from 0'4 to 0'60 in a very short time. In experi- ments upon dogs with fatal doses, there was a fall amount- ing to between 4 and 5, in from one to two hours, at which period death took place. The recent magnificent experiments on pigs by Drs. Dujardin-Beaumetz and Audige, at Paris (La Temperance, No. 1. Paris, 1884), seem to absolutely preclude the possi- bility of further controversy on this point that the in- variable result of the use of alcohol as a drink is the lower- ing of the temperature, even though at first it may increase it. Practical During the campaign in 1812 in Russia, so fatal for aicohoi that France, it was found that almost all those soldiers who reduces the used alcoholic drinks succumbed to the cold and fatigue, of'th^iwdy. 6 while only a small proportion of abstainers fell victims to these rigours. The Esquimaux, Greenlanders, Laplanders, and othei inhabitants of the coldest regions of the globe, have prac- tically experienced that alcohol unfits them for enduring their climates. As regards the Laplanders ; some years ago it was feared by the Swedish Government that the race would freeze to death because of drink. An intelligent Laplander, while on a visit to Stockholm, was converted to total abstinence, and became its apostle in his native land with * Author of Practical Dietary, London, 1805. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. ft? such success that the fears of the extinction of this in- teresting race have disappeared. Alcoholic drinks are generally dispensed with in Arctic ; expeditions, experience having shown that they chill j instead of warm. In the mercantile and war navies of several countries the use of alcoholics by their sailors is prohibited. In the English navy this is not done, but a petty inducement as a premium on abstention is offered, and good coffee and tea are furnished. It is the invariable testimony that abstainers are best capable of enduring fatigue and withstanding the fury of the elements. Some defenders of Liebig's theory have sought to Plausible reconcile the idea of the oxidation of the alcohol, and rrconcuing the fall in bodily temperature, by asserting that the heat the fail of generated in the combustion of the alcohol is rapidly with'the 1 "" reduced by skin-radiation resulting from the effects Liebigian , , , ' . ,., . , -n combustion alcohol exerts in dilating the capillaries. theory. Even though this reasoning were sound, it can scarcely be said to mend matters ! Liebig's disciples defend the use of alcohol only on the ground of its being a respiratory food. But if the heat thus generated is more than balanced by the heat given out, it is not easy to see what good can come from its use as a heat-generator. Were this explanation a true one, there is surely that in it which should lead the advocates of the use of alcohol to pause. What a truly extraordinary procedure on the part of the body to surrender warmth so necessary to health, and which under normal circumstances it would never let go ! It would almost seem, figuratively speaking, as if alcohol, taking life by the throat, forced the life-current to spring to the surface for air and strength to combat its throttler. As we have already seen, it is chiefly by means of skin-radiation of heat,' properly proportioned to that generated by combustion within, that the mean tempera- ture is maintained ; and the rapidity and amount of such radiation depends on the porosity of the skin, and the intimacy of the connection between the blood-filled capillaries and this safety-valve. Now, fat is a non- H THE FOUNDATION OF DEATfi. conductor of heat, and, being placed immediately under the skin, partially prevents the radiation of heat. (Hence one reason why fat people suffer so much from heat.) Bat if the Liebig radiation theory were true, fat drinkers would scarcely suffer any reduction in bodily temperature as compared with persons in normal flesh. Under certain conditions taking a small quantity of alcohol causes dryness of the skin, due probably to a sort of cutaneous nerve -paralysis. By the lessened exhalation of vapour from the skin under these conditions, loss of heat may be checked and the temperature raised. This increase of heat is not generated by the alcohol, which invariably reduces temperature, but is due to the shut- ting up within the body of the heat generated by the oxidation of food, together with various noxious elements which under natural conditions are thrown off by the skin. The effect of 40. The last and most important physiological con- ?henervo n us sideration in the study of alcohol is that of its effect on system. the nervous system. The innumerable strands of the grayish (in essence unknown) substance which pervade the tissues everywhere, and which in their totality form the nervous system, are more delicate, and their soundness of even more importance to health and life, than is the soundness of the tissues ; or, more exactly speaking, the nerves are of the first import- ance, because it is first through them that the tissues are operated upon. The nervous system is the immediate agency of the life-principle, protecting, guiding, and controlling the various life manifestations. It has been found that the nerves do not all have the same general functions, and they have therefore been classed in two large divisions : Physiology 1- The Cerebro- spinal, including the brain and spinal cord, with the nerves proceeding from them. Their fibres are chiefly, though not exclusively, distributed through the skin and the other sensory organs, and through the voluntary muscles. 2. The Sympathetic division, which consists of, firstly ^ a double chain of ganglia and cords extending in front of the whole spinal column, and from which proceed branches to the cerebro-spinal nerves. Secondly, various ganglia, ^ "stem PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 99 plexuses, and nerve fibres, extending branches to the thoracic and abdominal viscera. Thirdly, a series of nerves controlling the blood-vessels, and known as the vaso-motor nerves, and which are connected with both the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems. The intertwining and union of these systems of nerves, the mutual interdependence between them and the vascular system, the indissoluble union of mind and hody, all com- bine to constitute the great difficulty in the way of dealing clearly with this part of the subject, since for the sake of clearness we are constantly compelled to distinguish be- tween the interlacing psychological and physiological facts. In the Influence of Exercise on Health, contributed to Dr. James the Book of Health (London, 1883) by Dr. James Cantlie, SSS. he says, " The voluntary muscles are under the direction andfunctions and regulation of the CEREBRO-SPINAL system. This consists vo of the brain, resident in the cranium or brain-case, and the prolongation from it that goes down the spine under the name of ' pith,' or spinal cord. From the brain and spinal cord NERVES pass to the muscles, carrying the impulse to the muscles ; they are called motor nerves. A nerve on reaching a muscle breaks up into fine filaments, and supplies every pai't of the muscle. It is by the medium of the nerves that the will acts on the muscles ; the impulse gene- rated in the brain, flies down the spinal cord and along the nerves to a muscle. " The nerves are like telegraph-wires laid on between station and station ; the originating battery, the brain, sends an impulse along the wires, the nerves, to work a machine at the other end, the muscle. But just as it is possible to send opposite electric currents along one wire, so in a nerve we have opposite currents. The one we have just spoken of is a downward current, from the brain to the muscles ; but there is also an upward current carrying messages from the skin and muscle to the brain ; these nerves are called sensory nerves, or nerves of sensation, because they carry the impressions of our sensation to the brain, where the knowledge gained from them is converted into motion, or stored up as memory, etc., for future use. The two sets of impulse are conveyed along separate fibres that are firmly bound together ; but close to the spinal cord the fibre? separate, and we see a motor and sensory bundle. 100 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. "The involuntary muscles of the body are under the regulation of a separate system of nerves, which, as it presides over the organs of the more animal or vegetative part of our existence, is called the vegetative system. This consists of a double chain of small nervous masses called ganglia united together by nerves. The chains are arranged on either side of the spine. From the ganglia, nerves pass to the heart, lungs, and the organs of the alimentary canal, liver, pancreas, etc. in fact, to all the abdominal and thoracic viscera. On account of the ready disturbance pf all parts of this system, when any one part is excited, it is called the sympathetic system. " Hence we find we have two sets of muscles presided over in the main by two sets of nerves : the voluntary muscles by the cerebro-spinal system, and the involuntary by the sympathetic. The chief difference between the two sets is that one, the sympathetic system, acting on the heart, lungs, and digestive system, continues in action from the birth to the death of the individual, knowing neither rest nor stoppage, as we understand rest ; whilst the other, the cerebro-spinal system presiding over the voluntary muscles, requires long intervals of quietude provided for by sleep." Parallel As it is first through the action on nerves that the akohoion tissues are reached, it is plain that the affection of the andmuscuiar nerves ^ s ^ prior importance to that of the tissues, though tissues. it is also true that the effects conveyed through the nerves to the tissues recoil on the nerves ; for, like the rest of the body, the nervous system goes through the processes of decomposition and renovation, and therefore is dependent for its effectiveness on food ; and as alcohol interferes with the digestion and degrades and deteriorates the whole process of nutrition, it follows that it harms the nervous system, and hence the conclusion that, as alcohol ruins the body, so it ruins the mind. Indeed, we trace alcoholic effects on the nerves parallel with those on the muscular tissues ; such as degeneration of the nerve-tissiie, the bursting of blood-vessels, and flooding the brain with blood, etc. As to the effects of alcohol on the nervous system, except in the grosser manifestations those of " jollity " and drunkenness there is little unanimity of opinion among PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 101 experts, and as yet their research has covered but a com- paratively small portion of the whole field. It has long been a disputed point whether the peculiar sensations conveyed by the brain after the ingestion of alcohol are the result of reflex action,* or of direct action on the nervous system. It seems to be settled now, what- The first ever the subsequent reflex action may be, that the first action ai C cohoion of alcohol on the brain is made direct through the blood. ^brain to Dr. Baer (op, cit.) says, "Experiments on brute and D^Baeron man teach that in a comparatively short time after its this P int - injection, subcutaneously or into the food channels, alcohol disappears from its place of introduction, being taken into the blood." And he proves that the primary act of alcohol in the system is its entering the blood, by the established fact that drunkenness is produced more rapidly through the direct injection in the blood than by its introduction into the body through, any other channel. It seems, therefore, probable that some portion of the Possible alcohol, the moment it enters the month, is drawn into solution of the blood, which hies direct to the brain with. it. W h y alcohol, In this, it seems to us, may be found the solution of one ^ t h *J 1 ta ^ n of the hitherto most puzzling riddles of the alcohol question, toxicates^ess viz., why a man who sips his drink gets more quickly *ow^[han drank than he who gulps it down almost at once. For, if when gradu- it were as most authorities claim that it is only by by reflex action that alcohol operates on the system, then, obviously, an ordinary dose, swallowed almost at once, would more quickly intoxicate than would the same dose slowly sipped. * " By reflex action is meant the power which nerve-centres possess of receiving and perceiving an impression brought to them by a nerve from some part, and, as the result, of transmitting an impression through another nerve to some other, it may be distant, part. Thus an impulse conducted by nerves from without inward, reaches a centre, and by that centre, as the result, an impulse is sent through other nerves which conduct it from within outward. So, it is said, an impression or impulse is reflected by a nerve-centre. If, for a familiar instance, the skin be pricked, the part is suddenly withdrawn. An impression is conveyed from the spot injured through a nerve to a nerve-centre, and hence another impression is sent by the centre through another nerve to muscle, which then contracts and moves the part away." W. S. Savory, surgeon to St. Bartholo. mew's Hospital, in his introductory chapter in the Book of Health (London, 1883). 102 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. If we remember the processes that the saliva, on alcohol's entrance into the mouth, instantly dilutes it with water (and, for all that we know, in other ways minimizes the harmful effect before it enters the stomach)j that in the stomach all of the alcohol except the very small portion of it that goes out with the refuse is again diluted, as far as is practicable, by the gastric juice, in order to still further lessen its evil power before it enters the blood ; when we bear all this in mind, it will be seen that in the case of the alcohol being slowly sipped, time would be given to all these defensive functions to act in the completest manner of which the body is capable, and thus the resulting intoxication would be much slighter than in the case of alcohol being speedily swallowed. But directly the reverse is usually the case. Why ? In the first place, during sipping, the vapour of the alcohol is inhaled, and thus instantly taken by the lungs into the blood and thence to the brain. (It is well known that workmen in spirit vaults are intoxicated by inhalation of the spirituous vapours alone.) Secondly, there seems no doubt that sipped wine is usually held in the mouth long enough for some small portion to be drawn directly into the blood from the mouth and thence also to the brain, and, hence, he who slowly sips his alcohol gets more quickly intoxicated than he who, by swallowing it rapidly, subjects it to the more manifold digestive processes, thereby re- tarding the directness and reducing the force of its assault on the brain. The action of alcohol on nerves has been a hotly dis- puted question, and much confusion, largely due to the lack of clear and accepted definitions, still exists on this point. Division of Nerve affectants are generally divided into two groups aflfountfT 8 " stimulants and narcotics. The difficulty in properly iant8 8 an nu ~ Defining these groups is similar to that experienced in narcotics. defining foods, because in neither case does there exist authoritative definitions. It is most unfortunate that science has not yet reached that height of accuracy which would furnish us with authoritative general definitions, because just as much as in our verbal communications it is necessary to have an accepted authoritative meaning for every word in order PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 103 that a common understanding may be arrived at by all who use it; just so necessary is strictness in definitions of technical terms and phrases. Confusion in terms springs from and produces confusion in thought, and as regards alcohol this confusion will continue as long as strict defini- tions of, for example, such terms as food, poison, stimulant, narcotic, moderate, temperate, large, excessive, use, abuse, etc., are lacking. As to stimulants, for example, in his Principles of Various pon- Medicine (London, 1841) Dr. Archibald Billing says nltionsof 66 " " Tonics give strength, stimulants call it forth. Stimulants stimulants excite action, but action is not strength. On the contrary, by DT" C BU-* over-action increases exhaustion." Sir John Forbes wrote an essay of great merit on The T. King Character of Stimulants (London, 1848), in which he says SarS " The healthy fabric should be quite capable of main- Bmnton. taining itself in vigour upon a proper diet, and with a due quantum of sleep and exercise, without any adventitious assistance. But if not, assistance should be sought from alteratives rather than from stimulants, which may produce a temporary excitement, but which tend to destroy the balance of the whole. The very nature of the stimulant is to produce a subsequent depression, and to lose its force by frequent repetition. The depression is proportional to the temporary excitement, and the loss is thus at least equivalent to the gain." But, taking a great authority in Materia Medico, , Dr. Headland, we find narcotics defined to mean the same as Dr. Forbes means by stimulants. Dr. Headland says " Narcotics are medicines which pass from the blood to the nerves and nerve-centres, and act so as first to exalt nervous force and then to depress it." In his Clinical Lectures (London, 1865) Dr. T. King Chambers says, " What is a stimulant ? It is usually held to be something which spurs on an animal to a more vigorous performance of its duties. It seems doubtful if on the healthy nervous system this is ever the effect of alcohol, even in the most moderate doses and for the shortest periods of time." Again taking one of the latest medical opinions, that of Dr. T. Lauder Brunton (op. cit.), we find the following definitions : 104 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. " By stimulants we mean those things which seem to increase our vital powers for the time being, and thus to give us feelings of greater strength or comfort. By nar- cotics we mean such substances as lessen our relationship with the external world. When used to a slight extent, narcotics simply afford pleasure by lessening the restraining or depressing effect which external circumstances exert upon the individual. Small quantities thus allow freer play to fancy. But in large quantities they abolish all the mental faculties, and render the person who has taken them completely torpid and incapable of voluntary thought or action. Their abuse may not only lead to individual but to national disaster. The most important stimulants are alcohol in its various forms, tea, coffee, and cocoa. TEe most important narcotics are alcohol, tobacco, opium, chloral, and Indian hemp." ~ Thus, stimulants are so only in seeming, their manifes- tations are spurious. Narcotics are so only in a physical sense, being in the mental sense liberators of the mind ; i.e., mental stimulants when used in moderation ; anaes- thetics when taken in excess. According to Dr. Brunton, alcohol in moderation stimulates that is, gives spurious strength; in large doses is a narcotic that is, a duller of the senses to impressions from the external world. Apparently for the purpose of fortifying this peculiar position, Dr. Brunton (pp. cit.), after stating that "a position. very large quantity of spirits taken at a draught" will produce "great depression, or perhaps even stoppage of the heart's beats," assumes that "the impression made is transmitted by the sensory nerves of the stomach up to a nerve-centre, known as the medulla oblongata, at the upper end of the spinal cord, and thence down by the so-called inhibitory, or restraining nerves, to the heart. When taken in smaller quantities, however, the effect is quite different ; the impression it makes on the stomach is transmitted to the medulla oblongata by the sensory nerves, but instead of being sent down the inhibitory nerves, it is transmitted by the stimulating nerves* of the heart, and thus increases the rapidity and strength of its pulsations." * This theory of stimulating nerves operating between brain and heart is not nroven. Amount ]A absta the weights, in millimetres, before alcohol. I the weights, in millimetres, after alcohol. to of absolute alcohol given. A Non-A 14 22 8 1 10 j 16 18 11-00 16-50 7 18 20 20 20 22 - 13-50 20-00 4 drachm 1 drachm A 2 u 4-75 8 4 8 3 5-75 1 drachm A 4- 9 1 7 6-90 13 11 12-5 18 13 13-50 2 drachms A '.i 5 4-00 5 4 13 10 8-00 2 drachms Non-A 5 2 3-25 10 4 4 6-00 2 drachms A 5 2-25 1 7 4 3 3-75 2 drachms A 9 5-25 10 8 8 6-50 2 drachms A 11 1 4-40 3 8 11 15 4 8-20 2 drachms Non-A 4 1 2-50 6 6 8 3 5-75 4 drachms 60-60 90-95 General average, 6-060 before 9 095 after. " From this table certain facts are apparent : (1) That in every case the average sensibility to weight and power of discrimination was decidedly diminished by small doses of alcohol, the general average indicating that the sensibility is diminished about one-third, or 66'4 per cent. .(2) That single trials are not reliable, since many circumstances may unite to produce a fallacious result. Thus, some of the trials after alcohol were actually more accurate than some of those before it, although the average of each individual conforms to the general average of the whole. (3) That non-abstainers are affected, as well as abstainers. (4) That small doses act in a similar way to large doses, and that the difference is only in degree, not in kind. " 3. Vision. This was tested by noting the distance at which a row of letters could be read with one eye, without 118 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. alcohol, and then the distance at which the same letters, differently arranged, could be read with the same eye afterwards. The distance varies very greatly in different individuals ; but, of course, in the same individual it would remain the same, provided that the alcohol had no effect. Indeed, one might naturally expect a slight improvement in the latter trials, by reason of the eyes becoming accus- tomed to the formation of the fancy letters employed. The following table gives the results obtained : VISION. A abstainer. 1 Distance of distinct vision, in feet before alcohol. 5 Distance of distinct vision, in feet, after alcohol. 1 < Amount of absolute alcohol given. A 7 7-25 7 6 6-81 7 6-75 6-50 5.75 6-50 ^ drachm Non-A 9 1 7 8-5 7-87 8-75 6-75 5-75 8 7-31 1 drachm A 10-5 10-75 10-5 10-5 10-56 8 9 7-5 95 8-50 Hon-A 4-25 5-25 5-25 4-91 4-50 4-5 4-25 4'41 2 drachms A 10-25 9 7-25 9 9-25 8 __ 8-75 2 drachms A 11-25 11-25 10-25 9-5 10-56 10-5 10-5 11 8-5 10-12 2 drachms A 15 10-5 13 12-80 13 10-5 12 _ . 11-80 2 drachms A 9-25 10-25 _ 9-75 8-50 8 8-25 4 drachms A 6 6 5-75 5-91 5-25 4-75 4-75 _ 4-91 4 drachms A 16 15-6 15-75 15-75 14-75 14-5 15-25 - 14-83 4 drachms 93-75 85-38 General average, 9-375 before; 8-538 after. " Here, again, it is clear that every one of the in- dividuals experimented on was affected injuriously by the alcohol. On the average, every one had to approach nearer in order to distinguish the same letters. The general average indicates that it required an approach of nearly one foot to compensate for the injury done by the alcohol. To put it another way, the distance had to be shortened, on the average, 9 per cent. " In testing all three of these senses it ought in fairness to be borne in mind that considerable advantage was given to alcohol by the unavoidable necessity that the test with alcohol should follow the test without it. For thus, in every case, the alcohol gets all the credit of the improve- ment due to experience and practice. If this fallacy could have been avoided, it seems probable that the difference in PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 119 favour of total abstinence would have been even greater than it really was. " As two drachms of alcohol was the amount given in the majority of cases, it may be just worth a line to indicate that this represents one tablespoonf nl of spirits ; not quite half a glassful of port or sherry ; a small wine- glassful of claret or champagne ; and not quite a quarter of a pint of ale. Now, these quantities are considerably short of the 'physiological minimum,' which is supposed not to do any one any harm. Indeed, the fact is established that from the moment when sufficient alcohol has been taken to affect the nervous system at all, to the total extinction of nervous energy by a fatal quantity, there is progressive paralysis of every form of nerve function, capable of accurate determination, which has hitherto been experimented on. " It is to be carefully observed that, notwithstanding this real deterioration of various powers, the individual is not conscious of any alteration, and nothing but an unmis- takable test can convince him that he is not so accurate or capable as he was before. "Whether this arises simply from the inability of the judgment to compare the intensity of two impressions reaching it separately, and after an interval of from fifteen to thirty minutes, or whether it arises from incipient paralysis, or weakening of the judgment itself, is not easy to determine. Probably both causes operate to account for the failure to perceive the difference. " One thing becomes very clear namely, that the highest possible perfection of the nervous system is only possible wiih strict total abstinence. " Alcohol has, also, clearly no right to be called a stimulant. It is a narcotic from first to last, as Dr. Wilks and others have heretofore asserted, and the symptoms of stimulation are only the result of the peculiar, balanced condition of many functions, between accelerating and / checking nerves ; the narcotizing of a checking nerve I I producing for the time being the same visible effect as the i \ stimulation of an accelerating nerve. Alcohol, like other I drugs, has its special preferences for certain nerve-tracts over others, and there is no doubt that in some persons one nervous function is more susceptible, and in others 120 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Recent testi- mony in con- firmation of Dr. J. J. Conditions qualifying length, ex- tent, and character of alcoholic paralysis. Theories re- garding the effects of al- cohol on the nerves in producing the drink- craving. Dr. Anstie on the same. Prof. Fiske on the sami General con- clusions as to another. .Nevertheless, its tendency may be broadly indicated as a paralyzer of nerve-function, or, more shortly, as a true narcotic." In a letter dated March 21, 1884, Dr. J. J. Ridge writes to me as follows : " Very recently Dr. Scougal, of New Mill, has repeated and confirmed my conclusions, and adds that the sense of hearing is similarly affected by alcohol." The health, temperament, alcoholic heritage, and resis- tive power of the drinker ; the state of his stomach as to food ; the vitality of the blood, activity of the excrementary organs, foreign ingredients in the alcoholic drink ; these and other conditions and circumstances combine to deter- mine and qualify the length, extent, and character of alcoholic paralysis, and the amount of damage done, just as they do in regard to the nutritive processes ; and must equally be considered in forming an estimate of the effects of alcohol upon the nervous system. 41. In the preceding portion, on alcohol and digestion, it has been shown that the terrible drink-craving was caused by the avidity with which alcohol absorbs the water from the tissues, but it does not depend exclusively on those chemical properties of alcohol. One of the peculiarities inherent in all forms of sensuous excitation is that artificial excitement produces a cry for more of the excitant, and the more imperatively in proportion to the delicacy of the functions thus abused. Says Dr. Anstie (op. cit.), "A certain quantity of nervous tissue has ceased to fill the role of nervous tissue, and there is less impressible matter upon which the narcotic might operate. And hence it is-that the confirmed drunkard, opium eater, or coquero requires more and more of his accustomed narcotic to pi'oduce the intoxication which he delights in to saturate his blood to a high degree with the poison, and thus to insure an extensive contact with the nervous matter." Prof. John Fiske (op. cit.') says, " The perpetual craving of the drinker in all probability is due to the gradual alteration in the molecular structure of the nervous system, caused by frequently repeated narcosis." Alcohol, therefore, is a narcotic always from beginning to end, never anything else but a narcotic. Indeed, were PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 121 it otherwise, it would not be used in the ways that it is. tuenarco- Therefore, those who drink in the hope of increasing the ^whoi** 8 pleasure of living, miss their object, as do those who drink in the hope of augmenting their mental powers. The lawyer, taking his glass before delivering his brief, dulls his anxiety as to the issue and his embarrassment in speaking ; the orator, taking his glass as an inspiration, , will possibly, by the irritation and jostle of ideas due to narcosis, be able to reproduce from his reserve stores of knowledge some flashy, perhaps eloquent periods, but rarely coherent or deep reasoning ; in neither case do feeling or thought become clearer or keener, but memory and fear are deadened, and a mechanical courage to stolidly get over what cannot be adequately faced, is often temporarily acquired. 42. Recent years have furnished the strongest proofs and testimony that the notion of alcohol as an auxiliary in brain-work is fallacious. Dr. E. Gr. Figg (op. cit.) says, " In a person drinking Dr. E. o. to stimulate a natural mental function, we soon witness fg|rtsof hc an alteration of object ; for, experimentally convinced that alcohol when in the insolvency of the cerebral system as a basis, and men tai a the defective co-operation of the blood, that extraordinary stimulant exhibition is not attainable, he must rest satisfied with reaching that which was once the normal standard of his powers, but from which he has retrograded in the collapse of frequent excess." In a word, alcohol disappoints and betrays all except those who seek sloth and death for body and mind. In a lecture on The Effects of Alcoholic Liquors upon Health and Work, delivered in Mr. Samuel Morley's warehouse, by Sir Andrew Clark, January 6, 1882, he said, " Every adult man who finds himself after trial and every Sir Andrew man should try to be a thousand times better without jj onthe alcohol, should not resume it, because he will work better, he will enjoy more, he will have a longer exemption from disease, he will probably live longer, and certainly he will be better in all the higher relations of life. ... I dare say if a man took a glass of wine, as sometimes people do to overcome nervousness, he might succeed, and indeed I am bound to say that that sort of help alcohol sometimes can give to a man, but it gives it curiously enough at the 122 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. expense of blunting his sensibilities. . . . That is my testimony as to the effect of alcoholic liquors upon health and upon work, namely, that for all purposes of sustained, enduring, fruitful work it is my experience that alcohol does not help but hinders it. ... I am bound to say that for all honest work alcohol never helps a human soul. Never, never ! " Mr. A. Mr. A. Arthur Reade, in his work, Study and Readrtsum- Stimulants (London, 1883), composed of one hundred and mar ? fl TL thirty-two letters and citations from various" eminent one hundred ._. J -- -i ,1 -, -i ^ T* and thirty- literary and other brain workers, says in his concluding onthS t wme comments, " From a review of these one hundred and point. thirty-two testimonies ... I find " that " not one resorts to alcohol for stimulus to thinking, and only two~6r three defend its use under special circumstances 'useful at a pinch' under 'physical or mental exhaustion.' Not one resorts to alcohol for inspiration." We quote from Mr. Reade's volume the following concise and comprehensive testimony (given at Bedford Chapel, July 20th, 1882), by the Rev. Stopford A. Brooke: "It nas t> een sa id that moderate doses of alcohol stimulate testimony on work into greater activity, and make life happier and ame * brighter. My experience since I became a total abstainer has been exactly opposite. I have found myself able to work better. I have a greater command over any powers I possess. I can make use of them when I please. When I call upon them they answer ; and I need not wait for them to be in the humour. It is all the difference between a machine well oiled and one which has something among the wheels which catches and retards the movement at unexpected times. As to the pleasure of life, it has been also increased. I enjoy Nature, books, and men more than I did and my previous enjoyment of them was not small. Those attacks of depression which come to every man at times who lives too sedentary a life, rarely visit me now, and when depression does come from any trouble, I can overcome it far more quickly than before. The fact is, alcohol, even in the small quantities I took it, while it did not seem to injure health, injured the fineness of that physical balance which means a state of health in which all the world is pleasant. That is my experience after four months of water-drinking, and it is all the more striking PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 123 to me, because for the last four or five years I have been a very moderate drinker. I appeal to the young and the old to try abstinence for the very reasons they now use alcohol in order to increase their power of work and their enjoyment of life. Let the young make the experiment of working on water only. Alcohol slowly corrupts and cer- tainly retards the activity of the brain of the greatest number of men. They will be able to do all they have to do more swiftly. This swiftness will leave them leisure, the blessing we want most in this overworked world. And the leisure not being led away by alcohol into idleness, into depression which craves unnatural excitement, into noisy or slothful company, will be more nobly used, and with greater joy in the usage. And the older men, who find it so difficult to find leisure, and who when they find it cannot enjoy it because they have a number of slight ailments which do not allow them perfect health, or which keep them in over-excitement or over-depression, let them try though it will need a struggle whether the total abandonment of alcohol will not lessen all their ailments, and by restoring a better temper to the body for the body with alcohol in it is like a house with an irritable man in it enable them not only to work better, but to enjoy their leisure. It is not too much to say that the work of the world would be one-third better done, and more swiftly done, and the enjoyment of life increased by one-half, if no one took a drop of alcohol." 43. The working classes do mostly believe that alcohol Opinions tuat increases their capacity for labour. Of course they are ducesthe~ deceived by the general sensations and appearances, and capacity for practical tests have proved the fallacy of their belief. r r Bidoes, Dr. Beddoes (in Hygeia, 1802) shows by comparison f^ 618 ^ that drinkers, all other circumstances being equal, could Parkes', and do less work than non-drinkers. towicz. Wol ~ "Alcohol," says Dr. Baer, quoting from Dr. Donders, " is no savings-bank for muscular strength, as, in time, it utterly destroys it." "Brandy, in its action on the nerves," says Baron Liebig, " is like a bill of exchange drawn on the health of the labourer, which for lack of cash to pay it, must be constantly renewed. The workman consumes his principal instead of interest, hence the inevitable bankruptcy of the body." 124 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. f* \But the crucial test for the working classes is found in the results of the experiments of Drs. Parkes and Wollowicz.* From long-protracted comparative experiments, alter- nately with water and with alcohol, on a strong and healthy man, they found by counting the heart's beats on days of water- drinking and days of spirit ingestion, that alcohol greatly increased the heart's action. In summarizing these results they say " Admitting that each beat of the heart was as strong during the alcoholic period as in the water period (and it was really more powerful), the heart on the last two days of alcohol was doing one-fifth more work. " Adopting the lowest estimate which has been given of the daily work of the heart, viz., as equal to 122 tons lifted one foot, the heart during the alcoholic period did daily work in excess equal to lifting 15'8 tons one foot, and in the last two days did extra work to the amount of 24 tons lifted as far. " The period of rest for the heart was shortened, though, perhaps, not to such an extent as would be inferred from the number of beats, for each contraction was sooner over. " The heart on the fifth and sixth days after alcohol was left off, and apparently at the time when the last traces of alcohol were eliminated, showed in the sphygmo- graphic tracings signs of unusual feebleness, and, perhaps in consequence of this, when the brandy quickened the heart, again the tracings showed a more rapid contraction of the ventricles, but less power than in the alcoholic period. The brandy acted, in fact, on the heart, whose nutrition had not been perfectly restored. " It will seem at first sight almost incredible that such an excess of work could be put upon the heart, but it is perfectly credible when all the facts are known. " The heart of an adult man makes, as we see above, 73'57 strokes per minute. This number multiplied by sixty for the hour, and again by twenty-four for the entire day, would give nearly 106,000 as the number of strokes * See Bibliography Experiments on the Effect of Alcohol on the Human Body. Experiments on the Action of Red Bordeaux Wine (Claret) on the Human Body. London, 1870. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 125 per day. There is, however, a reduction of stroke, pro- duced by assuming the recumbent position and by sleep, so that for simplicity's sake we may take off the 6000 strokes, and, speaking generally, may put the average at 100,000 in the entire day. With each of these strokes the two ventricles of the heart as they contract lift up into their respective vessels three ounces of blood each ; that is to say, six ounces with the combined stroke, or 600,000 in the twenty- four hours. The equivalent of work rendered by this simple calculation would be 116 foot-tons; and if we estimate the increase of work induced by alcohol, we shall find that four ounces of spirit increase it one-eighth part, and eight ounces one-fourth part." Identical results were reached by these physicians in their experiments with claret. There was the "marked effect on the heart . . . the twenty ounces (of claret), containing almost two fluid ounces of alcohol, were mani- festly too much for the subject ... he felt hot and uncomfortable, was flushed, the face was somewhat con- gested, and he was a little drowsy. . . . Moreover, alcohol then began to appear in the urine. . . . With regard to this healthy man taking any alcohol, we have no hesitation in saying he would be better without it." 44. To sum up, we see that alcohol is a substance General sum- entirely alien to the body, and incapable of being trans- ^J^g^ formed into anything useful to it; that it hinders the results of digestion, wastes the digestive fluids, tends to dissolve al(X>ho1 - and damage the blood-cells, and thus vitiates and retards all the life-processes its action on the stomach and blood producing structural degeneration throughout the system. As to its effect on the nervous system, we see that it works through the blood directly on the brain and nerves ; that it narcotizes, and that in this narcotizing it espe- cially deadens the feelings of care, responsibility, and discretion, and upon the bodily powers its effects are shown in the failure of the power to co-ordinate compli- cated series of muscles, and in blunting the acuteness of the senses. Its affinity for water causes thirst for water, which the drinker mistakes for liquor-thirst, his mistake being 126 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. strengthened by the spasmodic demand of the nervous ganglia for more irritation hence the body's irresistible craving for drink. These being the effects of alcohol 011 the whole organism, it follows that no one is or can be strengthened by its use, and that, whether used in modera- tion * or excess, it is, speaking from the standpoint of physiology alone, an unmitigated curse to man, and as the poisoner of water man's chief source of life it is the great founder of death. * The question nf moderate drinking is dealt with in chapter xii. ( 127 CHAPTER VI. PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS, OR DISEASES CAUSED BY ALCOHOL. 45. IN the previous part we have dealt with the chemical action and reaction between the body and alcohol. In this, the pathological or disease portion we shall deal briefly with the disagreeable experiences which Nature forces upon man in her protest against his use of alcohol. The difficulties hitherto encountered are here multiplied and intensified. All the complexities and intricacies, and the apparent contradictions which bewilder and confuse the physiological inquirer, confront the physician with large reinforcements. Even if alcoholic drinks were never adulterated, the exact diagnosing of alcoholic diseases would still be a matter of supreme difficulty. Where, for example, can a non-alcoholic standard be found, and without such an authoritative criterion how can accuracy be hoped for ? But not only is there no criterion to judge from, but unadulterated alcohol is a scarcely known article. But let us remember that without alcohol there would be no adulterations, while without the adulterations there would still be alcohol. Before considering the subject of alcoholic diseases, let Definition of us agree on definitions of the terms disease and health. msea^'aad Disease is a self-suggesting word dis-ease, i.e., dis- health, turbance, dis-order. Health we may define as ease, peace, order. Health, therefore, is that state of individual being in which the body and mind are unanimous about the joy of living. This broad definition of health may almost provoke scorn ; not because it is not true, but because it is absurdly inapplicable to life as we find it ; because being true, then 12S THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. health is an unknown blessing, and there is nothing bnt disease in the world ; a terrible verdict to pronounce on man's misuse of himself and his fellow-beings. Practically, then, health is that state of being in which | no part of body or mind offers any palpable, or more than evanescent signs of serious individual disturbance ; disease is the palpable manifestation of disturbance of the regular / processes of life. ori' inato/o e Alcoholismus, or alcoholism, is the name for all diseases the g tenu >r in any way found to be due to the use of alcohol. The term and us im> was first tlsed b - v Dr> Ma 8' niis Huss, of Stockholm, in his division Alcoholismus (1849-1851). He divides alcoholism into anddiranic. * wo g 1 " 011 ? 8 : Acute alcoholism and Chronic alcoholism.* Acute alcoholism (drunkenness and its immediate con- sequences) is principally of a mental character, and the precursor and preparer of chronic alcoholism (the graver chronic mental disorder) ; but as chronic alcoholism is both of a physical and mental character, we will in order to connect the physical phenomena as a whole with the mental phenomena as a whole first deal with the chronic physical phenomena, then with acute alcoholism, and then with the chiefly mental phenomena and diseases. A. Physical Phenomena and Diseases. 46. " The term chronic alcoholism," says Dr. Huss, " applies to the collective symptoms of a disordered condition of the mental, motor, and sensory functions of the nervous system, these symptoms assuming a chronic form, and without their being immediately connected with any of these (organic) modifications of the central or peripheric portions of the nervous system, which may be detected during life or discovered after death by ocular inspection ; such symptoms, moreover, affecting individuals who have * Dr. James Edmunds says that in chronic alcoholism, " the body is one whose tissues are damaged, to begin with, by the long-continued use of alcohol. The case displays all the phenomena of the sot. With every temporary depression in health, a comparatively mild chill or a little excess in the habitual use of alcohol suffices to bring on an attack of delirium trerr.sns. This differs from acute alcoholism in that the subject is more prone to prostration and death, though the symptoms are less violent, and that recovery is much slower." PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 129 persisted for a considerable length of time in the habit of drinking." Strictly speaking, chronic alcoholism includes all The scope cf T- i i -J.I.- j.i alcoholism. chronic diseases, physical or mental, coming within the scope of either of the following categories : 1. Disorders occasioned by strain imposed on the system by alcohol. 2. Diseases traceable to general system-degeneration produced by alcohol. 3. Diseases which but for alcoholic system-degenera- tion might have been averted or resisted. Neither place nor time are here afforded for going into the pathogeny, symptomatology, diagnosis, or nosology of alcoholic diseases, and we shall only quote some of the general utterances of the great authorities on these points, leaving the reader to discover, not what diseases do, but what diseases do not directly or indirectly owe, in part at least, their existence, character, and prevalence to alcohol. Prof. Christison, of Edinburgh, in a letter to the Chair- Prof. Christt- man of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, dated July 26th, 1870, says of intoxication " I recognize certain diseases which originate in the vice of drunkenness alone, which are delirium tremens, \ cirrhosis of the liver, many cases of Bright's disease of the kidneys, and dipsomania, or insane drunkenness. "Then I recognize many other diseases in regard to which excess in alcoholics acts as a powerful predisposing cause, such as gout, gravel, aneurism, paralysis, apoplexy, epilepsy, cystitis, premature incontinence of urine, ery- sipelas, spreading cellular inflammation, tendency of wounds and sores to gangrene, inability of the constitu- tion to resist the attacks of the diseases at large. I have had a fearful amount of experience of continued fever in our infirmary during many an epidemic, and in all my experience I have only once known an intemperate man of forty and upwards to recover." Prof. Christison also claims that three-fourths, or even four-fifths, of Bright's disease in Scotland is produced by alcohol. In a Treatise on the Contimied Fevers of Great Britain Dr. Murchv- (London, 1874), Dr. C. Murchison says : n n u ^ con - " A single act of intoxication may also predispose to fevers. 130 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. typhus. I have known several instances of persons ex- posed for months to the poison in its most concentrated form, who were not attacked until immediately after a debauch. There is no greater error than to imagine that a liberal allowance of alcoholic stimulants fortifies the system against contagious diseases." Dr. Mnrchi-i In the Croonian Lectures of 1874, to the members of t?on fun ~ the R .y al College of Physicians, on Functional Diseases of diseaws of the Liver, Dr. Murchison said " It is the prevalence of beer and spirit drinking, and consequent liver-clogging, which accounts for the wide- spread use and countless forms of patent pills, such as Cockle's, Morison's, Holloway's, and others. These are taken by millions every week, and people find that if they do not take them they become bilious and unwell. They are all of a purgative nature, and by occasionally hurrying unspent material out of the system they give temporary relief to the overwrought liver. The wear and tear of this process must, however, tend to shorten life. " The sallow and unhealthy appearance of the face of the drinker indicates the diseased liver, the most common disease being the so-called cirrhosis or shrinkage of the liver, commonly termed in England the ' gin-drinker's liver.' " Mr. startin In July, 1882, Mr. James Startin stated that " Sixty per cent, of the cases of skin disease which he has to deal with are due, in one way or another, to alcohol. His position, both as a consultant and surgeon to St. John's Hospital for Diseases of the Skin, render his ex- perience large and his testimony important. There can be no doubt that the universal abandonment of alcoholic beverages would conduce as much to the health and clear- ness of the skin among the general population as among those female prison inmates who are declared, on unim- peachable authority, so frequently to recover their good looks by the unalcoholic regimen of their enforced retreat." In a lecture at Exeter Hall (April 18, 1882) Dr. Norman Kerr, in speaking of the diseases due to alcohol, stated that probably 60 per cent, of the cases of erysipelas were occasioned by it. Sir William Temple, in his essay upon the Cure of Gout by Moxa (Nimeguen, June, 1677), says PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 131 " Among all the diseases to which the intemperance of this age disposes, I have observed none to increase so mucli as the gout, nor any, I think, of worse consequence to mankind. . . . And if intemperance be allowed to be the common mother of the gout, or dropsy, and of scurvy, etc., I think temperance deserves the first rank among public virtues, as well as those of private men ; and I doubt whether any can pretend to the constant steady exercise of prudence, justice, or fortitude, without it. ... I have known so great cures, and so many, done by obstinate resolutions of drinking no wine at all, that I put more weight upon the part of temperance than any other." Dr. Erasmus Darwin, in his famous work, Zoonomia Dr. Darwin (London, 1794), vol. i. sect. xxi. p. 251 ("On Drunken- on s ou - ness"), says concerning gont " I am well aware that it is a common opinion that the gout is as frequently owing to gluttony in eating as to intemperance in drinking fermented or spirituous liquors. To this I answer that I have seen no person afflicted with gout who has not drunk freely of fermented liquor, as wine and water, or small beer ; though as the disposition to all diseases which have originated from intoxication is in some degree hereditary, a less quantity of spirituous pota- tion will induce the gout in those who inherit the dis- position from their parents." " In his work on The Nature and Treatment of Gout Dr. Garrod (London, 1859), Dr. Alfred Baring Garrod says on gout. " There is no truth in medicine better established than * that the use of fermented or alcoholic liquors is the most powerful of all the predisposing causes of gout ; nay, so potent that it may be a question whether the malady would ever have been known to mankind had such beverages not been indulged in. Stout and porter rank next to wine in predisposing to gout ; cider and similar beverages will also act to some extent as predisposing , causes of gout." Dr. Charles Drysdale, in his address before the Public r>r. Drysdaie Health Section of the British Medical Association, at Sheffield (Aug. 3, 1876), said " The drinking of beer is the greatest cause of gout among the population of London." 132 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Theteeti- BrTmiey W ' Davenport, Lord'Gran- rfUe re - from goufthrough abstinence. / Dr. Richard- mary 8 describes (pp. cit.) the relations between acute drunkenness and insanity as follows : " Acute alcoholic intoxication furnishes by far the most striking analogy with insanity, at the same time the most comprehensive one, as it represents all the varieties of the same. We find here all the forms of insanity, from the condition of slight melancholy as intoxication sometimes produces it in the form of the so-called drunken misery up to those extreme states of complete cessation of psychical functions. The most severe form of insanity paralytic dementia is, under the form of intoxication, sometimes so completely copied as to be with difficulty distinguished. Strictly speaking, intoxication is nothing but artificial madness. In most cases, the first effects of alcohol are seen in slightly insane excitement. " All bodily and mental actions are increased, the flow of thought quickened. The taciturn become talkative, the quiet lively. A heightened estimate of self leads to boldness, bold behaviour, cheerfulness. A greater need for muscular movement, a tendency to violent exercise, shows itself in singing, screaming, laughing, dancing, and all kinds of wanton and very often aimless acts. " The laws of decency are still respected, form and manner are observed, a certain self-control is exercised. PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. l4o But with progi-essive intoxication a consecution of refined ideas and moral judgments which control and influence the sane, are abrogated just as in maniacs. "At this stage the drunken man abandons himself entirely, reveals the defects of his character and his secrets (in vino veritas), sets at defiance manners and decency, becomes cynical, brutal, arrogant, violent. Now he has also lost the capability of judging of his position he con- siders himself just as little drunk as the maniac considers himself mad, and is offended if one makes a just diagnosis of his case. . . . There is a growing inclination towards all the lowest forms of vagabondism ; brutal disregard of the rights and feelings of others, excessive sensuality and total shamelessness leading the drunkard to all sorts of profligacy in the open street ; the craze for reckless purchase and equally instant and reckless destruction of what has been bought, and the revolting egoistic delusions in which the drinker fancies he is enormously wealthy, an emperor, or claims to be Christ or God Himself ; and the tragical hallucination that lie is pursued for the purposes of robbery or poisoning. " Finally, it comes to a state of mental weakness, to a loss of consciousness, a vanishing of the senses; there appear hallucinations, illusion and confusion occur, and a state of deep idiotic stupor ; and, just as with the paralytic, slobbering speech, staggering 1 gait, uncertain movements, conclude the disgusting scene. The similarity between artificial and real insanity is further proved by the fact that sometimes always where there exists a peculiar tendency to insanity intoxication develops in the very beginning into acute delirium or transitory mania; or even that a single intoxication produces immediate and lasting madness." Since the days of Dr. Huss, medical science has Dr. Mason on developed yet further divisions of acute alcoholism. In fnsanity! Dr. Lewis D. Mason's * address on Alcoholic Insanity at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Cure of Inebriates (April 26, 1883), we find the following divisions of acute alcoholism : * Consulting Physician, Inebriate Asylum, Fort Hamilton. Longr Island, U.S. 146 THE FOUNDATION OF DEAftt. "1. Acute alcoholic mania, or mania- a-potu. " 2. Acute alcoholic delirium, or delirium tremens. " 3. Alcoholic epileptiform mania. mnia-a- " Hania-a-potu does not, as a rule, occur in the v tw - habitual drunkard, but in persons who occasionally drink to excess. The patient is unconscious of his acts during the paroxysm, and usually extremely ashamed and re- pentant." Ordinarily the attack is brief, but, " in exceptional instances, the person may remain maniacal for four or Characler- five days after a drinking bout. . . . There is no crime in istics. the calendar that these alcoholic maniacs may not commit ; their reason is temporarily dethroned ; they are uncon- scious of, not the character of their actions alone, but of the acts themselves, and are therefore irresponsible. " One characteristic of this mania is that the natural strength of the person may be greatly increased, and a man of ordinary physical development may thus become a giant in his alcoholic fury. . . . Another marked characteristic of mania-a-potu is that it is not preceded or followed by delusions or hallucinations, as other forms of alcoholic insanity are. The assaults are apparently motiveless, the frenzy cyclonic, in its oftentimes terrible results. . . . The following case occurred in my experience. Examples. "The person was a United States contractor, and at times received large sums of money from the Government. He was an occasional inebriate : during the period of his debauches he was very violent, dangerous to his wife and those about him, making assaults on every one. After the paroxysms of mania passed off, he was repentant, extremely grieved, and did all in his power to amend the evil he had done. After one of his fits of intemperance, in a mood of repentance, he sought to conciliate his wife by the ex- penditure of a large sum of money. He rented a villa on the Hudson, furnished it extravagantly, bought horses and carriages, and employed a retinue of servants, and in every way strove to make restitution for his past misdeeds. Some time after this though not a lengthy period he received a large sum of money from the Government, and again went on one of his debauches, returning home a mad- man. He procured an axe ; his wife fled at his approach, and locked herself in a room at the top of the house ; the servants escaped to a neighbour's. The maniac had full PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 147 control of the premises, and proceeded to demolish the furniture. A grand Steinway piano was reduced to splinters, and ruin spread in every direction as his insane fury dictated. Fortunately, he met no one, or homicide would most certainly have been added to his acts of destruction. His wife eventually procured a divorce, and he died in an asylum. His son became an inebriate, and, coming under my care, I was enabled to obtain the family history. " The son was a periodical inebriate, and, when under the influence of alcohol, was, like his father, a maniac aggressive, homicidal, and with exceedingly dangerous and destructive tendencies." Dr. Mason also cites the following from the fourth annual report of the New York State Inebriate Asylum (1866) : "A young man in Madison Co. in this State, in the year 1857, while under the attack (mania- a-potu), killed his father and mother and cut out their hearts, which he roasted and ate. He was arrested, thrown into prison, and indicted for murder. He was brought into court for trial, where Judge Gray, of the Supreme Court, stated that the case could not be tried, as there was no motive to prompt a man to commit such a crime, and the man was sent to the Insane Asylum." " In acute alcoholic delirium, or delirium tremens" Delirium continues Dr. Mason " the latter synonym being often a tremens - misnomer, as tremor is not unfrequently absent," but, unlike mania-a-potu, is always attended by hallucinations or delusions " optical delusions are present, and these its are readily misconstrued by a disordered intellect into all s y m P toms - kinds of forms and fantasies, horrible or grotesque. There is perversion of the hearing, and natural sounds receive undue importance, and are readily misinterpreted by the delirious patient. There is less perversion of taste and smell than of the other senses ; but the fact that the former may be perverted is of interest, as accounting, 'in some measure, for the delusion of poisoning so common in the more subacute and chronic forms of alcoholic mania. " The delirium is characterized by great changeableness its general of delusions, although there is one delusion of fixed pro- i^ti" minence to which all others are secondary. The perversion of the various senses form, or change, or direct the 148 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. character of the delusions, which are accompanied by hallucinations of hearing, vision, and tactile sensation. Ordinary sounds receive undue importance, or are con- verted into terrible threats, the air is full of voices, visions constantly appear and disappear. Commonplace objects assume the form of demons or other horrid objects. Hypera3sthesia of the skin, perverted tactile sensation, gives the belief that insects are crawling over the integumen. Irregular chilly sensation and formication, or pricking sensations, are easily converted by the delirious patient into snakes, rats, or other vermin. The patient borrows his delusions largely from his surroundings, although all authorities agree that the avocation of the patient, or the last prominent act he may have engaged in, establish the central delusion of his delirium. If his delusion partakes largely of personal danger, he makes repeated attempts to escape, and often effects his purpose with great cunning. " He will assault those about him in his attempts to get away, or if he imagines they are his enemies. These acts of violence are generally seen in the more maniacal form of delirium. Delusions of a melancholic character are not unfrequently present ; preparations are being made for his funeral, the table is a bier, the sheets are his shroud ; or he is to be drowned, or hung, or terribly abused in some way ; he begs for mercy, he prays for deliverance, and in a paroxysm of terror may commit suicide if not closely watched." DT. In this connection Dr. Mason quotes the following from aKS2 Dr. Waudsley: ; of delirium " Delirium tremens might be described justly as an acute alcoholism, since there is a chronic alcoholism which is characterized by the slow and gradual development of similar symptoms; in truth, a chronic delirium tremens which is called the insanity of alcoholism. Premonitory of it is the same sleeplessness, the same motor restlessness, the same nausea and want of appetite, that go before delirium tremens. Instead, however, of the rapidly rising excitement, the changing hallucinations and delirious in- coherence then following, there is great mental disquietude with morbid suspicions or actual delusions of wrong in- tended or done against him, of wilful provocations and persecutions by neighbours, of thieves about his premises, PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 149 of unfaithfulness on the part of his wife, and the like suspicions, which are frequently attended with such hallu- cinations of hearing, of sight, of tactile sensation, as threatening voices heard, insulting gestures or mysterious signs seen, electrical agencies felt. In this state a violent- tempered man, resolved to be even with, the scoundrels whom he declares to be persecuting him, sometimes does sad deeds of violence." Prof. Krafft-Ebing, in his book on Judicial Psycho- p ro f. Pathology (Stuttgart, 1875), cites authorities for some ^crin" 8 terrible crimes committed under the hallucinations produced committed by drink ; for example, that of the murder done by Thiel, alcoholic a German workman, industrious and orderly, and a most haiiucina- affectionate and loving husband and father. In a state of drunkenness, Thiel was suddenly possessed by the idea that he ought to kill his child. He sprang from the bed, where this idea came to him, and, sinking in terror upon his knees, clasped his hands, and cried out, " Lord God ! Lord Jesus ! I must kill my child ! " But the poor wretch overcame this frenzy, patted the little fellow on the head, and bade him sleep. Soon after, the frightful temptation returned with overwhelming power ; he seized an axe and murdered the child, muttering agonized prayers and weep- ing bitterly as he did the deed, which at once sobered the miserable father. If drink can thus fearfully and totally pervert the affections, how terrible and subtile must be its effect on the whole moral being ! Of alcoholic epileptiform mania Dr, Mason says, Dr. Mason " There is no form of mania more dangerous than that epih'pttfoni which occurs in the epileptic when influenced by alcohol ; mania, it matters not whether his epilepsy be directly due to alcohol or to other causes. . . . He is most dangerous because 'he adds to the impulses sometimes so terrible to which, he is subject frojn his disease, those which he draws fi-om intoxication.' " The symptoms in chronic alcoholic insanity are divided by Dr. Mason into several groups. He describes the first chronic alcoholic mama chronic maniacal type homicidal tendencies as " one of the most mama! 10 dangerous types of mania that is met with, especially when the mental alienation is not ushered in or accom- 150 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. panied by a febrile condition, or other symptoms that usually point out a departure from health. He is there- s^m torn* ^ ore no * re e ai> ded as a sick man by his friends, although they may think he acts a little ' queer ; ' he is moody, taci- turn, he whispers his suspicions, he picks out his special enemies, he prepares himself against assault, carries weapons on his person, or conceals them in a secret place, he broods over his fancied wrongs ; finally, time and place suiting bis purpose, the revengeful design he has been nursing for months and hinting about to his immediate acquaintances now finds an outlet, and the press publishes a case of ' murder in cold blood ; ' his history by degrees comes out, experts are summoned, his true condition is ascer- tained, and he is sent to an asylum. One very common delusion is that of marital unfaithfulness ; some one, generally a near acquaintance who is on visiting terms with his family, is selected as the one who has destroyed the sanctity of his hearth and home. Too often his insane delusions are treated as simply jealousy, but it is a morbid jealousy of the most intense character, and may in its in- sane fury take the life of some innocent victim. It is a good rule not to take the homicidal vagaries of an intem- perate man as a matter of trifling importance, but when he breathes out it may be threatening and slaughter, although it may be in an undertone let him be promptly arrested and examined as to his sanity." chronic Of chronic alcoholic melancliolia suicidal tendencies melancholia ^ T ' ^ ason savs > " The patient is depressed, weeps readily, to a certain extent he is confidential, seems to crave sym- pathy. He will follow you about, and ask your aid against supposed evils that are impending over him. I recall one case where the patient believed that his funeral would take place in a few hours. He could hear people pre- paring for it; he begged me to delay, if possible, the ceremony ; he was exceedingly sorrowful and depressed, its painful The delusions are various ; persons dead are living, and deiusiaas. ^ e ]i v i n g are (j ea( 3. Events that have happened long since are being re-enacted. Delusions as to locality, as I have said, are often mai'ked. The delusion of poison in the food or drink is oftentimes a very troublesome one. Such pei-sons, however, will take ale or other stimulants when thev refuse food, a perversion of taste being the PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 151 probable cause of this form of delusion we have referred to. This delusion is usually subsidiary to more prominent, or leading mental aberrations. The central or prominent delusion is the first to come, the last to leave. As his disordered intellect rights itself, he clings to this often- times persistently, and finally, when his reasoning powers return, he listens to argument, and gives up his delusions as a fallacy. It is a curious fact, as in the case we have mentioned, that in subsequent attacks or relapses the same delusions so prominent in previous attacks return, and remain with the same persistency." It would seem as if the intelligent and thoughtful would find in the manifestations of the simplest forms of drunkenness alone, an all-sufficient warning against the use of alcohol. Yet these are but the first signals in a series of warnings so terrible that, in view of them, it is truly surprising that alcoholism ever became a universal ill ; or would be so, did we not in this very fact discover one of the worst effects of the evil the stultifying of moral sensibility. In the mental phenomena included under the head of alcoholic insanity, we find that the physical channels for the expression of intelligence have been so corroded and mutilated by alcohol, that the communication between body and mind becomes always partially, sometimes wholly, vitiated, and what is left of it so perverted, that the alcoholic has practically reversed the " descent of man " has dropped himself to a plane where morally the beasts are above him. And greater still than the evil thus done to himself and those around him, is that which he does to Ms descendants in transmitting this curse. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. CHAPTER VII. MORAL RESULTS. inquiry into 48- ONE of the most difficult points to settle in the between' investigation of the drink question is that of alcohol as a drink and cause of crime. That drink is a chief cause of crime is crime. disputed not only by those who wish to prevent the truth from being known, but also by some of those who really wish to know the truth ; and such marshalling of accurate data, philosophical research, medical and psychical analysis, as would take it out of dispute, has not yet, it seems, been adequately brought to bear upon it. If, as the judges of criminal courts affirm, and as facts everywhere seem to confirm, drink is the chief cause of crime, it is of the first importance that a knowledge of this fact should be grounded in the popular mind, as it would undoubtedly and naturally do more than anything else to convince the general public of the real scope and character of the drink evil. The importance of this is emphasized at intervals by the publication in reputable journals of ingenious docu- ments, which by omitting the comparative data necessary to a correct understanding, and by erroneous deductions, convey impressions wide of the truth. Erroneous De exam pl e will suffice in illustration. In the Pall inferences of Mall Gazette (Nov. 9, 1883) appeared the following: a writer in " Is DRINK THE CHIEF SOURCE OP CRIME ? " A correspondent writes to us as follows on the subject of intemperance and crime : " It is by no means an unusual circumstance for judges at assizes and recorders at courts of quarter sessions, Avhile addressing grand juries, and deploring the increase of MORAL RESULTS. 153 crime, to speak of its close relationship with intemperance, regarding the one as the sure harbinger of the other. If the accepted theory be true, the districts where drunken- ness more extensively prevails would be the most prolific in crime, and drunkenness and crime would rise and fall in the social barometer in equal degrees. Is it so ? Let us see. " The residents of the rural districts of Durham are more prone to habits of intoxication than those of any other county in England, and this evil, unfortunately, is on the increase. In 1879 the number of persons charged by the county police with the offence of drunkenness was 7178; in 1880 the number was 8088; in 1881, 9124. The number of crimes committed in the same districts was, in 1879, 549 ; in 1880, 414 ; in 1881, 426. While, therefore, drunkenness has been increasing, crime has been decreasing, and while the charges of drunkenness for the year amount to nearly fifteen for every thousand of the population, the crimes only reach 0'7 per thousand.* The people of Essex may be considered the most sober of all the inhabitants of the country. The charges for drunken- ness last year numbered 289, or 0'9 to every thousand. The number of crimes committed there numbered 455, or nearly twice the number of charges against persons for drunkenness ; but in Durham twenty persons would be charged with drunkenness to one charged with a crime that would be necessary to be tried by a jury. Pro raid with the population also crime is twice as extensive in Essex as in Durham. "Northumberland is another county where intemperance runs high, yet the number of crimes committed by the rural population was in 1879, 76. In 1880 the number was 102; and in 1881, 67, or 0'3 per thousand of the population. In 1879 the number of persons charged with drunkenness by the police was 1916; in 1880, 1967; in 1881, 2145; so that here also, while drunkenness has been increasing, crime has been decreasing. Bedfordshire is another county where drunkenness exists to a very limited extent. The number of persons charged here with drunken- ness in 1879 was 232; in 1880, 206; in 1881, 176, or equal to 1*7 for every thousand of the population. The * See testimony of Justice Hawkins in chapter X. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. crimes committed here were, in 1879, 76 ; in 1880, 82 ; in 1881, 102 ; or equal to TO per thousand so that crime is three times greater in Bedfordshire than in Northum- berland." The writer goes over Lancashire, Shropshire, Sunder- land, etc., in the same manner, and suggests at the close that " It would be an easy matter to multiply the number of these illustrations to show that the close relationship between drunkenness and crime is a fallacy, and that the real source of crime exists in some influence, or some failing in moral rectitude, outside that which leads to intemperance." * * Keferring to this document in the Pall Mall Gatette, the Alliance News (November 17, 18S3) says "In some police districts large numbers of drunken cases are dismissed without being taken formally before the magistrates. This especially prevails where such cases are in overwhelming abundance. Moreover, as a rule, iii districts where drunkenness is most abundant, the tone of public feeling against it is apt to be most relaxed, and the disposition to regard tipsy noisiness as a peccadillo not worthy the notice of the police is pretty sure to be most preva- lent. In such districts Watch Committees and magistrates are often personally implicated in the liquor traffic, and naturally fail to en- courage their servants, the policemen, to be strict to mark and severe to seize. Where mayors, aldermen, and other leading public men are addicted either to liquor-selling or to liquor-tippling, even their silent influence will always act as a damper on the zeal of the con- stable. Hence it commonly happens that where there is most drunkenness the number of apprehensions by the police tends to dwindle, whereas these are likely to be more numerous where public opinion is most widely awake to the enormity and iniquity of the liquor traffic. Considerations like these are quite sufficient to show the folly of using the police books of different districts in proof of the comparative drunkenness of those districts. For the rest we need only add that when the judges protest, as earnestly as they are always doing, that most of the crime that comes before them officially is evidently caused by strong drink, they speak not in view of the number of police apprehensions of drunkards, but in direct recognition of the plain and undeniable facts that present themselves to their senses in dealing with criminal cases in their own courts. To doubt the correctness of their conclusions on such a matter is equivalent to writing down some of the most able men in the kingdom as poor, brainless, chattering fools." We may add that the deference due to such statements as those made by the Pall Matt Gazette's correspondent must equally be due to statements of precisely similar scope and grasp : as, for instance. MORAL RESULTS. 155 These figures might mislead very many who are not specially and amply informed upon the subject, and not familiar with the various data, or the way in which such data essentially affect computation, comparison, and deduction.* This "correspondent" challenges the almost unanimous testimony of the principal judges of the United Kingdom a testimony covering scores of years of experience that drink is the chief cause of crime. In this challenge one of two things is plainly intimated either that the Judicial Bench of Great Britain have been and are fools or knaves ; either these men, whose business it is to inquire into the causes of crime and to pronounce the verdict of law upon the criminal, have been, and are, all incompetent, or else have deliberately deceived the public. Certainly no sober Englishman will admit the former ; and as to the latter, it would be difficult to discover or devise a motive, or a combination of motives, sufficient to induce even one still less a long succession of judges to concur in such a misrepresentation. Even were judges constitutionally prone to misstatements, no public body could be less interested in doing so, on the topic in question. In stating the increase in arrests for drunkenness during the last three or four years since the temperance agita- tion has become vitally a popular factor the Pall Mall correspondent does not manifest any knowledge of the well-known fact that the laws against drunkenness in public have been enforced with increased vigour during this period, in various parts of the United Kingdom. Yet this fact is essential to an approximately accurate com- parison of the general relations between drink and crime. For instance, during the reign of Queen Anne, w r hen intoxication was regarded as a feat rather than a degrada- those of a recent writer on the Topography of Intemperance (Mac. millan's Magazine, Jan. 1882), who naively alludes to " this singularity in both towns and counties, that generally the larger number of public-houses will be found where there is the smallest amount of drunkenness, and ... in Durham drunkenness prevails to a far greater extent than in any other English county." Ergo, make the people sufficiently and unanimously drunk and there will be no crime; multiply public-houses and there will be no drunkenness ! ! ! Durham seems on the whole a most remarkable county ! * See opening remarks of chapter X. concerning statistics. 156 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Relations sobriety and crime as con- thTLmebe- Examples or ai^hou" 011 * 1 criminality, The quality ne^shown' to be tempera- ment and stances of the drinker. tion, and hardly any one was arrested for it ; crime was terribly prevalent what would this correspondent have deduced from statistics of the relations between drink and crime then ? However difficult it may be to demonstrate the exact relations between drunkenness and crime, there is happily not the same difficulty in establishing the relations between sobriety and crime; of a hundred persons in the dock, ^ ew ' ^ an ^' are ** a * a ^ sta i ners 5 an( ^ the relations between sobriety and the absence of crime is being daily practically demonstrated on various prohibition estates, as at Bess- brook in Ireland, etc. So far as we have been able to pursue investigation on this point, we have been specially impressed with the following facts. Crimes ai*e not often conceived or committed during 1 actual drunkenness, though often very dreadful ones do result from the negligence and oblivion caused by drink ; such as the sea captain commits, when an overdose of grog makes him steer his ship on dangerous reefs ; or the engineer, whose extra glass means a mismanaged engine, a collision, and the mangling and killing of people trusted to his care ; or the drunken officer, when he muddles the order of his commander, and prematurely or altogether mistakenly exposes his men to slaughterous fire; or the drunken physician, whose reckless prescription or whose total neglect results in the death of some beloved one and the blasting of dear human hopes ; or the drunken lawyer, who tipples away the life, honour, or property of his helpless client. The quality of drunkenness depends greatly on the na * nre f * Qe intoxicant used, as well as upon the tempera- ment and physical condition of the drinker. For example, it is well known that drunkenness occasioned by malt liquors generally induces a sluggishness of mind, a lethargy of the senses, in which frenzy or ferocity of thought or ac f^ j n which the formation of a plan, or execution of one previously conceived, are almost impossible. It mugt be reme mbered, however, that the effect of malt liquors is greatly determined by the quality of the hops and the presence or absence of c-occulus indicus or ? other adulterating ingredients. In an article on Beer and MORAL RESULTS. 15? Crime (Medical Times and Gazette, London, April, 1872), the following statement with regard to beer occurs : " Its intoxicating power is far greater than can be ac- counted for by the mere alcohol it contains. . . . Cheap and coarse varieties of the hop, a plant nearly allied to the Indian hemp or bhang, may be capable of producing a furious delirium quite apart from alcoholic intoxica- tion. ... A magistrate's clerk once told us that the worst assaults and crimes of violence in his district were men who drank at public-houses supplied by one particular brewery." Wines with the exception of the strongest and most viciously adulterated generally cause an idiotic jollity, silly good-humour, meaningless generosity, coupled often with a kind of loose frankness of sensuality. Brief choler, sufficient for the commission of sudden crimes, is possible in this condition, but evil designs previously harboured are unlikely to recur or be carried out. On the other hand, spirituous liquors,* especially those containing quantities of fusel oil such as raw whiskies, gin, etc. excite almost invariably a demon-like frenzy, and when thus intoxicated, people who in a sober state would neither conceive of, nor countenance violence, lust, or destruction of property or life, become capable of any imaginable infamy and crime. These distinctions, which deserve most careful atten- The true tion, and a large variety of sub-distinctions and differen- alcoholic"* ' tiations, are necessary to any proper comprehensive ^jnii estimate of the relations between drinking and crime. * my ' But the general truth remains, that not in the drunken state, but in the various intermediary stages between sobriety and intoxication, lies the field of alcoholic criminal activity. 49. It has been seen in the foregoing pages how General alcoholic drinking lo wei;s the whole plane of physical health ; physiological tiiat it ruins digestion, poisons the circulation, making it *g g d u {^ euui1 sluggish, as in amphibious creatures; that it preserves waste tissue and checks excretion making the human body, so to speak, a case or cask of preserved compost ; * " Beer is brutalizing ; wine impassions; whisky infuriates, but eventually unmans." Dr. Bock, of Leipsic, in article on the "Moral Effects of Frod and Drink," in British Medical Journal (1879). 15ft THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Imuscepti- that this internal condition is presently externally adver- tised in disgusting changes of the countenance and bearing ; that the nervous system after continued over-excitation becomes eccentric and fitful in its action small causes putting it to the highest tension of irritability, while great reasons for excitement are regarded with apathy ; that these derangements are attended with baleful visions, impure fantasies, weariness of self and disgust with life ; the whole hydra evil culminating in idiocy, insanity, and temptations to and commission of all kinds of crimes and sensualities, theft, incendiarism, suicide, and murder. Thus, in one terrible group we have the physical and mental results of alcoholism inextricably involved with the moral results, one causing the other and vice versa, in a system of consecutive inseparable reactions a banyan tree of human misery. Dr. Hufeiand "Other vices," says Dr. Hufeland, in his work on Poisoning by Brandy (1802), " admit the hope of amend- remeo men *> ^ut ^is performs its work of destruction thoroughly, the drinking and without the prospect of remedy, for it extinguishes in the system all susceptibility for remedy," and indeed all consciousness of the need of such susceptibility. We remember reading a fable to this effect: Once there was tying b 7 the side of a ditch, a pig ; on the other side lay a man. The pig was sober, the man was drunk. The pig had a ring in its nose, the man had a ring on his finger. Some one passing exclaimed so that the pig heard it " One is judged from the company he keeps." Instantly the pig rose and went away. As the alcohol-poisoned body, in its need for its life- essential water takes more and ever more of the poison that creates but never slakes that thirst, so the alcohol- poisoned mind in its need of the pure medium for its manifestations with which it was originally endowed all clouded and astray, plunges deeper and deeper into all forms of reckless, coarse excesses, its hope for ever mocked by its own rudderless drifting continuance in sin begettinf pig. parallel. and spirit are distinct, yet in this life and for this life's purposes they are indissoluble, man having no expression beyond the manifesting power of the physical mechanism he dwells in. Thus it is seen once MORAL RESULTS. 159 and for all that a physical effect is a moral effect. As the sap in the tree permeates to the least curl in the least rootlet, and so determines what the tree shall be in the air, so whatsoever permeates man's physical system de- termines in kind and degree the manifestation of his spirit. But in saying that a physical effect is always a moral A notable effect, one great exception must be made by marking the tMsfruie? t0 distinction between harm voluntarily and harm arbitrarily incurred. For example, an upright man, clean in mind, heart, and habit, who would not of himself under any temptation abuse his body, or ignore those rights of others invested in its purity, may in many ways be forced to do so through poverty, by exhausting labour, bad air, and poor food ; or through wanton caprice he might be bound hand and foot, and have alcohol poured down his throat till he was "dead drunk," and instances of this kind might be multiplied ad infinitum. In these cases the body suffers just as much as if the abuses had occurred by the consent of the will, but the mind and character do not a beautiful evidence of the existence in the body of a tenant superior to and distinct from itself. Of course such arbitrary injury could be inflicted, could extend over such a period as to undermine the moral force, but the very fact that it takes time and much time to do such devil's work as this, only serves to point my distinction. But wherever a physical effect is produced by the consent of the will, we may look for the moral result in kind, and at last for the most deplorable of all results in the extinction of will either to consent or reject. In his Confessions, Charles Lamb, one of the brightest ^|j* of gentle spirits ever consumed in the baleful fires of pathetic alcoholism, wrote : warning. " Could the youth, to whom the flavour of his first wine is delicious, look into my desolation, and be made to understand what a dreary thing it is when a man feels himself going down a precipice with open eyes and a passive will to see his destruction and to have no power to stop it, and yet to feel it, all the way, emanating from himself; to perceive all goodness emptied out of him, and 160 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. yet not be able to forget a time when it was otherwise to bear about the piteous spectacle of self -ruin ! " The effect of 50. The chief power by which we attain and main- onthewui. tain true womanhood and manhood is the power of will, of sane decision. And this power is the first stronghold to be attacked by alcoholism. If alcohol were a sentient being, it could hardly act with greater apparent intelli- gence than it does in its insidious sapping and mining of the will, as if it knew, that redoubt once carried, no further resistance need be feared. In this subjugation of the will, alcohol incidentally but very remarkably defines the distinction between will and intention so often mistaken for each other, to the moral shipwreck of the mistaking Difference ones. Will forms and carries out intention, but intention between will , >> and inten- 1S n t W1 U- tion L- ("The In alcoholism the will is destroyed, and intentions road to hell , ., ., . ,.,.../'. is paved with like the arrows in a slam chief tain s quiver become the Intentions " P assrve agents of the victor's bow. Martin Is there a more contemptibly pitiable sight than that Luther.) Q f ^ e -^^legg drunkard, who, with half-drained glass in his shaking hand, assures you that it is " hizh 'ntenzhn to shtop drink'ng " ? instance of Dr. John Cheyne, of Dublin, in A Statement of Certain drfnh7o er f Effects of Temperance Societies (1829), cites this remark- annihilate able instance of the thraldom of drink, especially in its power to keep down the once conquered will. A gentleman of birth and refined tastes, deservedly popular for his attractive qualities, became habitually intemperate. A dear friend wrote to him, " Your family are in the utmost distress on account of this unfortunate habit. They see that your business is neglected, your moral influence is gone, your health is ruined." To this he replied, " Your remai'ks are indeed too true, but I can no longer resist temptation. If a bottle of brandy stood on one hand and the pit of hell yawned on the other, and if I knew that I would be pushed in as surely as I took one more glass, I could not refrain. . . . You are all very kind. ... I ought to be grateful, . . . but spare your- selves the trouble of trying to reform me ; the thing is now impossible." Man's will being destroyed facilis descensus Averni, and that " Hell is the shadow of a soul on fire," becomes AlORAL RESULTS. 161 fclie actual experience of the tempest-exhausted spirit, and in that gloomy shadow the panic-stricken family of the drunkard leads a rayless cowering life, more dreary than Christian's in the Valleys of Humiliation and the Shadow of Death and there is no Great-heart to bear the poor wife and mother company to teach or defend the hapless children. As son, citizen, neighbour, husband, father, and friend, ^J^c""^ the drunkard is insolvent ; his responsibilities in all these the drinker relations are like obligations discharged by spurious notes, relations and first consciously for he is not a sot at once afterwards j^P? 1 - mechanically offered. His mother! Does he remember iiferasson; the never-weary love, the gentle, watchful care and service and self-sacrifice, which rounded his young life day by day ? Nay, to get a quartern of whisky he would pawn the bed on which she lies dying. His fellow-citizens, his neighbours, his friends ! Why, ^^bonr they are persons to be borrowed from, if they will lend ; to and friend'; be stolen from, if they won't ; to be chicaned, cheated, cajoled, worried, and wearied into giving the means for drink almost always on pleas of a chance that can only be secured by a little ready money (for drones and knaves are. cunning in the use of pleas which could honestly be urged by the deserving), a dodge deceiving neither; and the meanness of the drunkard in these relations, grafts a reflex meanness and sense of guilty partnership upon the one who helps him down. The drunkard's wife ! Is she a being to cherish, watch ^ S f* t ^ r over, and serve as a sane man finds his happiness in doing ? Oh no, a victim to vent all his unleashed and degraded passions on, to cheat, to wheedle, to poison, to make into a penny-earning drudge, and to beget poisoned offspring from. There is the reverse side, where the wife is the one who drinks away her intelligence, and sinks inlo the deepest mire of degradation, neglecting her husband and her children, destroying love, respect, and hope, bringing her family to want and despair, and keeping them there. Such a home is the most miserable spot on earth it is more wretched than the home where all are drunkards, for the contrast between the vain efforts and piteous hope- S-u'nken wit lessness of the husband and father striving as he does to aild mother. 162 tHE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. retain his own manhood, to be mother as well as father to his helpless children, and the complete and obstinate resistance of the besotted companion and spoiler of his days is one to make the strongest hope for the race falter. To such a home comes the weary father from his work at night to see the dirt and the disorder he was forced to leave nnremedied in the morning grown worse for the orgies of the day to see the children huddled away from the mumbling, blear-eyed, towzled, filthy-smelling heap on the^straw, which is all they know of motherhood, and all he 'will ever know of wifehood ; wailing for food, or too cold to wail, or perhaps stupefied from fear, or perhaps sucking at the half- drained bottle which has fallen from the mother's palsy-loosened clutch, too stunted and blunted to be glad to see him, even though he brings them the only food and the only care they ever get. This is as much worse than where the father alone is the drunkard, as the degraded woman is a worse and lower creature than the degraded man. Worse, too, because, to womanhood and motherhood God has given the dominating moral effectiveness, whether for good or evil. And in the drunkard's home, where the faithful wife an( ^ mother bears her burden without sinking into the sin which causes it, you will see something of the meaning of home saved to him and his family, something of the clean- in Uence ^ ness an( ^ system which produce some kind of daily and sobriety, routine, a time for and a semblance of daily meals, however meagre the fare ; the little ones are washed and combed, and, as far as may be, saved from the worst contact of the slums, where the father's sin locates the home. Some- times one or more of the children will show a wonderful moral force and power of sympathy and helpfulness, by which the unfortunate mother's steps are stayed, and her heart saved from utterly breaking ; for whatever poison the child has received from its father, the mother's love and virtue has also entered in to combat to transmute, and, if not to eradicate, at least to prevent its gaining the supremacy. In many instances the mother's character has been able to wholly form and infuse that of the child, confining the evil birthright bestowed by the erring father to the child's stunted and crippled body. Rarely indeed arc such signs of hope found among the offspring MORAL RESULTS, 163 of the debauched mother, whatever the father may be, and in those rare cases it is generally found that such children were born before the mother had become degraded. And how terrible in its deprivations is the curse entailed by the alcoholized father on such children as the mother's virtue has partially saved, not only the hospitals with their bedridden little forms, painfully wistful, and often lovely little faces but the streets, with their misshapen malformed and half-limbed, wan-faced, and prematurely old children, bear witness. Oh, fathers and mothers in pleasant homes, where want and its temptation have never come, whose little ones are rosy with health and innocent sheltered happiness, whose fair white forms, clear radiant eyes, soft eager voices, and kisses dew-pure, fill you with delight and reverence, and make you understand at last why He should say, "Of such is the kingdom of Heaven ! " Oh, take heed, take heed for those other wronged and defrauded little ones who are worse than motherless, fatherless, and homeless, and for their sakes, and that such as they may no more be called out of the darkness into yet darker life for these surely good and loving reasons put away and be first in putting away for ever from your lips, and your homes, and your example this one indulgence, not missed from amongst your luxuries, that by your easy and self- benefiting sacrifice you may enter into such fellowship with the humblest as will rebuke, inspire, and sustain them. For what we have done unto the least of these, that alone shall we be able to take with us to speak for us when we have left all the possessions and all the distinctions of this world behind. 51. Though there are grades and varieties of alcoholic The gradual degradation, and all do not sink equally low or manifest like ^ final" 8 degrees and kinds of lusts, ferocities, or bestial indifference, ^c yet the dark picture given is the true one of the general effect of alcoholism on the moral being of man. And if we closely study the details which make this dark whole, we shall see more and more of the subtle and intricate ways by which the loss of will unravels the character stitch by stitch, till it has neither form nor significance, and is but a limp thread trailed hither and thither by the fitful winds of temptation. 164 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The clever disguises assumed by the In political life. In the rela- tions be- tween master and mau. For though alcoholism always undermines the will, the degree in which it does so is determined by the mental quality and temperament of the drinker, and the extent to which he carries the habit. So that in some instances moderate drinking has totally undermined the will, while in others, excessive drinking has only partially overcome this power. In all cases, however, the will is so far sapped that every relation in life is more or less tainted with the dry-rot of unreliability. The loss of will by alcoholism has many deceiving forms, often takes on the shape of good-natured concession, as in the politician who, even while believing in the true principle, and wishing well to the right measure in the issne at stake, succumbs to the first sufficient urgency, without regard to his own convictions, is called obliging, and thinks himself so, but in reality yielded because resistance was not in him. This is a negative action of will-lessness, very multiform in its phases, very widespread and vitiating in its effects on social and political life. But there is another kind in which all will but self-will is gone. The politician in this case is morally nil; he does not even passively lean toward integrity, he cares only to gain some higher position, some more sounding honour, some larger pay, and sells his vote and buys as many of the votes of others as he can for the gaining of his end, promising anything and everything without the faintest intention of carrying it out. He is spoken of as a man of iron will, sure to make his way, to carry his point, and he thinks himself a man of strong will. He is only an egoist, morally unable to resist, or even to hesitate at, any evil whereby his selfish aim is assured. Alcoholism comes in to spoil the relations between the master and the working man. The drinking working man, no matter how skilled and clever in his workmanship when sober, cannot claim the full wages of his skill, because he cannot be relied on, and his master is always on the look-out for a sober and steady skilled artisan, with whom to oust and replace the drinker. The latter may work well for many days, but suddenly one morning he comes into the shop, and in three minutes has blundered away material worth a week's wages, or by his derangement of the machinery some luckless comrade is MORAL RESULTS. 165 cut in pieces, or. if furious instead of maudlin, he has in a few minutes smashed more than he can make good in weeks or months of labour. And yet, again, is missing for days when work is pressing and hands cannot be spared. The master who drinks, even though he be what is called a moderate drinker, is thereby a tacit patron of all this unreliability, and in himself illustrates it, often failing to carry out special promises to his men, thinking he will, but lacking will-power to do more than think and promise, and his unreliability further vitiates the relations between master and man. In every condition in life alcoholism, whether slowly or swiftly, surely destroys all certainty but And in the certainty of disaster and downfall, for the individual, senerai life, for governments, for the race. The tragedies and crimes to which alcoholism leads are Alcoholism's as various as the moral unreliabilities which are the first fro^morai steps towards crimes. unreij- Crimes are not committed only or most frequently ^'turpitude during actual drunkenness, but as the results of a long and crimes, course of the drinking habit which has sapped the will, ossified the heart, paralyzed the conscience. The forger must be sober, but to be capable of forgery The forger. he must perhaps not in all, but in most cases have been morally emasculated by drink, or have inherited the absence of moral perception and moral force which alco- holism brought about in his progenitors. 'The burglar must be wary and cool, but alcohol and its The burglar, effects must have gone before, either in him or his fathers, ere he can choose this sort of livelihood. The murderer lying in wait for his victim is cool but The somewhere in him or his fathers the demon of drink has nuirderer - persuaded him that gold is worth blood purchase. On the other hand, these same crimes and various others also are committed not in coolness nor in ferocity, even when deliberated,- but from inability to resist the pressure of circumstances made up of goading needs, stimulated and supplemented by sudden or gradually augmenting temptations. In these two distinct orders of criminals, guilty of precisely the same crimes, we see the action of the loss of moral will in its two forms : the The negative negative loss, which may exist with painful longings to be lossofwi ll. better without power to even determine to try ; and the 166 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The positive positive loss, which means absence of the moral Avill, i.e. loss of win. o f ,j es i re to be good and true, as in avarice, cold-blooded murder, and savage lust. Prof. Krafft-Ebing says that the drinker loses clear sense of what is honourable, moral, and decent, grows indifferent even to such conflict between good and evil within him as remains possible ; indifferent to the ruin of his family, to the contempt of his fellow- citizens ; and that hand in hand with these results goes that of increasing irritability, until his violent temper bursts out without provocation and becomes literally un governable. In associating the evils of intemperance with the evils of poverty, we are apt to think of them as identical, and the poverty as almost the worst of the two. Rev. Chan- Rev. William Ellery Channing, in his address on d!ffereSw he Temperance, in Boston (1837), thus ably discriminated on between these points : anTwithotit " Intemperance is to be pitied and abhorred for its own W 11 *- sake, much more than for its outward consequences. These consequences owe their chief bitterness to their criminal source. We speak of the miseries which the drunkard carries into his family. But take away his own brutality, and how lightened would be these miseries. We talk of his wife and children in rags. Let the rags continue ; but suppose them to be the effects of an innocent cause. Suppose the drunkard to have been a virtuous husband and an affectionate father, and that sickness and not vice has brought his family thus low. Suppose his wife and children, bound to him by a strong love, which a life of labour for their support and of unwearied kindness has awakened ; and suppose them to know that his toil for their welfare has broken down his frame ; suppose him able to say, ' We are poor in this world's goods, but rich in affection and religious trust. I am going from you, but I leave you to the Father of the fatherless and to the widow's God.' Suppose this, and how changed these rags ! How changed the cold naked room ! The heart's warmth can do much to withstand the winter's cold, and there is hope, there is honour, in this virtuous indigence. What breaks the heart of the drunkard's wife is not that he is poor, but that he is a drunkard. "We look too much at the consequences of vice, too MORAL RESULTS. 167 little at the vice itself. It is to be desired that when man lifts a suicidal arm against his highest life, when he quenches reason and conscience, that he and all others should receive a solemn startling warning of the greatness of his guilt ; that terrible outward calamities should bear witness to the inward ruin which he is working ; for the outward evils, dreadful as they seem, are but faint types of the ruin within. We should see in them God's respect to His own image in the soul, His parental warnings against the crime of quenching the intellectual and moral life." In the sacredness of family life as the foundation ThefoumU- and perpetual well-spring of human worth, happiness, and * ion of progress; in the incorruptible faithfulness of men and happiness, women, not to their pleasures and impulses, not even to their individual aspirations, but to their plain daily duties and responsibilities towards others, whether these duties have been voluntarily assumed or by circumstances forced upon them in these things in this conduct of life though personal hopes may be lost manhood and womanhood infinitely more precious than any personal gain, remain pure and effective ; and childhood the most direct and solemn of all the trusts a gracious God reposes in us 13 protected. It is only when the passion of love is separated-^ wrenched from its citadel and source in the crystal sphere of modesty, and true, deep affection where divine wisdom planted it, to live for ever and be the for ever fresh and for ever sweet inspiration to all human loyalties ; it is only when selfishness and insidious self-betrayal outrages and dislodges it, that it is lost out of God's meaning and purpose, and becomes the sensual fury which goads men and women to break all ties, all fidelities ; to forget what honour is like, and grovel weakly in, or ferociously gloat over, the degradation of all that is meant by the good words " love " and " home." And it is here in the home-world, the heart-world, that drink, having subjugated the will, confused and gradually deadly obliterated moral distinctions, comes at last to its chief prey, \^^ y * the affections, the emotions, the passions, and does the most deadly, the most ruinous because the most irreparable of all its fell work. In its blight the man who wooed with fervour and wedded with pure intent, parts first, slowly, 168 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. with, self-respect, and then more rapidly with all other respect, and sells or forsakes his wife, as callous to her anguish yes, actually becomes as incapable of under- standing it as of caring for it as he is indifferent to the coarseness of the vile women he consorts with in her stead ; or worse, he makes his wife a physical sharer in his own pollutions, regardless of the result to her or to the children who may inherit. Brothers traffic in the honour of their sisters ; some men gamble literally with their wives for the stakes, or pledge their daughters for cash to the lowest libertine that can pay yes, and act as the decoy in fulfilling the atrocious pledge ! * Finally, as the circle narrows, as the lusts exhaust themselves, the alcohol-driven wretch slinks more and more into the lowest haunts, where unimaginable forms of sensuality submerge him at last in imbecility, whose fainter and fainter gleams of consciousness consist but of impotent throes of the degraded senses. Then total darkness, and the results of the work of alcoholism are complete. Of course, in dealing with a great, widely prevailing evil, only the general sum of its effects can be presented in any one work of ordinary dimensions ; and it is under- stood that this sum comprises almost infinite variations of kind, of method, of degrees, of effect that can not be categorically specified. For example, in showing that drink destroys will, moral perception, conscience, affection, self-respect, and regard for others in saying, in a word, that the drinker sinks lower and lower until the final extinction of all manliness, we are not asserting that every taster of wine sinks to the lowest level, or that any one or all of these evil results are at once and strongly manifested in every drinker. If this were so, surely no books need be written, no pledges taken, no prayers be made, no tears be shed to save man from alcoholism. That which is asserted is, that drink tends, however slowly and insidiously, and * Cardinal M'Cabe, in a recent pastoral on the state of Ireland, speaks of the degraded men and women "who, that their fierce passion for drink may be satisfied, would sell wife, husband, or child to any one who would minister but for a day to their insatiable cravings for drink." MORAL RESULTS. 169 with whatever delay of apparent signs, in every case to these results ; if persisted in, manifests them in more or less marked degrees ; that the danger of the worst squarely menaces whoever forms the habit, and that in a frightful numerical proportion this worst has been and is being daily realized all around us. " At what particular point does any man cease to be sober and begin to be drunk ? What quantity or strength of alcohol may one imbibe with the perfect assurance of retaining the sober equilibrium of all his faculties ? How long may one be accustomed to a very moderate daily quantity of wine or spirits without incurring any danger of forming an appetite for strong drink ? These and other such questions cannot be answered, because there is no line discernible, and no ingenuity can calculate where or when the line is crossed which separates moderation from excess, sobriety from drunkenness. " There is a point indefinitely near the starting-point of unmistakable sobriety, and yet some distance from it, where a slight derangement of the mental powers, a little dimness of intellectual vision, some lack of tenderness in conscience, some relaxing of the power of will all im- perceptible, it may be, to others become at least suspected by the individual himself . . . but while it would be uncharitable and rude in the estimation of society, and libellous in the eye of the law, to call this by the name of drunkenness ; yet, call it by what name we will, it is a departure from strict absolute sobriety, and an incipient movement along the line which leads to the grossest intemperance. The higher nature has begun to lose, and the lower to gain influence and strength ; it needs but a little more impetus in the same direction, it needs but the same process repeated sufficiently often to create the drunkard's appetite, and to procure the drunkard's name. A start has already been made along that line which is so thickly strewn with the wreck of much that was great and noble lying in accumulated masses of degradation, wretchedness, and crime." * We have avoided exaggeration; we have kept well within * Temperance Reformation, and its Claims upon the Christian Church, by Rev. James Smith (London, 1875). 170 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the bounds of the facts which our researches have un- expectedly revealed to us. "We have purposely refrained from citing from the multitudes of proved and certified instances of the worst evils as we have described them, lest by too greatly shocking and even stunning the sensibilities of our readers we should thwart our hope of helping to arouse a deep feeling and genuine sustained effort to com- prehend and overcome this, the worst, the most secret, stealthy, cruel, and powerful enemy that has ever got into the hearts, the homes of men, ( 171 ) CHAPTER VIII. HEREDITY, OB THE CURSE ENTAILED ON DESCENDANTS BY ALCOHOL. A law of ancient Carthage forbade all drinks but water on days of marital intercourse. " Drunkards beget drunkards." PLUTARCH. " The children of drunkards are not likely to have sound brains." GELLIUS. " Dipsomania is always hereditary, always a spontaneous neurosis, absolutely independent of the habits of the individual." Dr. FOLLE- VILLB. See Quarterly Journal of Inebriety (October, 1883), p. 260. 52. THE perpetuation of the human race, together with the extinction of what is valueless to it whether individual, family, tribe, or nation are closely regulated by laws which in themselves manifest the profoundest wisdom. On the laws of heredity especially, a seal is set which The laws of no man can completely violate ; i.e. though he may infringe ^"tertVo'nto and disregard all other general laws of his being, until to the race. all intents and purposes they cease to be carried out, the laws by which he bequeaths himself to new generations will continue to assert themselves even after he has lost the mental and physical individuality through which the general laws act. Were we insulated in our individualities instead of Theresponsi being intimately interdependent, we might do harm to parentage, ourselves and deny all right of interference or even remonstrance from without : but since in nothing can we act without producing an endless consecution of effects touching the lives and rights of others ; in nothing can 172 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. we have so little right to act without the most thoughtful and unselfish regard to the claims of others, as in the chief act for which we are qualified the act of creating a new being who shall partake of oar essence in himself and transmit the same, whatever its quality, to untold successive generations. For we are pre-eminently parents ; the race lives only in the possible motherhood or fatherhood of each individual, and the desire for children and devoted attachment to them is the most ineradicable feeling and the deepest funda- mental law of all healthy mature beings. Therefore, the laws of heredity in all their bearings constitute the foremost study ichich concerns us as responsible beings. Dr. Marc Dr. Marc Lorin, in his General View of the Laivs of Sauawi Heredity (Thesis for the degree in medicine, Paris, 1875), of heredity, says "The transmission of characteristics of species and race is admitted by everybody who deals with the body or the soul. Nobody fears to admit within these limits the fatality of birth. It is thus that every historian refers to the national character in explaining the events in the lives of a people, recognizing its persistence, and pronouncing the consequences often inevitable. The French of this day recognize themselves in the portrait of the Gauls as drawn by Julius Csesar. The modern Greeks are in many respects the same as those whom Demosthenes addressed. If you take a young savage whose parents were hunters, vain will be your efforts to cultivate him and adapt him to the habits of civilized life. The voice of his ancestor speaks to him, incessantly recalling him to the instinct and adventures of forest life. "Heredity is the result of a very general law, by virtue of which all the anatomical elements of the body possess the property of giving direct birth to similar elements, or of determining in their own vicinity a genera- tion of elements of the same kind (Littre et Robin). The phenomena of nutrition depend upon this same law, by virtue of which the human body, incessantly renewed, remains always identical with itself from the redistribution of atomic elements." Dr ' Bour eois > iB Love (I860), says that HEREDITY. 173 " In transmitting the germ of life, parents transmit to their children their own resemblance, physical and moral. The children are parts of ourselves ; it is our flesh, our blood, our souls, our examples, our lessons, our passions which re-live in them." Dr. E. GK Figg, in his Physiological Operation of Alcohol Dr. Figg. (Manchester, 1862), says "Is organic conformation transmissible to posterity? In our bitter experience we know it is. Half a dozen brothers and sisters perish in phthisis, and the physician explores the antecedents of the family for the origin of the catastrophe. A man drops dead with valvular disease of the heart, and on the transit of a few years the accident is repeated in the person of his son, simply because the basis of the disease was communicated in an organ defectively constructed. "And is a cerebral conformation less hereditary than tubercular diathesis, or cardiac imperfection ? The very breeders of horses insure docility in the progeny, by the existence of that quality in the parentage. Consider the mental vigour manifested in various families, generation after generation. The Gregories, the Alisons, the Sheridans, the Kembles, the Porters, the Munros ; if talent be in- herited, it can only be conveyed with the peculiar cerebral structure exhibiting it." Although the ephemeral traits of the parents may The scope of seldom reappear in the children only that which has effects!* 17 become individualized being generally transmitted yet we constantly have evidence that even general undefinable tendencies of our being, upward or downward, are trans- missible ; yes, even the struggles and conflicts in the inmost hearts of the parents, though never by them revealed, may all, whether well or ill fought out, be reflected in the child. And it is within the working of these laws that we find intoxicants, especially alcohol, endangering as does almost no other evil the whole future of the whole race of man ; and to the startling words of Flourens, " Man no longer dies, he kills himself," we may add, Man not only kills himself ; he kills his offspring in the womb, and degrades that heaven-ordained crucible of life into a machine for creating mental, moral, and physical monstrosities for the spurious replenishment of the earth. 174 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Various 53. The French historian Amyot, and the English philosopher Lord Bacon, were probably the first in modern times to deal with the question of alcoholic heredity. Erasmus Erasmus Darwin, in his Botanical Garden (1781), Darwin. says, " It is remarkable that all the diseases from drinking spirituous or fermented liquors are liable to become hereditary, even to the third generation, gradually increasing, if the cause be continued, till the family becomes extinct." Rev. Edward In his Essay on Wedlock (Reading, 1806) the Rev. arry ' Edward Bai-ry says " It would be as unreasonable to expect a rich crop from a barren soil, as that strong and healthy children should be born of parents whose constitutions have been worn out with intemperance and disease. What a dreadf ul inheritance is the gout, the scurvy, etc. ! How happy had it been for the heir of many a great estate had lie been born a healthy beggar rather than to inherit his father's fortunes at the expense of inheriting his disease ! " Children born of intemperate parents bear in their birth the germs of disease, die prematurely, or drag along a languishing existence, useless to society, depraved and possessed with evil instincts." Dr. Rosch. A like testimony is this of Dr. C. Rosch, in his The Abuse of Spirituous Drinks (Tubingen, 1839): " The children of men and women who are given to drink have always a weak constitution, are either delicate and nervous to excess, or heavy and stupid. In the former case they often fall victims to convulsions and die suddenly, or become a prey to water on the brain, and later to pulmonary phthisis. In the latter case they are seized by atrophy, and sink into imbecility. In both cases they are exposed to all the varied forms of scrofula, rash, and, on reaching maturity, gout." DT. Morel. Dr. B. A. Morel, in his treatise on the Degeneration of the Human Race (Paris, 1857), says of alcoholic heredity, " There is no other disease in which hereditary influences are so fatally characteristic. Imbecility and idiocy are the extreme terms of the degradation in the descendants of drinkers, but a great number of intermediary stages develop themselves, . . . beyond the positive data afforded by observation of hereditary influences, it is impossible for HEREDITY. 175 us to form a just idea of certain monstrosities, physical and moral. . . . It is a law for the preservation of the race, which strikes alcoholics with early impotence, and their descendants are not only intellectually feeble, but this degradation is joined with congenital impotence." Dr. [Figg says (op. ci.), ''''The brain of the drinker's Dr. Figg. child is as often the miniature of that of his father, as is the impress of his features. Education may do much for him, conscience and self-respect more ; yet the germs of those vices which precipitated the parent's ruin will, in too many instances, defy eradication. " Perhaps the largest class of character is one to which no special reference has hitherto been made a person possessing a mediocrity of mental power, with a mind only partially developed by, education, conversing superficially on a number of subjects, without thinking deeply on any ; such characters are admirably adapted for the routine of mere commercial or artisan life. By constant drinking, however, even without reaching the point of intoxication, such intellects may be almost obliterated. To them reasoning was never habitual, consequently the cerebral surface, under the contact of alcohol, is less injected than the base ; hence the function of the intellectual brain is completely superseded by that of the instinctive ; their very few ideas, suggested by the society of the public- house, or the sentiments current round the dinner tables on the retiring of the ladies, admit of no variation or argument. What wonder that they become social non- entities, and assimilated to the beasts in their desire for the gratification of mere animal appetites ! " Dr. E. Lanceraux says, in his article Alcoholism Dr. Lance- (Diet. Encycl. des Sciences M ed., Paris, 1865), "The person raux who inherits alcoholism is generally marked with degenera- tion particularly manifested in disturbances of the nervous functions. As an infant he dies of convulsions or other nervous disorders ; if he lives, he becomes idiotic or imbecile, and in adult life bears these special characteris- tics: the head is small (tendency to microcephalism), his physiognomy vacant, a nervous susceptibility more or less accentuated, a state of nervousness bordering on hysteria, convulsions, epilepsy, sad ideas, melancholia, hypochondria, such are the effects, and these with a passion for alcoholic 176 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATBt. Dr. Maudsley. Professor Jaccond. Dr. Baer. beverages, an inclination to immorality, depravity, and cynicism, are the sorrowful inheritance, which, unfortunately a great number of individuals given to drink bequeath to their children." Dr. Maudsley says that such children " come into the world without having either the will or the strength to struggle against their fate; they are step-children of nature, suffering under the heel of tyranny the tyranny of poor constitutions." Prof. Sigismund Jaccoud says, in his Alcoholism (Patho- logie Interne, Paris, 1877), " Of the children of drinkers, some become imbeciles and idiots; others are feeble in mind, exhibit moral perversion, and sink by degrees into complete degradation ; still others are epileptics, deaf and dumb, scrofulous, hydrocephalic, etc. ... A survey of the race leads us to affirm that alcoholism is one of the greatest causes of the depopulation and degeneration of nations." Dr. A. Baer (in Alcolwlismus, 1878) calls attention to the fact that " the inherited desire for drink often remains latent, till by severe, acute, or chronic disease, or mental excitement, the nervous system has become weakened, when the alcoholic impulse leaps suddenly into activity."* Dr. Gendron. In his essay on Hereditwy Alcoholism (Thesis for the degree in medicine, Paris, 1880), Dr. E. Gendron says, " The drinker is often incapable of having living children. If he does have any, they are driven to drinking just as he himself, and, being less robust, because degenerated, they cannot withstand the effects, but fall victims to all the accidents of alcoholism, united to those they have inherited. These are in tender years, terrible convulsions on the least occasion ; later, nervousness of hysteria with all the train of symptoms; limited intelligence, gross brutal character, and a spirit incapable of anything serious or coherent. The heir to alcoholism is querulous, evil- minded, possessed with a desire to destroy, not capable of receiving a good education ; and his faults increase with * The age at which symptoms of hereditary alcoholism break out varies. It generally awakes at special periods of physiological changes ; such as puberty, illness, pregnancy, or at the cessation of the menstrual functions. Sudden and great mental emotion, or even chill, will sometimes suffice. HEREDITY. 177 his years. If born intelligent, he may lapse into idiocy or imbecility ; born with infantile paralysis, he may die from epilepsy ; or, a hypochondriac, he may become insane, and end his wretched existence in an asylum tinder the delirium of imaginary persecutions ; if, indeed, he has not been carried to the prisoner's dock for some crime for which he bore little real responsibility.* . . The conclu- sions are that alcoholism is not extinguished with the drinking individual, but is transmitted to his descendants under various forms, namely, convulsions in infancy, pro- duced by the most trivial causes ; malformation of the head and microcephalus ; tendency to strong drink ; feeble general development; trembling especially of the upper limbs; gastric troubles; epilepsy; precocious perversity and cruelty; mental weakness; idiocy; tendency to in- sanity or mania." In his address, The Heredity of Alcohol, delivered Dr. Norman before the International Congress for the Study of Alco- Kcrr ' holism at Brussels (August, 1880), Dr. Norman Kerr said, " Defective nerve-power and an enfeebled debilitated morale form the favourite legacy of inebriates to their offspring. Some of the circle, generally the daughters, may be nervous and hysterical ; others, generally the sons, are apt to be feeble and eccentric, and to fall into insanity when an unusual emergency takes place. That the impairment of the bodily or mental faculties arises from the intemperance of one or both heads of the family, is demonstrated by the healthfulness and intel- lectual vigour of children born while the parents were temperate contrasted with the sickliness and mental feebleness of their brothers and sisters born after the parent or parents became intemperate. . . . The most dis- tressing aspect of the heredity of alcohol is the transmitted narcotic or insatiable craving for drink the dipsomania of the physician which is every day becoming more and more prevalent. Probably the alarming increase of the alcoholic heredity in England is owing in great part to the increase of female intemperance amongst us. It is well to * If a sound knowledge of the laws of heredity were a sine qua nor, qualification in the law-maker, might we not hope that curative measures would supersede the punitive and inaugurate a nobler and more effective moral code than we havo over knoivr 1 ? 178 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. state that all the evil resulting from hereditary alcoholism may be transmitted by parents who have never been noted for their drunkenness. Long-continued habitual indulgence in intoxicating drinks to an extent far short of intoxication is not only sufficient to originate and hand down a morbid tendency, but is much more likely to do so than even repeated drunken outbreaks with intervals of perfect sobriety betiveen." Dr. Lewis D. The hereditary drink-crave is thus described by Dr. alcoholic 1 Lewis D. Mason in his Alcoholic Insanity (New York, insanity. 1883) : " It is an irresistible impulse that drives a person to alcoholic intoxication at stated or irregular periods. The attack is preceded by a condition of melancholia, anorexia, insomnia, and general restlessness. After the debauch, or during it, the special effect of the alcohol on the mental and physical condition becomes manifest tremor, hallucinations, sleeplessness, coated tongue, loss of appetite, and other symptoms of gastric derangement. The ' irresistible impulse ' is the characteristic feature of this special form of monomania. The genesis of that impulse, and the views of various writers as to its pathological origin, the province of this paper will not permit to touch. " The point to be made here is that the hallucinations and delusions are simply the result of the alcoholic poisoning. " The person again and again yields to the insane impulse until death, either by some intercurrent disease, or disease resulting from his alcoholic excesses, relieves him from his sad heritage." Prof. Krafft- Of the children of parents who are guilty of alcoholic diseafesof excesses,* Prof. Krafft-Ebing, in his Psychiatrie (Stutt- aicohoiic gart, 1883), say s, "They come into the world as idiots, * One of the laws of heredity of the utmost importan3 for parents to consider is that of what we may call lacteal heredity (see chapter IX.), i.e., what the child receives through the medium of the milk, whether the milk of its mother or of a wet nurse. Virtues, vices, physical characteristics, and the effects of habits indulged in during lactation can be transmitted to the child. Thus, even if the child be well-born to start with, it may acquire physical diseases through the milk of a foster-mother. The Pall Mall Gazette for August, 1883, tells the following interesting anecdote bearing on this point : " The extent to which the character of an animal can be changed HEREDITY. 179 with hydrocephalous or neurotic-convulsive constitutions ; and perish in early years of convulsions. In those who survive, epilepsy, hysteria, mental diseases, and weakness, and exactly the severest forms of mental impairment are developed out of the morbid constitution of the nerve- centres ; " and he gives the following terrible scheme to show how nature disposes of generations springing from drunkards : " 1st Generation. Moral depravity, alcoholic excess. " 2nd Generation. Drink mania, attacks of insanity, general paralysis. " 3rd Generation. Hypochondria, melancholia, apathy, and tendencies to murder. " 4th Generation. Imbecility, idiocy, and extinction of family " Thus it is seen that even the transmission of such loathsome diseases as scrofula, tuberculosis, or syphilis is neither so certain nor so permanent and blasting in effects as those transmitted by alcoholism. Moreover, these terrible diseases are in some degree susceptible of remedy, and are localized. But the heredity from alcoholism is chronic, and profoundly attacks the whole being. Were the transmission absolute, that is, were there no by the way in which it is brought up has seldom been more re- markably illustrated than in the case of a sheep, which at present is said by the KoJcstaad Advertizer to be a great pet of the magistrate at Matabiele, in South Africa. This sheep, when a lamb, left the flock, attached itself to a Mr. Watson, who gave it to be suckled by his bitch ' Beauty,' a bitch well known here, and was well taken care of by her. When the lamb grew older it was noticed that it would never sleep in any house but Mr. Watson's, and would some- times lie outside the door cuddled up like a watch-dog. The most wonderful thing about him is that as soon as the hotel bell rings for dinner he is sure to be standing by one of the chairs at the top end of the table, and when the owner sits down he will jump with hia front paws on his back, letting him know that he wants something to eat, like a dog. He will not touch grass or eat beef, but will gladly eat mutton, soap,' candles, and drink coffee and tea with sugar and milk. But 'SchaapV great love is for draught beer. He will lift the can up with his front paws and hold it to his month, ind drink with such a relish that it can at once be seen he has been led away by bad example. 'Schaap' is a fine ram, clean fleece, with very wicked eyes. All day he is seen running about with the dogs as one of them, until the bell rings, then off he scampers to the dining-room." 180 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. laws mightier for the preservation of man than those he vio]ates and turns into engines of destruction, the race might ere this have been extinguished. But the children of drinking parents who escape the curse are the excep- tions, and the escape is seldom, if ever, a complete one. Either the mind, the body, or the character, in some bent, formation, or trait, betrays the taint. Selfish and irresponsible conduct of life minus drink may, and probably sometimes does, produce a similar heredity ; yet it remains true that those who are neither alcoholics themselves, nor the victims of alcoholic parentage, are in the comparison seldom so blinded to the meaning and duties of life, as to waste their physical, moral, and mental resources, and then either heedlessly or deliberately inflict the consequences on their offspring. CHAPTER IX. THERAPEUTICS ; OB, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 54. As alcohol (the distilled product) originated in the chemists' and physicians' laboratories, thence gradually spread to the homes of the favoured ones, and then descended step by step the grades of social life, until its use in drink by civilized man bas driven pure water almost out of the list of beverages ; so now there are signs that it is retreating to the laboratory, like the Afreet to his bottle in the Arabian Nights. And let us hope that when alcohol is once driven back to its starting-place, man will be wise enough to seal up the monster for ever. The first medical treatise on the uses of alcohol vcas one entitled Ueber den Gebraucli und Nutzen des Brannt- weins (Concerning the Use and Utility of Brandy), written by Dr. Michel Schrick, in 1483. During the next hundred years after this date much A sixteenth- and various consideration was given to the subject, and ^"nfonof more or less clear opinions were formed as to the effect alcohol. >( of alcohol on man ; and by examining some of the views entertained by " Theoricus," a prominent German of the sixteenth century i.e., about midway between the time of its practical discovery and oar age, and when it had spread over the whole of Europe we may be better able to appre- ciate the changes which medical opinion has undergone between then and noAv. In the Holinshed Chronicles (1577), " Theoricus " desci'ibes the properties of alcohol in these words : " It sloweth age, it strengtheneth youth, it helpeth digestion, it cutteth phlegme, it abandoneth melancholic, it relisheth the heart, it lighteneth the mind, it quickeneth the spirits, 182 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. it cureth the hydropsia, it healeth the strangurie, it pounces the stone, it expelleth gravel, it puffeth away yentositie ; it keepeth and preserveth the head from whirl- ing, the eyes from dazzling, the tong from lisping, the month from snaffling, the teeth from chattering, and the throat from rattling ; it keepeth the weasen from stiffling, the stomach from wambling, and the heart from swelling ; it keepeth the hands from shivering, the sinews from shrinking, the veins from crumbling, the bones from aching, and the marrow from soaking." As we have seen, these diseases, with scores of kindred afflictions, are precisely the fruits which the use of alcohol bears in the organism of man, and it would seem as if " Theoricus " must have been both a wag and a physician. The following are some of the principal testimonies and opinions, marking the progress of medical thought against the indiscriminate use of alcohol in modern times. Dr. Norman 55. At the Temperance Jubilee Conference in the m e edi^S Crystal Palace (September, 1879), an essay on the Medical tem OI eranc e History of the Temperance Movement was read by Dr. movement? Norman KeiT. " At no stage in the onward progress of the temperance movement," said Dr. Kerr, " have repre- sentatives of the medical profession ever been wanting. In the early or moderation stage, when the advocacy of temperance reformers was confined to abstinence from ardent spirits, a numerous company of ^Esculapians was invariably in the van. "Leaving out of the reckoning altogether the many unstinted commendations of temperance by the early fathers of the healing art, while united temperance effort was yet in the womb of time, from the ranks of the noble profession of medicine emanated graphic expositions of the physical, mental, and moral dangers accompanying even limited alcoholic indulgence. "In 1725 Dr. George Cheyne* had issued a second edition of his first work, in which he commends total * " Neither were they ever designed by Nature and its Author for the animal body as nourishment or common drink, and scarce deserve a place in the apothecary's shop ; spirits having made more havock among mankind by far than even gunpowder." Natural Method of curing Diseases of the Body and Disorders of the Mind, by Dr. George Cheyne (London, 1742). THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 183 abstinence as the most natural, healthy, and safe mode of living, and condemns moderate drinking as unhealthy and _ 31'OUS. " In 1747 Dr. James wrote, ' Every person who drinks a dram seems to me guilty of a greater indiscretion than if he had set fire to a house ; and for the same reasons cordial waters are the most dangerous furniture for a closet.' Again, ' I cannot forbear admiring the great wisdom of Mohammed, who strictly forbade his followers the use of fermented liquors for better reasons than are generally apprehended.' " Dr. Erasmus Darwin, author of The Botanic Garden (London, 1794), calls wine ' a pernicious luxury in common use, and injuring thousands.' " In 1802 Beddoes pointed out the many dangers attendant on the social and medical use of intoxicating drinks, dwelling on the ' mischief from wine taken con- stantly in moderate quantity,' and emphasizing ' The enfeebling power of small portions of wine, regularly drunk.' "Dr. Trotter, two years later, denounces beer as a ' poisonous morning beverage,' says ' wines strengthen neither body nor mind ; ' and thus writes, ' When wine was first introduced into Great Britain in the thirteenth century, it was confined to the shop of the apothecary.' " Writing to Dr. Joshua Harvey, in 1829, Dr. John Cheyne, Physician- General to the Forces in Ireland, in a letter published in Dublin, contends that the medical pro- fession ' ought to make every retribution in their power for having so long upheld one of the most fatal delusions which ever took possession of the human mind.' " Mr. Higginbottom was probably an abstainer many years before the birth of the movement, and had abandoned the prescription of alcohol as early as 1832." In a letter to a friend, written in 1836, Mr. Higgin- Mr - HigK 111 - 1 j. * IL T 7 T 7 77 j 7- bottom on bottom * says, " I consider I shall do more in curing disease the advan- * John Higginbottom, F.R.S., of Nottingham, was a keen and able clinical practitioner, who wrote several classical papers on practical medicine. His far-seeing and courageous stand against the medical prescription of alcohol branded him as a maniac, and ostracized him from practice among the higher classes of society. Another man of like conscience and courage was Mr. James Hawkins, 184 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. tagesofprc- and preventing disease in one year by prescribing total abstinence, than I could do in the ordinary course of an extensive practice of a hundred years. I have already seen diseases cured by total abstinence that would not have been cured by any other 'means. If all stimulating drinks and tobacco were banished from the earth, it would be a real blessing to society, and in a few weeks they would never be missed, not even as a medicine." * Dr> Kerr contiimes in nis Crystal Palace essay, " The three well-known Declarations concerning alcohol merit special mention. The first was drawn by Dr. Julius Jeffreys in 1839, and was signed by Sir B. Brodie, Sir James Clarke, Sir J. Eyre, Dr. Marshall Hall, Dr. A. T. Thompson, Dr. A. Ure, the Queen's physicians ; Professor Partridge, Professor Quain, Mr. Travers, Mr. Bransby Cooper, and seventy-eight leaders in medicine and surgery. This document declared the opinion to be erroneous that wine, beer, or spirit was beneficial to health ; that man in ordinary health required no such stimulant, and could not be benefited by the habitual employment of such in either large or small quantities ; that, even in the most moderate doses, alcoholic drinks did no good, while large quantities (such as by many would be thought moderate) sooner or later proved injurious to the human constitution, without any exceptions." First medical The Declaration drawn up by Dr. Julius Jeffreys,f here of 1839, alluded to, contained the following paragraphs : drawn up by "An opinion handed down from rude and ignorant Jeffreys, times, and imbibed by Englishmen from their youth, has become very general, that the habitual use of some portion of alcoholic drink as of Avine, beer, or spirit is beneficial to health, and even necessary for those subjected to habitual labour. of 36, Cold Place, Commercial Eoad, formerly a staff assistant surgeon at the battle of Waterloo. Like Mr. Higginbottom, he was an earnest and consistent abstainer, and at the same cost to his practice. Some valuable papers -were contributed by him to the Temperance Intelligencer for 1840; and he had the firmness and sincerity to describe himself in the Medical Directory as "Teetotal since ]837." * From Anti-Bacchus, by the Eev. B. Parsons (London, 1839). The italics are by the Kev. Mr. Parsons. t See Dr. Grindrod's Bacchus (1839). THERAPEUTICS; OE, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 185 " Anatomy, physiology, and the experience of all ages and countries, when properly examined, must satisfy every mind well informed in medical science that the above opinion is altogether erroneous. Man in ordinary health, like other animals, requires not any such stimulants, and cannot be benefited by the habitual employment of any quantity of them, large or small ; nor will their use during his lifetime increase the aggregate amount of his labour. In whatever quantity they are employed, they rather tend to diminish it. " When he is in a state of temporary debility from illness, or other causes, a temporary use of them as of other stimulant medicines may be desirable ; but as soon as he is raised to his natural standard of health, a con- tinuance of their use can do no good to him, even in the most moderate quantities, while larger quantities (yet such as by many persons are thought moderate) do, sooner or later, prove injurious to the human constitution without any exceptions." * " The second Declaration," continues Dr. Kerr, " was Second originated, and the many signatures published, by Mr. ^j tion John Dunlop in 1847. More than two thousand of the most by Mr. John eminent physicians and surgeons signed this, including J^ 101 * 111 Sir B. Brodie, Sir J. Clarke, Sir W. Burnett, Sir J. Forbes, Sir H. Holland, Sir A. Munro, Sir J. McGrigor, Sir B. Christison, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Dr. Copland, Dr. Kiel Arnott, Dr. A. Farre, Professors Guy, Allen Thomson, Miller, McLeod, Easton, Anderson, McFarlane, Rainey, Buchanan, Paris, Winslow, Alison, Syme, Henderson, Lawrie, McKenzie, R. D. Thomson, Couper, and Simpson. This certificate set forth that perfect health is compatible with total abstinence from all intoxicating beverages ; that all such drinks can, with perfect safety, be discontinued either suddenly or gradually ; and that total and universal abstinence from alcoholic liquors and intoxicating beverages of all sorts would greatly contribute to the health, the prosperity, the morality, and the happiness of the human race. "The third Declaration, which was prepared by Pro- The third * The Eev. B. Parsons (op. cit.) says, " To their honour it may bo told that five thousand medical men in America have come forward and given thm>- testimony against alcoholic drinks." 186 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Parkes in 1871. j&tablish- rcent of the Quarterly Medical Temperance Journal, 186. The British Medical Journal concerning alcohol as a medicine (1871). fcssor Parkes, on the suggestion of Mr. Ernest Hart and Mr. Robert Rae, in 1871, was signed by 269 leading members of the hospital staffs. Among those signing were Sir George Burrows, Sir Thomas Watson, Sir H. Holland, Sir William Fergusson, Sir James Paget, Sir Ranald Martin, Sir Henry Thompson, Sir Duncan Gibb, and Sir James Bardsley." The modern scientific temperance movement of England may be said to have commenced in earnest with the pub- lication of Dr. F. R. Lees' Is Alcohol a Medicine? (1866), and to have taken full shape with the establishment of the quarterly Medical Temperance Journal (1869), at the instance of Mr. Robert Rae, secretary of the National Temperance League. In this quarterly will be found fairly reproduced almost all the best medical literature of the subject that has appeared since 1869.' The intelligent advocacy of true temperance in this journal called forth both rejoinders and support in the medical press of Great Britain and other countries, and finally the British Medical Journal, the powerful organ of eleven thousand British physicians, invited an investigation of the drink ques- tion. On the 30th of September, 1871, the British Medical Journal said "Looking to the ineffable misery and disaster, the waste, degradation, suffering, and crime which are con- stantly wrought in this and most civilized nations by drink, we are far from thinking the importance of the subject can be exaggerated. . . . The influence of medical men, if they were united and agreed, might be all-powerful on this subject ; and we should be glad to see a conference of medical men, including those of the highest class, originated in some really influential quarters, with a view to giving this subject a more thorough discussion than it has yet had. We should like to hear a discussion in which Parkes, Edward Smith, Hughes Bennett, A. P. Stewart, Paget, Jenner, and some of our leading provincial practitioners, would take part, in which the whole subject should be probed. To what extent, if at all, are physicians justified in recognizing alcohol as an article of daily food in health ? Does the habit of prescribing alcoholic drinks act injuriously upon the morals and welfare of the people ? THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 187 Is it possible or desirable to substitute the more enticing forms of alcohol by medicinally and less alluring forms ? We all of us sympathize with the ends which the National Temperance League has in view. A small minority only practically participate in their means of action. Can we in any way, and in what way, help to excuse this nation from the curses which drink brings upon its population ? " This was occasioned by the strong appeal of Dr. A. H. H. McMurtry, of Belfast, in an article On the Duty of Medical Men in Relation to the Temperance Movement (Medical Temperance Journal, October, 1871). "The ignorance of the people," says Dr. McMurtry, Dr. McMur- " encouraged as it has been by the attitude of the medical q^ent el appeiii profession towards the temperance movement, with regard t * 116 , , . . *j , , j- i i v j i medical to the nature, properties, and real value ot alcoholic drinks, profession has constituted hitherto an almost impregnable barrier to the progress of truth on this subject. . . . Medical practice, Jou and medical teaching, and perhaps medical science on the 1871 )* subject altogether, have begotten and fostered the popular belief that alcohol is one of the good creatures of God. The medical profession is responsible for the originating and perpetuating of the great mistake that alcohol is a wholesome thing. . . . The people's medical advisers either teach, by precept and example, that they are not injurious, or manifest an indifference to the evils produced by their use, which implies that they do not think them injurious. It matters little whether it is what they teach or what they do not teach that is the cause of the popular belief and popular custom ; for medical men are just as culpable if they do not dispel this error, as if they actually and directly taught it. They are just as responsible for its consequences, because it is their special province and privilege to diffuse that light and knowledge which alone could prevent them. For to whom can the temperance movement look, to whom should it look, for aid in exposing this pernicious falsehood but to the medical profession ? To whom else should a community suffering from the physical consequences of a physical poison appeal, not only for their cure, but for their prevention ? . . . Apart from the absolute duty of every man to abstain from the unnecessary use of a poison, it is pre-eminently the duty of medical men, who are naturally and justly considered 188 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. guides in all that pertains to the preservation of health, to see that the powerful influence of their example is on the side of virtue and sobriety. Their superior knowledge of the poisonous nature of alcohol implies a greater obligation to abstain from it ; but it is their stronger and wider influence "which, in an especial manner, lays them under a deeper responsibility to set the people a safe example in this matter, and incurs upon them a deeper guilt if their example leads the people astray. . . . Hence I maintain that it is the duty of medical men either (1) to discard alcohol altogether on the strength of the verdict which a large proportion of the profession not to mention com- petent judges outside the profession have pronounced against it ; or else (2) to examine the matter for themselves with an earnest and sincere desire to know the truth, considering the incalculable evils "which so many truthful, unprejudiced, and thoroughly qualified men attribute solely to the common and medicinal use of alcohol (such use being founded on false notions of the nature and real value of the drink), I hold that it is the bounden duty of all who are in any degree responsible for this use of it, to give the whole subject that honest and attentive consider- ation which its importance demands. This would be a more philosophic, honourable, and philanthropic course to pursue than that so often adopted by medical men, of refusing either to study the question for themselves or to be instructed by those who have studied it. I should have thought that, if no other or higher consideration were sufficient, the honour of their profession would be enough to arouse them to defend it from the serious charge of contributing, either knowingly or in wilful ignorance, to the miseries of the human race. " But suppose that, after having given the subject the necessary investigation, they still believe that alcohol is an indispensable article of the 'Materia Medina,' what then ? What if some medical men have actually done so, and have been forced to the conclusion that alcohol is a useful food and a necessary medicine ? Then I tell them that it is their duty (3) to choose the lesser of two evils. Prescribe alcohol, either dietetically or medicinally, and you frequently create or resuscitate, and always run a risk of creating or resuscitating, supposing the patient survives, an uncon- THERAPEUTICS ; OK, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 189 trollable and ultimately fatal appetite for intoxicating drink. Thus in your desire to cure one disease, which many believe could be cured more certainly and more safely by other means, you administer a remedy which may and often does produce another disease of a much more serious character, inasmuch as it involves not only physical but moral injury to the patient, and untold misery to his friends. You also give rise to, and confirm, that widespread faith in the necessity for and remedial powers of alcoholic liquors, which 1 have said is at the very basis of the drinking customs, and is the remote origin of the traffic itself and all its evils. For while I do not say that all who drink do so because they think the drink is good for them, I do say that all begin to drink ignorant of the fact, and because they are ignorant of the fact, that alcohol is inherently and essentially bad for them. And this igno- rance is the result of the prescription and recommendation by medical men of the various intoxicating productions of the brewer and the distiller. And remember that the advocates of alcohol can claim no especial advantages for the alcoholic treatment which are not also claimed to a superior degree for the non-alcoholic treatment, by those who have expunged this agent from their list of remedies altogether." Stirred to the quick by these earnest words, Mr. Robert origin of the Rae, the secretary of the National Temperance League,' ^ c f[ itish consulted with Mr. Ernest Hart, editor of the British Declaration. Medical Journal, who advised that the counsel of Dr. Parkes, of the Army Medical School, Netley, and other prominent medical men, should be sought with reference to the practicability of such a conference as had been suggested in the British Medical Journal. Dr. Parkes' questioned the utility of a conference, and recommended a Declaration instead. Mr. Rae urgently requested that he would draft such a Declaration as the profession in general would be prepared to sign. This was done, when Mr. Rae submitted it without delay to Dr. Burrows, Sir Thomas Watson, Sir James Paget, and Mr. Busk, each of whom indicated a few alterations, which were at once adopted. These four physicians then signed the Declaration ; after which it was presented, at the instance of Dr. Burrows, "to some of the senior and 190 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. most distinguished members of the medical profession in London " for signature. Opinion of The Declaration, after being signed by two hundred alTtothTini- an d sixty-nine leading members of the medical profession, portance of was printed with its full list of signatures in the Times medical (January 1, 1872), which, in commenting on it three days " It is very seldom that a great social question such as that of the limits between a wholesome and safe use of alcohol on the one hand, and injurious excess on the other, evokes such a body of witnesses as that subscribed to the medical protest in our columns. It is impossible not to attach very great value to the deliberate opinion of those who must know a good deal of the subject, and who are not generally given to exaggeration. . . . That two hundred and fifty medical men, including the most distinguished names in the profession, should have agreed to a manifesto against the excessive and incautious adminis- tration of alcohol, has taken the world rather by surprise, as revealing a certain unsuspected background of actual knowledge and unanimity. Of course there are protests and dissents, but they do not come to much. , . . This famous document, whether it be read with implicit agree- ment or with criticism, is certain to call attention to the history and actual results of alcoholic stimulants wherever there are eyes to see, and reason to understand." The Lancet. " This list of names is very representative," says the Lancet (December 23, 1871). "It is, indeed, so inclusive that a few honoured names which are absent are conspicuous by their absence. * It is so comprehensive that one is sur- prised to miss a particular name that seems necessary to give complete authority to the document." The Pail And this from the Pall Mall Gazette has no uncertain " Although there are those who express indignation at * Apropos of these remarks by the Lancet, it is but fair to recollect that, with the exception of the names of Sir William Gull and Sir William Jenner, it can hardly be said that any conspicuous medical name is absent from this Declaration, and these two physicians were at that time at Sandringham, attending upon the Prince of Wales in his critical illness. THERAPEUTICS; OB, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 191 the assumption that alcohol is ever prescribed inconsider- ately in large quantities, or that sufficient care is not always taken to cut it off at the right moment and to arrest subsequent habits of induced tippling, there are too many well-known examples of habitual evil induced by medical prescription to make us hesitate to accept the Declaration in its eveiy word and in all its meanings." The Declaration read as follows : "As it is believed that the inconsiderate prescription The wording of large quantities of alcoholic liquids by medical men for medical"" 1 their patients has given rise, in many instances, to the Declaration, formation of intemperate habits, the undersigned, while unable to abandon the use of alcohol in the treatment of certain cases of disease, are yet of opinion that no medical practitioner should prescribe it without a sense of grave responsibility. They believe that alcohol, in whatever form, should be prescribed with as much care as any powerful drug, and that the directions for its use should be so framed as not to be interpreted as a sanction for excess, or necessarily for the continuance of its use when the occasion is past. " They are also of opinion that many people immensely exaggerate the value of alcohol as an article of diet, and since no class of men see so much of its ill effects, and possess such power to restrain its abuse, as members of their own profession, they hold that every medical practitioner is bound to exert his utmost influence to inculcate habits of great moderation in the use of alcoholic liquids. " Being also firmly convinced that the great amount of drinking of alcoholic liquors among the working classes of this country is one of the greatest evils of the day, destroy- ing more than anything else the health, happiness, and , welfare of those classes, and neutralizing, to a large extent, j the great industrial prosperity which Providence has placed within the reajjh of this nation, the undersigned would gladly support any wise legislation which would tend to restrict, within proper limits, the use of alcoholic beverages, and gradually introduce habits of temperance." Though couched in terms less complete and uncom- General im- promising than some desired, this document was yet " far dueed'oiuhe in advance of social sentiment and popular practice," and pbiicmind 192 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. by the publi- cation of it. Medical opinions evoked by the publica- tion of the third Decla- ration. Dr. Henry Munroe. it raised such a storm of discussion within the medical profession, and led to such controversy in the daily press, as made it famous almost ere the ink was dry, and the animated dispute of which it was the nucleus did not subside until some of the keenest intellects, ripest ex- periences, and, fortunately, some of the noblest consciences in and outside the medical profession, had wheeled into line and spoken words which advanced the whole temper- ance reform movement in the hearts and conviction of the people, as almost nothing else could have done.* In the great medical meeting in Exeter Hall (January 30, 1872), Dr. Henry Munroe, of Hull, said " Forty years ago we used to bleed or rather, I should say, ' phlebotomize ' every one. I have sat at the table of a hospital forty years ago, and when I have seen prescribed * At about this time there were revivals of the temperance movement in other countries. Some six hundred of the physicians of Holland issued this medical Declaration, even more stringent than the English one : " 1. The moderate use of strong drinks is always unhealthy, even when the body is in healthy condition. It does not do any good to the digestion, but even interferes with that process ; for strong drinks can only temporarily increase the feeling of hnnger, but not in favour of digestion, after which strong reaction must follow, and evils which are usually attributed to other causes, but often result from the habitual use with moderate drinkers. "2. The assertions that intoxicating drinks used moderately are naturally innocent means of cheering up that they are useful iu severe colds or that they are with labouring men equivalents for insufficient nourishment or useful in misty and humid air or for people obliged to work in the water or a protection against con- tagious diseases are without any foundation, and contradictory to experience and to human reason ; and the habitual use of the same has therefore an unhealthy effect, and an influence unlike what people expect from them. "3. The habitual use of strong drinks works most perniciously on all diseases, and especially on consumption. " 4. Kegarded as the usual drink of all classes, they are not only improper on account of the above reasons, but also against moral development and material prosperity, in such measure as to be con- sidered and to be stamped as the greatest underminers of the actual welfare of mankind." In 1872 America manifested her sympathy with the movement, and in May of that year, at the twenty -third annual meeting of the American Medical Association about one thousand members being present a resolution to discourage the use of alcohol iu medical practice was unanimously carried. THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 193 ' blue pill at night, and black draught in the morning,' I have known what was going to be the next question. The next question would be, ' Have you any pain anywhere ? ' And woe to the patient if he said he had, or if even he thought he had. The next line would be certain to be Venesectio ad uncias duodecim ('bleeding to twelve ounces '). I have seen that repeated a dozen times in one morning when I was a pupil, upon all sorts of persons, of all ages, of all sizes, and of both sexes. A reaction took place in the profession. We gave up the lancet, as we found that people living in cities and towns were not always labouring under inflammatory diseases. What we are labouring under now is debility. Everything is debility now. We went to the other extreme therefore brandy became the elixir vitce, the sole panacea for all the ills that flesh is heir to. If a man were in collapse, brandy relieved him ; if in the agony of colic, why, brandy revived him ; if life was burning out in fever, brandy cooled him ; and if he was starved to death, why, brandy warmed him. In fact, brandy was the pet drug of the Pharmacopoeia. Every- thing else dwindled into obscurity. I will give yon some of my reasons for discontinuing the treatment of disease with alcohol. I don't like to talk of myself, but I can tell you that I have had twenty attacks of gout during the last twenty years ; if that doesn't make a man wiser I don't know what will. During the first ten years of this period I had sixteen attacks lasting from seven days to four weeks ; but during the last ten years, since I abandoned the use of alcoholic liquors in any shape whatever, I have only had four attacks, two of them through accidents, and the other two very mild, lasting only a few days. I have tried brandy and water, I have tried beer, and I have tried wine, and the whole category of such things, and I have ascertained how much of each of them it will take to induce an attack, and I have published these experiments in the Medical Journal and need not repeat them to-night. I determined to discontinue the use of such liquors, and have been much more successful in practice ever since. I ceased also to order any more for my patients, and they are better too. In Hull, in the year 1849, we had the cholera very bad indeed. It ravaged amidst us fearfully. Above two thousand persons were buried in our cemetery, THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. victims of this disease. I saw at least one hundred persons a day in that dreadful disease, and most of those who died were from thirty to forty years of age. We tried the brandy-and-opium treatment, and that was a failure. Altogether we lost somewhere about forty or fifty per cent, of the persons attacked by the stimulant treatment and with opium. One medical man thought that the opium with the brandy was not strong enough (something like Mr. Skey), so he ordered that very strong doses of cam- phine mixture should be administered, and he pledged his reputation that this would cure any case of cholera, but I believe it was a failure. The cholera took off nearly all the drunkards. People whom I have seen intoxicated at my surgery in the morning were dead the same night, and buried the next morning. It was a fearful thing. I remember six cases of persons tcho were so obstinate as to refuse to take any doctors' stuff or brandy. I wrapped them up in blankets sprinkled with turpentine and left them. Four out of that six are walking about now. They recovered, but we lost fifty per cent, of the others. Turning to fever I have tried alcohol in fever, and I have treated fever without alcohol ; and my ex- perience is that we lose five per cent, in treating cases of fever without alcohol, and twenty-five per cent, with alcohol. It is the experience of workhouses and hospitals that one patient in ten of those treated with brandy for fever died; but of those treated without brandy only one death in thirty cases occurred. I have treated many cases of delirium tremens, and I have given alcoholic liquors heroically, but had many deaths during that treatment ; but when the patients were isolated and cut off from all spirits and liquors, I have never lost a case. It is a rare thing to lose a man under such treatment. In regard to hemorrhage and violent floodings, I remember a case of this kind in which I had. to sit up the whole night to give brandy, and religiously gave it to the lady, and I have gone home in the morning with the reflection, ' What a wise provision it is that we have such an excellent thing as brandy always at hand ! ' I tried the case next time without brand'y, and the lady sooner got better, and there was no secondary fever, and her remark was, ' I shall never try brandy again.' I could go on multiplying these illustrations, but THERAPEUTICS; OB, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 195 I must not tire you. With regard to the indiscriminate use of alcohol, this ' Declaration ' says, it is ' believed ' it has a tendency to promote the formation of habits of intemperance. It seems singular, but I believe it to be true, and it is a great sorrow to me now to think of, that for twenty years I made many families unhappy. I believe I have made many drunkards, not knowingly, not pur- posely, but I recommended them to drink. It makes my heart ache, even now, to see the mischief that I have made in years gone by, mischief never to be remedied by any act of mine. But in this respect at least I do not sin now, and have not done so for the last ten years. I do not take intoxicating drink myself, and I do not have it in my house, and I do not give it to anybody else." Dr. J. J. Ritchie, of Leek, said (in the same meeting), Dr. j. j. " In my practice I have given no stimulants in fever for Rltchle - years. I have never, so far as I remember, for ten or twelve years, lost a single patient from typhoid fever, and never given a single drop of stimulant therein." The venerable Mr. Jno. Higgin bottom, of Nottingham, Mr in a letter to the Times, dated January 12, 1872, referring botton >- to this Declaration, said " I was educated in the opinion that alcohol was abso- lutely necessary in the treatment of disease, and for the first twenty years of my practice I gave it to my patients, but for the last forty I have discontinued it altogether, not having once prescribed it as a medicine. As early as 1813 I discontinued port wine in typhus fever (the term typhoid was not come into use as a distinction at that early period) , afterwards in English cholera, uterine haemorrhage, delirium tremens, and in cases of exhaustion and sinking. In the year 1827 I had lost all confidence in alcohol as a medicine, from a conviction of its inefficiency, and also from its very dangerous qualities. It is not necessary to enter into the details of my practice, as I have given them to my medical brethren in the Lancet and British Medical Journal. In August, 1862, I had a paper read before the British Medical Association, in London, on the non-alcoholic treatment of disease. "The result of my non-alcoholic treatment is, that acute disease is much more readily cured, and chronic disease more manageable. I have not known of any 196 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. patients having been injured by iny disuse of alcohol. It is equally successful in surgical as in medical practice. No person can form any idea of the superiority of the practice of medicine and surgery when alcohol is removed from it. It is the complete emancipation from the slavery of alcohol, and the practitioner has a freedom he never before experienced." The important initiative, energizing, and effectuating part taken by Mr. Robert Bae in getting this Declaration before the public is eloquently testified to in the address * * " To Robert Eae, Esq., Secretary to the National Temperance League. " DEAR SIR, With feelings of very great pleasure we welcome you, in the name of the Council of the British Medical Temperance Associa- tion, on your return to the shores of old England. " We do this all the more heartily and appropriately because you have always taken such a deep interest in the medical aspect of the great temperance reform, and because, by your intelligent efforts, the medical profession has been largely influenced in favour of total abstinence. " It was at your initiative that the important medical Declaration of 1871 was set on foot, and chiefly through your tact and perse- verance that it was carried to a successful issue. From that time we may date a new departure in the medical treatment of the question, by which it received a mighty impetus. " The very useful and encouraging series of breakfast meetings given annually to the members of the British Medical Association bear testimony to your untiring efforts and organizing skill. "By your energy those great meetings held in the large hall above, and addressed by medical men, were carried to a successful issue, and exercised a marked convincing, converting, and confirm- ing influence. " To you we are indebted for the establishment and able conduct .of the valued Medical Temperance Journal; and, lastly, our Associa- tion itself is under a deep debt of gratitude to you for your kind co-operation from the period of its origin to the present time. " ' There are good works that are evident,' and such are your labours in the temperance cause. We rejoice to see yon again among us, refreshed in body and mind, and trust that you may be spared to see more abundantly the certain fruit of all your efforts to dispel the prrnicious ignorance respecting the action and tendency of alcohol st. '11 so prevalent among all classes of society. (Signed) " BENJAMIN WARD RICHARDSON, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., " President. "JOHN JAMES RIDGE, M.D., B.S., B.A., B.S-.- Lond., " Hon. Sec, " Lower Room, Exeter Hall, 20th October, 1881," THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 197 which was presented to him by the Medical Temperance Association convened in Exeter Hall (October, 1881) in grateful acknowledgment of his vital and continual ser- vices in temperance reform. 56. The publication of the third British medical Declaration was the initiative of a marked departure in medical practice. Dr. Charles Hare, president of the Metropolitan Branch Dr. of the British Medical Association, in an article in the ^ British Medical Journal (July 28, 1883) states the use of " I well remember the time (twenty to twenty-five years ago) when alcohol-giving was so rampant that it was difficult to see a patient who had been a few hours in the hospital before the time of one's visit, who had not already been put, almost as a matter of course, by the physicians or clinical assistant, on three or four ounces of brandy, or on double that amount of wine ; and because I would not give way to that alcohol-craze, and ventured to show that many serious diseases might be cured with the administration of little or no alcohol, I was considered (I well remember) the most unorthodox of teachers, if not something worse than that. Rapid was the increase in the use of alcohol between the years 1852 and 1862, and indeed, in many cases, up to the year 1872 ; and you cannot fail to trace therein the great influence of the teachings and writings of Dr. Todd, and especially of his views on the Treatment of Acute Diseases. Thanks to the careful, prudent, and honest energy of Dr. Parkes,* a change of practice occurred, the consumption of alcohol diminished so much as to show in 1882 a most remarkable reduction in the cost of wine and spirits in all the hospitals (except St. George's) from which I have received returns. * The verdict of Dr. Parkes on the use of alcohol as a medicine is too thorough and conclusive not to be included here also : " If spirits neither give strength to the body nor sustain it against disease are not protective against cold and wet, and aggravate rather than mitigate the effects of heat if their use, even in modera- tion, increases crime, injures discipline, and impairs hope and cheer- fulness ; if the severest trials of war have been not merely borne, but easily borne, most easily borne without them; if there is no evidence that they are protective against malaria or other diseases, then I conceive the medical officer will not be justified in sanctioning their issue under any circumstances." 198 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Former and opinions on the use of alcohol as a medicine. Thus (without making corrections for the somewhat in- creasing number of beds), the cost of wine and spirits consumed every tenth year, from 1852 to 1882, at Guy's, was 496, 1231, 1446, and 953 ; at Middlesex, 215, 550, 413, and 353; at Westminster, 208, 432, 367, and 137. " On the other hand, the use of milk has most rapidly increased in every hospital without exception, and has replaced I believe greatly to the advantage of the patients the alcohol in the treatment of disease. The quantity consumed in 1852 at St. Bartholomew's cost 684, and in 1882, 2012 ; at Guy's, 236 and 1488 respectively ; at the London Hospital, 426 and 2427 ; and so on." 57. But although alcohol has thus rapidly lost ground, and many physicians of repute have dispensed with iti altogether, it is still considered and used as a great | therapeutic agent. Even those who use it most, however, feel called upon to give reasons for their faith ; they must tell how, when, and why they employ it. Formerly alcoholic prescriptions constituted an important and com- plicated chapter in therapeutics, owing to both professional and public ignorance of the nature of alcohol, together with the acceptability of the medicine to the patient, and the convenience of the prescription to the physician. Then it was considered to be of the utmost importance what kinds of wine, spirits, or malt liquors were prescribed, a pre- caution now seen to have been largely based on ignorance. Investigation has proved that in all alcoholic liquors the alcoholic ingredient is essentially the same, viz., ethyl- alcohol. The other ingredients, such as various acids and salts, odoriferous and flavouring ethers in minute quanti- ties, and small portions of undecomposed albuminous particles, are not the ingredients for which alcoholic drinks are prescribed. If these are wanted, chemistry can furnish them without the alcohol ; moreover, they exist in alcoholic drinks in a proportion so minute that, excepting for a small acceleration or retardation of digestion largely dependent upon the proportion of salts medical science has not found any exact therapeutic differences in their uses. But, allowing that the most distinct differences had been proved to exist, owing to the variety of liquors used, it still THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 199 remains an incontestable fact that, even though mysterious seeds of health inhered in special liquor prescriptions, the ripened science of liquor adulteration and its universal practice make it absolutely impossible for a physician to safely prescribe wines or spirits, or malt liquors, unless he can personally supply the same, after having first ascer- tained that they contain exactly what is required. Hence, any medical man \\ho, in prescribing alcohol, does not specify it as alcohol, i.e., so many drops, drachms, or ounces to so much water, is a quack. He orders a thing of which he cannot pre-scribe the effects.* While considering this point of alcoholic prescription it Some points is proper to state that it is the physician's duty when pre- au-oholicf scribing alcohol, just as much as when prescribing any prescriptions other " powerful drug," to use scientific language in the preparations, prescription ; to disguise the taste of it in a compound pre- paration, and to label it as what it is -poison. Ifc seems also proper to mention in this connection that ethyl-alcohol, though a most excellent chemical solvent, can, in most cases, be replaced by glycerine, or if ethyl-alcohol must be used, it can be sufficiently disguised without hurting its solvent powers to prevent its being tempting, f Therapeutically, 1 alcohol is prescribed for both external Theprincipai therapeutic * As a rule, medical men know no more of the value of wine as a medicinal agent than anybody else. ... A glass of sherry is their universal panacea for want of tone in the system ; but sherry may mean anything but the thing it is really called. The Times, Sept., 1865. t Even granting all that its most enthusiastic defenders claim for alcohol as a medicine, and even if the use of alcohol were confined to the prescription of the physician, the medical profession are surely justified in discontinuing its use on the ground of its proven dangerous power to become master of body and mind. As it is when, instead of being confined to the doctor's dose, the habit of alcoholic drink is a universal one, and when doctors them- selves are deprecating its use, and lamenting over its fearful results its medical defenders can hardly escape the imputation of mere pecuniary self-interest ; knowing as they do that alcoholic drinks have produced innumerable drunkards. A German work on Therapeutics (Hamburg, 1883), by the well- known Dr. Harnack, furnishes a discriminating scheme for the use of alcohol as a medicine, which is accepted by a large and eminent portion of German physicians. The digest of his scheme is as follows : 200 THE FOUNDATION OP DEATH. and internal use. Externally, principally as a lotion, its use is, of course, less injurious. It has been found a most efficient means of destroying vermin in the hair, to be a good lotion for irritable ulcers, and to have a cooling effect when applied immediately to wounds made by amputation. Internally it is used in manifold ways : 1. As a stimulant. 2. As a narcotic. 3. As an antispasmodic. 4. As an antiseptic and antipyretic. ABU stimn- That alcohol never is a stimulant, was clearly shown in chapter v., and therefore, when used as a stimulant, it must of course be wrongly used. It is a narcotic, and, like most narcotics, when taken in small doses, it is a pseudo-stimulant. The system dislikes and resists being put in chains, as much as a man would do ; if the chains are too heavy, as in the case of a large dose of narcotica, the system must temporarily submit, the struggle being useless; but when the fetters are comparatively light, it at once musters its reserve forces to throw them off. And this activity, together with the feelings of relief (the nerves having been dulled in the very attack), are 1. Calefacientia (heat-makers), or means for transforming living force into heat; or economization of the heat already generated. Among these he counts turpentines, camphors, ammonia, etc., but not alcohol. 2. Antipyretica (fever-allayers) . Among which quinine, veratrin, carbonic acid, and alcohol. 3. Excitantia (nerve-irritants). Here we find alcohol first in the list, then camphors, ethers, oils, etc. 4. Intoxicants. Ethers and alcohols. 5. Ancesthetica (temporary nerve-benumbers). Chloroform, ether, bat not alcohol. 6. Hypnotica (sleep-givers). Opium, morphia, herba, cannabis, not alcohol. 7. Anodynes (pain- soothers). Opium, morphia, chloral, not alcohol. 8. Sedatives (nerve-quieters) . Opium, chloral, not alcohol. 9. Tetanica (motor-stimulants). Strychnia, not alcohol. 10. Tonics (strength-givers). Quinine, iron, strychnia, not alcohol. 11. Anti.SpasmoMcs (cramp-qnellers). Chloral, chloroform, mor- phia, opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus, etc., not alcohol. Thus he limits alcohol as a medicine to its uses in allaying fevers, and as a nerve -irritant and intoxicant. THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 201 misunderstood, are supposed to be benefits, when in reality they are signs of paralysis, and the results of the system's struggle to defeat its foe. In cases where an artificial stimulant is useful, Dr. SymesThompson recommends the following prescription: " Quassia chips, a quarter of an ounce ; cold water, a pint. After standing for half an hour, strain ; the infusion is then ready for use, and may be taken, a wineglassfnl at a time, alone, or mixed with a teaspoonful or two of ' malt extract.' " Considered in its true character, as a narcotic, the As a power of alcohol to deaden pain* is unquestionable. In narcotlc> colic, for instance, a draught of hot water with alcohol no doubt relieves the pain, but it accomplishes this by deadening the nerves. It provokes a more copious flow of the gastric juice, with the immediate effect of facilitating the interrupted digestion. Still, we have even the word of Drs. Todd and Bowman, in their Physiological Anatomy (vol. ii. p. 210), that alcohol " retards digestion by coagu- lating the pepsine, and thus interfering with its action, 1 ' so that the supposed good is largely neutralized. If the hot water, instead of being mixed with alcohol, is flavoured with peppermint, ginger, etc., the water will dilute the irritating contents of the stomach ; the heat of the draught will soothe the irritated nerves, and the ginger, peppermint, and other carminatives will aid the muscular wall of the intestines to expel the gas and irritating contents. If this does not suffice, an emetic to free the stomach from irritating ingesta, a purgative to clear the intestines of crude or irritating substances, and a corrective, such as simple chalk mixture, to neutralize soured and fermenting foods, will effectually assist Nature without injuring her. In obstetric cases, dosing with alcohol is often resorted \/v to for lessening the suffering with which child-birth is attended; and upon the field of battle, when chloroform or ether are not at* hand, a large dose of alcohol may there is in the conversion of the natural forces of motion into heat, etc., may not be unworthy of the consideration of scientists. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. "1 ~ improve an efficient anaesthetic for a patient during an amputation. As a narcotic alcohol is an arrester of vital action, and I primarily of nerve sensibility ; and this effect can certainly be obtained by means of ether, chloroform, opium, and other well-known drugs. AS an anti- As an antispasmodic, alcohol may, because of its narcotic gpasmodic. ac ti O n, be at times found useful when other means are not at hand. Dr.Edmunds In AlcoTiol as a Medicine (Manchester, 1867), Dr. James ont ispoint. ^dmunds says, "In the case of a child cutting its teeth, there is a nervous irritation which throws the whole body out of gear, and the respiratory muscles become locked, as it were, by the violence of the spasm of an attack of con- vulsions. Here the patient may be killed by momentary suffocation, through the very energy with which certain parts of the body act, just as a machine may become ' locked, ' and in order to put it right you have to turn the steam off. Under such circumstances alcohol sometimes proves useful as a paralyzer and blunter of those extreme sensibilities which evoke convulsive attacks." In cases of emergency, such as larjngismus (spasmodic croup) or convulsions, a small dose of spirit may be used with good effect ; but such cases are exceptional, and should be in the charge of skilled physicians. Certainly in all ordinary cases of "spasm," " flatulency," etc., the draught of hot water flavoured with ginger, peppermint, etc., or, at times, with a teaspoonful of sal-volatile, is a safer and better remedy. AS an anti- The use of alcohol internally as an antiseptic and septic and' antipyretic has been its best and longest defended strong- hold, garrisoned still by discriminating physicians. We will treat of these two uses in connection, as they are often combined. As we saw in chapter v., alcohol has the general effect on the system of congesting the blood in the utter- most capillaries, whose contractive powers it paralyzes. The blood, charged with alcohol, goes to and remains especially in that vast area of minute blood-vessels which penetrate the most delicate parts of the organism, the verj parts most endangered by the ravages of exhausting fevers, and as alcohol is so powerful an antiseptic, it has been THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 203 deemed a most useful agent in arresting the waste of tissue. Even were it so, it must not be forgotten that in this very antiseptic process, i.e., in the tendency of the albumen to coagulate and the retarding of the transformation of the hydro-carbons, alcohol does a vast amount of harm ; it impoverishes and degenerates the blood by depleting the blood-corpuscles and by occupying, poisoning, and wasting the water in the blood and tissues ; the degree of harm done, as well as the extent of tissue-preservation, being equally dependent upon the quantity and the degree of saturation of the alcohol used. And in addition to all this is the extra labour de- manded of the entire machinery of the body in order to expel alcohol and minimize the injuries done by it. Then there is always the danger that the use of alcohol as a medicine will lead to the evil habit of using it as a In the measure that alcohol preserves sick tissues from dangerously rapid waste, must it check the natural processes of nutrition, and at the same time compel the whole system to muster its last forces to cope, not with its disease, but with its arch-foe alcohol. Dr. Solomon C. Smith, in a paper upon Antiseptic In- ^.^j ^ halations (British Medical Journal, February 23, 1884), says the compara- of antiseptics, " The term antiseptic, in fact, presupposes the le^e^Jf" existence of some such septic processes as we now know to antiseptics, be caused by bacterial growth. It has long been thought possible, by inhalations of creasote,to limit decomposition in the expectoration ; but, now that the investigations of many observers have shown the constant presence of certain bacteria in phthisical disease, the hope is that not only may antiseptic inhalations control septic processes in dead secretions, but that they may be destructive to those micro-organisms which are at the root of tubercular disease in living structures. To kill bacteria is one thing, to kill germs is quite another^. It has been proved that they can stand a short boiling, that they can be floated in air- bubbles through strong vitriol, that they can be washed with carbolic solution of any strength short of five per cent., without being killed, or losing their power of self- multiplication. Is it likely, then, that any vapour which 20-4 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. could possibly be inhaled would be capable of destroying organisms which are so retentive of their vitality ? I think it is quite obvious that all evidence shows that it is impossible, either to keep germs out of the body, or by antiseptics to kill them. What else, then, can inhalations do?" Notwithstanding earnest protests against the use of alcohol in typhus and in typhoid fevers, it has been a general practice. Now that it begins to look as if alcohol should be routed even from this stronghold, a glance at some of the landmarks in this struggle is interesting. The Rev. Dr. The Rev. Dr. Hancock, of London, in his Febrifiigum water^reaT- Mag nwn ( i720 )> exalts the use of water in fevers, and his ment in ideas are further elaborated by Dr. Robert Jackson, in his ver9> Exposition of the Practice of Aff using Cold Water on the Surface of the Body, as a Remedy for the Cure of Fever (Edinburgh, 1808). Dr. Billing Dr. Billing, who introduced clinical lectures, spoke treatment in s * ron ob" * tne point in his First Principles (1839), in these typhus fever. WOl'ds : "In typhus we should avoid stimulants as much as possible, inasmuch as the nervous centres being in a state of congestion, NEITHER THEY NOR OTHER ORGANS HAVE THEIR POWER INCREASED BY THEM ; whereas by indirect (sedative) practice, we relieve the organs, and give them an opportunity of recovering themselves. A One thing necessaiy to the recovery of the nervous system is arterial blood : to produce this of a good quality, digestion and free respiration [food and fresh air] are requisite. It is useless to supply other than fluid nutri- ment. I have found milk the best until some renewal of the nervous energy takes place. The restoration will not be expedited by stimulants. Experience teaches that stimulation, except during inanition, only oppresses." And Dr. Thomas Beaumont, of Bradford, said, in a Beaumont on paper read before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh the same. (April 7, 1843) " In my own experience, which has extended over nearly thirty years, I have almost invariably rejected the use of wine in the treatment of fever ; for early in my professional life I was engaged in a close attendance of some months on a class of patients, most of whom could THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 205 not afford to procure wine, in the populous village of Guiseley, where typhus ranged from the ordinary form of continued fever, down to the worst kind of typhus gravior. The number of cases, and the severity of the symptoms, were truly frightful. I made ' a virtue of necessity,' and, contrary to my professional prejudices, proceeded in almost every case without a drop of wine. The result proved most propitious, the rate of mortality being lower than I ever remember in an equal number of cases. From that period I have regarded the use of stimulants in fever, and especially of alcoholic stimulants, with considerable dis- trust. If, indeed, the effect of alcohol be to carbonize the blood and of this there can be no reasonable doubt then its influence must be analogous to that of fever itself. The truth is, alcohol is a treacherous stimulant, and though it may rouse the depressed powers for a time, is invariably followed by a corresponding collapse." In the discussions which have recently taken place before the Medical Society of London, upon the cold- bath treatment in typhoid fever, the general character of the evidence given against antipyretic treatment with drugs, and especially alcohol, was conclusive. Dr. William Cayley Dr. Cayley furnished some remarkable data, stating that " during f coU^ath 8 seven years (1868-1874) the rate of mortality in the treatment Prussian army from typhoid fever was fifteen per cent. feve^in 01 an extremely favourable rate, which spoke much for the G( efficiency of the medical department. The antipyretic treatment, chiefly in the form of cold bathing, was then introduced, and during the next seven years (1875-1881) the rate was 9*7 per cent. Here a comparison of exactly similar instances was made. The men in the two cases were of the same age, of the same social position, fed in the same manner, clothed in the same manner, lodged in the same manner, and, in all respects, placed under the same conditions ; the only difference being in the mode of treatment. But, as German statistics on this question were perhaps regarded as suspect, an appeal might be made to French authorities, and here Professor Jaccoud might be cited; and perhaps his authority would have more weight with many, inasmuch as he was decidedly opposed to Brandt's method, but without having given it a fair trial. He stated, in the debate on this subject at 206 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Dr. A. T. mortality (i8"-i883) alcoholic treatment, the Academy of Medicine last year, that, after a careful collection of more than eighty thousand cases, he found that the average rate of mortality in typhoid fever in France, under the old methods of treatment, was about nineteen per cent. ; whereas, under the new method, it was below eleven per cent. It was now necessary to inquire what was this new method which had effected this great reduction in the rate of mortality. Professor Jaccoud had his patients sponged with cold vinegar and water, if neces- sary, as many as ten times in the twenty- four hours, which he termed giving them a seance ; and also administered, from time to time, large doses of quinine or of salicylate of soda. Now, whether a patient was sponged ten times a day with cold vinegar and water, or had an occasional cold bath, was a question, not of principle, but of detail. In either case, the same end namely, the persistent reduction of tempei'ature would be affected. It need hardly be said that the antipyretic treatment was not bound up with the system of cold bathing, or of any particular method of reducing temperature. Cold bathing was, perhaps, the most efficient mode, and the one most generally applicable, and which, on the whole, caused least annoyance to the patient; but a large number of cases were not suitable for it, and for these other means must be adopted. Dr. Cayley stated that, in his opinion, keeping the temperature down by the abstraction of heat gave much better results than the repeated administration of large doses of the antipyretic drugs, as these powerful remedies could not be given in these large and frequently repeated doses without incurring the risk of seriously disturbing important functions. In his opinion, therefore, they should be regarded as adjuncts to the other anti- pyretic methods, and not as substitutes." It was shown that the totality of deaths when alcohol was nse( * was decidedly greater than when it was not. Dr. A. T. Myers stated that from a collection of reports in tne Medical Register of St. George's Hospital during the last seven years (i.e., 1877-1883) it was found that in a series of 281 cases, all excepting 13 per cent, having keen Seated exclusively by "expectancy and alcohol," the number of deaths had been 69, that is, a death-rate of 24 per cent. THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 207 The British Medical Journal (March 1, 1884), in summing up the outcome of these important discussions, says "Dr. Coupland, in his elaborate and able paper, Summary of rightly says that cold bathing is the only measure which treatment" has succeeded, and he might have said on several occa- ^rfthe 8 ' sions, in saving life threatened by hyperpyrexia, and no London e one would dispute its efficacy as a last resort in such loctety urgent cases. But it is the employment of the bath to British. control the whole course of the fever that he discusses in his paper. The conclusion at which he arrives is one in common with Brandt, Jiirgensen, Liebermeister, Cayley, and others, that the mean mortality of London from enteric fever treated all round is fifteen to eighteen per cent. ; while the mortality from cases treated by the cold bath would appear to be from ten to seven per cent. This is so material a reduction that, if the facts are to be relied upon and we think they are sufficient for the purpose it ' should ensure for this treatment a much more extended sphere of application than it has hitherto obtained. It is admitted on all hands that the reduction of temperature by bathing is more decided and more persistent than by any other means ; but, at the same time, we cannot think ; that the ingenuity of the mechanical mind has exhausted ; itself in its present measure of applying cold to the surface of the body. It would hardly be an insuperable difficulty to apply continuous cold to the surface, either dry or moist, equivalent to that of the bath ; and it is quite possible that in the ice-pack and the water-bed, or some , modification of it, the advantages might be obtained with- out the necessity of taking the patient from his bed." * It is a happy augury for the future that the founder of a new school of medicine (the Dosimetric), Dr. Ad. Burggraeve, in his Handbook of Dosimetric Therapeutics * The Medical Times (March 8, 1884) half grudgingly admits that the cold bath (sponging or wet pack) is superseding the drug treatment in Germany. It says, " The bath treatment of enteric fever, which, if not absolutely originated, was at least brought into prominent notice for the first time in Germany, has lately been the subject of discussion at the Medical Society of Leipsic. No over- whelming consensus of opinion was brought to light as to the universal value of the treatment, although its acceptance would appear to be general." 208 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. (Ghent, 1876), does not even mention alcohol. For typhoid fever he prescribes Seidlitz salt, phosphoric acid, aconite, veratrine, etc. " The body must frequently be sponged," he says, "with cold water or solution of salicylic acid. In cases of high pyrexia the cold bath may be necessary." Thus, in its very citadel, as a therapeutic agent, alcohol is found to be very inferior in value to other and innocent remedies. History and 58. A foundation for hoping that the use of alcohol, the^ondon even as a medicine, will ultimately be abolished, was laid Hospital" 10 * ten y ears a g i n * ne erection of the London Temperance Hospital. The 6rst steps toward the establishment of this institu- tion may be said to have been caused by the success of Dr. s.Nicoiis' non-alcoholic treatment of disease by Dr. S. Nicolls, the " medical officer of the Longford Poor Law Union, during sixteen y ears (tin 1865 >- In his " Report " for the year ending 29th September, 1865, he gives these figures : Fever Admitted 142 Recovered 135 Died 7 Scarlatina 33 30 3 Small-pox 48 47 1 Measles 8 8 Cases 231 Recoveries 220 Deaths 11 " The treatment is altogether without alcohol in any form ; and the success will be seen to be the more conclusive when the particulars of the fatal cases are perused : " Of the deaths in the fever wards, one was a boy aged ten years, whose fever became complicated with pneumonia, of which he died ; two were members of the constabulary force from a neighbouring Union, conveyed considerable distances (I consider the journey acted unfavourably) ; four were women, one of whom was deserted by her husband, leaving six helpless children with her ; one was a wandering mendicant brought in from the gripe of a ditch in a hopeless condition ; another was an unfortunate, whose constitution hrd been broken down by intemperance; the fourth was a young woman who was recovering from scarlatina when she was attacked with typhus. Of the other four deaths, one was a case of confluent purple-pock, THERAPEUTICS, OK, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 209 in a boy eight years old; three were from scarlatina, occurring with very delicate children, not two years old. The fever was, I dare say, of as bad a character as in the other parts of Ireland. In many instances entire families were brought in in a very bad condition. I still continue the treatment which for sixteen years I have found so successful " In 1867 Dr. James Edmunds, senior physician at the The origin, British Lying-in Hospital, London, proposed a similar and'work'of experiment at that institution. It worked for one year T e e m lx "^nc with results of a reduced death-rate among both mothers Hospital. and live-born children. But opposition, chiefly by sub- scribers interested in the liquor trade, became so great as to render continuance of this effort impracticable. About two years later, however, a meeting, consisting practically of those who had been thus handicapped at the British Lying-in Hospital, was held at the National Temperance League Rooms, and a committee was formed to further the establishment in London of a General Temperance Hospital. A temporary hospital was begun at 112, Gower Street, which had only sixteen beds, but such success was the result, that a fine freehold site was subsequently taken in Hampstead Road, and one block, containing fifty-two beds, was erected. An aged gentleman who has been deeply impressed with the results of its work, and is anxious to see the hospital completed before his death, has placed some 10,000 at the disposal of the Board, and a second wing is now being erected (April, 1884). These blocks will raise the number of beds to about one hundred and twenty, while a large outdoor department will be in operation. The plan includes also a school and institute for temper- ance nurses, and a full medical school for medical practi- tioners, for which adjoining portions of land are obtainable. The Board of Management in its report, May, 1883, proved this experiment to have been a success. " At the present time," says this report, " not only are men of distinction ready to admit the value of the principle, with few limitations, but the medical officers of various public institutions are applying it more or less completely, and with a success which insures its widening adoption. . . . The practical conclusion points to such a generous support 210 THE FOUNDATION Of DEATH. of the Temperance Hospital, and such completion of its scheme, as will keep its work prominently before the public eye, and will lend the weight of its experience and authority to a more general exclusion of alcohol from the medical treatment of the sick." The eleventh annual report of the London Temperance Hospital gives its data to April 30, 1884. The following summary of the results of the indoor cases treated during the ten and a half years certainly compares favourably with the reports issued by other metropolitan hospitals where alcohol is still very freely used : IN-PATIENTS. Total number admitted ... ... ... 2278 Cured ... ... ... ... ... 1272 Eelieved ... ... ... ... ... 850 Died 113 Still under treatment ... ... ... 43 It thus appears that during the ten and a half years ending April 30, 1884, the number of patients admitted to the beds of the hospital was 2278. If we deduct the 43 still under treatment in the hospital, there will remain 2235 completed cases. Among these the 113 deaths make a mortality of 5'05 per cent, for the ten and a half years. The mortality up to April 30, 1883, was a little less than 4'5 per cent., and, therefore, the mortality of the last year has been higher than the previous average owing chiefly to the greater mortality among the surgical cases of the year. Of course fluctuations in the death-rate must be expected, but the mortality of 5'05 per cent, is still an extremely low mortality for a metropolitan hospital. The cases include successful operations of Caesarian section, ovariotomy, lithotomy, amputations of thigh, etc., removal of large cancerous tumours, and all the ordinary medical and surgical cases which come under treatment in a London general hospital. Part of this success is due to the dis- tinction of its medical staff, to the model character of the hospital, and to the devoted ladies who superintend the nursing. But a large part of the success is undoubtedly due to the fact that alcohol is practically disused. The visiting physicians and surgeons are in no way tied with regard to the use of alcohol, if they deem it desirable to THERAPEUTICS; oft, ALCOHOL As A MEDICINE. 2ll use ifc as a medicine. It is only stipulated that in the event of any such exceptional case, they fully report the matter to the Board. As a matter of fact, alcohol has only been used in one or two experimental cases, during these ten years, and in these cases without beneficial results. As an article of food and as a pharmaceutical vehicle, the use of alcohol is formally excluded from the hospital. The table of all the cases of typhoid fever treated in the beds of the London Temperance Hospital to April 30, 1884, given in extenso pp. 212-215, shows six deaths among a total of 53 cases. All these cases have been treated without alcohol in any form. Twenty of the patients were registered as abstainers and 33 as non-abstainers. Of the six patients who died five were registered as non-abstainers and one as " abstainer six months." The mortality, there- fore, has been almost entirely among the non-abstainers. From March 25, 1875, to April 30, 1884, there were ad- mitted under the care of Dr. Edmunds 401 surgical cases of such severity as to require treatment in the beds of the hospital. In no one of these cases did Dr. Edmunds administer alcohol in' any form. In these 401 surgical cases there were eight deaths, a mortality of two per cent. ; 103 major operations were required and only three deaths occurred, a death-rate which is probably unrivalled for its lightness among such a series of hospital cases. 212 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Remarks. (Alcohol has not been used in any case.) Usual course of symptoms. Excellent recovery. Severe case. Complicated with broncho-pneumonia. In very critical state when admitted. Temperature 104. 1 Admitted In extremely pro- strate state. Symptoms in- dicative of severe typhoid. Serious congestion of both lungs. Suvere Intestinal hsemorrhage. Purulent stools. Fourteen evacu- ations during one night. Recovery rupld and com- plete. Severe case. Complicated with pneumonia. Extreme prostration. Bowels moved seventeen and eiKhteen times a day. Homiorrhaire from bowels. Highest temperature 104 0i 2. i Complicated with pneumonia. ! Recovered i s = t it 27th Nov., Ijljl|l S 1 i{i Mi g^S" 1 " S 19th March, 00 S*00 S.gS 23rd Aug., 1880 IT Physician In charge. fi 1 i 3 ''* Dr. Kdmunds s 1 '-; ~\ 3 1 e a = i< 1 Abstainer 6 years Non-abstainer Abstainer 3 years Abstainer 10 years Non-abstainer t Abstainer 8 months Abstainer 12 years i year Non-abstainer * Painter l! Laundry- maid At home f j 11 | 1 i I i si (ienerul ser- vant I 1 | ^ fa fc S fa fa s aJ S ri si h ~ 1 I S S 2 Ci -f S n T. 2 2 s 1 "5 ri ^ m < ^ < 5 < ^ ri u S " ^ .S <~ 5 a Date of admission. ji! if! S4 { l|l i 1 2nd Aug., 1880 11^ 25S2SSS Ssls li 00 0> = = 2 S THERAl'EUTICS ; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 213 -4SS llfiliii; I HiUilH i HSfililiilliill 1 1 <; -1 S * S ; C ililiM'iii S g S' s s | -3 I * r i t S C S "S * * I 1 I Si S 3 5 .S 3 g| | | ||l | | s t. * I , a = ^ a - s * I II 1 S S S fa s s fa fa fa C4 i-i O i s ^ oK^^o a w W l "9feW'^ ^ -^ U fc^^g^JQ^^g I I to tf - pq HJ d Jllill fill llflfl 2 i I S I I i i !~ THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. " 215 * i 1 = 1 si2 f > 2 IS B! es o ~ Sr 5 *- 1 5 ^ o 11 ^i c = 111 HI J3 Q e3 B d ^ fa O p-i 216 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Dr. It will be seen that the mortality of this long series of ^atement' 8 cases ^ Vei 7 mucn less than usual. As to his own regarding methods of treatment, Dr. Edmunds writes : of the non-* 1 " 1- I have prescribed no alcohol, and I have a strong alcoholic conviction that in typhoid fever, as a general rule, alcohol thI a London n is not only not necessary, but that it is actually injurious. ^mperance n & effect, when given in large doses, of lowering the temperature is obtained more safely and more easily by tepid sponging, the wet pack, simple diaphoretics such as the acetate of ammonia, moderate dcses of citrate of potash. On the other hand, reduction of temperature, when obtained by the large doses of alcohol which are necessary, is followed by increased distaste for food, less perfect digestion, and greater intestinal suffering. The use of alcohol, also, in my opinion, predisposes to the occurrence both of intestinal haemorrhage and of that fatal complication perforation of the intestine. " 2. I never feed my patients ' solely with cold milk.' I always use more or less of well-boiled gruel, made from fine clean oatmeal ; and, generally, I use a mixture of two parts of thin gruel and one part of fresh new milk ; the milk being added direct to the gruel as soon as this is completely cooked, and thus becoming scalded but not boiled. " 3. In cases of haemorrhage from the intestine, I never select lead, but always turpentine, in thirty-drop doses given upon loaf sugar, or shaken up in milk, and repeated every few hours. " 4. In troublesome diarrhoea I give opium only as an exceptional remedy. Covering the abdomen with a hot wet flannel and waterproof covering seems to me to relieve the pain and tenderness better than the administration of opium. " 5. I always prescribe some daily dose of fresh fruit, such as grape- juice, or fresh lemon- juice in sweetened barley-water as a drink to be taken at the patient's dis- cretion. Some such fresh vegetable element is much longed for by the fever patient, and can generally be w administered as not to increase the diarrhoea. The haemorrhage, which so frequently occurs in typhoid, I believe to be often due to having overlooked this necessity for fresh vegetable juices. In all long illnesses, if fresh THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 217 vegetable juices are not regularly administered, there arises a purpurous. tendency which predisposes to irrepressible haemorrhage, and to extension of ulceration. " No alcohol has been administered, either dietetically, pharmaceutically, or medicinally, in any one of the cases of typhoid fever admitted to the Temperance Hospital, and my medical colleagues and myself are perfectly satisfied with our results." * 59. A consideration of paramount importance in con- The effects nection with the question of alcohol as a medicine, is that alcohol on of its effects on mothers and their offspring during preg- {^ off_ and nancy and lactation. For England, indeed, it is a question spring a of the gravest moment to her future independence. Owing ^amount chiefly to the fatal " Grocers' Licences Act," there is pro- importance, bably more drinking among the women of England to-day than among the women of any other civilized country. With the growth of this evil in secret, until its dimensions have stripped it of secresy, there has grown up a notion foster- ing the evil, and in turn fostered by it, that intoxicating liquors are especially beneficial to women during pregnancy and lactation; and we wish, therefore, in this chapter to draw particular attention to this part of the subject. In chapter viii. it was pointed out that certain and terrible consequences befell the children and children's children of transgressing parents, and that the shocking results of alcoholic heredity were doubly certain when the mother was the drinker. But as nothing can be of more importance than the proper beginning of life, and as it is proven that nothing artificial does it greater general harm than alcohol, we L/uote here important medical testimony on this point dating from the opening of the present century. Dr. Thomas Trotter, in his Essay on Drunkenness Dr. Thomas (London, 1804), says, " Drink containing ardent spirits, such as wine, punch, caudle, ale, porter, must impregnate the milk, and thus the digestive organs of the babe must be quickly injured. These must suffer in proportion to * "At a meeting of the Manchester and Salford Temperance Union, Dr. Meacham said he was medical officer of health for the largest district in England, and no fewer than 49,000 patients had been under his care. For fourteen years he had not prescribed alcohol." Temperance Review, March 6, 1884. 218 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the delicacy of their texture, and the diseases which flow from this source are certainly not uncommon ... it is well known that nurses are in the practice of giving spirits in the form of punch to young children to make them sleep. . . . Such children are known to be dull, drowsy, and stupid, bloated in the countenance, with eyes inflamed, subject to sickness at stomach, costive and pot-bellied. The body is often covered with eruptions, and slight scratches are disposed to ulcerate." Sir Anthony In 1814 Sir Anthony Carlisle said, " Of all errors in ti same n * ne employment of fermented liquors, that of giving them to children seems to be fraught with the worst consequences. The next in the order of mischief is their employment by nurses, and which I suspect to be a common occasion of dropsy of the brain in young infants. I doubt much whether the future moral habits, the temper and intel- lectual propensities, are not greatly influenced by the early effects of fermented liquors upon the brain and sensorial organs." Dr. Riischon In The Abuse of Intoxicating Liquors (Tubingen, 1839), alcohol 18 f Dr. Rosch, after condemning the custom of giving wine during to women in childbirth, says, " Many diseases of children ctation. Qwe tjjgjj, or jgi n t o the mother's use of spirituous liquors while nursing." Dr. Grindrod Dr. Grindrod (Bacchus, London, 1839) says nine, n Alcoholic liquors propel the organs of nutrition and lactation to increased action, but it is an action unnatural and injurious in its effects. The organs employed in these important functions are regulated by laws on the due performance of which depends the fulfilment of Nature's intentions. Thus, for example, nutritious food forms the only natural stimulant for the healthy action of the stomach, and is the sole fountain of pure blood. Pure milk, which is essential to the health of the child, depends upon proper digestion. If the functions of the stomach act imperfectly, the secretion of milk must, as a necessary consequence, be defective. Hence whatever deranges the functions of the stomach interferes with the healthy lactation. The influence of alcoholic liquors on lactation may be considered in several points of view. In the first place they interfere with healthy digestion. In this way the Duality of the milk secreted becomes deteriorated in THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 219 exact proportion to the amount of injury inflicted on the organs of nutrition. In the second place they influence the quantity of the secretion. The vessels employed in this function, urged on by an alien impulse, produce an unusual and enlarged supply. It does not follow, however, that an increase in the amount of secretion is attended with a proportionate increase in the quantum of nutriment. The contrary is often the case. Milk may be secreted in large quantities ill calculated to supply the ends of nature. Hence numbers of puny emaciated children, the offspring of parents who indulge in strong drink." In his lectures on The Physiological Operation of Alcohol &? E - G - (1862), Dr. E. G. Figg, in speaking of the infant before fS birth and during lactation, says, "No one conversant j^diin~ with the principle of foetal nutrition will feel disposed to pregnancy controvert the opinion that the placenta is not only a lung andlactatlon - to the unborn infant, but a digestive system, performing the duty of the latter, by assuming at once the office of the stomach, an excreting intestine, a mesenteric gland, and an assimilative organ. Independently of imparting oxygen to the fcetal blood in minute quantities, not adequate to its perfect arterialization, and taking up sustenance for it, the placenta removes impurities returned from the fcetal body ; not as the stomach does in the un- digested material, nor as chyle, like the thoracic duct, but in the maturely elaborated substance, transferred by exosmose in a manner incomprehensible, inasmuch as the membranous parieties of the placental cells appear to the microscope impermeable to matter in a form so gross as atoms of fibrine. "Whatever doubt may exist as to the modus operandi, there is none whatever as to the fact ; of which any one may convince himself by examination of the surface of every third or fourth placenta delivered, which will be found coated with ossific deposits of carbonate and phos- phate of lime, which substances being in the fcetal depart- ment of that organ, could have reached it only through the maternal cell-walls. The cows in the cotton districts of England, when fed on the refuse of madder and other vegetable dye stuffs, invariably stain the bones of the calf ante partum. Experience, however, does not favour the idea that the placenta exercises a selective discretion in 220 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. appropriating that which may be ultimately available in the infant frame, for the placenta receives and circulates any poison or virus that may be presented in the maternal system. An infant in utero is often affected with variola, contemporaneously or immediately consecutive to the course of the disease in the mother. I have attended a patient in Asiatic cholera, and a week later delivered her of a dead fcetus, in which the characteristic slate colour infallibly indicated the cause of dissolution. " These facts, even in a theoretical aspect, are quite sufficient to establish the rationality of the proposition that the alcohol swallowed by the pregnant mother must act injuriously on the child, not merely indirectly, by rendering the material transferred through the placenta unfit for incorporation with the fcetal tissues, but directly, by affecting the nervous system of the fcetus, just as it does that of the mother. " I may, in addition, appeal to the stethoscopic exami- nation of two pregnant women. During the progress of intoxication, though of course not synchronous, I found that whenever the mother's pulse was excited, so was the infant's heart. When the pulse of the parent, in a more advanced stage, became fall and round, the beat of the heart in the child assumed a similar character : and when feeble and compressible in collapse, the heart of the fcetus was scarcely audible. What inference could be drawn from the circumstances, but that when the mother got drunk, the child got drunk ; when the mother became insensible, the child became insensible ; and when the mother was collapsed, the child was so also ? Every midwife is acquainted with the effect produced on the majority of healthy fceti, if the cold hand be suddenly placed over the maternal hypogastric region. The infant, influenced by a kind of instinctive con- sciousness, springs from its position, imparting a sensible impulse to the practitioner's hand through the uterine parieties and intervening muscles, thus yielding as good a test of the viable condition of the child as the stethoscope could give. In one of the women I never could excite these movements during her drinking fits, though in the other eminently present in the incipient stage of intoxica- tion, but not producible after. I attended another, who THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 221 dated the death of her infant from an act of excess. The child never moved subsequently to her intoxication, and the premonitory symptoms of labour occurred in eight days. " In nursing mothers we have the same routine of mani- festations, with a very slight variation in the preliminary circumstances. The breast here supersedes the placenta as the paramount organ in Nature's regards. The nutritious extracts from the food replenish in the first instance this repository of the infant's support, the maternal economy (at this crisis a less important consideration) receiving only the surplus contributions from the digestive system. So thoroughly insufficient is the mother's alcoholized system for the double task of maintaining herself and progeny, that we are warranted in placing the prosperity of the infant in juxtaposition with that of the parent. If the child becomes robust the mother becomes emaciated ; vice versa, a robust, plethoric mother almost always insures a cadaverous, debilitated infant. In asserting that the essence of the food passes at once to the breast, without adoption by the maternal tissues, I advance a theory con- sistent with all analogy. If a cow be fed on turnips, she imparts the peculiar odour of that vegetable to her milk. The action of a drastic purgative taken by the mother is established in the infant at the breast. Through the same medium the dysentery in the mother is transferred to her child, commencing in aphthous ulceration of the mouth, extending by continuity through the whole in- testinal canal, and resulting in the characteristic dis- charges. So I have seen the disease arrested in both by the astringent principle of the opiates administered to the parent, acting simultaneously and keeping the infant in a somnolent condition. In this country, among the lower classes, a glass of spirit taken by the mother is a popular and often effectual remedy for the tormina (gripes, colic) of an infant. .We can guess at the quantity which finds its way to the breasts by the effect. If the child be fed from a cup, a large teaspoonful of spirit is often added to a single meal, even when the recipient is not more than a week old, that quantity being barely sufficient for the purpose. This fact affords at least an approximate standard for calculation as to the proportion of alcohol 222 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. in each glass of spirit which reached the infant after con- sumption by the mother; and is, therefore, an excellent rnle for ascertaining the quantity passed through the infant's system when the mother is habitually dissipated, or perhaps erroneously attempts to relieve the mental depression or corporeal exhaustion incidental to lactation by an occasional glass. My acknowledgments are due to Dr. Mackenzie, for his kindness in analyzing to the best of his ability two specimens of milk sent by me for that purpose, which were obtained from nursing mothers, of nearly the same age, of the same social rank, and three months after parturition. One was a temperate woman in robust health, and substantially fed, whose milk con- stituted the only sustenance of her child. The other was an emaciated drinker whose infant presented a miniature of herself. Milk of temperate mother. Milk of drinking mother. Salts 8-50 Salts 5'50 2-0 6-5 84-0 2-0 3-0 Casein Oil 7-50 Oil Water 81-0 Water Alcohol 100-0 Dr. E. Smith In his Practical Dietary (London, 1865), Dr. Edward ofakohof Smith gives like testimony in these words : "Alcohols during lacta- are largely used by many persons in the belief that they support the system and maintain the supply of milk for the infant ; but I am convinced that this is a serious error, and is not an unfrequent cause of fits and emaciation in the child." jjj^] 8 In his paper on Alcoholic Drinks as an Article of Diet the'dtet for" for Nursing Mothers (Medical Temperance Journal, July, mother! 1870), Dr. Edmunds, then senior physician to the British Lying-in Hospital, thus puts this matter : " The masti- cation, digestion, and primaiy assimilation of the sucking infant's food is thrown npon the mother's organs ; but the tissues of the child are nourished precisely as are the tissues of the mother, and a nursing mother requires simply to digest a larger supply of wholesome and appropriate food. As a matter of course mothers with imperfect teeth or weak stomachs cannot perform the THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 223 digestion of extra food for the infant so well as those mothers who have an abundance of reserve power in their digestive apparatus, and with such patients the question arises, how are they to make up for the deficiency which they soon experience in the supply of milk ? They should assist their digestive apparatus as much as possible by securing an abundance of suitable and nutritious food, prepared in the best way and as is most digestible, while they should lessen the demands of their own system by the avoidance of bodily fatigue and mental excitement. These means, aided by that philosophical hygiene which is at all times essential to the preservation of pure and perfect health, will enable them to supply a maximum quantity of pure and wholesome milk; further calls by the child require proper artificial food. Unfortunately such advice fails to satisfy many anxious mothers, who refuse to admit or believe that they are less robust or less capable than other ladies of their acquaintance, and such mothers fall easy victims to circulars vaunting the nourish- ing properties of ' Hoare's Stout,' 'Tanqueray's Gin,' or Gilbey's ' strengthening Port,' circulars which are always backed up by the example and advice of lady friends, who themselves have acquired the habit of using these liquors, and who view as a reproach to themselves the practice of any other lady who may not keep them in countenance as the perfection of all moral and physical propriety. It is a matter of common observation that a glass of spirit taken at bedtime by a nursing mother, not merely increases the flow of milk during the night, but causes the child to sleep heavily. Under these circum- stances the spirit acts, not as a purgative, nor as a diuretic, nor as a diaphoretic, nor does much of it pass off by the lungs, but it acts as a lactagogue, because the breasts are then in a state of great activity, and form the readiest channel through which the mother's system can eliminate the alcohol. In order. to effect that elimination the breasts have to discharge a profuser quantity of milk ; but the increased quantity of milk is produced by a mere addition of alcohol and water, or it is produced by impoverishing and straining the system of the mother. In either case the poisonous influence of the alcohol is manifested in narcotizing the child, and it cannot need much reflection 224 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH to show that children ought not to have alcohol filtered into them as receptacles for matters which the mother's system finds it necessary to eliminate. Probably nothing could be worse than to have the very fabric of the child's tissues laid down from alcoholized blood." Dr.Edmun.fc Of the effects of beer-drinking, he says, "I have observed the following facts : The mothers frequently make flesh, and even become corpulent ; often, however, at the same time they get pale, and where they are not con- stitutionally robust in fibre they become inactive, short- breathed, coarse- complexioned, nervous, and irritable, and suffer from weakness of the heart and a long train of symptoms which are more or less severe according to the constitution of the mother and the quantity of alcohol she imbibes, The young mother prematurely loses the bloom and beauty of youth. Often it is quite startling to meet some lady, who during an interval of two years has been transformed from a sprightly and charming young woman into an uninteresting coarse-looking matron. She has nursed her first infant for twelve months. With a pure and rational diet, she would simply have acquired a more dignified and womanly bearing, with a robuster gentleness of manner ; but a liberal supply of ' nourish- ing ' stout, a glass of port at luncheon, and a little gin- and-water at bedtime, one after the other were adopted, and imbibed regularly, in order to supply her infant with 'milk.' The presence of a nerveless apathy, or unin- telligent irritability, afterwards proved that a liberal supply of ' stimulants ' was required to support her strength, and, although she ceased nursing, her own sensa- tions convinced her of the necessity of continuing them. The outward and visible change is but an exponent of the degenerations and diseases which are taking root within. If there be a predisposition to insanity or consumption, these diseases are developed very rapidly, or they are brought on where proper management might altogether have tided over those periods of life at which the predis- position is prone to become provoked into actual disease. " Infants nursed by mothers who drink much beer also become fatter than usual, and to an untrained eye some- times appear as ' magnificent children.' But the fatness of such children is not a recommendation to the more know- THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 225 ing observer ; they are exceedingly prone to die of inflam- mation of the chest (bronchitis) after a few days' illness from an ordinary cold. They die very much more fre- quently than other children of convulsions and diarrhoea while cutting their teeth, and they are very liable to die of scrofulous inflammation of the membranes of the brain, commonly called ' water on the brain,' while their child- hood often presents a painful contrast in the way of crooked legs and stunted or ill-shapen figure to the ' magnificent and promising appearance of their infancy.' " And Mr. Harrison Branthwaite, in his first annual report on The Sanitary Condition of Willesden (1882), Mr. Branth- speaks feelingly of the increase in child-mortality, and chTi^mor- deplores "the pernicious habit of drinking large quantities some years the clinique of the great Parisian hospitals, after consulting the registry of cases admitted to ' homes for strangers,' one becomes perfectly convinced that alcoholic poisoning is a more murderous plague, perhaps, than the great epidemics which at different epochs have devastated humanity. The pest, the cholera, the yellow fever, break out suddenly and decimate a village, a province, a whole country, but their passage is transitory in essence. Alcoholism takes no holiday." Dr. Germain Marty (Medical Thesis, Paris, December 24, 1872). " It has been said that greater calamities are inflicted w. E. Giad- on mankind by intemperance thaii by the three great Btone * historical scourges, war, pestilence, and famine. This is true for us, and it is the measure of our discredit and disgrace." W. E. Gladstone (speech in House of Com- mons, March 5, 1880) Who can speak more authoritatively, or with more Opinions of impartiality, concerning the relations between drink and O f e t ^" dge8 crime, than the judges of Great Britain ? * And what United do they say ? Let us see. " I have been thirty years chairman of quarter sessions M.O'Shaugh- in several counties in Ireland. I have, perhaps, presided ness y- at more criminal trials than most men living, and I can truly say that I have had scarcely a case before me with reference to the class of offences known as against the person, that was not the consequence of drunkenness." Mr. M. O'Shaughnessy, Q.C., Chairman of Quarter Ses- sions, Co. Clare. " Men go into public-houses respectable, and come out Mr. Juotice felons." Mr. Justice Grove. Grove - " The crying and besetting crime of intemperance is a Mr. crime leading to all other crimes ; a crime which you may Fitz B" {ald - very well say leads to nineteen-twentieths of the crimes of this country." Mr. Justice Fitzgerald, Dublin Assizes, 1878. * See opening pages of chap. riii. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. [iaron Dowse. " If our people were more sober I think crime would almost entirely disappear from our midst." Baron Dowse, at Wicklow, 1878. Again, in charging the jury in the Dublin Commission Court, November, 1881, the Baron said he " found that drink was at the bottom of almost every crime committed in Dublin. Even in cases that had no apparent connection with drink at all, if closely investigated, as he himself had done on many occasions, they would be found to have their origin in drink." stipendiary The Bench of England confirms the Bench of Ireland. Liverpool? I n 1878 the stipendiary magistrate of Liverpool said " The moving cause of crimes of violence and disorder in our midst is drunkenness. "We may set down three- fourths, I think nine-tenths of them, as arising from drunkenness." In 1881 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge stated from the bench of the Supreme Court, that " Judges were weary with calling attention to drink as the principal cause of crime, but he could not refrain from saying that if they could make England sober they would shut up nine-tenths of the prisons." In his charge at the Surrey Assizes, in August, 1882, Mr. Justice Denman said " I don't know, in enforcing the considerations which are placed before the judges as a part of their duty in the proclamation against vice and immorality which has just been read, that any judge can better discharge his duty than by again and again calling the attention of the gentry of the country, as well as inhabitants generally, to this fact, that the great bulk I might almost say the whole of the offences of violence which take place in the counties of this land are directly ascribable to the habit of drinking." In the same month and year Baron Hnddleston is reported to have said to the grand jury at Swansea that " Of the forty-four cases down on the calendar, he found almost all traceable, directly or indirectly, to the detestable habit of drinking. Two hundred years ago, Sir Matthew sir Matthew Hale, one of the most eminent judges that ever adorned the English bench, declared that twenty years of observa- tion taught him that the original cause of most of the I,ord Chief Justice Cole- ridge. Mr. Justice Denman. Baron Huddleston SOCIAL RESULTS. 233 enormities committed by criminals was drink. Four out of every five of them were the issue and product of drink- ing in taverns and alehouses. Baron Huddleston feared what was true then was true now, and that we have improved very little, if at all." At the Chester Spring Assizes, on the 13th of April, Mr. Justice 1883, Mr. Justice Hawkins, in charging the grand jury. Hawkin8 ' said that " Although, numerically, the calendar was light, yet there were in it charges recorded against several persons of most serious offences. After referring to other cases, his lordship touched upon the attempted murder of a child by its mother by throwing it upon the fire, then pouring scalding water upon it. The mother was under the in- fluence of drink, and it was almost always the case, accord- ing to his experience, that drink was at the root of crime. Nine out of every ten crimes of violence that had come before him were in one way or another attributable to drink." Again, on the 16th of July, 1883, Mr. Justice Hawkins is reported to have said, in charging the grand jury at the opening of the Durham Assizes, that he " Had had considerable experience in courts of law, and every day lie lived the more firmly did lie come to the conclusion that the root of all crime was drink. It affected people of all ages and both sexes the middle-aged, the young, the father, the son, the husband, and the wife. It was drink which was the incentive to crimes of dishonesty ; a man stole in order that he might provide himself with the means of getting drink. It was drink which caused homes to be impoverished, and they could trace to its source the cause of misery which was to be found in many a cottage home which had been denuded of nil the common necessities of life. He believed that nine- tenths of the crime of this country, and certainly of the county of Durham, was engendered within public-houses* When he came to that conclusion he thought it was his duty to enjoin upon the magistrates who had the power to check in some respect the terrible ravages of drink, to do their utmost to suppress it with all the power and authority with which the law invested them. The county of * See opening pages of chap. viii. 234 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Durham was the one county in all England where crime was most prevalent." 63. The statistics quoted below are principally taken Mr. William from various parts of the work of the indefatigable and ' admittedly the best statistician on the subject of drink Mr. William Hoyle. Commenting, in a leading article of great ability, on Mr. Hoyle's statistics, the Times (March 29, 1881) says, " Drinking baffles us, confounds us, shames us, and mocks at us at every point. It outwits alike the teacher, the man of business, the patriot, and the legislator. Every other institution flounders in hopeless difficulties; the public-house holds its triumphant course. The adminis- trators of public and private charity are told that alms and oblations go with rates, doles, and pensions to the all-absorbing bar of the public-house." Estimating roughly in round numbers, so as to leave more room for a comparative computation of vast numbers, we find that the average of the gross total of the national income during the last ten years (ending in 1881) was 850,000,000 a year. According to Hoyle, the direct average expenditure for drink annually, during the same time exceeded 136,000,000, and he'estimates that annually 138,000,000 were indirectly spent or lost through drink a total drinking expenditure of 274,000,000. "Deducting, say, 54,000,000 from this sum for revenue," says Hoyle, " and for what some persons might consider the needful use of these drinks in medicine or otherwise, it still leaves a sum of 220,000,000 as the annual economic loss to the nation in consequence of the drinking customs of our population." The Rev. Dr. The Rev. Dr. Dawson Bums, in Christendom and the Burmonthe Drink Curse (London, 1875), makes this succinct summary expenditure of the comparative loss to the nation annually occasioned British isles D J drink : " The British people annually expend on in- annuaiiy in toxicating liquors a sum of above a hundred and thirty compared millions sterling, the great bulk of it coming from the with other pockets of men and women who would be seriously affronted if any doubt were cast upon their religious sincerity. This sum is sixty millions in excess of the national revenue. It is one-sixth of the National Debt. It is one-fifth the value of all the railway property of the United Kingdom. It is SOCIAL RESULTS. 235 equal to one-fourth of the whole income of the wage- receiving classes, and one-eighth of the income of all classes united. It is equal to a yearly expenditure of 4 per head, and of 22 per family, in the United Kingdom." In a paper read before the Statistical Society of London Mr. Stephen (April, 1880), Mr. Stephen Bourne, a noted statistician, ^ T ^ Q arrived at similar results to Mr. Hoyle's, but from an opposite point of view. Mr. Hoyle estimates the harm done from computing the pecuniary loss; Mr. Bourne computes the pecuniary loss from the harm done. The National Temperance League Annual (1883) gives the following summary of Mr. Bourne's paper : "Mr. Bourne estimates that of the people of this country about lO^ millions are ' producers ; ' that of these ' 65 or 70 per cent, are wholly employed in providing food, drink, and other necessaries of life ; and that it is only the remainder (three millions and a half) who are available for the production of luxuries, and the accumulation of wealth.' He further estimates that the producing power of 1,097,625 persons is wholly absorbed by the liquor traffic; and that 884,000 who might be employed as producers of wealth, are rendered economically useless by the damage done by drink. The latter number being made up as follows : ' By deaths, adult and infantile ... ... 120,000 sickness of producers ... ... 150,000 administrators ... ... 185,000 pauperism ... ... ... 200,000 crime ... ... ... ... 88,000 professional and other service ... 50,000 revenue officials ... ... ... 6,000 army, navy, and merchant service ... 85,000 884,000' " If there was no alcohol to be produced or consumed there might be two millions of producers, or an addition of 60 per cent, to our power of producing articles other than those of daily use for stores. That is, as two millions constitute about a fifth of the total number of producers, the drink traffic absorbs about one-fifth of the productive power of the nation. And the total income of the nation the total product of the industry of the nation, is variously 236 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. estimated at from 850 millions to 1200 millions a year. Mr. Gladstone puts it at about 1000 millions a year. One- fifth of this sum is 200 millions. So that, measured in money, the yearly cost of the drink traffic to the nation is about 200 millions, a sum which approximates very closely to that reached by Mr. Hoyle." Roughly estimating the average liquor revenue during the same ten years (1871-1881) at 32,000,000 annually, and subtracting half this sum as the admitted, average amount which the State expends in preventing, repairing, and punishing evils resulting from drink, we find that the State annually expends between 150 and 200 million pounds most of which might be saved to the people in order to make sure of its own annual revenue of from fifteen to twenty million pounds. Mr. Hoyie's In the Drink Traffic and its Evils, Mr. Hoyle makes the following comparison of estimates : " To manufacture the 134,000,000 worth of intoxicating liquors consumed during each of the past twelve years, 80,000,000 bushels of grain, or its equivalent in produce, has been destroyed each year ; and, taking the bushel of barley at 53 Ibs., it gives us 4,240,000,000 Ibs. of food destroyed year by year, or a total for the twelve years of 960,000,000 bushels or 50,880,000,000 Ibs. " The generally accepted estimate of grain consumed as bread food by the population of the United Kingdom is 5^ bushels per head per annum ; if this be so, then the food which has been destroyed to manufacture the intoxi- cating liquors which have been consumed in the United Kingdom during the past twelve years would supply the entire popuJation with bread for four years and five months ; or, it would give a 4-lb. loaf of bread to every family in the United Kingdom daily during the next six years. " If the grain and produce which have thus been de- stroyed yearly were converted into flour and baked into loaves, they would make 1,200,000,000 4-lb. loaves. To bake these loaves it would require 750 bakeries producing 500 loaves each hour, and working ten hours daily during the whole year. " An acre of fairly good land is estimated to yield about 38 bushels of barley. If this be so, then, to grow the grain to manufacture the 134,000,000 worth of liquor SOCIAL RESULTS. 237 which has been consumed yearly, it would take a cornfield of more than 2,000,000 acres, or it would cover the entire counties of Kent, Surrey, Middlesex, and Berkshire.* " The value of the bread consumed annually in the United Kingdom is estimated at 70,000,000. Mr. Caird estimates the value of the butter and cheese consumed yearly at 27,500,000, and that of milk at 26,000,000, so that we have spent as much upon intoxicating liquorg each year during the past twelve years as upon bread, butter, cheese, and milk, and leaving 10,000,000 yearly to spare. " The rent paid for houses in the United Kingdom is * " TABLE SHOWING THE POPULATION, TOTAL COST, AND AVERAGE COST PER HEAD OP INTOXICATING LIQUORS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM FOR VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1820 TO 1870, AND FOR EACH SUB- SEQUENT YEAR UP TO 1882. Year. Population. Total Cost. Average cost per head. x. d. 1820 20,807,000 50,440,655 286 1825 22,571,000 67,027,263 2 19 5 1830 23,820,000 67,292,278 2 16 5 1835 25,443,000 80,527,819 330 1840 26,500,000 77,605,882 2 18 10 1845 27,072,000 71,632,232 2 12 11 1850 27,320,000 80,718,083 2 18 10 1855 28,183,000 76,761,114 2 14 6 1860 28,778,000 85,276,870 2 18 6 1865 29,861,000 106,439,561 3 11 3 1870 31,205,000 118,736,279 3 16 1 1871 31,513,000 125,586,902 3 19 1 1872 31,835,000 131,601,490 428 1873 32,124,000 140,014,712 478 1874 32,426,000 141,342,997 472 1875 32,749,000 142,876,669 473 1876 33,093,000 147,288,759 490 1877 33,446,000 142,007,231 4 4 10 1878 33,799,000 142,188,900 441 1879 34,155,000 128,143,865 3 15 1880 34,468,000 122,279,275 3 10 11 1881 34,929,000 127,074,460 3 12 3 1882 35,278,000 126,255,139 3 12 0" William Hoyle's Our Nation&l Drink Bill as it Well-being. London, 1884. the Nation' 9 238 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. about 70,000,000 per annum ; the money spent yearly upon woollen goods is about 46,000,000, and upon cotton goods 14,000,000, giving a total of 130,000,000 ; so that we have spent upon intoxicating drinks each year during the last twelve years as much as the total amount of the house-rental of the United Kingdom plus the money spent in woollen and cotton goods, and leaving upwards of 4,000,000 to spare." According to the Daily Review of Edinburgh (March 4, 1884), Sir William Collins, at the great Scottish Temperance Convention (of the day previous) , after moving the first reso- lution, to wit, " That in the opinion of this convention, the traffic in intoxicating liquors, as common beverages, is a pro- lific source of drunkenness, insanity, pauperism, vice, crime, misery, disease, and death ; and whilst thus proving ruinous to individuals and families, is at the same time hurtful to the trade and commerce of the nation, and utterly opposed to the general prosperity and well-being of the community," said that, " Assuming that the population of Glasgow contributed their proportion to the national drink bill, it would amount to nearly 2,000,000 per annum, or 13 10s. per family, while the whole rental of dwelling- houses in the city amounted to 1,233,371 or only 10 15s. per family ; and the average rental of the houses in which two-thirds of the people lived was only 6 10s., or less than one-half of the average sum spent per family on strong drink. On the other hand, the only result of the yearly drink bill was a large expenditure in dealing with the crime, poverty, and insanity which flowed from the traffic as a natural result, and an untold amount of misery, disease, and death to the slaves of the appetite, and, would that he did not require to add, to the helpless wives and still more helpless and innocent children. Could they, as patriots and professing Christians, stand longer by, and allow this state of things to continue ? The nations of the past, who stood in the front rank of civiliza- tion, where were they ? They fell because of their vices. Could they, who have had higher privileges, hope to escape from the consequences of their national vice and their national sin ? " .^.ad ex-Bailie Lewis, in a subsequent speech on the same occasion, said that " He had just been favoured with SOCIAL RESULTS. 239 the able and elaborate report of Captain M'Call, of Glasgow, which afforded evidence that during 1883 no fewer than 52,827 of the population of Glasgow were before a police magistrate. Of that number 40,537 were charged with drunkenness, simple assaults, etc. ; and again, of that number 14,366 were dragged from the gutters and gathered from the streets drunk and incapable. They had . . j thus 1 out of every 40 of the population drunk and in- capable ; 1 out of every 15 charged with drunkenness and assaults ; and 1 out of every 11 before a police magistrate. Such was the condition of the western metropolis, whose motto is, ' Let Glasgow flourish by the Preaching of the Word.' It was right to observe that numbers of these were recommitments, but when they considered the large number of drunken persons who never fell into the hands of the police, it did not materially alter the case." All these figures point with a vengeance to the relations The'reiations between drink and poverty. With the sum now annually drinklmd wasted in and through drink, England could in a few poverty, years pay the entire National Debt, and each individual could be comfortably housed, clothed, and fed. It is a common opinion that poverty has more to do in producing drink than drink in producing poverty, yet it must, from the foregoing startling figures, be perfectly obvious that there is no comparison between the two. The 130,000,000 expended in drink are the direct outlay only; the best authorities declare that the mischief pro- duced by this drink, estimated in money, more than equals this sum, so that at least 250,000,000 form the gross total of the annual national loss through drink, which must inevitably produce a stupendous amount of poverty. That, in this production of poverty, many afflicted through it do not drink before being struck down by misfortune, is no doubt true ; but the great mass of the impoverished are so through drink, and further, though the poorer they become the less do they have to expend in drink, yet the little they do have is more certainly and exclusively spent in that way, to the utter neglect of every other claim or necessity. Thus drink first produces poverty, and then pushes it beyond the reach of remedy.* * " ' One in every eight of the population of rich and prosperous 240 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Dr. Dawson Burns on drinking as the main- spring of pauperism. That poverty causes drink in the sense that the wretchedly poor drink to drown their misery is probably in many instances true ; but in this argument it is often forgotten that the abject poverty which drives this class of people (meaning here all who turn to drink not from vicious propensity, but under the goad of unbearable woes) to drink, is directly due to the circumstances and conditions as to work and wages, etc., which the drink traffic produces among the working classes, so that the honest, decent poor are beaten down in their struggle to keep on the level of decent poverty, and in their despair seek refuge in the very evil they have fought against at such heavy odds so long. " If all testimony is not fallacious," says the Rev. Dr. Burns (op. tit.), " the mainspring of Pauperism and of all Destitution is Drinking ; and until that is overcome, little reduction of the measure or burdens of this evil can be expected. Any temporary diminution will disappear with fluctuations of trade that are certain to occur. "Without a Temperance reform, every project for permanently ameliorating our national impoverishment must be com- paratively inefficient ; bat with such a reform the desired end could be accomplished to such an extent that the England dies a pauper.' So we are told. But is not the statement altogether incredible ? Is there in all broad England one prominent statesman or one leading journalist who would believe it, if it were put before him ? I am convinced that there is not one. Yet it is substantially accurate. Here are the facts some of the facts on which it is based. In England and Wales during recent years, the number of paupers at one time receiving relief has averaged 800,000. Of these a little under 200,000 have been indoor, and a little over 600,000 have been outdoor paupers. Among the indoor paupers the mortality is very great. The Registrar- General's returns show that the deaths among indoor paupers constitute one-fifteenth of the total number of deaths in the country. It is difficult to ascertain with precision the number of deaths which yearly take place among the 600,000 outdoor paupers. Would it be extravagant to assume that the number of deaths (not the death rate) amongst them must be at least as great as among the 200,000 ? If it be assumed that the number of deaths (not the death rate, observe) among the 600,000 is as great as among the 200,000 ; that is, if the death rate among the former is one-third as great as among the latter, we are shut in to the conclusion that of every fifteen deaths which take place in England and Wales, two are the deaths of paupers. And that is a greater proportion than one in eight." Alliance News. SOCIAL RESULTS. 241 worst forms of indigence and wretchedness would become as rare as they are now common ; all classes would be relieved, and it would be possible to extend adequate aid to those who are most deserving, bat who now are either totally neglected or but scantily assisted." 64. This problem of poverty and degradation is now so prominently before the public that it seems specially fitting to call particular attention to the fact of these evils as being a result of drink to whieh fact, testimony of a very striking character comes in on every side ; which, it is earnestly to be hoped, will receive due attention from the Royal Commission* for devising means for housing the poor. The report of the Parliamentary Committee on Drink Pariia- of 1834 says- "po^U- " The loss of productive labour in every department temperance of occupation, is to the extent of at least one day in six throughout the kingdom (as testified by witnesses engaged in various manufacturing operations), by which the wealth of the country, created, as it is, chiefly by labour, is retarded or suppressed to the extent of one million of every six that is produced, to say nothing of the constant derangement, imperfection, and destruction in every agricultural and manufacturing process, occasioned by the intemperance and consequent nnskilfulness, inattention, and neglect of those affected by intoxication, and pro- ducing great injury in our domestic and foreign trade." From the reports by Drs. Parkes and Sanderson Reports of (1871), we cite the following : Tnd !- " A tin-plate worker in constant work earns 22s. a son. week. He has a wife, a careful, respectable woman, and four children. The husband drank heavily. Sometimes he brought home 18s., sometimes 16s., sometimes 12s. ; last week he drank it all. If he would bring 22s. a week she would be happy as the day is long. This family of six persons were living in one back room, paying Is. 6d. a week rent. It was. 10j feet long, 9 feet broad, and 8f feet high. The furniture was a bed, table, and two rickety chairs. Two of the four children were sick." Sir Wilfrid Lawson, M.P., addressing a meeting of the statement by United Kingdom Alliance, January 24, 1879, said " There were a great many causes working together and causing the distress of the country at the present * See p. 377. 242 THl FOUNDATION OF DEATH. time. Everybody had his notion about the causes of it. He read in the Licensed Victuallers' Guardian the argu- ment of the licensed victuallers for it. Their account was that the distress was caused by over- trading, over- trading was caused by dishonesty and hypocrisy, and hypocrisy was caused by teetotalism. He was of the contrary opinion. He believed if the bulk of the people of this country were teetotalers there would have been very little distress at the present time. The Lord Provost, daring the last few weeks that he had administered relief to the distressed in Glasgow, had asked every applicant if he was a teetotaler, and found he had not one teetotaler come before him for relief. Not considering other questions of foolish expenditure, he said the 140,000,000 which they spent every year in drink was quite sufficient to account for the distress. So long as in a country like this we went on spending that enormous amount of money, it appeared to him impossible that we could have a return to the prosperity which we should all like to see. The question was, how to put this expenditure down ? It was said by some, ' Educate the people,' but he would ask how long we had to wait before these educational results showed themselves ? During the last ten years we must have spent upwards of twenty millions of public money alone in educating the people, whilst intemperance had rather increased than diminished. So that they would see that education alone was not the cure. Some people said that the people wanted better homes, and that would be the remedy. But it was the drinking that made the bad home. It was not the bad homes that made the drinking. Others there were who held that religion would cure it. He admitted that truth was omnipotent, but if they could not bring the truth home to the people it was no good." Address by On the 16th of January, 1880, Lord Derby, in an Lord Derby. a( j(j ress to the Liverpool Penny Savings Bank Association, said " It may seem almost ridiculous to speak of penny savings in connection with the growth or decline of national wealth : but yet look at the matter that way. I will not repeat the old story of what the British liquor bill is just one hundred and forty millions, or 20 a head for every SOCIAL RESULT'S. 243 family of five in the British Isles. Nor will I tell you that half that sum saved would pay all the taxes of the year ; but we all know that, without supposing the nation to adopt very ascetic habits, or even to become as strictly frugal as France, there is an enormous margin for reason- able economy, and we do not, I think, always sufficiently appreciate the fact that private frugality will enforce public economy. Suppose only one quarter of the sum spent in liquor or tobacco to be saved, that implies a reduction of ten millions in the revenue, and do you suppose any Chancellor of the Exchequer would go to work to put on those ten millions again &?/ taxation ? Not he ; he would learn to do idthout them. It is a peculiarity of this country, and I think a happy peculiarity, that the classes whose incomes are under 150 a year the class, that is, who live on weekly wages may relieve themselves almost entirely from taxation if they think fit." The next is quoted from the Alliance News (March 5, Address by -i 001 \ blr. Edward 1881) : Jones, of the " In an address to the ' ratepayers of Toxteth Park and ^rf'of others whom it may concern,' Mr. Edward Jones, of 4, Guardians. Amberley Street, Liverpool, a member of the Toxteth Board of Guardians, says, ' The Guardians of Toxteth Park, in dealing with applications for relief from week to week, were struck by the large number of these cases which came from a particular district of the township. A return was therefore ordered of the exact number of applications for relief during a given period, from that portion of the township to the north of Park Street and west of Park Road, as compared with the applications from the rest of the township. These returns revealed the " startling fact " that two-thirds of our pauperism came from this district, comprising about one-eighth of \he area, and only one-fourth of the population ; the exact numbers being, from the district marked A, with heavy dark tints on the map, 911 applications for relief ; from district B, 542 ; and from district C, 45. in the same period. The amount of money spent in liquor in district A may bo gathered from the fact that over one hundred public- houses, or about half the total number of public-houses in the township, are maintained and doing a more or less flourishing trade within or closely abutting upon this area. 244 liiE FOUNDATION OF DElTti. Estimating the average " weekly takings " of each of thesfe public-houses at 20, and assuming that fully one-half of the population here are sober, industrious people, who spend little or nothing on drink, it may be taken for granted that from 10s. to 20*. per week from many families goes for liquor. How many straggling, sober, industrious families, paying poor rates, are compelled to live on less than those receiving parish relief spend in liquor when they can get it ? The direct cost to the township of this area, in poor rates, is not less than 10,000 per annum, or equal to 6d. in the pound of the rates, over and above a very liberal allowance for pauperism. To this may be added the charge for extra police in these parts, the large sums distributed in private charity, and the hundred other ways in which the thriftless and the dissolute manage to impose a heavy burden of taxation, voluntary and in- voluntary, upon their neighbours. The money cost is not the only or the worst part of the business. Murders, stabbing, wounding, and other crimes of violence, are of frequent occurrence here. The slaughter of innocent babes, smothered by their drunken mothers, out-herods Herod. The death rate within this area, if published separately, would astonish the Health Committee and the Town Council of Liverpool, and would stand in striking contrast with the rate of mortality in the portions of the township without public-houses, which averages 10 in a 1000 in the rural district. Here it would probably be not less than 40 per 1000. Vice and immorality from these parts crowd our workhouse hospital, which must soon be enlarged, at the cost of the ratepayers, and there is displayed a state of things too revolting for description. . . . The applications for parish relief are few and far between, and these few from the streets nearest the dark area, though a large proportion of the inhabitants are of the artisan and labouring class. The head constable reports that his officers have very little to do in this district. No complaint has ever been heard of the absence of public-houses iu the district, which is two miles long, and nearly the same distance wide in its longest measure- ment. That the people in the dark area do not wish public-houses in their midst is proved by the fact that they are rapidly migrating into the bright area, and that SOCIAL RESULTS. 245 whenever memorials in favour of Sunday closing of public- houses, and other restrictions, are got up, the people in the dark area are most unanimous in signing them. A motion for memorializing the Government in favour of a measure for reducing the number of public-houses was supported by seven members of the Toxteth Board of Guardians, while eight voted against.' " And the same journal (January 7, 1882) publishes the Address by following from the pen of the Rev. John Kirk, D.D., Edinburgh : "This United Kingdom of ours is threatened with terrible poverty. The plague which is in various forms coming upon us is emphatically national. ... A small number of people are becoming enormously rich, while the great mass of the community is becoming rapidly poor. . . . Especially in London scores are dying of literal starva- tion for lack of food to eat. ... It is to be expected that explanations of this state of things should be given, but it is immensely strange that the most obvious of all should not even be suffered to be hinted at in the press, in the pulpit, or on the platform ! . . . Above one hundred and fifty millions of sterling money a year is actually being handed over by the masses of the people into the hands of a few families for worse than nothing ! The expenditure of this money in liquor involves far more than an equal loss in efficient labour, and in other ways. The ignorance of the multitude is so great, the fascination of the liquor is so powerful, the huge swindle is so supported by law and government, and the stream of gold is so enormous, that it is ostracism to lay it bare to the public eye, and yet it is wonderful that it should be possible to be silent on the subject, when the great body of the nation is rapidly sinking into helpless poverty by this iniquity alone ! Only look at the subject for a few moments. Allow this liquor system to be suppressed, and at least three hundred millions of sterling -money annually will remain in the ownership of the mass of the people. Let this sum as a capital be employed as it is employed now wherever liquor-selling has been suppressed ; let this wealth accumu- late as it Avill, and must do, and what would even seven ' bad harvests ' do ? The truth is palpable. These harvests woiUd not give the people serious concern. They woulct 246 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. buy up our own farmers' grain, such as it is, at a good price, and do the same with the American and other grain. All would prosper, perhaps with the solitary ex- ceptions of those who are now growing rich at the expense of their country's threatened ruin. . . . " In the meantime, the subject is daily becoming one of more terrible importance to the great mass of the people. There is a fascination in alcohol so strong that its sale has only to be introduced into a neighbourhood to make it perfectly sure that it will carry everything before it. You may educate and civilize as you can ; you may evangelize in the best possible methods ; yet, if you keep up the distribution of strong drink among a people, you may rob them to any degree, and they will not even complain ! It is incredible to what an extent the brewer and distiller have men and women at their will so is it incredible that a Government can levy ten shillings of a tax on a liquor that does not quite cost one shilling and fourpence. But, however incredible, it is simple truth that so it is in reality ! The very men who take the grain from our best fields, and convert it into a fiery liquid, ruinous to soul and body, are able to give ten shillings out of every eleven shillings and fourpence to what is called 'the State,' and yet to make large fortunes out of the remaining sixteeiipence ! They are able, too, to secure such a sentiment among a large and influential portion of the community as surrounds their amazing traffic with a sort of halo of respectability ! And yet they dare not risk the power of licence for that traffic on the vote of the ratepayers ! They dare not risk it on the vote even of drunkards ! " Mr. wuiiam The following from Mr. William Hoyle's pamphlet, testimony ^ ur National Resources and hoiv they are Wasted, appeared in the Alliance News (October 27, 1883) : " The policy has been, multiply the temptations to in- temperance, and then fine the drunkard or send him to prison. If he went on drinking till he or those dependent upon him were impoverished, let him be packed off to the workhouse. If by their dissipated conduct they lost their characters and became vagrants, needing a night's lodging, the policy was to make it unpleasant for them, and so drive them to barns, brick-kilns, hay-ricks, or anywhere else. If, when maddened by drink, or when impelled by SOCIAL RESULTS. 247 hunger, they committed crime, then their names were to be put upon the black list, enrolled among the outcasts of the nation, and over them was to be set the ever-watchful eye of the policeman. And if their children ramt)led about the streets uncared for, they were to be sent off to re- formatory schools, where they would be supported and trained at the expense of the good citizens of the com- munity, and the parents relieved from the burdens and expense of their charge, and thus enabled to have more money and freedom whei'ewith to indulge in dissipation and hurry on their own ruin. Such has been the policy of our statesmen during the last thirty or forty years, and to this policy we may attribute three-fourths, if not nine- tenths, of the social evils that so grievously affect our land. " During the entire period of the recent long depression in trade, some very remarkable economic phenomena have presented themselves. In the first place, the warehouses of the country have been crowded with goods wanting customers, and side by side with these there have been multitudes of persons in distress and want, needing the goods which so overcrowded the warehouses. And then, further, there have been the banks with their coffers glutted with money seeking to be employed in carrying out the purchase and the transfer of stocks in the ware- houses to the backs and the homes of the people who were in want ; at the same time wages have been comparatively high, and the price of food has been low, thus giving a large margin of the nation's income as available for invest- ment in manufactured goods ; and yet the desired trade has not come. How has this arisen ? " There can only be one answer given to this question, viz., the one given by the Economist newspaper in its annual trade review in 1876. The Economist then stated that the dulness of trade arose from the fact that from some cause or other the means of consumers had become lessened; or, in other words, people had become so impoverished as to have no money with which to buy the goods. " What was it that had impoverished the people ? There were several minor causes that had contributed to this, chief among which were the bad harvests of the country. The loss from this soiirce was variously estimated. 248 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. in different years at from 20,000,000 to 50,000,000 per annum. ; but the main cause of impoverishment was this : the money which ought to have gone into the tills of the grocer, the draper, the tailor, the furniture dealer, etc., went into the till of the publican; 136,000,000 yearly thus spent, and another 100,000,000 sacrificed to atone for the mischief which the expenditure of the 136,000,000 caused, could have no other result than to produce depression in trade. There was every element of trade prosperity present, except the buying element, but, unfortunately, that element, instead of applying itself to the purchase of the goods which filled the warehouses, wasted its resources at the public-house ; for instance, 4 per head were spent yearly in drink, and but eight shillings on cotton goods, and so people were in poverty and rags, and manufacturers could find no market for their goods. " The question may arise in the minds of some of my audience What does it matter whether the money be spent in drink or in manufactured goods, or in house- building, or in improving land, or, indeed, in any way ? for, it is said, does not the money circulate in the country in one case just as much as in the other ? Let us look at this point for a moment. " I will suppose the case of one hundred men, each earning 2 weekly. On an average the men spend 12s. per week each in drink, which, unfortunately, for many men is not extravagant. At the end of the year these one hundred men will have spent 3120. Well, it is said, the 3120 is not lost, for it is circulating through the country, and, therefore, what does it matter how it is spent ? " Suppose, however, that instead of spending the 12s. weekly in drink, they put the money into a building club and invest it in building houses, the money would build twenty houses worth 156 each, and at the end of the year the 3120 would be circulating in the country just as was the case when spent in drink. In the one case there are 3120 circulating, plus nothing; in the other case there are 3120 circulating, plus twenty houses added to the wealth of the nation. " Let us pursue the comparison further. As a result of the 3120 spent in drink, there would probably be gome hundreds of cases of drunkenness ; there would be SOCIAL RESULTS. 249 neglect and loss of work ; there would often be cruelty and misery at home ; there would be headaches, sickness, accidents ; there would be neglect of families, pauperism, crime, vagrancy ; there would probably be some addition of persons to the unemployed population of the country, and maybe also some parts of the families of the hundred | men would find their way down amongst the lapsed masses of society. And there would further be the costs and burdens resulting from this condition of things ; and the waste of labour and cost of striving to neutralize and remedy them. It is a low estimate to assume that from these causes 2000 would be lost to society, in addition to the 3120 of direct expenditure, or over 5000 in all. "Let ns follow the other expenditure in its results. In the first place, we find some twenty or more men set to work to build the houses. These, of course, would earn weekly wages, and at the end of the week, themselves or their wives would be off to the shops to purchase goods for their families; and besides this there would be the absence of the drunkenness and misery which resulted when the money was spent in drink. " In one case we have 3120 circulated, plus a further indirect loss of some 2000, all of which is abstracted from trade, plus resulting misery that is appalling. "In the other case we get 3120 circulated, plus twenty houses added to the nation's stock of wealth ; plus employment found for twenty or more workmen ; plus increased trade for the shopkeepers and manufacturers ; plus a diminished taxation owing to the absence of the drink evil ; plus happiness to the families concerned, instead of misery and maybe ruin. " In order fully to appreciate the economic influence of these two courses of action, we must carry the comparison into the second year. The one hundred men who kept off the drink start the year with twenty houses, valued at 3120, whilst the others have nothing. If these houses are let at 4s. each weekly, they will yield 200 per annum, or it is an addition to the men's income of 2 each yearly, for which the men do not work. The third year it would be more, and the fourth year more again, and so wealth would go on increasing, the demand for labour would correspondingly grow, and along with both there 250 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. would be comfort and plenty instead of misery and ruin. " A moment's reflection will start the problem in the mind of every thoughtful person ; if to redeem an ex- penditure of 3120 from drink and transfer it to other and legitimate channels, so much of economic and social good results, what would have been the sum of the economic and social good which would have resulted from the redemption of the whole of the drink expenditure of 136,000,000 yearly during the last ten years ? I fancy that in such a case we should not have been here to-night discussing problems, social, economic, etc., for the prob- lems would have been solved, and the evils associated with them would have disappeared. " So far as economic result goes, waste of wealth is as hurtful to trade and to the development of material pro- gress when it occurs in the spending of money as in the production of goods. For example, if a man with an income of, say, 25s. weekly, throws 5s. of it into the sea, it will be clear that he might as well only have an income of 20s. ; or if he does what is the same thing, squanders it in a way that yields him no return of good, he would be quite as well off financially and economically if his wages were reduced to 20s. per week ; provided no portion of his income were squandered away. " But if the man spends his money in a way that not only yields him no return of good, but which, instead of good, entails evil upon him, upon his family, and perhaps upon the community at large, then by the extent of the losses and evils which result from such misspending of money, to that extent is the waste of wealth still further increased. If we assume that the damage resulting is equal in extent, say, to four shillings, it will be clear that society will be no better off than if the man's income were only sixteen shillings, for the simple reason that, besides the five shillings lost in the spending, there is four shillings lost in damage done. " It is an admitted fact in political economy that labour is the chief, if not the only source of value, or, in other words, of wealth. As a rule, things are valuable in pro- portion to the cost of their production. It will follow, therefore, that the labour of one week, if the income there- SOCIAL RESULTS. 251 from be properly expended, will create a demand for the labour of the succeeding week. If, therefore, there were only the current income fund to fall back upon, this, if properly expended, would keep the industrial ball rolling; but when we remember that there is an accumulated capital that seeks employment, and when we know that money rightly laid out and labour rightly applied are constantly reproducing themselves, and adding to the capital stock which needs to find employment in purchasing labour, or the products of labour, which is the same thing, it will be clear that there must be something terribly wrong in our economical arrangements and habits, or it would not be possible for pauperism and destitution to have a place in our midst. " But when one-fourth or one-third of the nation's income is applied to purposes that yield no return of good, but often of harm ; when we spend 136,000,000 yearly in drink, and sacrifice 100,000,000 more to make good the mischief which the drink does ; and when in many minor ways we add to this waste, the total becomes a great one, and is a constant draft upon the trading or buying fund of the nation, and so it becomes impossible that the industrial ball can be kept rolling, inasmuch as the fund needed to secure this is so largely wasted ; for we cannot both waste it and use it ; and we may try to amend our poor laws, we may increase the repressive character of our criminal and vagrant laws, we may seek to get better dwellings for the working classes, we may labour to find work for our un- employed population, or reform our land laws, and improve the waste lands of the country all good and many of them very good in their way but they can never compensate for the waste of so much of the nation's income and wealth. " If my hearers have been able to follow the facts and arguments which have been adduced, they will probably have come to the conclusion that the social questions which give to our statesmen and philanthropists so much concern would have no existence were it not for causes that we ourselves set in operation. The question of how to secure good trade, ensure fair and steady wages, provide work for our unemployed population, remove the inequalities of wealth and poverty which exist, how to banish pauperism and vagrancy, and largely reduce crime and lunacy, how to 252 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. lift up from degradation the lapsed masses of our country, how to secure better dwellings for our working classes, with other problems, are all bound up with the question of the drinking habits of the nation ; remedy this, and all the others will practically disappear." Letter by Mrs. Mary Bayly writes in the Daily Neivs (November !&?* 19,1883)- " Those of us who have long watched the steadily in- creasing horrors of the homes of our London poor are deeply thankful for the prominence you have lately given to this subject. Your contributor says with truth that ' no single reform, no single line of effort will meet the evil;' but as regards both the small earnings mentioned, and the doubt expressed whether even comfortable incomes would avail much as things now are, I should like to call atten- tion to the results of increased income in the past, and to causes now adding to pressure in the labour market. The ;j five years which preceded 18/7 were a time of unusual \\ prosperity in the way of earning money ; work was com- > paratively plentiful, and wages high. During those years '. the increase in the consumption of intoxicating drink was enormous; the home consumption of cotton goods went down eight per cent. Those who watched the homes of the poor during those dreadful years state that their moral condition then fell to a lower point than had ever been known before. There were happy exceptions not a few ; but to the vast majority the large sums earned brought rather a diminution than an increase of all that is worthy the name of prosperity. Turning now to the subject of famine wages and competition for employment, even here the door of prosperity is bolted and barred, not by want of resources, bat by our vices. When I return from homes whose belongings, all put together, would once have failed to realize half a crown, and see that, though only receiving the same wages as before, the reclaimed occupants have become customers to the ironmonger, cabinet-maker, crockery shop, linendraper, etc., I am at a loss to conceive how great would be the natural increase in demand for labour of all kinds if this change should become general. And when reading the heartrending statistics of ill-paid labour done by women, let us not forget that there are tens of thousands of married women crowding up the SOCIAL RESULlS. 253 labour market who ought never to be there at all. I have persuaded very many women to give up all paid labour, and to devote themselves entirely to their families. I can recall no instance where this change was not advantageous, even pecuniarily, for the waste and destruction caused by neglected children are indescribable. Where the wife has to earn money the children are usually in rags. Just a few indispensable articles of clothing are purchased ready- made at a slop-shop, at a price so low one wonders how anything can have been paid for making up. The mother at home can encourage honest trade by buying decent material which she makes up herself. But how is all this possible while thousands upon thousands of pounds are swept into publicans' tills every Saturday and Sunday night ? The sums that are still forthcoming to procure intoxicating drink appear to me to disprove your contribu- tor's statement that low wages are the main root of our present distress. They are a fruit, though bearing seed, it is true, and thus continually dropping fresh roots." In his papers on " How the Poor live," published during George R . the summer of 1883 in The Pictorial World, Mr. George R. g^^ Sims says Poor live." " The gin palaces flourish in the slums, and fortunes are made out of men and women who seldom know where to-morrow's meal is coming from. ... A copper or two often obtained by pawning the last rag that covers the shivering children on the bare floor at home, will buy enough vitriol madness to send a woman home so besotted that the wretchedness, the anguish, the degradation that await her there have lost their grip. ... If 1 were asked to say offhand what was the greatest curse of the poor, and what was the greatest blessing, I think my answer to the first query would be the public-house, and to the second, the hospital." And this from the Daily News (November 20, 1883) : The testi- " Speaking on Sunday night at the Great Central Hall, } n y f s Shoreditch, which is within a stone's throw of some of the Caine, M.P. London ' slums,' Mr. W. S. Caine, M.P., said that the ques- tion of housing the London poor was one, he thought, in which Parliament could help, not by building houses at the cost of the State, but in removing as far as possible the causes which resulted in the evils now being so widely 254 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. George R, -Hobble London." discussed. Drink made the poor live where they did. Tales of poverty had been told how people had to make match- boxes at 2^d. per gross, how women had to work fourteen or fifteen hours per day at shirt work ere they could earn a shilling, how at waistcoat-making people could not get a living. Why was it ? Because trade was depressed, was the answer. Why was trade depressed ? Because those who wanted to buy could not buy. Who were those who wanted to buy and could not? People who took their money to the public-house instead of laying the same out in necessaries. If London next day became teetotal. 200,000 per week would be available. Two hundred thousand families might have a pound per week each added to their incomes." On the occasion of the twenty-first anniversary of the Church of England Temperance Society, November 19, 1883, a noble sermon on the drink evil was preached in Westminster Abbey by Archdeacon Farrar. "We have heard much in these days," said he, "of ' Horrible London,' and of the bitter cry of its abject. What makes these slums so horrible ? I answer with certainty, and with tlie confidence of one who knows drink ! What is the remedy ? I tell you every remedy you attempt will be a miserable failure. I tell the nation with convic- tion founded on experience that there will be no remedy till you save these outcasts from the temptation of drink. Leave the drink, and you might build them palaces in vain ; leave the drink, and before the year is over your palaces would be reeking with dirt and squalor, with infamy and crime." * Says Mr. Sims, in his paper on " Horrible London " in the Da % News (November 23, 1883) " It is not fair to prove by facts and statistics the evil of over-population and the evil of low wages, and to shrink from revealing the evil of drink. That has to be removed as well as the others, and must be taken into account. ... It is only when one probes this wound that one finds how deep it is. Much as I have seen of the drink evil, it was not until I came to study one special district, with a view of ascertaining how far the charge of drunkenness could be maintained against the poor as a body, that I had * Church of England Temperance Chronicle, Nov. 24.. 1883. SOCIAL RESULTS. 255 any idea of the, terrible extent to which this cause of poverty prevails. " Come to a common lodging-house, and see what class of people fill the beds at fourpence a night. Poor labourers? Yes. Loafers and criminals? Yes. But hundreds of men who have once been in first-class posi- tions, and who have had every chance of doing well, are to be found there also. " For my purpose I will merely take the cases which have drifted to the slum lodging-house through drink. " The following have all passed recently through one common lodging-house in one of the most notorious slums of London : "A paymaster of the Royal Navy. " Two men who had been college chums at Cambridge, and met accidentally here one night, both in the last stage of poverty. One had kept a pack of hounds, and succeeded to a large fortune. "A physician's son, himself a doctor, when lodging here sold fusees in the Strand. "A clergyman who had taken high honours. Last seen in the Borough, drunk, followed by jeering boys. " A commercial traveller and superintendent of a Sunday school. "A member of the Stock Exchange found to be suffering from delirium tremens removed to work- house. " The brother of a clergyman and scholar of European repute died eventually in this slum. Friends had ex- hausted every effort to reclaim him. Left wife and three beautiful children living in a miserable den in the neigh- bourhood. Wife drinking herself to death. Children rescued by friends and provided for. " Brother of a vicar of a large London parish died in the slum. " These are all cases which have passed through one common lodging-house. What would the others show had we the same opportunity of knowing their customers ? These people have all been forced back on a rookery through drink sober, they need never have sunk so low as that." The following is quoted from the "Dustman's speech" The "Dust. 256 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. man's speech " in Exeter Hall (Nov. 21, 1883). The con- dition of drunkards' children. at the Working-men's Meeting, November 21, 1883, in Exeter Hall : "I say again, as a working man, that we have had too much talk about a working man being robbed of his liberty if he gives up intoxicating drink : that is exactly when he gets his liberty. I say, God bless the publicans and the distillers, and may they soon lose the situation that they now have, for life to them is death to ns. I will show them why. If they lost their situations, there would be more custom for other shopkeepers, and the surroundings of neighbourhoods would be improved. If there is anything that is interfering with the liberty of the people at the present day, it is the consumption of intoxicating drink." As to the children of drunkards, the Alliance News (September 27, 1879) says " Attention has of late been turned by correspondents of Manchester to the poor children who are forced to pick up a living in the streets at most untimely hours. The writer of a letter in the Manchester Guardian, for example, recounts how within half an hour of midnight he was accosted by a lad of about eight years of age, who desired him to buy a box of matches. The lad was crying bitterly, and followed the writer a long way, beseeching him to give him a penny for the box. Having been cheated several times by children affecting great distress, the writer ordered him rather gruffly to begone ; and he slunk away, sobbing in a manner which went to the very heart. Conscience compelled the hearer to turn back and question the boy. He replied through his tears that he dared not go home, because his mother would ' leather ' him, as he had had bad luck that day. This precious mother, it seems, had given him three-halfpence in the morning, and told him that he must not return until he had earned sevenpence halfpenny, or else he would ' catch it.' He invested one penny of this capital in two halfpenny boxes of matches, which he sold in the course of the day for one penny each. Then he bought another two, but had only managed to dispose of one of them, leaving him at that late hour with only twopence halfpenny and a box of matches. His little brother had gone home before him, and he could not help crying, as his mother always SOCIAL RESULTS. 257 ' leathered ' him if he did not come home with the money in time. The lad was covered with rags and tatters from head to foot, but he had an intelligent face, and spoke both correctly and modestly. After rewarding him for his information, the writer turned homeward, meditating on the horrible fact that, with all our civilization, there should exist parents who enslave their children, and deliberately make their lives a blight to them and a curse to society. " Subsequent revelations and reports of other letter writers have shown beyond all doubt that children thus abused always have parents who spend most of their substance in drink. The child ragged and ill-used is ever the drunkard's child. Education, clothing, food, home care, all are swallowed down with the drink, and the poor child is sent out with curses and threats to force sales on a compassionate public, instead of being folded at home in the arms of parental love. The philanthropists, whose feelings are shocked on the discovery of so much cruelty, at once set to work to devise some petty ameliorations and palliatives. The children must, forsooth, be taken from their parents, and thrust into industrial schools. Or there must be a law passed forbidding children's sale of matches or papers in the streets after a certain hour in the evening. All the while the truth is overlooked, that so sure as the existing cases of parental cruelty and of children's nocturnal street- cries are dealt with, a new crop of children, equally wretched, and equally needing deliver- ance from their parents, will arise to point the finger of scorn at the labours of the philanthropist. " When a tree is evil, and brings forth evil fruit in ceaseless profusion, they do nothing who confine their efforts to the fruit. Clear away one crop, another still succeeds; and so it will be till Philanthropy, tired out, folds her hands and sits down in sheer despair. But to kill the root is to cut off the fruit ; and they who seek to stop the sad fruit of drunken cruelty to children must go down under the cruelty, which is the fruit, to the drunken- ness, which is the stem of the tree, and again below that to the liquor traffic, which is the root. Until this is done nothing is done. The bitter crop removed, renews itself. The hellish bough is torn away from the tree for a moment j but uno avulso, non deficit alter." 258 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Comparison between the revenue re- turns from drink in prosperons year*. Address by Cardinal Manning. Important evidence of Charlt* Perhaps the best and most conclusive proof that drink causes poverty, infinitely more than poverty causes drink, is seen by a comparison of the revenue returns in prosperous and unprosperons years. In the measure that England is prosperous the drink bill increases; on the other hand, in the measure that trade and wages are depressed and the country poorer thereby, the drink bill diminishes ; but if poverty were the cause of drink, it would seem as if this would be exactly reversed, i.e., in years of prosperity there should be less intemperance, and vice versa. " Can it be for a moment imagined that this great commercial country, so wise 'and so skilful in all finance, in all investments, and with its eyes open, can go on year by year wasting a hundred and forty millions of money in the production of intoxicating drink, which when drunk is gone ? Can there be a more complete waste ? Expend it in the drainage of England and the culture of the land, and there would be bread for the hungry mouths of the people. Expend it in manufacture of cloth, and there would be no man and no child without a coat upon his back. Expend it in the building of houses fit for human habitation, and there would not be a working man and his family without a roof over his head. We talk of profitable investments, and then waste a hundred and thirty millions in the most unprofitable investment that can be conceived by the imagination of man. Nay, I will go further. It is not only waste. It has a harvest. It is a great sowing broadcast. And what springs from the furrow ? Deaths ; mortality in every form ; disease of every kind; crime of every dye; madness of every intensity; misery beyond the imagination of man ; sin, which it sur- passes the imagination to conceive." * That poverty, even when honourable and averse to drink, can be coerced by its dire necessities into filling the publican's till is seen in the digest of the Parliamentary evidence on Drunkenness in 1834. " (Charles Saunders called in and examined.) " 333. What is your occupation ? Coal-whipper, * From an address on temperance delivered at Newcastle-on- Tyne, by Cardinal Manning and reported in the Alliance News, Sep. tember 9, 1882. SOCIAL RESULTS. 259 " 334. Have the goodness to state to the committee smderg the manner in which coal-whippers are engaged and paid. p^uL"" 5 I have been in the habit of obtaining a living by coal- J?^*^. whipping for the last ten years. When I want employ- on Drink in ment (me and the likes of me, of course) I have to go to 1S3 ** the publican to get a job, to ask him for a job; and he tells me to go and sit down and he will give me an answer by-and-by. I go and sit down, and if I have twopence in my pocket, of course I am obliged to spend it, with a view of getting a job ; and probably, when two or three hours have elapsed, by that time there is about fifty or sixty people come on the same errand to the same person, for a job. He keeps us three or four hours there ; and then he comes out, and he looks round among us, and he knows those well that can drink the most, and those are the people that obtain employment first. Those that cannot drink a great deal, and think more of their family than others do, cannot obtain any employment ; those that drink the most get the most employment. When the men are made up for the ship, we go to work the next day morning ; but we have to take what the publican calla the allowance, such as a quartern of rum or three half, quarterns, or a pot of beer ; then they have to take a pot of beer off in a bottle on board what he calls beer, but not fit for a man to drink generally speaking ; what I call poison. I have actually teemed it overboard myself, before I could drink it ; I could not drink it, although I have been sweating and as thirsty as a man could be, and have put it overboard, and gone and dipped my bottle in a bucket of water. "337. In the after part of the day, when your work was over, where did you go then? Then when we had done our day's work we came on shore, and we had to go into the house again ; and perhaps we might want a shilling or two to get our families a little support. The landlord would tell us to go and sit down in the taproom, and he would give us some by-and-by, and he would keep us there till nine or ten at night ; first we would go for a pint or a pot, to see whether he was getting ready, for we dared not go empty handed, without a pot or a pint, or to call for something by way of excuse. After keeping us there until nine or ten at night, then he would give us half a crown or three shillings. 260 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. " 340. What would have happened if you had refused to spend money in drink ? Then we could have no employ- ment; and, moreover, if you had had what yon thought was requisite, if he did not think it was sufficient, he would add more than what you had actually contracted for; and if you refused to pay this, and said, 'I have not had so much, I won't pay it ' ' Oh, won't you ? If you do not, here is your money what you say it is ; go out and never come in here again.' " 341. Have you known anybody refused employment because they would not contribute to the publican's demand for drink ? Yes ; I could find fifty. "342. Who have lost their employment because they would not drink so much as the publican wished ? Yes, I could. "343. Could you not engage yourself to the captain of the ship without going to the publican? No; for the publicans are some of them shipowners, and they are all intermixed through the trade by one thing and another, so that the captain or owner of the ship gives the favour to the publican to employ the whippers." Report of A practical illustration of the degradation brought about sanitar ial ^v drink and poverty combined is furnished in the report connnis- of the special sanitary commissioner of the Lancet, made in 1872, in which the social condition of the poor at Liverpool is thus described : * " There is here a form of poverty which can neither be coaxed nor coerced ; fines are useless, imprisonment vain. There are upwards of six thousand cellars occupied by permission of the law, where at night drunkenness and dirt, wretchedness and rags beggar description. The air is redolent with broken sewers and human ordure ; it is polluted with odours of filthy persons, foul rags, and stinking fish. The very walls exhale a stench of vermin and contagion. In not one room in ten is there a bed- stead, in not one a wholesome bed. The inmates lie upon- the floor, from which they are separated by a bit of straw or a bundle of dirty rags. Mothers and sons, fathers and daughters, brothers and sisters, relations and strangers of both sexes, lie indiscriminately together, many * Since this date the sanitary condition of Liverpool sluma has been much improved. SOCIAL RESULTS. 261 of them all but naked, locked in each others' arms for warmth." In this fearful picture we see a condition probably The meaning chiefly due to intemperance, certainly greatly intensified and of such P rt rendered hopeless by it in which all distinctions by which degradation, we know one another as worthy of life, hope, and love have been destroyed. Six thousand such cellars in one city ! Why, then, in that one city alone there must be physical and moral poison enough to infect the whole social structure of the world. But when we remember that Liverpool is not alone, that there is no city without some such compost- heap of vice, and remember, too, that unity of the race which asserts itself, in vice as well as in virtue, over all the most cleverly contrived and impregnable barriers of class and caste, so that there is a mutual trickling and percolating interchange of life-essence through the whole stratification we call society ; then we begin to see some- thing of the tremendous danger and horror of the evil that has been suffered to root itself with the life-roots of the race. To illustrate in part what we mean by saying that the unity of the race overcomes the barriers of caste and class, and asserts itself in vice as in virtue, we may point to the invincible levelling power of the sexual passion the power given to us to inspire us to seek the highest plane of moral being possible to this life, but by which we can, if we will, sound the lowest abysses. It is the one touch of nature making the whole world kin ; making it kin on the pure and lofty plane of true and perfect home-life where sons and daughters grow up in the strengthening light of the unselfish love which first united the husband and wife, and now binds and inspires them in fatherhood and motherhood ; making it kin in the populous world of the merely pleasure-seeking; and again making it kin in those depths where it has sunk into the low and ravenous sensual instinct of prey. Wherever man exists, this one power, dominating for good or ill, is our common inheritance and keeps oblite- rating all external distinctions, drawing the race together, and cementing life-relations in the present, and for posterity, despite the strongest contrast and most insur- mountable obstacles. 262 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Out of some of those six thousand cellars in Liverpool nests of utmost vice and degradation as they are some young girl may emerge, who, in spite of rags and dirt and every bad inheritance, may be fair, may have both wit and pretty looks enough to catch the fancy of some gentleman's son ; and if drink has done its usual work of strangling the moral life within him, as inheritance and environments have done it for her the worst wrong that may follow does follow, and if a child is born and lives, it may by an advance in mental endowment take its vile moral heritage where yet wider nemesis will be wrought. For if those who dwell always in the safety and refine- ment of real homes, imagine that the slums and dens of vice are far from them and theirs that there can be nothing in common between them, we must in conscience hint that they may be making the dangerous mistake of tinder-estimating the damning power of alcohol to obliterate just those refined distinctions in which they trust. Alcohol can and does lead the husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons of just such prosperous homes into just such pits of infamy. They do not go at once and with their eyes open, but step by step, as surely as the drinking habit is once formed. For alcohol is not satisfied with making men act weakly and wrongly ; it will have them gravitate to worse and worse, and is cunning to devise always some lower and more blasting shame. It develops also that other cunning of madness, quickness and watchful subtlety to veil its ravages and deceive the solicitude of loving ones. And the result is not only that besides the family we know of, sheltered under the same roof with us, there are half- brothers and half-sisters whom we never know, homeless wanderers in friendless guilt and shame, or tenants of early graves that cry louder than Abel's blood; but the evil comes home and the good wife and mother is made to un- consciously impart the secret poison to her latest born. "Wfcj Under the heading, " Why should London wait ? " the don u wait t- Daily Telegraph (October 25, 1883) says, " It is, however, be- nSara h, 8^ nn ^ n & * ^ e known what cruel sights and scenes the wealth Oct. 25,1883. and magnificence of London conceal. Men, women, and children by hundreds of thousands exist among us in a condition which savages would scorn and beasts refuse to bear. Without light, air, fresh water, or any of the veriest SOCIAL RESULTS. 263 necessities of human life, they are forced to congregate in places where not only morality but the merest decency becomes impossible. A majority among them are indus- trious and patient people, eager to work while they can ; for thieves, prostitutes, tramps, and beggars are, most of them, better lodged than the victims of the vestry and the caucus whose cause is now at stake. Into rotten and reek- ing tenements they are driven helplessly by the process which rebuilds the capital without making rightful provi- sion for its weakest citizens, and their cry is drowned and their sorrows overwhelmed in the ocean of existence which surges around them. ' Every room,' says an explorer, ' in these rotten and reeking tenements houses a family, often two. In one cellar a sanitary inspector reports finding a father, mother, three children, and four pigs ! In a room a missionary discovered a man ill with small-pox, his wife 3 u st recovering from h er eighth confine ment, and the children running about half -naked and covered with dirt. Here are seven people living in one underground kitchen, and a little dead child lying in the same chamber. Elsewhere is a poor widow, her three children, and a child who had been dead thirteen days. Her husband, who was a cabman, had shortly before committed suicide. Here lives a widow and her six children, including one daughter of twenty-nine, one of twenty-one, and a son of twenty-seven. Another apartment contains father, mother, and six children, two of whom are ill with scarlet fever. In another nine brothers and sisters, from twenty-nine years downwards, live, eat, and sleep together. Here is a mother who turns her children into the street in the early evening because she lets her room for immoral purposes until long after midnight, when the poor little wretches creep back again, if they have not found some miserable shelter elsewhere.' Where there are beds they are simply heaps of dirty rags, shavings, or straw. Crime also, as a matter of course, spreads like a fungus in decaying timber, where a child must make fifty-six gross of match-boxes a day to earn the ten shillings a week which thieving will easily bring him. There are women who work at the needle seventeen hours per diem for the pay of one shilling ! In St. George's-in-the-East large numbers of children toil with their tiny fingers all day making sacks at a farthing apiece ! One poor woman was found, con- 264 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. sumptive and emaciated, with a drunken husband and five starving children ' eating a few green peas.' In a room at Wych Street, ' on the third floor, over a marine store dealer's, there was, a short time ago, an inquest as to the death of a little baby. A man, his wife, and three children were living in that room. The infant was the second child, who had died, poisoned by the foul atmosphere ; and this dead baby was cut open in the one room where its parents and brothers and sisters lived, ate, and slept, because the parish had no mortuary and no room in which post- mortems could be performed ! ' In such abodes what room is there for honesty, or faith, or hope ? Virtue herself departs, ashamed, hopeless, and silent, from ' homes ' where she has nothing to offer, nothing to promise ; where Vice itself is so miserable that it is more to be pitied than reproached. " These are but slight and simple examples of the state of things prevalent in the capital of Great Britain ; widely, notoriously, terribly prevalent ; of cases to be paralleled by thousands and scores of thousands behind the splendid streets and wealthy squares of London." ne Bitter From the little pamphlet entitled The Bitter Cry of London Outcast London* we quote the following (showing the close relation between drink, poverty, and shame) : " The low parts of London are the sink into which the filthy and abominable from all parts of the country seem to flow. Entire courts are filled with thieves, prostitutes, and libe- rated convicts. The misery and sin caused by drink iii these districts have often been told, but these horrors can never be set forth either by pen or artist's pencil. In the district of Euston Road is one public-house to every hundred people, counting men, women, and children. Children who can scarcely walk are taught to steal, and mercilessly beaten if they come back from their daily expeditions without money or money's worth. Many of them are taken by the hand or carried in the arms to the gin-palace, and not seldom may you see mothers urging and compelling their tender infants to drink the fiery liquid. Lounging at the doors, and lolling out of windows, and prowling about street corners were pointed out several well-known members of the notorious band of ' Forty Thieves,' who, often in conspiracy with abandoned women, go out after dark to * Issued by the Committee of the London Congregational Union. SOCIAL RESULTS. 265 rob people in Oxford Street, Regent Street, and other thoroughfares. These particulars indicate but faintly the moral influences from which the dwellers in these squalid regions have no escape, and by which is bred ' infancy that knows no innocence, youth without modesty or shame, maturity that is mature in nothing but suffering and guilt, blasted old age that is a scandal on the name we bear.' " 65. The mortalityfrom drink has been a much-disputed Mortality question, and the many public utterances by men accounted from drink> both competent and veracious have for some reason re- ceived but slight attention from the public ; and it is perhaps not well known that the average figures now generally accepted as approximately true have been com- puted as long ago as in 1839. In the Rev. B. Parsons' statement bj Anti-Bacchus (1839) we find the following : "At an inquest w^ley in held June, 1839, on a person who had died from the effects 1839. of intemperauce, Mr. Wakley, coroner, made these remarks : ' I think intoxication likely to be the cause of one-half the inquests that are held.' Mr. Bell, the clerk of the inquests, observed ' that the proportion of deaths so occasioned were supposed to be three out of five. 1 ' Then,' said Mr. Wakley, ' there are annually 1500 inquests in the Western Division of Middlesex, and, according to that ratio, nine hundred of the deaths are produced by hard drinking.' On another occasion Mr. Wakley said, ' Gin may be thought the best friend I have ; it causes me to hold annually one thousand inquests more than I should otherwise hold. Besides these, I have reason to believe that from ten to fifteen thousand persons in this metropolis die annually from the effects of gin-drinking, upon whom no inquests are held.' These remarks appeared in most of the public papers of the time, and are the more valuable because Mr. Wakley, not long before he became coroner, spoke in the House of Commons rather sneeringly of teetotalers ; the observations made ab.ove were therefore extorted from him by the scenes he had witnessed." In his Mortality of Intemperance (London, 1879) Dr. Testimony Kerr says, " When, a few years ago, I instituted an man^m inquiry into the causes contributing to the mortality in the practice of several medical friends, it was with the avowed object of demonstrating and exposing the utter falsity of 266 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the perpetual teetotal assertion, that 60,000 drunkards died every year in the United Kingdom. " I had not long pursued this line of inquiry before it was made clear to me that there was little, if any, exagge- ration in these temperance statistics ; and when asked to present the final results of my investigation to the last Social Science Congress, I was compelled to admit that at least 120,000 of our population annually lost their lives through alcoholic excess 40,500 dying from their own in- temperance, and 79,500 from accident, violence, poverty, or disease arising from the intemperance of others." The Harveian Society Report concludes that fourteen per cent, of the mortality among adults is due to alcohol ; i.e., about 39,000 in England and Wales, or 52,000 in Great Britain ; thus the Harveian computation exceeds Dr. Kerr's by 11,500. On the occasion of the Jubilee of the British Medical Association (held at Worcester, August, 1882), Dr. Kerr reiterated his statements, and no one disputed their accuracy ; it was even admitted that he was within the truth. sir Wm. Gull In a June number of the Echo (1883) appeared a powerful plea for the protection of infants, entitled Alco- holic Infanticide. It stated that Sir W. Gull considered alcohol as the " most destructive agent among the causes of infant mortality," and cited the evidence of the coroners concerning the fearfully frequent suffocation of helpless little ones under the heavy bodies of their torpidly drunk mothers a kind of accident known as " overlaying ; " and alluded to the weekly records of child-murder committed, not from stupidity, but in the direct violence of the drink- frenzy, by braining the babe or casting it in the fire. The Echo quoted Darwin, and Drs. Edis, Eichardson, Bree, and Elam, as testifying to great infant mortality from driuk, and to the evil hereditary results for those who survived. The Lancet of about the same date suggested a frightful significance for the overlaying mortality, to the effect that it was by no means always accidental. Mortality An appalling and pathetic feature in the drink mortality defers iiqu r ^' anc ^ a most conclusive proof that drink is a foundation SOCIAL RESULTS. 267 of death, is furnished by the statistics of death among the liquor dealers themselves. Dr. Kerr, in the essay just quoted from, says, " The Estimate of mortality of publicans is so serious that the Registrar- General's reports show that 138 die for every 100 em- ployed in 70 leading occupations ; and in his last annual report he draws attention to the remarkable increase in the rate of mortality among grocers at every group of ages since they have begun to retail spirits." Mr. David Lewis, ex-magistrate of the city of Edin- statement burgh, in his Drink Problem and its Solution (1881), says rtevidLewis. " So frequent have premature deaths become among publicans, that one of the most wealthy and popular life assurance associations in the kingdom (the Scottish Widows' Fund) has issued a circular to all its agents in- structing them that in future the life of no publican can be insured upon any terms whatever. This example, we observe, is being followed by several other associations in this country and America." And the General Assurance Office, on the 18th of February, 1881, issued a notice, which stated " That in consequence of the excessive mortality experienced in the case of innkeepers whose lives have been assured with the company, it is hereby notified that from this date the directors will not undertake these risks on any terms." Concerning the mortality among public-house keepers, statement Dr. Edmunds, in his Use of Alcohol as a Medicine (1867), Edmunds, says " You will find that thirty per thousand of those die every year where the normal average of other men is fifteen that is, where one workman dies two publicans die. Can we account for that in any way ? What should we expect if we looked into these facts ? The publican is better clothed than the working man ; he is better housed and better fed, and less exposed to casualty and accident which occur to men in laborious, mechanical, and other trades ; and therefore we should expect that the publican would live longer than the ordinary working man. And so he would, if it were not for this one fact which comes in he is mixed up with alcoholic liquors ; he is not, as a rule, a drunkard, but he takes that which damages his stomach, 268 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. a good many times a day, out of compliment to some friend who asks him to take a drink ! " Relative As to the relative healthfulness of temperance or drink nd the tables yearly made up by the United Kingdom Temper- ance &n ^ General Provident Institution for Mutual Life Insurance (established 1840) afford conclusive practical Temperance evidence. The secretary of this institution, Mr. Thomas and General Cash, kindly furnished us with the following condensed but lucid statement : for Mutual Life Insurance. TEMPERANCE SECTION. GENERAL SECTION. Expected Expected Claims. Actual. Claims. Actual. 1866-70 (five years) 549 411 ...... 1008 944 1871-75 (five years) 723 511 ...... 1268 1330 1876-80 (five years) 933 651 ...... 1485 1480 1881-82 (two years) 439 288 ...... 647 585 Total (17 years) ... 2644 1861 ...... 4408 4339 It will be seen from this that the claims in the tem- perance section are only a little over seventy per cent, of the expectancy, while in the general section they are but slightly below the expectancy. statement of Mr. W. B. Robinson, formerly Chief Constructor, R.N., Robinson!' Portsmouth, in a paper on The Value of Life being increased chief Conl jjy taking no Intoxicating Drinks, read before the Economic structor, Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, September 22, 1883, said that " The Sceptre Life Association states that during 'the eighteen years of our history ending December 31, 1882, we had 116 deaths in our temperance section, against 270 expected deaths,' and in ' this year, 1883, the same disproportion prevails, as we have had fifty-one deaths, and only seven of them on the lives of abstainers, whereas to be equal with non-abstainers there should have been nineteen.' "In the Emperor Life Assurance Office they have a temperance branch, and they assure lives at a 'less rate than moderate drinkers, thus giving them an immediate bonus of from 3 to 7, according to age, on each 100 assurance.' "In some accidental offices the assumed superior lives SOCIAL RESULTS. 269 of abstainers is recognized by a charge of 20 per cent, less to teetotal than to moderate drinkers." * 66. Schlegel said, when this century was in its dawn Schiegei on " Drinking is the principal cause of insanity and suicide in Su^of in _ England, Germany, and Russia, of licentiousness and ^ C i 1 ^ r e and gambling in France, and of bigotry in Spain." Dr. F. Ganghofner, of Prague, in his address on the Influence of Akohol on Man (Prague, 1880), says, "It is estimated that in the asylums of America, England, and Holland, the total number insane from drink ranges from in America, 15 to 20 per cent., and from 20 to 28 per cent, in the Hofund.' and asylums of France." In the Journal of Mental Science (April, 1869), Dr. Dr. Lock- Lockhart Robertson computes for England and Germany, ^ri^om-' in 1844, one lunatic to every 808 inhabitants, and in 1868 ^ ta a f , one lunatic for every 432 inhabitants. Germany!" The third report on intemperance before the Select House of Committee of the House of Commons shows, from 1865 to 1875, an increase in population of 13 per cent., in lunacy from ises of 67 per cent., and in drunkenness of 130 per cent. Mr. Hoyle states that "The number of lunatics in Mr.Hoyieon asylums and workhouses in the United Kingdom will be ?nanit y C m slightly over 100,000, besides many not in asylums. In England and England and Wales, in the year 1860, there were 38,038, but in 1880 they had increased to 71,191, being nearly double, although the population had only increased 28 per cent." And we may add that, according to the last report of the L&8t ^P * r\ T ii T-^IJ.- oftheCJom- Uommissioners 01 .Lunacy, the total number ot lunatics, missioners of idiots, and persons of unsound mind, registered as being Lunac 7-; insane, in England and Wales, on the 1st of January, 1883, was 76,765 ! " Dr. Edgar Shepherd, Medical Superintendent of Colney Dr. sh e P- Hatch Lunatic Asylum, stated a few years ago publicly that meat! Bta he believed that 40 per cent, of the insanity in Great Britain was the result of drink, f In his annual report for * For further information on this most practical point, see The Comparative Death-Rate of Total Abstainers and Moderate Drinkers, by Dr. C. E. Drysdale, in Med. Temp. Journal (Jan., 1884), The Vital Statistics of Total Abstinence, by the Bev. Dawson Burns (March, 1884). t Med. Chirurgical Journal, 1876- 270 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 1877, Dr. Shepherd repeated this statement in these words: "A careful analysis of the year's admissions clearly established a percentage of more than 28 as due to this cause (intemperance), and I am persuaded, from the character of the individuals and the form of their malady, in other cases where the causation is not assigned or can- not accurately be traced, that an addition of 12 per cent, may directly or indirectly be attached to the same origin. Thus we have an approximate record of 40 per cent, of the madness of Middlesex as due to an avoidable cause, and that cause the growing passion for drink." And again in January, 1882, he said, " I have seen no reason to alter my opinion, so frequently expressed, as to the part played by alcoholic intemperance in its causal relation to insanity. No doubt many cases occur in which some mental disturbance, generated by what is termed a moral cause notably loss of money or friends leads, in the first place, to excessive imbibition; but I am per- suaded that the prime mover of all that is disarranging is intemperance." And Dr. Pritchard Davies, Medical Superintendent of the Banning Heath Asylum, says in the report for November, 1883, "Believing, as I do, that the predis- posing causes of insanity are very numerous, I am equally convinced that but for the potent exciter alcohol, insanity would be decreased by at least 50 per cent." statements Earl Shaftesbury, permanent chairman of the Lunacy ShJtesbury Commission since 1845 (and acting chairman for many years, having been on the Commission some fifty years), in his reply to Rt. Hon. Stephen Cave, chairman of the Lunacy Commission of the House of Commons, 1877, said that in his opinion " intemperance is the cause of fully two-thirds of the insanity that prevails either in the drunkards themselves or their children ; " and in a recent address in the House of Lords he stated that " fully six-tenths of all the cases of insanity to be found in these realms and in America arise from no other cause than intem- perance." * * The table of causes from the thirty-seventh Report of the Commissioners of Lunacy, July, 1883 (see Appendix), shows that to this percentage of lunacy we may fairly add a large percentage of the other causes as being indirectly occasioned by drink (heredity SOCIAL RESULTS. 271 Mr. Mulhall, the world-statistician, in his contribution on Insanity, Suicide, and Civilization, to the Contemporary Review (June, 1883), scouts Lord Shaftesbury's estimate, but admits that insanity in England caused by drink amounts to nearly one-third of the total insanity of the British kingdom ; besides which, he numbers 25,800 idiots as owing their condition to drunken parentage. Dr. Gilchrist, Medical Superintendent of the Crichton Dr. on- Royal Institution, Dumfries, which has an average of mony." te ' some five hundred inmates yearly, stated before the Lunacy Commission of 1877 that the larger proportion of dipsomaniacs are " the most hopeless, in fact, of all cases of insanity ; they are constitutionally defective." Mr. Heaton, one of the Commissioners of Lunacy, recently mentioned to me a case of a brilliant lady who had now for the thirtieth time been brought to the asylum insane from drink. In the above-mentioned article Mr. Mulhall also makes this peculiar statement : " No one ever yet went mad from wine, any more than from eating cabbage, although the ancients had that im- pression.f It is when nations discard the use of wine for stronger stimulants that insanity spreads devastation among the masses." French statistics of deaths for 1883 show that in threo French provinces, whose population was not one-tenth of that in five others, but whose consumption of drink was three times as great, there were 140 suicides, while in the other five departments there were only sixteen ! As at least 20 to 28 per cent, of the insanity in French asylums is alcoholic, and as wine is the chief drink of the Frenchman, the question is was it wine or cabbage ? In a letter to the Times (September 5, 1883), William Mr . Hoyi* Hoyle says, " The returns of lunacy show that its increase ^ 1 c co ^ lic has been even greater than that of crime. In 1852 the England unj numbers of lunatics in England and Wales were 21,158 ; in Wales> 1881 the numbers were 73,113." over one-half), and that therefore Lord Shaftesbury's report is not likely to prove an exaggeration when this subject has received even more close scientific investigation. f And worse " Ats Kpappr) 6d.va.Tos," Cabbage twice is death ! 272 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Dr. T. S. Clouston,* in his lecture on The Effects of the Excessive use of Alcohol on the Mental Functions of the Brain, delivered to the students of the University of Edinburgh (December 19, 1883), said, " We know as a statistical fact that from fifteen to twenty per cent, of the actual insanity of the country is produced by the excessive use of alcohol. In that case, as we have about one person to every three hundred in the population insane, it follows that one person in every two thousand of our people, counting men, women, and children, become insane, and deprived of their reason, of their power of action, of their power of enjoyment, and of their personal liberty from this cause. This makes about 17,500 persons at any one given time in the British Empire who are so incapacitated by reason of mental alienation, produced through the excessive and continuous use of alcohol. These people are as good as dead while they are insane ; they do no work for the world or in the world, and all that makes life worth having to them, they are deprived of. In these cases you have got to the acme of the bad effects of alcohol on the mental functions of the brain ; you have arrived, as it were, at the worst that alcohol can do to a man's mental functions, and you will all admit that it is a bad enough result, and it occurs in the large number of cases I have mentioned. "But you must remember that these numbers are merely of those so well known as to be available for statistics, merely the registered persons who have been so ill as to have been sent to asylums through the excessive use of alcohol. For every one of these who had become really insane, there are no doubt a large number who have become partially affected in mind, but not to such an extent as that it has been necessary to deprive them of their liberty, but who, nevertheless, are affected in mind through the excessive use of alcohol to some extent, and who are many of them partially insane." And W. J. Corbet, M.P., in a striking paper, Is Insanity on the Increase ? (Fortnightly Review, April, 1884) says that after being engaged " for many years, and under special circumstances, in studying the statistics of insanity, * Physician Superintendent of the Royal Edinburgh Asylnm at Morniugside, the largest insane asylum in Scotland. SOCIAL RESULTS. 27S I have reluctantly come to tlie conclusion that facts and figures establish clearly the progressive growth of the malady." He summarizes his facts and figures in the subjoined table : Date. Country. No. of insane. Population. Ratio of insane per 1000. 1862 1872 1882 Eugland Ireland Scotland Total England Ireland Scotland Total England Ireland Scotland Total 41,129 8^055 6,341 20,336,476 5,798,967 3,062,294 2- r 2-1 55,525 29,197,737 1-81 58,640 10,767 7,606 23,074,600 5,368,696 3,339,226 2-54 2-04 2-26 77,013 31,782,522 2-41 75,072 13,444 10,335 25,798,922 5,294,436 3,695,456 2'90 2-c4 2-80 98,851 34,788,814 2-8 And thus comments thereon: "It is singular to note that, save that the ratio of insane to sane is greatest in England and least in Ireland, the conditions through- out are so alike as to be almost identical. The actual growth of numbers is continuous and regular, as if influenced by some inscrutable law ; there is a steady unchecked current of increase, in accommodation, expen- diture, numbers, and, strangest of all, in ' cures.' It would be only wearisome to enter more fully into statisti- cal details ; any one who wishes and has leisure caii scrutinize them for himself. The plain fact stands out, however others may try to disguise it in words, that in the brief course of two decades the insane in the three kingdoms have nearly doubled in number, in spite of the most elaborate and costly means provided to cure them. There is, moreover, another alarming feature, in that we evidently do not yet know the worst. The ominous words, ' inadequate accommodation ' and ' increase T 274 THE FOUNDATION OP DEATH. of provision,' run through the whole series of reports from beginning to end." After saying that alcohol is a chief cause in the pro- duction of insanity, and having quoted the already mentioned statement made by Lord Shaftesbury before the Select Committee, Mr. Corbet says " I go a step further, and hold that there is abundant evidence to prove that to dissipation, drunkenness, and moral depravity, either directly or consequentially by transmission to the next generation, is to be charged an immense proportion of the annual increase of lunacy. No person of authority, I think, will be found to deny that evil and corrupt living in the parents bears fruit in an unhealthy state both of body and mind in their offspring. In the lower animals the transmission not only of generic qualities, but even of individual singularities, is a familiar fact ; so with mankind it is not to be expected that a pure stream will issue from a polluted source ; and how foul and corrupt that source must be, any one who sees the habits of the swarms of unfortunate creatures who nightly crowd the streets of any of our great cities may determine for himself. ... It is said that people nowadays are impatient of restraint, and betray a tendency to abandon all attempt at self-discipline and to yield to every impulse, whether good or bad. If true, it is sad indeed, for it is, and from time immemorial has been, an indication of national decay. The great empires of old perished, not from sudden and violent convulsions, but from the moral degradation of their people, fi'om internal rottenness amounting to national insanity. Quern deus vult perdere prius dementat." In Sanger's History of Prostitution, its Extent, Causes, Sou" a and Effects (New York, 1858), we read prostitution " Apart fr m the drinking system, which I believe to be the most prolific source of prostitution in Britain, the following may be stated as among the principal causes : one-fourth from being servants in inns and public-houses and beer-shops, etc. Were the disuse of alcoholic drinks, except under medical treatment, to become general, in six months we should be rid of prostitution by at least one- half."* * In the House of Commons' Committee on Drink (1834) it was SOCIAL RESULTS. 275 In a summing up of the general results brought about Summnry of in this country (England) by drink, we can hardly do better drink^id n than quote the results summarized in the voluminous report J^* * he on drink laid before the Belgian Chambers of Representa- clumbers by tives by the then Minister of Instruction, Frere-Orban Jj^Sj 11 ** (Brussels, 1868), in which the following facts are given as the drink results for England : 1. Nine-tenths of the paupers (of whom, according t Hoyle, there were over three and a half millions in 1881). 2. Three-fourths of the criminals. 3. One-half tlie diseases. 4. One-third of the insanity. 5. Three-fourths of the depravity of children and young people. 6. One-third of the shipwrecks. As to the condition in Belgium, the London Daily News (March 8, 1884) says : "A statement just issued by the Belgian Patriotic League against Drunkenness thus sums up the present aspect of the great drink question in Belgium : The number of public-houses in that country, which was 53,000 in 1850, had increased to 125,000 in 1880, and is now 130,000. The number of suicides during the last forty years has increased 80 per cent., the number of insane 104 per cent. ; of convicts 135 per cent. Of the workmen who die in the hospitals 80 per cent, are habitual drunkards. The conclusion arrived at by the league is that the Belgians are the most intemperate people in the world." 67. As to the United States, Mr. H. A. Thompson read an able paper at the Melbourne International Conference, 1880, in which he said " Dr. Edward Young, chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Dr ^^^ Washington, estimated the cost of liquor to the nation in Young on the 1867 to be about 600,000,000 dollars. The estimate should Sto^ra of be much greater now. Dr. Hargreaves, in Our Wasted the United Resources (New York, 1876), makes the cost in 1872 to be Sti 735,720,048 dollars. Add to this direct cost the conse- quential cost, and we have a drain upon the nation annually of 1,500,000,000 dollars. Upon the basis of Dr. Young, stated that at a dinner-party where the guests were nearly all dis- tillers, one of them gave this'toast " The distillers' best friend, th poor prostitutes of London ! " 276 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the cost of intoxicating beverages in the United States was one-sixth of the value of its manufactures, which in 1870 were 4,232,325,442 dollars ; one-fourth of all the farm pro- ductions and additions of stock in that year, valued at 2,447,538,658 dollars. All the slaughtered animals, home manufactures, fruit products, market garden and orchard products, which were in value 527,242,403 dollars, were 92,182,707 dollars less than the cost of our nation's drink bill. In the same year our drink bill was 145,621,273 dollars more than the value of all furniture and house fixtures . . . which were valued at 473,803,837 dollars, and of all the articles of weai', including boots and shoes, hats and caps, hosiery, etc., manufactured in the country. Again, the value of all the food preparations of 1870 was 19,059,539 dollars less than the cost of the nation's drink bill. We are shown by the same author that the cost of liquor for ten years is nearly two-thirds of the assessed value (9,914,780,825 dollars) of all the real estate in the United States ; while the assessed value of all the personal property (4,264,205,907 dollars) is but little more than two-thirds of our drink bill for ten years." Mr. Powell, And at the Crystal Palace Temperance Jubilee fSep- SJrJjS; tember, 1882), Mr. Powell, of New York, read a paper of industry of the same import, stating that sutS mted "There were in 1881, 5210 distilleries. These consumed 31,291,146 bushels of grain, with an aggregate production of 117,728,150 gallons of proof spirits. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882, the total amount of revenue to the National Treasury from distilled spirits was 69,873,408.18 dollars ; from fermented liquors 16,153,920.42 dollars. The total beer production for the same period, as reported to the Internal Revenue Department, was 16,952,085 barrels. A brewers' authority gives the number of breweries at 2830, and estimates that there are 1,681,870 acres of land under cultivation for barley and hops. The author of Our Wasted Resources gives the annual liquor bill of the United States at 735,000,000 dollars. In 1880, according to the record of the Internal Revenue Department, there were of wholesale dealers in distilled spirits, 4065 ; of retail dealers, 1 66,891 ; of wholesale dealers in fermented liquors, 2065 ; of retail dealers, 8952 ; an aggregate of both whole- sale and retail dealers in both distilled and fermented SOCIAL RESULTS. 277 liquors of 181,973. Counting 1000 to a regiment, we have a liquor-selling army of 181 regiments, commissioned by the Government of the United States to perpetuate the kingdom of unrighteousness and to obstruct the onward progress of the temperance reform." A recent number of the National Temperance Advocate of New York gives the following summary of liquor revenue in the United Sta ,tes : New York Fiscal years ended Receipts from dis- tilled spirits. Receipts from fer- mented liquors. on the liquor revenue of the United June 30. Dollars. Dollars. States (1863- 1863 ... ... 5,176,530 .... .. 1,628,934 1882). 1864 30,329,149 .... .. 2,290,009 1865 . 18,731,422 ,... 3,734,928 1866 33,268,172 .... .. 5,220,553 . 1867 ... ... 33,542,952 .... .. 6,057,501 1868 18,655,631 .... . 5,955,769 1869 ... ... 45,071,231 .. . .. 6,099,879 1870 55,606,094 .... .. 6,319,127 1871 ... ... 46,281,818 .... .. 7,389,502 1872 49,475,516 .... .. 8,258,498 1873 ... ... 52,099,372 .... 9,324,938 1874 49,444,090 .... .. 9,304,680 1875 ... ... 52,081,991 .... .. 9,144,004 1876 56,426,365 .... .. 9,571,281 1877 ... ... 57,469,430 .... .. 9,480,789 1878 50,420,816 .... 9,937,052 1879 ... ... 52,570,285 .... .. 10,729,320 1880 61,185,509 .... .. 12,829,803 1881 ... 67,153,975 .... .. 13,700,241 1882 69,873,408 .... .. 16,153,920 Total dollars 904,863,756 163,130,728 The Evening Standard (February 10, 1883), quoting from the just issued report of the National Bureau of Statistics for the United States, says " The consumption (not manufactured) of distilled spirits during the years 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882 respectively, was 57,111,982, 54,278,475, 63,526,694, 70,607,081, and 73,556,036 gallons. For the same years the consumption of wines, native and foreign, was 19,812,675, 24,532,015, 28,484,428, 24,231,106, and 25,628,071 gallons. But the chief increase has been in malt liquors, which aggre- gated 310,653,253, 345,076,118, 414,771,690, 444,806,373, and 527,051,236 gallons. 4-s to the drink traffic in New York city, the New YorJf London ^mi/rdo liquor con- tiTunu'ed" states. 278 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The New York Berald on the num- ber of rum- shops in New York City. Dr. Howard Crosby on subject. The condi- tion of Bir- mingham in this respect ; the evidence of Mr. J. Chamber- lain, M.P. The Pall Mall Gazelle on the num- ber of public- houses in! proportion to the in- habitants of the various States of the Union. Herald (February 26, 1883) comments to the effect that there are over ten thousand rum shops in the city of New York, or one to every 125 inhabitants, one to every 25 families. " Various shops and stores where bread, meat, and groceries can be procured foot up 7326 ; in other words, there are 2749 more rum shops than food shops in New York city." But, as regards London, as long ago as 1835, Mr. Mark Moore, in his evidence before the Parlia- mentary committee on drink, stated that the number of places for the sale of distilled spirits exceeded that of bakers, butchers, and fishmongers together. In a lecture delivered also in 1883, on the Glory and Shame of New York, Dr. Howard Crosby said that there were 12,000 grog shops in New York city, or one to every hundred inhabitants. But Great Britain furnishes figures equally deplorable. For example, at the annual licensing sessions held at Birmingham, September 6, 1883, deputations from the Good Templars and the United Kingdom Alliance " pre- sented memorials against the granting of new licences, and urged the magistrates to withhold others which were not absolutely necessary. Birmingham, it was stated, had 2240 licensed houses, or one to every 35 inhabited houses ; and the Bight Hon. J. Chamberlain, M.P , in his evidence before the Lords Committee on Intemperance (1879), stated that " out of seventy large towns, fifty have more public-houses than Birmingham." Concerning public-houses in America, the Pall Mall Gazette for May 4, 1883, furnishes the following statistics : " In Nevada there is one drinking saloon to every 65 inhabitants; in Colorado, one to every 76; in California, one to every 99; the rest of the States supplying the following number of inhabitants to each drinking saloon : Oregon, 176; New Jersey, 179; New York, 192; Louisiana, 200: Ohio, 225; Connecticut, 246; Massa- chusetts, 256 ; Delaware, 258 ; Pennsylvania, 263 ; Rhode Island, 266; Illinois, 267; Maryland, 293; Wisconsin, 304; Minnesota, 311 ; Missouri, 337 ; Michigan, 350 ; New Hampshire, 376; Iowa, 377; Indiana, 380; Kentucky, 438; Nebraska, 487; Tennessee, 525; Texas, 549; Arkansas, 554; Alabama, 608; Georgia, 612; Florida, 653; Missis- sippi, 654; Virginia, 693; North Carolina, 708; Maine, SOCIAL RESULTS. 379 791; Vermont, 812; West Virginia, 817; Kansas, 876; and South Carolina, 708. It thus appears that the twelve States in which there were fewest drinking saloons were all Southern, except Vermont, and leaving out, of course, Maine and Kansas, in which States drinking saloons are prohibited by law." Dr. Lee, of Philadelphia, in Report of Insanity (1868), Dr. Lee on gave for the year 1860 one insane person to every 1305 insanity inhabitants, and in 1868, one to every 700. In his Insanity and Insane Asylums (Sacramento, 1872), Dr. E. T. Wilkins, Commissioner in Lunacy for the State of Cali- fornia, states (p. 211) that he is of opinion intoxication is a far mightier cause of mental diseases than all other causes put together. In Alcoholic Insanity (New York, 1883), Dr. Lewis D. Mason says, " In a study of 600 cases of inebriety treated at the Inebriate Asylum, Fort Hamilton, I found that 166 persons had 309 attacks of alcoholic mania in some form at various times during their periods of alcoholic addiction. In the annual report of the New York State Lunatic Asylum for 1883, of the 412 cases tabulated, in 32, or in a little less than one in 13, ' intemperance ' was stated as the exciting cause." The last United States census shows that there has been a most alarming increase in the number of lunatics and idiots during the last decade; while the population has increased by 30 per cent., the increase of the insane is given as a little over 155 per cent. In his Manual of Psychological Medicine (New York, Dr. Mann, of 1883), Dr. Mann says, "It is impossible to estimate the ' complex influences that intemperance exerts in the produc- tion of insanity. All observers agree that it is intimately connected with, and is one of the main exciting causes of, insanity. . . . Many superintendents of foreign asylums have estimated the admissions from intemperance at 25 per cent, or higher, including not only the proximate but remote cause of the disease. This percentage will be largely increased if we take into account the great number of cases in which intemperance of parents causes the insanity or idiocy of their offspring. Dr. L. Lunier estimates that 50 per cent, of all the idiots and imbeciles to be found 280 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. in the large cities of Europe have had parents who were notorious drunkards." . And in the Reviie des deux Mondes (1872) Maxime du Camp on the Camp says that the frequency of mental diseases in Paris fo^anuTof " * s V6I 7 l ar g e ly attributable to the insobriety which has Pans during enormously increased there during the last two years; B siege. that in the siege the workman drank more than he fought, and under the Commune drink was given out to make them fight; that in nine months' time Paris consumed five times as much alcohol as formerly in one year, with the results of prevalence of delirium tremens, and the destructive outbreak of petrolomania. Dr. Baer on Speaking of the general passion for drink in France, ttata"" F Dr - Baer > in h is AlcohoUsmiM (Berlin, 1878), deplores the caused b rmy e ^ ec * ^ *^ s ev ^ on * ne nation, and states that "unpreju- drink. y diced and highly intelligent men attribute the severe defeats in the last war with Germany in no small degree to the disorder, want of discipline, and incapability of resistance which has been produced and nurtured in the French army by the predominant craving for drink in both military and civil life.* " During the siege, Paris was seized by a mental epidemic of acute alcoholism, and alcoholism is one of the principal sources of the deeds of abomination and shame occurring with the rising of the Commune." Official statistics show that in 1882 there were 13,434 admissions to the French asylums. Of these, 10,184 were new cases. The total number treated in these asylums during the year was 58,760, of whom 31,000 were women and 27,000 were men; and it is estimated that a large * In his Hereditary Alcoholism (Medical Thesis, Paris, 1880), Dr. Gendron says " If we require proofs of the effects of alcoholic heredity on stature and muscular strength, we surely find them in the recruiting registers, which show that certain districts where alcoholism prevails cannot famish the required average of conscripts. The arrondissement of Domfront, in Normandy, consumes proportionately the lai'gest amount of alcohol; in that arrondissement the canton of Pussais and the commune of Mantilly especially are notable for excessive drinking ; even if all the able-bodied men were taken in Pussais, the recruitment would still be insufficient, and Mantilly is in this respect below all other communes." SOCIAL RESULTS. 281 proportion of this yearly augmenting increase is due to alcoholism. Dr. E. Lanceraux, in his essay On Alcoholism and its Consequences (Paris, 1878), charges alcoholism with being a principal cause of the decrease in the population of France and other countries. "Assisted by tuberculosis," says Dr. Lanceraux, " alcoholism has long been one of the principal causes of decreased population in many quarters of the world. These two causes united have contributed much more than iron or fire to more and more reduce the number of natives of North and South America. To this also is due the progressive disparity among the inhabitants of a great number of islands in the Pacific ; notably the Marquesas, Sandwich, Tahiti, and others. But we need only to observe what is going on in our own midst to recognize alcohol as a cause of depopulation. Many statisticians and economists are justly alarmed at the decrease in population of one of the most favoured provinces in France, and each furnishes his own ex- planation of the fact. If we examine into the matter we find that in Normandy, where a great quantity of brandy is distilled, alcoholism is most rampant. The notion prevails there that it is necessary to give infants wine and liquor in order to strengthen them. This pernicious habit, together with the general alcoholic excesses so common in Normandy, undoubtedly form one of the principal sources of the decreasing population of this rich province." In a recent address before the National Association for Dr. Baer, of the Protection of the Insane,* Dr. Baer said akohoiand " In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the insanity in different provinces of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively that everywhere where the number of drinking places, i.e. the consumption of alcohol, was the greatest, the number of insane was also the largest. Without doubt, to my mind, it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most potent cause of the develop- ment and spread of mental diseases." * American Psychological Journal (quarterly), Philadelphia (Oct. 1883). THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The Quarterly Journal of Inebriety (Hartford, Con- necticut, U.S.), October, 1883, says that, " According to Dr. Finkelburg, member of the Russian Public Health Commission, alcoholic liquors cause over two-fifths of all the insanity, and five-eighths of all the criminality. ( 283 ) CHAPTER XL ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 68. IT seems probable, from the great sum of testimony so probable that it may be assumed as certain that there was a time when the evil habit of alcoholic intoxication was unknown to man. According to Dr. Baer, many races still existing, or only recently extinct, had no knowledge of intoxicants. Dr. E. G. Figg, in his paper On the Physiological Operation of Alcohol (Temperance Spectator, London, 1862), cites the following examples : " The Portuguese and other Arctic navigators testify to the ignorance of the frigid zone in this particular. Columbus and his Spanish successors described a race more beautiful and refined than aborigines generally are, amongst whom no trace of an intoxicant existed. The French gave the same verdict as to the Northern American continent, and the English, under Cook, so far as Australia and the Polynesian islands are concerned, corroborate the same fact. In the penetration of Africa from its eastern or western coast, it has not been seen save as an article of importation. In fact, in every locality first developed to civilized enterprise, alcohol in any of its varieties was un- known. Those describing the early habits of the Calmuc Tartars will contest this statement, insisting that the favourite beverage of those savages was a fermentation of the milk of mares. The truth of this assertion conceded, must not the educated chemist at once understand that the fermentation referred to was merely the development of lactic acid by transposition of the saccharine element in the milk ? In his description of the Islands of the South 284 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Pacific, Melville mentions the existence of a liquor affirmed to be an intoxicant from his own observation of its apparent effect on those who partook of it. The mode of preparation, however, refutes the idea that it was a fermented fluid. It was simply the expressed juice of a herb which was drunk before fermentation could have been realized. Independently of this, we have the positive testimony of John Williams, that the American traders were the first to introduce intoxicants, and the earliest inebriators of these Pacific Islands." Origin of the But in the most remote historic period the use of nschiet intoxicants had become comparatively common, and, with the knowledge we now possess of the subtlety and stealthi- ness of these poisons, we can easily see how individuality was undermined by their use, and the natural passions changed into insatiable demands, before man really under- stood the origin of the mischief. And as his awakening to these moral effects probably took place only when the worst the weakening of his power to resist had been accomplished, he invented, as moral weakness always does, excuses for his excesses. He denied the evil results of which he was both the illustration and proof. He ascribed a host of excellent effects to alcohol. When these benefits failed to appear, and harm alone harm that could not be hidden followed upon his indulgences, he charged the trouble to Providence, or to the blind forces of nature, and posed as the victim of mysteries with which he could not hope to contend. These pleas are made, this self-deception is practised still ; yet it is man who put himself into this pit, and now at last he knows that it is so, and that it is he who must lift himself out. By his first ignorant indulgence in intoxication, man placed himself in a continuity of circumstances which were certain to drag the individual and the race to lower and lower life-levels ; not necessarily as regards outward appearances, refinements, and comforts civilization has made marvellous progress in these directions but as regards the highest purposes of our being here and inhabit- ing bodies at all, as regards our discovering and obeying those laws of eternal truth which now and then in all of us force, if only momentary, recognition. For the light of ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 285 the Crown held vainly over the head of the man with the muck-rake does sometimes penetrate with a moment's flash the rubbish we grope in. 69. The development of the race is like that of the Likeness in individual : it begins in both with an eager desire to be happy and an eager search for the means of happiness. In the baby this desire is satisfied with plenty of milk, Sjfh warmth, soft couching, and slumber. His mother's bosom, dividual and the bed where he lies with her, make his world. A little later, the horizon widens to the walls of the room and the vaguely wondered-at shining spaces which the windows show. He finds that it hurts to fall. The result is instantly unpleasant. He becomes cautious. He discovers that raisins taste nice, that sugar is delicious. He eats of these voraciously. The result is immediate pleasure ; and when nausea and headache follow, it is the nurse or mamma who is to blame, not his own gluttony. By the time he has learned the last fact, the raisin and sugar-eating habit is formed, and stands mightily in the way of reform. The pleasure is sweet and immediate. He tries to assure himself that the pain coming after is due to some other cause ; to anything he is willing to give up, rather than to the one thing he is unwilling to resign. He is still a child, to whom the self of the senses is all the self and all of happiness or unhappiness that exists. As he grows older, various things the widening of his visible world, the strange interest felt in his own growth, the influence of companions and circumstances, the care and guidance of his parents, etc., etc. have all had their effect on his development ; he has learned some self- restraint, gained some little knowledge of himself, of his relations to others ; and, if his circumstances have been very favourable to moral growth, he begins to see that the senses do not compass the whole meaning of happiness, and learns that they are not even a chief part of it, that happiness lies not in having good things for himself, but in being worthy to ha've good things, whether they come or not; by desiring, above all things, the rights and happiness of others ; by doing heartily all he can to bring about general happiness universal happiness; and thus actually, genuinely, and really being happy himself. The child, grown to maturity in this way, leads a large 286 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. life and a complete life, whatever his condition or position may happen to be, because he irradiates real happiness. He is a centre from which it rays out, wherever that centre be placed ; and this irradiation has a widening effect, like that of the circle around the stone cast in the water : it never stops short of the two shores of life the shore of the beginning and the shore of the unending. Self-denials for the sake of others are his dearest indulgences, and as far removed in essence and effect from the morbid, anchoritic, nobody-benefiting sacrifices of St. Simon Stylites and his ilk as the shower of sweet spring rain is different from the outbreak of a sewer. He will not think for one moment of the pleasure to him of an otherwise perfectly innocent indulgence, if his having, means temptation and struggle for any other. The happiness of the senses, of self, has given place to the only true or lasting happiness, the happiness of Abou Ben- Adhem, who " loved his fellow-men ! " But if, on the other hand, the child is not well trained, if his circumstances are those of the foolishly indulged and pampered household pet, however talented and clever he may be, and whatever else he may learn, he grows up grossly and fatally ignorant of what he is here for, of what is due from himself to himself, of what is due from him to others. He is a centre from which radiates discontent, greed, tyranny towards which must flow constant tribute. He will deny himself nothing that he desires no, not even for his own good, much less for the rights and happiness of another. He is lonely, because he has spoiled himself for his own society ; and over those who must be with him he exerts an influence which, however it may stir disgust, also contaminates and gradually drags them into more or less real fellowship with him ; for the spectacle of selfishness, continually triumphing in its exactions, is one of the most deteriorating in its effects upon those who must constantly behold it. And especially great is the ascendency of this kind of evil with the individual and with society, when it is accompanied by the intellectual flashes and eccentric humours, the shallow, sudden generosities purely for sensation sake, but cited as virtues which convivial circles so much affect. As with the individual, so with the race. In its infancy ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 287 it found the taste of alcohol as the babe found the sugar The race sweet. The pain that followed, it would not heed, and bSjK r when at last forced to heed by overwhelming evil results, it sought, like the sugar-nauseated child, to secure itself in its now all-enthralling habit by evasions and specious reasonings. Later on, as the race grew into knowledge of things good and evil, we have seen how, in spite of great general advancement in many things in spite of enormous strides in all directions of scientific, philosophical, artistic, and material knowledge in spite, too, of what steam and elec- tricity have done to melt and forge the nations, tribes, and peoples into one brotherhood a fraternity in no way so cruelly betrayed as in its mutual upholding and guiltiness of this deadly universal vice in spite, too, of single in- stances of the noblest individual heroism and self-abnega- tion, of decades here and there in which national life and character have shone with extraordinary lustre of inspira- tion for all succeeding time still we find that the habit of alcoholic intoxication which the race formed in its child- hood has been suffered to grow with its growth, and so poisons us in our maturity that we do not, as a race, yet comprehend what happiness is, but still continue to mistake the temporary exaltations of alcohol, and other sense- excitants, for real glimpses of that highest scope and regnancy of being from which it shuts us out and down. Reasoning from the past, we may feel sure that the instinct of progress, the laws of development, of evolution, which are coeval with man, must be part of his essential nature so long as he exists. The eager desire to be happy, the eager search for happiness, will go on. And we may comfort ourselves at the outset with the certainty that this desire, this search, this resistless out- reaching impulse of man must in itself be good, for it is part of man as God made him. By it God is perpetually calling to man, " Seek Me, find Me, and in Me find eternal life, eternal joy ! " But what concerns us instantly and mightily is to find out what to seek, and how to seek it. A little child stands alone at night in a great forest. Both mis- He gropes for light, even though not quite understanding l . ak ^ e what light is or what it can do for him. A bright star, ""* 288 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. twinkling in the sky just over his father's roof, sends a long white raj straight as tmth is straight "by which the little one, if he only sees it, can go directly to his father's door. But at the same moment a glow-worm, flitting and flashing before him, seems to his unlearned eye a nearer and brighter light, and he stumbles after it through bog and mire. At moments he clasps it in delight, but again and again it eludes, it escapes, or, being clutched, flares up and fades out ; while the deluded child, bruised and cold, goes ever farther and farther from home. He was right to search for light the tiny immortal spark within him made such search natural and certain. But he lacked wisdom to distinguish between the phantom- flame of the will-o'-the-wisp and the pure perennial ray of the star ; and when the alternations of feverish triumph and bitter disappointment had taught him his mistake, he was exhausted he lacked strength to return and besides, the star had grown to look very far away and dim, for the fitful glimmer he followed had weakened his eyes, and the habit of chasing it drew him on till he sank to rise no more. First So with man in the earliest stages of his development. toward 8 " T^^-Q world of sensation was the first in which he found b^meanfof himself. ^ s reasoning faculties first applied themselves the'sfinsea. here, and held back his spiritual perceptions. What felt good, what felt bad ; what he wanted, what he didn't want ; what he liked to do, and what he didn't like to do ; these things guided him. He did not analyze second, third, and fourth results. And in this stage of being, his search for happiness instead of leading him out and up in life, chained him to himself. He was his own horizon, his own zenith and nadir ; for self-seeking that is, the effort to please and gratify only one's self can only go on within the life of the senses. Pleasurable sensations, physical delights ; separated from all thought or care for the rights and delights of others ; to be gained at the expense of them, at any cost, so that they are gained ; these have been and are the self-seeker's ideal of happiness to him the glow-worm inevitably obscures the star. Alcohol And in alcohol he believed he had found the crowning be'lfgreat agent for producing a strange pleasure of its own, which ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 289 had also power to enhance and vary kindred pleasures in- agent for , . j i.r. -j. * producing dulged in With it. happiness. By this undue development of the senses, the normal L at ^*g g appetites, tastes, and passions of man were transformed and passions into the various lusts of the flesh ; the lust of acquisition, ^ n S d ra ^ to arraying him against his brother in bloody contests for lusts by the power, for possessions, making him covet Naboth's vineyard development and Naboth's wife ; the lust of ease, making him deaf to of the senses, the cry of the down-trodden and impoverished, lest to listen should prove troublesome ; the lust of gold, that Shylock lust whose sordid outcry, " Oh, my ducats, my ducats ! Oh, my daughter ! " shows to what level the lust of gold can sink the most sacred ties of love ; the lust of the eye, which turns men and women into birds of prey, and manhood and womanhood into moral quicksands, where modesty, love, and the divine purposes of sex are irre- coverably degraded and lost. But while this was going on through the ages, the Spiritual and ... , -. , i . ', 11 mental pro- spiritual and mental powers or man were also slowly un- gress under folding and beginning to struggle through the meshes woven by the senses ; beginning also, though at first but dimly and fitfully, to assert their sway as masters in the stead of the usurping senses, and to find that these, in their headlong, egoistic, untutored search for happiness, had produced conditions wholly foreign to it. * Of course we do not mean that the senses are in themselves coarse or degrading, or that all self-seeking is plainly and vulgarly manifested, as the foregoing might seem to imply. The senses are what they should be, when bearing their proper relation of capable and docile servants to the rounded individuality of man. But when they lead and control, they lose the invaluable qualities of the faithful servant, without gaining one quality by which they can fitly lead. And the man who abdicates to his senses, descends from the throne where God placed him, and submits his head to his own heel. This is the condition of him whose search for happiness begins and ends with self; and it is an openly low or apparently refined condition according to the great differences in the temperaments, personal con- ditions, and surroundings of men. And alcohol more than all intoxi- cantshas paramount power to bring about this surrender to the senses ; for, as is well known and indisputable, passions of which man is master in a sober state, alcohol will not only fire beyomd his control, but reinforce with others that never awakened in sobriety, and make him do scores of shameful things of which, but for its in- fluence, ho would be utterly incapable. U 2&0 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The two Egoism and sensuality had put the world " out of joint," factions into tad dismembered it, as it were, into two great factions which this the graspers who succeed, and the graspers who fail. hM e d?vided The first are the few, but the all-powerful in having Ttegraspers secare( l more than the lion's share of this world's treasures who succeed, and possessions, and the power to continue to gain and hold these ; in having absorbed to their own service the results of the general total of physical and mental labour ; and who have, by the processes thus resulting, as well as by the result itself, so removed themselves from the other faction that, though they know it exists, they do not under- stand the elements of which it is composed ; are cold to its necessities, deaf to its claims, stone-blind to their own responsibilities toward it, and therefore fatally indifferent to, fatally ignorant of, the tragedy to which it tends. The gaspers T ne other faction, the graspers who do not succeed who, in the same self-seeking struggle for an ignis-fatuus happiness, have been driven to the wall they are innu- merable, and ignorantly hate and envy those whom they fancy have attained the object of the unequal conflict, not seeing that victory which consists in satisfaction of self and the senses is really a worse defeat than their own, so far as true happiness is concerned ; for it is of the rich man that it is written, he shall not easily enter the kingdom of heaven, while the poor man is assured he shall, if he only will, find that kingdom within him. Yet perhaps these the poor, the depressed see a little further into the portent of this unnatural struggle ; they have so little to hoard, so little treasure to guard, that they hoard their own sense ot wrong^not always seeing where blame is due and count over the coin of disappointment which gluts the mints of resentment and despair. In this tension, neither the rich nor the poor are happy, neither are blameless. Both feel the undying yearning wn ^ cn selfishness has done its utmost to destroy; life, exhausted in the intermittent, swiftly cloying pleasures of the senses, beats wearily upon worn-out strings that scarcely can any longer vibrate. And one means all- powerful in producing and protracting this delusion, a means which more than any other has misled man's search, and has done more than any other to place and keep him in the world of the senses, in spite of spiritual ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 291 and mental progress, a means within the reach of all, clamoured for by all, and to be had in abundance by poor as well as rich, is alcohol. In his profound work, The Arts of Intoxication (London, nr. Crane on 1877), the Rev. Dr. Crane says- 2t5t "He that gave our nature its depths did not design that those depths should be stirred by trifles. He gave them, not for luxury, but for utility in the great aim and work of life. He never intended that the deepest, richest tones of our nature should be evoked by every careless touch of the keys. Human wants, human affections, the demands which belong to time, and the infinite motives which come to us from the eternal world are all designed to touch each its appropriate spring. The exalted enjoy- ments of devotion should be richer, sweeter to our souls a thousandfold than all worldly success or worldly pleasure. And every right affection, every rational hope and desire, is meant to be a motive power, and, according to its value, to stir the heart and breathe into the soul inspirations which lend light to the eyes, make the cheek glow, send the blood bounding along its channels. . . . Man has made a fearful True ex- disco very, not how to produce, but how to imitate these counterfeited true exaltations. He has learned how to counterfeit the b y M 16 golden coin with which God pays the worthy labourer, excitement It has been discovered that certain poisonous drugs, ofalcol o1 - differing in the kind and degree of their effects, are potent to lay a spell upon soul and body ; and, while every mental faculty is unhinged, and every physical power is benumbed, and the whole being rendered helpless and degraded, the abused body may lie steeped in sensuous enjoyment, and the abused mind be cheated with a seeming consciousness of unwonted activity and augmented force and brilliancy. And men have learned to covet the fleeting unnatural pleasures. For the sake of an hour of such fevered dreams man is willing to face the hoi-rors of a return to realities which his guilty pleasures have despoiled of honour, peace, and virtue ; is ready to pay the price of days of lassitude and gloom, and even of pain, remorse, and death." Self-deception, then, has made man miss happiness ^ >s t - self " the happiness of the perfectly harmonious individual naBmade being and of the perfectly harmonized community of beings || a m iss into which it was intended he should develop, and, by af^ro'unT 202 THE FOUNDATION* OF DFATH. In religioD. Vn lllustra- -.ionofthis. circumscribing him to the partial world of the senses, has made him miss the truth at every turn, in religion no less than in science. In religion it has made him manufacture a God and a scheme of salvation by which he escapes all responsibility for his own being and doing. In science it has made him insist that the senses bound the entire world of scientific research and possibility ; that what cannot be demonstrated by or to the senses has no existence; while, by the abnormal disproportionate development of the senses, the clue they might afford in a state of perfect balance with the other powers is lost. For example, let us imagine that a man has grown up without physical action ; that he has for years been sitting in an artificial frame, which has locked all his muscles in perfect stillness, with the exception of his ankles and feet; that these have done all the motion, all the living, for the whole system, even to his having been fed through them by the process of cutaneous absorption ; that, in this way, though having originally all the component parts of feet, they have lost all resemblance to feet as we see them in the healthy human frame ; are distorted, unsightly, monstrous, incapable of bearing him up, their very size being part of their weakness for all the natural purposes of feet. The head of this man is but a little knob, his frame puny and shrunken, he lacks all that ranks him with normal man, he lives only in his feet. If he were to be muffled and covered, so that all of him but his feet were entirely hidden, and a physiologist should then be called in to say, without help of any explanation, what the two objects were and to what manner of creature they belonged, he would be quite excusable if he did not know them as feet, or if, guessing so far correctly, he constructed anything but a man for the rest of the creature ! Change the picture and transfer the developmental excess to any other member, or organ, or set of functions ; the result must always be equally false to nature and truth, because equally out of balance with them. The fault is not with the parts or powers excessively developed, nor with those lying arbitrarily dormant ; it lies in the false method, the spurious process producing these. ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 293 Just as the framed man's feet lost all the fine inter- What happi- flowing curves, the subtle, complex elasticities which lend jjow aione d u themselves to the miracle of walking, so the spirit and the can be found mind of man, chained down to the special development of the senses which should only know themselves through his controlling and aspiring consciousness of their real purposes have been excluded from the realization of the exquisite happiness which God Himself cannot bestow until His child can conceive it ; and of which man only first conceives when first he seeks the happiness of his kind, and learns that by this path only comes happiness to meet himself ; and, in learning this, learns also not to seek it for its own sake, even though by the right way of first securing it to others, but to seek it for the sake of that blessing to others, by which it comes. How is this proven ? Because when we seek happiness in this way we have it, serene, uncloying, rich, satisfying, constant, and this though we have nothing else that men call pleasant and good ; while, on the other hand, in the height of physical, sensuous self-gratification, we are always conscious of the gnawing of for ever unsatisfied desire at the core of life, of vague yet deep disappointment and emptiness, and thus the goad of endless craving follows the ever-artificial supply. And hence, with all our apparent advancement, we are to this day still writhing in fratricidal strife at the feet of insatiable false gods, and as man sought alcohol first for pleasure, thinking it happiness, so now we, wiser, but, alas ! not stronger, drink to forget, and if we can to dream, instead of to know; for drink has proven like the iron frame which has suffered only the feet to grow. 70. The first cause of the hold alcohol has obtained Supple- upon man being that, in mistaking the gratification of the causes^cx senses for the happiness he was born to seek and realize, plaining tin he mistook alcohol for its great agent ; the next, or aJeohoi has supplementary causesconstituting very formidable rein- obtained forcements may be classed as follows : (a) the physical, kind. (6) the psychical ; the first relating to food and various luxurious indulgences, notably, the use of tobacco. It is a generally recognized fact that what is called " high Hying," the use of highly spiced dishes, and the whole 29-i THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. range of epicurean habits provoke a desire for alcoholic liquors. This is largely due to the vitiation of taste and appetite, which sensuality in any of its forms must inevitably produce, and unnatural feeding not only impairs The effect of the taste, bat by imposing too much labour on the k'dV^o'kfn stomach prompts it to call for irritant ; and tobacco, in irapair/ng although it acts to a certain extent as a counterpoison to j^faiges! 11 ' alcohol, creates by its vitiation of both taste and smell, a tion, and demand for stronger tasting and stronger smelling foods, vokinja* " an( l these again, because of their indigestible character, otron 6 f drink ca ^ ^ or an exc ^ation of more than the natural supply of ' the gastric fluids. And thus it is seen that in the physical, as in the mental sphere of life, one wrong begets another, and all are linked in concentric circles that, like the lessen- ing walls of the "Iron Shroud," press closer and closer until the victim is crushed. The psychical causes may be divided into (1) The force of example, because of the sympathetic unity of the race; (2) the force of habit, because of natural laws; (3) the force of hereditary habit ; (4) the force of habit become instinct; (5) the force of habit-formed instinct become nature in a depraved sense. The force of The fact that humanity has a common basis of under- because 6 of standing if only that of signs indicates a common thesym- bond stretching along the whole line of human con- unity'ofthe sciousness. The reality of this bond is manifested in race. the tremendous power which example, habit, and custom have over us, and God's purpose in this bond is seen, in the impossibility it creates, for man to happily and pros- perously ignore either as individual, community, or nation the divine command to love our neighbour as ourself. rintarcfa on The force of example is tersely expressed in Plutarch's the force of w ords : " If you associate with a cripple you will soon learn to limp yourself," and in the popular proverb, " One is known by the company he keeps." That this teaching can be abused ; that it can be cunningly turned into a defence for the grossest selfish- ness ; can be made to bear false witness against Plutarch as one who would have unfortunates and victims generally abandoned to their fate ; can be perverted into justifi- cation for never approaching the fallen and depraved, ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 295 making mercy and compassion intruders among the human virtues does not affect its true force of warning against the kind of association and sympathy which de- presses and weakens the sympathizer without cheering or benefiting the sufferer, while it does help to further pronounce the fact that sympathy, conscious or uncon- scious, sensible or sentimental, unselfish or self-seeking, powerfully, variously, and constantly affects our develop- ment. All progress hangs upon it, because only by this bond do we have to do with one another. Were we separate that is, insulated entities we could not co-operate, we could not learn or profit from each other's mistakes or successes, we should not really be living in any sense in which as sympathetic beings we conceive of life. Thomas Tryon, in his work On the Method of Educating Thomas Children (London, 1695), says of the force of example, JSfa&J 18 "The Fear of God, Temperance, Cleanliness, and Frugality, ^^"P 011 are taught by precept and example, even as Arts and Seienoes are. ... If the Children see no disorderly nor intemperate Examples, but have the Representation and Character of the contrary Virtues continually placed before their Eyes, they will undoubtedly conform themselves to that Image." In his Commentaries on Tobacco (Sydney, 1853), T. T. Campbell Campbell says, " The habitual intercourse of persons, g^Jand the communion of sentiments, unanimity of opinion, and effects of the silent underworking force of imitation conspire to {^ovira'in engender a sameness of ideas, a similitude of character daily life, among members of the same group, and these, extending from groups to communities, cemented by the ties of common privileges, unity of interests, and a common attachment to place of birth, probably form the ground- work of all patriotism. " Imitation is an essentially active energy in the con- Th stitution of man, and one of the elements of habit. In habit because youth especially we copy something of every human action if^s. 1 * 1 1 or manner presented to our observation. It is in constant operation in every stage of life, and is so potent that persons living long together will insensibly acquire a mutual resemblance in some points, so that it may be said all society is a school of design, and every individual is 9, 296 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. ledged effect!. model for good or for evil to every other individual. Each takes his copy, too, with all the secrecy of profound uncon- sciousness, which enables the imitative faculty in man to operate on the mind with an energy so much the more sure and effective, engraining the lights and shades in the pattern of the moral copyright with almost indelible fixedness of colouring." Conscious Besides the power of example which thus profoundly acknow- nly affects without our being directly aware of it, there is its openly acknowledged force. "Why should I not drink r* " says the clergyman ; * " the canon, the vicar, the bishop, drink. What they do, surely I may." "And as for me," says the common soldier, " I don't pretend to be better or wiser than our general, colonel, captain ; they all take their glass like gentlemen, why not I ? " " The master has his wines," says the working man, " why * The Daily Telegraph (April 24, 1883) thus pertinently com- ments on the cases of Captain Eobinson and the clergyman's son Beaumont : "John Joseph Beaumont's story is sad. Already, at twenty-six years, he is said, by his drunken habits, to have ruined his father, a clergyman of the Establishment, and forced him to resign a com- fortable living. Appointed to a small office in the Inland Revenue, Beaumont was turned away because of his habitual insobriety ; and now he passes his time between delirium tremens out of doors and convalescence in St. Pancras Workhouse. The law of to-day, unlike that of the past, does not recognize destitution, from whatever cause, as a punishable offence, and he is now at liberty to go on ruining his relations provided that field be not already closed to his enterprise contracting delirium tremens, and knocking for admission at the workhouse door, until, failing reformation, death cuts short his disgraceful career. Why men like Captain Robertson and Mr. Beaumont help to swell the score of life's failures is a mystery beyond solution (?). Both are apparently well-bred ; both are more than ordinarily well-educated. They had chances given them. The ball was at their feet. Poets and publicists point to the examples of what are called self-made meu as being wonderful. We hear of lads born in thatched cottages, and brought up at the plough's tail, yet pressing through to the front, seizing upon the prizes of life, and becoming wealthy in the mart, or renowned at the bar, in the senate, and the councils of the State. In point of fact, such thrice-ennobled representatives of the Peerage of Genius are natural products of civilized society. We are to watch for their advent and greet them with applause. Yet not they, but the weeds and wasters, the broken captains and drunken pauper scholars, are the more truly remarkable vhenomena of an age like ours," ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 297 shouldn't we have a glass of beer too ? " " Don't preach to me," says the young man ; " my father takes wine at dinner always, so did my professors at college. I don't care to be better than they." In the Su-ord and Trowel (London, April, 1884) , Mr. Mr. Spur- Spurgeon says- %* "Children are taught to drink, encouraged to drink, biiityof and praised for drinking ; the glass is even made a reward the matter for good conduct. It will be little wonder if they grow of drinl!;> up to equal and surpass their seniors, when precept and example are pointed by contemptuous jests aimed at abstainers. We have heard Christian people declare that if their children acquired a taste for strong drink it should be in after life, but they would not bear the responsibility of training them in it; and we have thought this to be true common sense. But what is that spirit which leads a professed believer in Christ to put the bottle to his neighbour's mouth, nay, to his child's mouth ? What is that spirit which has induced some to trample upon the scruples of the little one, and exclaim in anger, ' I will have none of such nonsense. Are you going to teach your parents, and set up to be better than they ? ' Thousands of boys are the victims of Bacchus, for their fathers train them to take their share of beer ; this is mostly among the working classes ; but are there not too many in all ranks of society who in other shapes offer their children upon the altar of the fiery fiend ? Let the careful parent think this matter over before he further countenances wine at juvenile parties, or at holiday festivals." And thus both hereditary and acquired desires and habits are propped by the example of those whom we love and respect. And this propping is not materially weakened by the knowledge that bishops, generals,* gentlemen, and the sons of gentlemen have sometimes degenerated to the * " For fifty years I have been in Her Majesty's service, and I do not hesitate to say that some of the brightest ornaments of the service have gone down and been degraded by drink." Vice-Admiral Sir William King Hall, Speech, London, May, 1879. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. We never see our OWE personal danger. Dr.Chan- ning would have the wealthy classes get the example of abstinence. The force of hereditary ranks of habitual drunkards, because the inciting power of example (one of the most awful of our personal respon- sibilities to one another) that which influences us in the way we want to go is always more potent than its restrain- ing force, which is likely to require some sacrifice of us ! It is certain that young people are in this matter peculiarly victims to the force of example, because in youth the imitative faculty is most susceptible, and they follow example blindly from their childlike confidence in those who set it ; not as, later, to find protection and support in practices which they have learned are, at best, questionable. Then, too, in his own individual case man always sees real drunkenness, degradation, delirium tremens just as he sees violent accident or death as things possible, but dim, far off, not coming to him, though happening all round to others ! " What is the example the more prosperous classes set to the poorer ? " says the Rev. Dr. William Ellery Channing. " Not that of self-denial, spirituality, of the great Christian truth that human happiness lies in the triumph of the mind over the body, in inward force and life. " The great inquiry which the poor man hears among those whose condition makes them his superiors, is ' what shall we eat and drink, and wherewithal shall we be clothed ? ' Unceasing struggles for outward, earthly, sensual good constitute the chief activity he sees around him. To suppose that the poorer classes should receive lessons in luxury and indulgence from the more prosperous, and should yet resist the temptations to excess, is to expect from them a moral force in which we feel ourselves to be sadly wanting."* 71. We know that by repeating an act or thought until it has become spontaneous and as unconscious and involuntary as our breathing, we have formed such thought and action into habit, and habit is a part of human development in which more watchfulness is needed than in any other. Habit is formed so easily the force of example, every- where, directly and indirectly influencing it and forms by * Evil oj Intemperance (Boston, 1837). ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 299 gradations that glide upon one another so imperceptibly, that we are not only in its toils before we know it, but often without knowing it at all, and it is not only the strongest chain we forge around our own activity and influences, but among the most binding tendencies we transmit to our children. When to its force by inheritance is added the power- ful weight of sympathetic association for our habits gravitate us to those of like habits it is little wonder that the growing generation copies the faults and follies of the passing one, even when benefiting by some of its experience and research. For, as we have seen, the race development has, after all, thus far been so predominantly that of the senses, that great as have been its strides in purely intellectual and speculative fields, the growing, like the passing generation, and even in an intensified degree, is still chiefly bound up in investigations and experiments whose end is pleasurable the gratification of self and the senses in every imaginable form. It seems a question whether the great mental advance- ment of the race has not been in directions and of a nature to prevent moral impulse, or at least check the best work of reflection ; whether we have not had moral analysis satisfied with its analytic power, rather than moral purpose profiting seriously by moral analysis ; so that intellectual progress and abnormal development of the senses have helplessly followed parallel lines, waiting for the moral and spiritual powers of man to bend them together and initiate a new habit of being in which all man's powers should grow into their normal relative proportions. Concerning the force of evil habit, the great Danish SorenKirke- thinker Soren Kirkegaard (Kjaerlighedens Gerninger, or The Works of Love, Copenhagen, 1847) says " Of all our enemies habit is perhaps the slyest, and above everything is she sly enough never to let herself be seen, for he who saw her would be saved from her. Against the visible enemy we fight in self-defence; but habit is like the soft, yet ferocious vampire that steals on the sleeper, and, while sucking his blood, coolingly moves its noiseless wings that his sleep may be the deeper. But the vampire finds its prey among the sleeping, it lacks power to lull the wakeful, while habit can creep sleep- 300 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The force of hminct. COme Difficulty for for tbeta^ dividual to chains of 6 habit. Difficulty of socia^re lions in givingly over those who are awake, and do its vampire work in slumber of its own producing." And when habit has thus stolen upon us, it transforms the whole being so as to harmonize it with the habit or habits formed. The force of example and inherited tendencies make individual habits into national character- istics, and thus countries are ruled by the habitudes of preceding epochs, by routine government, by national pre- judices, as well as by national ignorance and blindness to the most crying vices. Just as the individual finds it difficult to change any objectionable habit, because it has become so natural that he does it before he thinks, or even without thinking, so must it also be difficult for the nation an( j the race to change national customs and habits im- bedded by the lapse of centuries ; or even to take full note of their power and tendency. For example, the crime of murder, except among Thugs, Assassins, the Vehmgericht, or during frenzied religious or political upheavals, is generally abhorred and con- demned, and punished by the death penalty. But the institutions, habits, and customs which are responsible for nine-tenths of the murders, are neither generally condemned nor abrogated ; but are eagerly de- fended and approved by most of those who wish to do and think they are doing their parts as patriots and citizens of a free country, in opposing interference with the time-honoured rights and privileges of the liquor trade. They know that liquor does an incredible amount of wrong to the individual and to the nation. But habits the habit of inactivity in the matter, and the habit of long participation in those social customs and commercial interests which help to sustain the liquor trade these hold them off, and they intrench themselves in their non- interference by all sorts of specious reasoning. So great, indeed, is the power of ingrained habit, that although evil, and passively recognized as such, it is strong enough to transform the whole state and social organization into accordance with it. The tremendous power of custom and habit is almost daily ^ e ^ ^7 those interested in temperance reform, in the difficulty of deciding what is the right and wisest course OfelGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 301 to pursue in social relations. We know that alcohol is harmony . .,.... pp -i i ^ with our poison ; in offering it to a guest we otter him not only personal what is certainly non-beneficial, but what is, in some more convictions. or less degree, positively deleterious even were the con- sideration solely that of physical health. Bat, in addition to this, we know that we may be starting him on the road to perdition ; for conscience, self-control, moral dignity and purpose are not equally dispensed in the moral constitutions of men, and the exterior, with all its subtle indications, by no means surely informs of the weakness or strength of a given in- dividuality. Yet the circumstances we are placed in by the drinking customs of the country make it almost impossible for us to act with our highest convictions, or even to feel sure whether it would be best to do so at the present stage of affairs. It is not well that temperance, or any cause bear- ing the banner of reform, should be characterized by narrowness, bigotry, iconoclastic, prejudices, and vain- glorious self-assertion and intolerance. Yet social drink customs, associated as they are among the upper classes with lavish hospitality and the most pleasing graces and refinements of life, have often the effect of forcing the appearance of this invidious contrast upon the temperance movement; and the whole force of habit weighs as yet on the side of the drink customs. These originated at the top of the ladder with the The great royal prerogative and the Court, from the days when great bfuyresting drinking capacity was thought to be one measure of fitness J*^the for occupancy of the throne; and came thence gradually this respect, down through the various grades of society into universal practice. If the Court, recognizing its responsibility for this evil, would take the lead and set the example in reform, the most formidable of the hindrances to reform the drink customs could and would be easily overcome. Another and most' important instance of the strength The Canter- of rooted, ingrained habit was furnished in 1883 at SZ? " the Canterbury Convocations, when the question of using ^g** he intoxicating wine at the Lord's Supper came up for Lord's verdict before the ecclesiastical tribunal. After due con- su PP a '- eideration, the prelates of the Church of England found 302 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH it most "convenient that the clergy should conform to ancient and unbroken usage." Placed in the gravest dilemma they evidently felt it might be wiser not to countenance an innovation, lest, for complicated reasons, the harm ensuing should be greater than the good. It is scarcely possible to suppose that the majority among them do not believe that alcohol now known to be a poison is out of place at the Lord's Supper, yet, such are the difficulties accumulating through the force of habit and precedent around such a question, that the verdict given is by no means incompatible with such a conviction.* If the drink evil were not in our very midst, if, like the slave trade for example, it were flourishing in far distant lands, what would England then think of its results, and her responsibilities concerning them ? The foreigner who first sojourns in England, in London. Liverpool, or Glasgow, shudders at the scenes in the streets of these cities. After remaining a year or two, he becomes accustomed to them, and in a measure callous, though never ceasing to feel shocked at the effect that has been produced upon the children the well-born, well-bred boys and girls who only on their way to school have seen and heard enough before they are twelve years old to make them familiar with and indifferent to spectacles of drunken- ness and sensuality in some of their lowest forms. Habit long pursued and transmitted becomes instinct, and at last, in a depraved sense, natural. Mr. John Mr. John Sebright, in his Observations upon Instinct instinct!" 11 (London, 1886), expresses an opinion that "the greater part of the propensities that are generally supposed to be instinctive are not implanted in animals by nature, but are the result of long experience, acquired and accumulated through many generations, so as in the course of time to assume the character of instinct." Mr. Herbert Tn a letter to the Athenceum (London, April 5, 1864), fhTsTme" 11 Mr. Herbert Spencer quotes from his Principles of Psychology (edition of 1855) : " On the one hand, Instinct may be regarded as a kind of organized memory ; on the other hand, Memory may be regarded as a kind of incipient instinct. Memory, then, pertains to all that class of psychical states which are in process of being organized. * See chapter xiii. ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM, 303 It continues so long as the organizing of them continues ; and disappears when the organization of them is complete. In the advance of the correspondence, each more complex class of phenomena which the organism acquires the power of recognizing, is responded to at first irregularly and un- certainly ; and there is then a weak rememberance of the relations. By multiplication of experiences, this remem- brance becomes stronger, and the response more certain. By further multiplication of experiences, the internal relations are at last automatically organized in corre- spondence with the external ones ; and so conscious memory passes into unconscious or organic memory." Mr. Shirley Hibberd, in an article, What is Instinct ? Mr. Shirley (Intellectual Observer, London, July, 1863), says that Sme n instinct is " the work of the mind rendered literally uniform by habit . . . but no matter how strong the force of habit, if initially it is the result of an act of reasoning and the expression of a motive, and is followed for a purpose, then it can never be separated from mind, though when the habit is fixed it makes little or no demand upon the mind until some exigency arises demand- ing a deviation from habitual rule." In his essay on Instinct (Encyclopaedia Britannica, new ed. vol. xiii.), Prof. J. J. Romanes says "By the effects of habit in successive generations, The force of mental activities which were originally intelligent, become in\Xct r be- d as if they were stereotyped into permanent instinct. coming it T j. j.1. i- j.- i Ai j- -j i j j.- nature, in a Just as in the lifetime ot the individual, adaptive depraved actions which were originally intelligent, may, by frequent 8ense - repetitions, become automatic ; so in the lifetime of the species, actions originally intelligent may, by frequent repetition and heredity, so write their effects on the nervous system that the latter is prepared, even before individual experience, to perform adaptive actions mechani- cally, which in previous generations was performed intelligently called ' lapsing of intelligence.' We find good evidence that new or changed experience, when con- tinued over a number of generations, is bequeathed to future generations as a legacy of intuitive knowledge." These definitions and analyses of habit and instinct point to two of the most solemn and important facts of human evolution: that of the present impossibility of 304 TflE tfOUJfDATlOS OF DEATH. conscientiously accepting the leading of our instincts, except after uncompromising scrutiny ; and that of the paramount obligation to try ourselves and our instincts by tests of self-renunciation, combined "with unflinching, con- stant, and large consideration for others ; for we know ourselves to have gone so far on the wrong way that we cannot decide what is natural or true merelv by the guidance of feelings and instincts which are in themselves so much the product of our wrong-going. And therefore, even when a man says of alcohol that he " knows it is good for him," that " it agrees with him," his assertions, if sincere and such assertions often are only prove how thoroughly vitiated his system and its demands have become. The current saying that " History repeats itself " is a pnerile complaint and a querulous pretence. It is the favourite epigram of our effete spirits, ever making the same weary round within a circle of our own drawing, till there is little power for searching or soaring beyond. While we persist as a race in a life of selfishness and sensual indulgence, no intellectual advance alone can set us free, or release History from her painful task of noting our gyrations from and to the same old points of departure. History If & child will not learn its lesson, the teacher cannot sly'some- advance it to the next room. The teacher can only explain thing new. over and over again. If the child is content to be ignorant, or unwilling to take the trouble of learning, we are not surprised when he complains "I'm tired of hearing that old lesson over and over. I can't learn it ; I won't learn it ; there'll be more just like it if I do ! T don't believe there is any next room ! " History repeats itself only so long as we make it necessary to the learning of our lesson. She will say something new, something grander than all that has gone before, as soon as we will let her. ( 305 ) CHAPTER SPECIOUS REASONINGS CONCERNING THE USE OF ALCOHOL. "Am I my brother's keeper ?" GENESIS iv. 9. " Temperance is the unyielding control of reason over last, and over all wrong tendencies of the mind. Temperance means not only frugality, but also modesty and self-government. It means abstinence from all things not good and entirely innocent in their character." * CICERO. 72. JUST as alcohol, by its imperceptible action in nitrating similarity oi poison throughout generation after generation of the body, has poisoned the race, so the arguments in favour of its ing and nse, in filtrating their poison through the public mind lsoning from generation to generation, have shackled the reason, judgment, and conscience, which would have succumbed to no open and sudden onset, however formidable. As falsehood is dangerous in the degree that it is mixed The danger with truth, so specious reasoning regarding drink is the more dangerous in the degree that its warp is crossed with threads of religious, social, moral, and political truths. Specious reasoning, always plausible and usually clever, never strains popular comprehension or interpre- tation, and seldom exacts profound thought. It wears a mask of truth, under which it moves its features so in- geniously that we scarcely suspect the mask. It appeals to selfishness, calling it good nature ; it incites false honour, calling it consideration and tact ; it flatters false liberty, calling it individuality and self-respect, f * For a voluminous and excellent compendium of authorities on the true meaning of the word temperance, see The Morals of Temper- ance, chap, i., in Dr. F. E. Lees' Temperance Text-Book (vol. i. London, 1884). f " Invocation : Let us invoke all the powers on earth and under X 306 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. There are two conditions in which a man will admit evil to be evil : first, before he has ever committed or tut evnu ex P ec *ed to commit it ; last, when he has steeped himself evil. in it so deeply, that there is neither shame nor hope enough left to tempt him to lie about it. On the down grade you will not get the truth from him, he will not tell it even to himself. So the man who does not drink, and the sot, will alike tell you that drinking is a degradation and a curse, but the moderate drinker, of all grades of moderation, defends the habit tenaciously ; at one point, or at another, wherever you attack, you find him there, and in whatever shape best opposes or neutralizes your attack. Hyper-sensi- The ingenious reasonings and arguments which have vidulutya been woven around the habit of drink by those who love SThe way 16 ^' an ^ wno ^ s ^ tne justification of plenty of company in of personal it, are very difficult to deal with. They are so much a reform. ma tter of personal opinion, of mutual influence, of the rooted love of pleasure curiously mixed with the desire to the earth for the whole state of the British Distillery. And let us implore the aid and assistance of those Immortal Shades who dared to rival the Lord of Heaven, and are invested with the Power of the Air, by which they go to and fro npon the Earth to deceive and seduce Mankind : That there may never be wanting arguments to delude, nor bribes to corrupt." An Oration delivered before an Audience (if Distillers, by Baalzebub (London, 1760). In the Pall Mall Gazette (April 5, 1884) we find the following :- "PROPOSAL FOE A MISSION TO START A PUBLIC-HOUSE. " The Bishop of Bedford presided on Thursday night at a meeting in the board-room of the S.P.C.K. office, at which were present the Bight Hon. Sir J. E, Mowbray, M.P., Mr. J. G. Talbot, M.P., the Wardens of All Souls and Keble, Canon Scott-Holland, and other friends of the proposed movement for Oxford men working in the East End of London; and it was proposed to place an 'Oxford House ' in the parish of St. Andrew, Bethnal Green, of which the Rev. Knight Bruce was in charge. Mr. Albert Pell, M.P., suggested the propriety of the Oxonians buying a public-house. He said that he should be happy to lease them one. He was not joking. A publican could get at as many people as a person could reach. They could take this house and insist that it should be conducted so that a man could take his wife and children into it without the ears of the women being hurt, and if there was a little drunkenness, that was not the greatest crime in the world, though people often spoke as if it were." SPECIOUS SEASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 307 be considered conscientious, and with some real impulses to do right ; and the whole sophistical mesh is so plausible and subtle (resulting from long inheritance of drink habit, drink custom, and drink sophistry, so that the selfishness is well concealed even from the sophist himself), and so personal, that the first outwork the reformer encounters or he who seeks help to be self-reforming is that of hyper-sensitive individuality. Then there are the myriads of onlookers, intelligent it is not only people, who are not quick or clever reasoners, but who decehreTbut sincerely search for, though they cannot argue about the for the truth; people who respect themselves and abhor debauchery, searchers and who, meaning neither to deceive nor be deceived, are {^t'wTmust balancing this important question of moderate drinking win in this of drinking at all, with the intention of discovering whether moderate indulgence is harmless in itself, and whether it has a tendency to become immoderate. It is also for these and their heirs for ever that victory in this good struggle is to be won. And to win, it is not only necessary to unwind all specious arguments and leave the truth standing bare and clear ; it is necessary to do it in such a way that the masses will see that it is done, will be convinced. If every beei'-shop and public-house were closed, every brewery and distillery destroyed, every bottle broken, and every drop of alcoholic drink spilled out of England into the ocean to-day, and no more of the same were admitted within its borders for a year and a day, England might see something of what abstinence could do, but she would not experience the effects of abstinence voluntarily imposed upon himself by man, under the sincere conviction that in- toxicating drinks are evil. It is this that is wanted every- where, in every heart and life. Whether a little drink be hurtful or harmless, is not now, if it ever was, the question. What is wanted is the general diffusion of the knowledge The great that alcohol is a poison to body and mind ; that, though j^,"* and the drinker may in his own person to all appearances positive escape baneful consequences, his children and children's onth^sifb- children must often bear them. What is wanted is theJ ect ; and conviction that no man can guiltlessly indulge in that recognition which, not being a necessity for himself, is, by his in- f p rso . n i dulging, a snare to his brother. That drink is such a witty 081 ' 308 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The fallacy of the boast that the virility of nation proves the comparative harmlessness of drink. Brief epitome of England's drink history. Berf?enroth on the atti- tude of the Court con- cerning water-drink- ing in 1498. snare, is abundantly proved by the fact that, wherever the custom of moderate drinking has been sanctioned by the community, there has always been a large number in that community to sink from moderation to excess. 73. In dealing with specious reasoning, we must remember that even fools can make assertions which, however groundless, a wise man will find it difficult to successfully gainsay, and thorough indeed must be the refutation of assertions made in the interests of self- indulgence. It is common in England, (probably at present the hardest drinking country in the world) to hear the defenders of drink, boast that the virility and might of the English nation proves the outcry against alcohol to be greatly exaggerated, if not unfounded. Many peculiar local and historic circumstances (such, for instance, as the insular position which has often com- paratively sheltered England from the commotions and anxieties of the continental Powers), combined with prudent and vigorous statesmanship, have mightily contributed to the foundation and maintenance of England's present power, but we may be certain that the comparative sobriety of the English race has done more. For however strong the hold of this vice in the present, it is a fact that the English as a nation have not been hard drinkers more than about two hundred years, which can be said of no continental nation. Beers and the use of hops became known in England during the sixteenth century; before that time, the favourite drink of the people was ale and mead, the substitute for hops being wormwood ; and at about the same time tea and coffee were beginning to come into general use, and acted modifyingly. It appears from State documents that as early as the fifteenth century, water, so far as the Court was concerned, was regarded as unfit to drink. Says Bergenroth, in his Calendar of State Papers (No. 1156) "The Spanish ambassador at the court of Henry VII., De Puebla Talavera, writes to Ferdinand and Isabella (July 17th, 1498) that the English queen, and Lady SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 309 Margaret, the king's mother, wish that the young Princess Catherine of Arragon being affianced to the Prince of Wales (though still living in Spain) should accustom her- self to drink wine, since the water in England is not drinkable, and even if it were the climate would not allow the drinking of it." It was through the marriage between the English and French royal houses that wine-drinking was first gradually spread among the masses in England, by means of the consequent favourable tariff to the importation of wine. Before that time, though the masses generally drank ale, it was ordinarily of a light character, and gross drunken- ness was not common among them. Says Camden (Annals, citation 1581) Camden' 8 " The English, who hitherto had of all the Northern Annais,i58i. nations shown themselves the least addicted to immoderate drinking, and been commended for their sobriety, first learned in these wars in the Netherlands to swallow large quantities of intoxicating liquors, and destroy their own health by drinking that of others." In his curious work, The Government of Health (London, in 1595 Dr. 1595), Dr. William Bullein says, " They that drinke wyne Buiietajn customably with measure, it doth profit them much and speaking of maketh good digestion ; those people that use to drink eviifmakes wyne seldom times, be distempered ... ale and beere n r ? en . t . i n 1 i ,L i i i T M TT of distilled have no sucn virtue ana goodness as wyne hath. Me liquor, does not mention distilled liquors. Mr. Sherlock, in his Shakespeare on Intemperance, Citation from (London, 1882), quotes from a section entitled The Plague J^,?^^ of our English Gentry, of the Compleat Gentleman by Henry num(i622). Peacham (1622), the following : " Within these fiftie or threescore yeares it was a rare thing with us to see a drunken man, our nation carrying the name of the most sober and temperate of any other in the world. But since we had to doe in the quarrell of the Netherlands, the custom of drinking and pledging healthes was brought over into-England ; wherein let the Dutch be their owne judges, if we equall them not ; yea, I think rather excel! them." In his well-known work, Way to Health, Long Life, From and Happiness (1683), Tryon says that formerly canary to^ieaitk. a!l (wine) was sold almost exclusively by apothecaries. Long Life, 310 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. ippt-h" Where there was one quart of wine drunk forty or fifty >83) I years ago (which would be about 1635) there is now ten I thousand . . . the use of tobacco and brandy a hundred Hard drink-! years since was hardly known. Nay, the use of our ale monT' c m an( ^ beer has hardly been above two hundred years." England Which shows that hard drinking did not become common mh'century. un *il the latter part of the seventeenth century. The re citation from sponsibility of the court for the spread of this evil among rington's "" the masses is pointed out by Sir John Harrington in his Nugce Antiques. Describing the visit of the Danish king Christian II. to the court of England in 160_6, he says " The ladies have abandoned their sobriety, and are seen to roll about in intoxication. ... I see no man nor woman either that can now command himself or herself." Concerning the condition brought about by the Act for Encouragement of Distillation, De Foe, in his Poor Man's Plea (London, 1700), says " Drunkenness had become a science, and but that instruction in it proved so easy, and the youth too apt to learn, possibly we might have had a college erected for it before now." And of the evil example set by the nobility, he says, "Whoever gives himself the trouble to reflect on the custom of our gentlemen in their families en- couraging and promoting this vice of drunkenness among the poor, will not think it a scandal upon the gentry of England if we say that the mode of drinking that is now practised had its origin in the practice of the country I gentlemen, and they again from the courts." The close of the eighteenth century saw little improve- i Bishop ment on this state of affairs. la Lecky's History of Eng- ' nd (1878) there is a graphic quotation from Bishop 'ifisforyof Benson, picturing the condition of England at that time. (1878). " Not only," says the bishop, " is there no safety of living in this town (London), but scarcely any in the country now. Robbery and murder are grown so frequent. Our people are become what they never before were cruel and inhuman. Those cursed spirituous liquors, which to the shame of our Government are so easily to be had, and are in such quantities drunk, have changed the veiy nature of our people." Among the nobility and clergy, drinking has been more or less prevalent for about five hundred years, but SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE tJSE OF ALCOHOL. 311 the English masses have been hard drinkers for only a little over two hundred years, or about one hundred years less than any other nation, America excepted. Therefore the assertion that the strength of the English race is evidence that drink is not injurious, is seen to be fallacious. Rev. Dr. Dawson Burns, in his Christendom and the The Rev. Dr. Drink Curse (London, 1875), eloquently exposes these Burnsouthe specious and evasive arguments in these words: "Nothing can be more superficial, not to say sophistical, than us the manner in which some literary men, who have no Jjjf practical knowledge of the subject, endeavour to meet crime mso- the force of this argument, whether used for abstinence or ^uinrtei'** prohibition, by referring to countries comparatively sober justifies the (such as Spain and some parts of the East) where crimes thtt'ddnk'is of great enormity are very common. Whatever may be the P* at th causes of such crimes there, they cannot prove that strong most of the drink is not at the bottom of two-thirds or three-fourths ^iuedT" of the crimes committed in the United Kingdom ; and to Great assume, as is done, that if the British causes were removed, rl the foreign ones would take their place, is an outrage on common sense and knowledge of the world. Assuming the facts to be as stated, they do but show what no one ever doubted that the causes of crime differ in different countries ; the reasonable inference being, that every country should seek to remove those causes of crime that are special to itself. Brigandage is rampant in some countries, and has its peculiar causes ; but what would be said by English writers if suitable means for the removal of those causes were opposed on the ground that drinking is the principal cause of crime in Great Britain ? Equally ridiculous is the plea that because some sober countries are subject to crime from peculiar causes, therefore British crime is not owing to strong drink, or that the sum of it would remain as before, if drinking were abolished, all evidence and internal probability to the contrary notwith- standing. It may at the same time be doubted whether the countries credited with this remarkable sobriety deserve the praise, or at least whether the crimes committed there are not largely due to the use of intoxicants by the criminal part of the population. It was so during the I 312 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Indian Mutiny, when the sepoys, guilty of the worst atrocities, were made mad with bhang and arrack. It was so during the Communist rule in Paris, and the later outrages of the Spanish revolutionists. And in Eastern countries crime will be chiefly found to prevail among the classes that do not comply with the rules of sobriety, while those classes of the population free from drinking are strikingly free from other offences. So it is in Turkey, and so in India. It ought not to require much reasoning capacity to perceive that the absence of intoxicating liquors must be favourable to the decrease of crime, and that whatever may be the amount of crime where they are unknown, their use would lead to an aggravation and an increase." Habitual 74. All sensible people think alike on one feature underway 8 of tlie drink question : they agree in condemning condemned, habitual drunkenness and sottishness as repulsive and contemptible. Moderate But on tbe question of so-called "moderate" drinking nucieu8 8 of he there ^ s almost as much divergence of opinion as there is dispute. latitude of interpretation. The first thing would be to ascertain the standard of moderation; but no standard has yet been fixed, no NO fixed definition of the term been settled upon. Nor, indeed, moderation would it be possible to do so from the physiological stand- possible, point ; for while a single glass may produce drunkenness in one man, another man might drink ten glasses and show no signs of intoxication. nr. John " They who have heard how large a quantity of f er- Cheyne. mented liquor may sometimes be taken without injury," says Dr. John Cheyne, in A Letter on the Effects of Wine and Spirits (Dublin, 1829), "ought also to know how small a quantity may prove injurious, otherwise the question at issue has not been fairly submitted to their judgment." In Germany, in the sixteenth century, a temperance society based its laws on the restriction of its members to "f ourteen g^ses of wine daily. 1 ' In our day observation shows that "moderation" means just as little as a man soen chooses to drink, and also just as much as he chooses to the sixteenth drink short of the point of evident intoxication, nor is the ltTour y day, line drawn even here by all, nor is there any one vested SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 313 with authority to say that the line shall be drawn any- moderation where. &. On being asked to define the term, one man says, Some of the " Moderation is to drink no more than yon know is good ^nitions'of for yon, and never tinder any circumstances to exceed that the term, amount." Further questioning elicits the fact that the quantity varies ; for example, his habit is to drink two or three glasses of wine or beer at dinner daily, and a glass of brandy now and then before going to bed ; in company, he is, of course, not so strict ; it would be disloyal, bigoted, unsocial, not to drink the health of the Queen, the Royal Family, and other toasts ; but he understands himself perfectly, and knows what he can bear; he confesses to having sometimes been a little " jolly," but nothing worse, and he has only contempt for those who cannot thus con- trol themselves. This is a fair specimen of the moderate drinker's definition of the term. Another moderate drinker cannot tell you the quanity he takes. " I take a glass whenever I feel like it," he says, " but I always stop at the right point, and I don't frequent the public-house." Another claims moderation on the ground that he is never exactly " dead drunk," or that he is " only drunk now and then." "We are assured," says the Lancet, in an article, Are The Lancet Publicans the Enemies of Drunkenness ? (May, 1872) " that ^ff^ m they (the publicans) regard this vice with a horror in no reasonings way second to the horror of teetotalers . . . from whom, moderation, indeed, they only differ in the opinion they have formed w r ith regard to the best means of repressing the evil. Teetotalers would diminish drunkenness by enjoining abstinence from alcohol, . . . publicans, by enjoining moderation." The specious reasoning in which the pub- lican stifles his conscience on this question of moderation is pointed out by Mr. Edward Jenkins, M.P.,* who makes Mr. Edward the rich distiller, Mr. Bighorne, evade his daughter's pro- jf'p 1 " 1 ^ tne test with Cain's answer : "I have repeatedly explained to saine'. you that whatever evil may result from the use of my manufactures is not due to any action on my part, but to the voluntaiy abuse, by separate individuals, of an article which, like anything else, if used in moderation, is harm- * The Devil's Chain (London, 1876). 314 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. less and good. I follow the ordinary course, and have no responsibility whatever for other people's weaknesses." The Lancet As to the meaning of moderation, the Lancet continues, of the* term* " ^ i g simply a matter of definition. A learned judge once moderation, said that a man was not drunk so long as he could lie on the ground without holding on ; to reel and stagger a little, to use foul language to decent people, ... to squander the earnings that should support a family, and gently punch the head of the partner of one's joys and cares ; . . . to do all this when under the influence of drugged beer is not to be drunk, but only ' a little fresh.' " 75. Physicians, who should certainly be the highest authorities, very rarely attempt to define a fixed standard for moderation.* The practical But even if a moderation standard were theoretically nes* ofthe f otm d, its unattainability in practice at once becomes ap- parent. moderation. j n ghaptgj. { v gome general facts were given regarding the science of liquor adulteration and its prevalence, show- ing that, except in rare instances, all alcoholic liquors are, as a rule, adulterated. This fact alone makes the observance of any standard of moderation impossible to the majority. But even if alcoholic drinks were not often ' adulterated, the moderation standard would still to the * They sometimes attempt it, however. The late Dr. Anstie, for example, gave his standard of moderation in an issue of the Prac- titioner (early in 1871), on which the Temperance Record commented as follows : " This is the nearest approach that we have ever met to a defini- tion of the moderate use of alcohol, namely, not more than two ounces of alcohol in twenty-four hours for an adult man, and not more than three-fourths of an ounce for a woman. It would be a sad interrup- tion to the enjoyment of a convivial party if Dr. Anstie's standard of moderation were set up for its guidance. There would be, in the first place, the necessity of learning the amount of alcohol contained in the wine or other inebriating liquor placed before the guests ; and the size of the glasses would have to be made known, so that each person might understand how many glasses he or she might take without going beyond the bounds of moderation. It would be extremely difficult to keep to the standard. All the victims of intemperance began their use of strong drink in moderate quantities, and the drink has made them what they are. The drink is truly a mocker; men flatter themselves that they know how to guide themselves they can distinguish the use from the abuse; but they learn by painful experience that the drink is strong, while men are weak." SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 31.3 vast majority of people remain utterly unattainable. It J was shown in chapter v. that the relative harm done by alcohol directly depends on a variety of more or less difficult, personal, and other circumstances and conditions ; such as constitution, temperament, climate, antecedents, occupation, condition of the stomach, etc., etc. It may be said that a skilful physician would be able to make allowance for all these things. But this very fact proves that a general standard is out of the question. And, again, supposing these objections were the only ones, and that the medical profession had really reached this necessary proficiency, even then it would be only the rich who could practise moderation ! If a general standard for the individual could be approximately reached, there are considerations which would still make its observance practically impossible. In chapter v. it was seen how the harm produced by alcohol depends on (besides the conditions just enu- merated) the nature of the alcohols imbibed, and their relative saturation with water. Supposing, therefore, that the moderation quantum of alcohol could be fairly ascertained, it would still be im- possible to put the standard in practice, until every bottle of wine, whisky, brandy, gin, beer, ale, etc., should be scientifically tested, and the required saturation and character of the alcohol be thus ascertained or prepared. Therefore it is seen that the term moderation, when applied to intoxicating liquors, has no value, because it has no reliable signification; and that its chief use is to cover with the mantle of respectability as much as possible the varying grades of a habit bad from first to last, in whatever degree it is indulged in. It is but fair in this connection to mention the fact that very many persons ranking among moderate drinkers both have and con- scientiously observe a fixed standard, and not only do not exceed its limits, but" sincerely believe that within those limits the indulgence is harmless. But why, after all, should there be this search for a safe moderation dose ? If alcohol, while being the dan- gerous article we know that it is, had yet been found to 316 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. be under certain conditions and in certain quantities essential to life and health ; then, indeed, would it become not only proper but an imperative necessity for us to find out the right way to use it. But it is proved and admitted by every one qualified to speak about it, and "who values the truth, that alcohol is not necessary to either life or health; that, on the contrary, neither are served by its use, in any quantity. Why, then, search for a standard of moderation for the use of a thing, at best quite valueless, and whose most probable effect is the formation of an appetite in every way dangerous to the health of body and mind ? And what is the testimony of competent authorities as to the results of moderate drinking ? Dr. Grindrod In Bacchus (London, 1839), Dr. Grindrod tells us that 1239) on*' " ^ De halnt of intoxication is a confirmed taste or appetite for strong drink, acquired in the first instance by moderate thepre?* 8 indulgence. The state of intoxication is that high degree 8ta r ''e < o7 ^ exc ^ emen * f which moderate drinking is the preparatory drunken- stage. ne68 - " One of the first stages of intemperance is witnessed in the anxious and uneasy feelings which even moderate drinkers invariably experience on occasions when they have been accidentally deprived of their accustomed allowance. Sen- sations of this nature present undoubted evidence of the existence and development of the inebriate propensity. Indeed, the great danger of moderate drinking consists in the inability to ascertain at what precise period in the progress of the vice this unnatural sensation first com- mences." Dr. J.Baxter In Testimonies of Physicians (New York, 1830), Dr. J. Baxter says, " The habit of moderate drinking has been the principal cause of the widespread scourge of intemperance. The laws of gravitation in impelling ponderous bodies toward the centre are scarcely more certain than the moderate use of liquor in begetting the drunken appetite." As to the physiological results of moderate drinking, we find the following medical opinions quoted by Dr. Grindrod (op. cit.) : Dr. Copland "In his Diet, of Proct. Med. (1835), Dr. Copland on the same. sa y Sj ' There can be no doubt that, as expressed by the late Dr. Gregory, an occasional excess is upon the whole less SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 317 injurious to the constitution than the practice of daily taking a moderate quantity of any fermented liquor or spirit.' "In his Lecture on Health (2nd edition, 1800), Dr. Dr.Gwmeu. Garnett said, ' Those who drink only a moderate quantity of wine, so as to make them cheerful, as they call it, but not absolutely to intoxicate, may imagine that it will do them no harm. The strong and robust may enjoy the pleasures of the bottle and the table with seeming im- punity, and sometimes for many years may not find any bad effects from them ; but, depend upon it, if a full diet of animal food be every day indulged in, with only a moderate portion of wine, its baneful influence will blast the vigour of the strongest constitution.' " Dr. James Johnson avers that ' A very considerable ^ r - James proportion of the middle and higher classes of life, as well as the lower, commit serious depredations on their con- stitutions, when they believe themselves to be sober citizens, and do really abhor debauch. This is by drinking ale and other malt liquors to a degree far short of intoxica- tion, yet from long habit producing a train of effects that embitter the later periods of existence.' " Said Dr. Macrorie, ' After having treated more than Dr- Macron* three thousand cases in the town hospital, Liverpool, I give it as my decided opinion that the constant moderate use of stimulating drinks is more injurious than the noiv and then excessive indulgence in them.' " Dr. Gordon, of Edinburgh, corroborated Dr. Macrorie, Dr. Gordon saying that in numerous post-mortem examinations made on ' the bodies of persons who had died of various diseases in a population much more renowned for sobriety and temperance than that of London, there was the remarkable fact that in all these cases there was, more or less, some affection of the liver ; and these people had not been in any shape or form intemperate, and they were moral and religious people, who would have been shocked at the imputation ; but they had been in the habit of drinking a small quantity of spirits every day.' " Dr. Sewall says, " I am persuaded that tens of thousands I*- Sewaii of temperate drinkers die annually from diseases through which the abstemious would pass in safety." In a letter dated March 15, 1873, Sir Henry Thompson sir Henry wrote to the late Archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Archibald Thomp80t 318 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Campbell Tait), " I have no hesitation in attributing a very large proportion of some of the most painful and dangerous maladies which come under my notice, as well as those which every medical man has to treat, to the ordinary and daily use of fermented drink, taken in the quantity which is conversationally deemed moderate." sir wniiam And Sir William Gull stated to the Lords' Select Com- G|UL mittee of Inquiry into the Prevalence of Intemperance (1877), that "all alcohol, and all things of an alcoholic nature, injure the nerve- tissues pro tempore, if not alto- gether, and are certainly deleterious to the health. I think there is a great deal of injury being done by the use of alcohol in what is supposed by the consumer to be a most moderate quantity, to people who are not in the least intemperate, to people supposed to be fairly well. It leads to degeneration of tissues. It spoils the health and it spoils the intellect. Short of drunkenness (that is, in those effects of it which stop short of drunkenness), I should say, from my experience, that alcohol is the most destructive agent we are aware of in this country." Although it is not easy, and perhaps not possible, to demonstrate the nature and exact amount of harm resulting to any particular individual from the occasional or even the regular use of alcohol in very minute quantities, scientific observation tends as we have seen to prove that it always is, and acts as, a poison, whether in sickness or health. Dr. W. B. Carpenter, in his Temperance and Abstinence (London, 1881), gives a very valuable analysis of both the difficulty of tracing the direct results of extreme modera- tion and of penetrating the web of specious reasoning which is woven around it. He says, " ' The little I take does me no harm,' is the common defence of those who are indisposed to abandon an agreeable habit, and who cannot plead a positive benefit derived from it ; but before such a statement can be justified, the individual who makes it ought to be endowed with the gift of prophecy, and to be able to have present to his mind the whole future history of his bodily fabric, and to show that, by reducing the amount of his excess to a measure which produces no immediately injurious results, he has not merely postponed its evil consequences to a remote period, Dr. W. B. Carpenter. SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 319 but has kept himself free from them altogether. The onus probandi lies with those who assume the absence of a con- nection, which is indicated by every fact with which we are acquainted. . . If the medical man has no hesitation in regarding those severer derangements of the digestive and excretory organs, which are so common amongst those who commit habitual excesses in eating and drinking, as the consequence of those excesses, why should he refrain from attributing the milder but more protracted disorders of the same organs to the less violent but more enduring operation of the same cause ? "Let it be remembered that we have multitudes of cases, in which the long-continued agency of morbific causes, of comparatively low intensity, has been proved to be not less potent in the end than the administration of a poison in a dose large enough to produce its obviously and immediately injurious effects. Thus, a man who would be rapidly suffocated by immersion in an atmo- sphere of carbonic acid, may live for weeks, months, or years in an atmosphere slightly contaminated by it, with- out experiencing any evil effects which he can distinctly connect with its influence, and yet who will now deny that the constant action of this minute dose of aerial poison is insidiously undermining his vital powers, and preparing him to become the easy prey of any destructive epidemic ? So, again, we see that a brief exposure to the pestilential atmosphere of the swamps of the Guinea coast is often sufficient to induce an attack of the most rapidly fatal forms of tropical fever ; but it may be long before the dweller among the marshy lands of temperate climates, inhaling the paludal poison in its less concentrated form, becomes affected with intermittent fever ; yet no one has any hesitation in recognizing the connection of cause and effect in the latter case, as in the former. So, again, the resident in a town, where the insufficiency of the drainage causes the surface-moisture to be imperfectly carried off, and to be not merely charged with the malaria of vegetable decomposition, but "with the miasmatic emanations of animal putrescence, may be free from serious disorder, if the cause does not operate in sufficient intensity ; yet he becomes liable in a greatly increased degree to the opera- tion of almost every morbific agent, and especially to that THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The late Samuel Bowly. A valuable suggestion by Mr. C. Kegan I'aul. Thedecep- live cha- of the various forms of fever-poison ; and no one who has paid even a slight degree of attention to the result of the sanitary inquiries which have now been carried on for many years past, hesitates in admitting the relation of cause and effect between insufficiency of drainage and the higher rate of mortality in nndrained localities, although not only days and weeks, but months and years, may be required for the operation of that cause upon the animal system." But even supposing that an innocent dietetic dose of alcohol had been discovered, all reasonable arguments tend to prove that abstinence would even then be preferable to moderation. In a letter published in the Temperance Record (July 3, 1879), the late Samuel Bowly said, "Total abstinence is simple, clear, and safe for all. Moderation gives no help to the drunkard. Total absti- nence, by God's blessing, has reclaimed thousands. Mode- ration keeps alive the insidious temptation, but supplies no strength to the weak to resist its power. Total abstinence, by removing the temptation, effectually protects all. Moderate drinking necessarily requires the continuance of the manufacture and sale to supply its demands. Total abstinence quietly, but effectually, annihilates the traffic with all its abounding evils. Moderation attracts the young by the apparent absence of danger. Total abstinence removes the danger, and thus secures their permanent safety. Moderation leads the masses to the public-house, total abstinence keeps them outside." In an article on Abstinence and Moderation in To-Day (January, 1884), Mr. C. Kegan Paul very appositely says that, even if an invalid believes that in giving up what is called a moderate supply of alcohol, " he is giving up a source of strength, either mental or bodily, I would suggest, even supposing this to be a possible danger, that, whereas he knows that drink is sapping his strength, weakening his will, lowering his bodily tone, abstinence can do no more, while it may do much less, and if he is to be a weakling under any circumstances he had better be a sober than a drunken invalid." The worker, whether he is a clergyman, an author, or a day-labourer, who turns to alcohol to build himself up SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 321 after a hard day's work, simply balances one exhaustive racier of the process with another the exhaustion of labour with the tributed'to exhaustion of the system caused by its efforts to dispose the moderate of the alcohol. A certain sense of relief, of apparent alcohol in return of equilibrium, may be felt because of the change j^tion 6 *" consequent upon the transfer of the exhausting process from labour, from one domain of the system to another. But this sense of relief is purchased at the expense of the sum total and term of active efficiency. The nervous system irritated by alcohol will exact larger and larger doses for procuring the brief and deceptive relief ; greater efforts will be exacted of the system for getting rid of it, and thus the two exhaustions going on in seemingly parallel lines, will gradually manifest convergence until at last the powers of endurance and labour will more or less abruptly collapse. 76. Of the effects of " moderate " drinking on the n r . Grindrod temper and disposition, Dr. Grindrod (op. cit.} remarks ^c^uced^ 8 " Experience demonstrates that the moderate but moderate habitual use of inebriating liquors inflames the passions ^ rin ^ i ^ 1 er and renders the disposition susceptible of even slight andjudg- provocation. It weakens, if it does not to a great degree ment ' destroy, the powers of reflection, deliberation, and judg- ment ; the relations of things are viewed through a coloured and distorted medium, and with these radical transitions there follows an utter inability to estimate character and actions with dispassionateness and discrimination. Aristotle observes that man while in a sober state reasons with correctness, because he makes a proper use of his judgment ; in a state of utter intoxication, he does not reason at all ; when, however, he is partially under the influence of wine, he reasons inaccurately, and therefore readily falls into error and mischief." Says Dr. Baer in his Alcoholismus (Berlin, 1878), Dr. Baeron " Undisturbed reflection and quiet comparison, critical ^^ed'on regard and deliberate judgment, impartial observation of mental pro- facts and the weighing of their relationships such are the mental processes to which mankind owes the entire treasure of positive knowledge, including the progress of natural science, technique, and industry ; such processes are cer- tainly not promoted by alcohol." The Rev. Dr. Hewitt says that "the French drink to Dr. Hewitt 322 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. on the cha- just that point at which the moral sense and judgment are moderate laid asleep, but all their other faculties remain awake. If irinking they do not drink to absolute stupefaction or intoxication, FrendL * it is because sensuality with Frenchmen is a science and a system." To-day it would not be fair to say this of Frenchmen only. The morn Equally deplorable are the effects of "moderate" bimy'of'the drinking on man's sense of duty to his fellows, moderate Moderate drinkers often argue that as they have er ' always been moderate, have never exceeded, nor even been tempted to exceed, they can see no reason why they should forego what they regard as an innocent indulgence, if not a positive benefit, because there are weak people who lack judgment or power to restrain their appetites within proper limits.* * "An analysis of the moral elements alleged to be strengthened by temptation in the exceptional cases of 'superior' virtue, will not justify the position of indifference to the fate and feebleness of others. The moral elements involved are two-fold : intellectual and emotional. First, a person declines to do a certain act, because, though pleasant at the moment, it is unfitting in its relations, and profitless in the long run. It is a violation of law, and therefore un- philosophical or foolish. All sin is so, if we could but see it : and when -we actually decline pleasant sins, we do see it. This may be - called the ' sense ' of virtue. But, second, there is the ' sensibility ' of virtue. We decline sin as sin, that is, because it is a ' wrong ' thing : because it is a relation which is bad objectively, and the doing of which would put us in a bad relation subjectively. In other words, our virtue is at once our purity, our humanity, and our piety ; we abstain from transgressing law out of regard to the interests of onr- self and mankind, and out of reverence to the Creator of the law. If these perceptions and feelings are strong, we shall act upon them habitually in other words, we shall crystallize our nature in the mould of virtue. Is not that better than spasmodic attempts at virtue, with the risk or reality of frequent failure ? But the state of mind, and attitude of being, here described, is just as true of the Abstainer from all strong-drink, as of the Abstainer from (what he calls) ' excess.' Both resist temptation for essentially the same reasons but the one happens to know more accurately where the evil com- mences, and the other certainly feels more tempted to yield to the temptation in consequence of having a liking for the drink, ' Eesist beginnings : whatsoe'er is ill, Though it appear light and of little moment, SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 323 In a letter to the Inquirer (November 18, 1882), the The Rev. Rev. Stopford A. Brooke, after likening the course of the aSofcTl^' drinker to a journey, says, " The question is, seeing that this point, the journey is so deadly a one, ought a man to begin it at all ? If he begin he is in danger of going on, and there is not one inch of the way which is safe ; for alcohol has this peculiar property, that it always lures onwards, that one glass asks for another. The moderate drinker is obliged almost daily to resist that allurement, and he is in con- tinued peril of failures to resist ; and indeed, it is a wonder he is not more afraid, for the whole mass of those who have been killed by alcoholic diseases, who have been made criminals and brutes by alcohol, whom alcohol has driven mad, and who have sown in their children the seeds which afterwards quickened weakness of constitution, on which any disease seizes, into idiotcy or mania or early death, began in the same way, went the first stage with the moderate drinker, but could not resist the invitation for more which the first stage invariably makes. It is because all this is so terribly true that we say, and with justice and fairness, that the moderate drinker is in danger, and that the example he sets does more harm than he is aware of." But, regarding the habit for the moment as the innocent indulgence or benefit which the moderate drinker claims, what if these weak ones could be strengthened by this self-denial on the part of the strong ? And if this does not impress, let us come closer, and ask how it will be if the weak one shall appear in our own household, be a beloved son, who cannot stay his hand as we have been able to stay ours ? Ah ! then the narrow reasoning falls through, and in the degradation of our own child we first feel how it is that the thousands and tens of thousands of other parents, mourning and ashamed, had a elaim that we failed to Think of it thus that what it is, augmented, Would run to strong and sharp extremities; Deem of it, therefore, as a serpent's egg, Which, hatched, would, as its kind, grow mischievous ; Then crush it in the shell.' SHAKESPERE." ^Dr. F. E. Lees, in Temperance Text-Book, vol. i. (London, 1884). 824 TfcE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. recognize, and how their shame and sorrow is our reproach. The Rev. Say s the Rev. James Smith, in his Temperance Refor- fn K-fauItion 1 ma tion and its Claims upon the Christian Church (London, of theargu- 1875), "It is urged against the temperance reformation moderation that temperance is a greater virtue than abstinence. It is is better than urged that moderation is the dictate both of reason and Scripture, abstinence the dictate of fanaticism and bigotry the latter, being unnatural and unreasonable, will defeat its own end, and by producing a reaction will foster the very evil it is meant to cure ; you might as well abjure food because some are gluttons, or take a pledge never to speak because language is often abused, as abjure strong drink or take a pledge to abstain because some become drunkards. " Such reasoning has a superficial look of plausibility, but it will not bear examination. It assumes that strong drink is a necessity, or at least very useful, and that its ordinary use is in accordance with nature and reason. Bat if this be not so, if abstinence be more reasonable and natural than drinking, the argument is worthless. There can be no reaction where there is nothing to react, and the desire for strong drink never originates in abstinence from it, but in the use of it. If it were a natural appetite, its unnatural repression would, in all probability, produce a reaction ; but it is not natural, and our contention is, that the more the laws of nature are understood, the character of strong drink examined, and the dictates of reason and science obeyed, the more general will the practice of abstinence become. " It is, no doubt, a matter of frequent occurrence that where intemperate habits have been already formed, a period of enforced abstinence is succeeded by a deeper debauch ; but such a case is quite beside the mark, unless 3t can be shonvn that the craving for strong drink was formed originally in consequence of abstinence, and that a similar craving is likely to be formed in cases of habitual voluntary abstinence, which is directly contrary to science and experience. The analogy between abstinence from strong drink and from food is clearly inadmissible, unless some specific kind of food of a highly unwholesome and dangerous character be selected on which to base the SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 325 argument ; but in that case the argument is manifestly destroyed. We object to strong drink as a wrong kind of drink, and we would equally object to any kind of food of which the characteristic ingredient was alcohol." In the Church Sunday School Magazine (September, C'. Kegan 1883), Mr. C. Kegan Paul says " It is admitted that for the drunkard, for the man who has a craving for drink, total abstinence is needful ; but we are told that moderation is a better thing, and that those who can use their liberty aright had better do so. But see how such argument looks from the side of the drinker. In the first place, not all who have these cravings, and who are therefore in imminent danger, are ready to admit that the case is so ill with them. They are not prepared to say, as it were, to the world by the fact of abstinence, that being unable to govern their appetites they put away temptation once for all, nor is there any reason why they should thus introduce every one into the dark secrets of their souls. But knowing ' the plague of their own heart".,' they may well be content to have this private reason for joining a band of persons who give up strong drink for the equally true, but less urgent reason, that abstinence for social causes, perhaps on all grounds of health and morals, is the better way. " Besides, there is something mocking and cynical in going to a person to whom drink is a temptation the power of which is difficult to realize by those who have given little attention to the matter who is shaken by the very scent of drink as by some outside physical force, who craves for alcohol as the hart pants for the water-brooks, even when he knows it is like the rill in German story, which babbled as it ran along, 'Whoever drinks of me will become a wild beast' there is something cynical, I say, in virtually appealing to such a one, ' Yow to whom this is so tremendous a struggle must make it, but I to whom it is next to none will not share your burden with you? " But God sometimes speaks through a single individual experience with a voice that smites like a sword sheer through the most impregnable walls of plausible and specious argument in which we selfishly intrench and con- ceal a cherished evil. Nothing that any one can say, be it ever so cleverly, in favour of alcoholic liquors, can stand 326 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Charles Lamb's warning appeal to young men. Dr. Howard Crosby's ob- jections to the temper- ance pledge, and Mr. Wendell Phillips' reply. for an instant before bat one such, heart-rent warning as these words of Charles Lamb : " if a wish could trans- port me back to those days of youth, when a draught from the next clear spring could slake any heats which summer suns and youthful exercise had power to stir up in the blood, how gladly would I return to thee, pure element, the drink of children, and of childlike holy hermits ! In my dreams I can sometimes fancy thy cool refreshment purling over my burning tongue but my waking stomach rejects it. That which refreshes innocence only makes me sick and faint. But is there no middle way betwixt total abstinence and the excess which kills you? For your sake, reader, and that you may never attain to my ex- perience, with pain I must utter the dreadful truth, that there is none, none." 77. The question of the worth and effectiveness of the temperance pledge has evoked a deal of specious reasoning. Dr. Howard Crosby, of New York, an influential advocate of the so-called moderate use of alcohol, in his lecture on A Calm View of the Temperance Question, delivered in Tremont Temple, Boston (January 10, 1881), declared the temperance pledge to be "a most pernicious instrument for debauching the conscience . . . always an injury and never a help to a true morality ... a substitute for principle, an invitation to further sin." In the same hall, two weeks later, Mr. Wendell Phillips replied, and concerning the true significance of taking the pledge, he said " Dr. Crosby passes to the great weapon of the temper- ance movement, the pledge. This he calls ' unmanly,' ' a strait jacket ; ' says it kills self-respect and undermines all character. " Hannah More said, ' We cannot expect perfection in any one, but we may demand consistency of every one.' " It doesn't tend to show the sincerity of these critics of our cause, when we find them objecting in us to what they themselves uniformly practise on all other occasions. If we continue to believe in their sincerity, it can only be at the expense of their intelligence. Dr. Crosby is un- doubtedly a member of a church. Does he mean to say that when his church demanded his signature to its creed and his pledge to obey its discipline, it asked what it was SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 327 ' unmanly ' in him to grant, and what destroys an in- dividual's character that his submission to this is 'fore- going his reasoning,' ' sinking back to his nonage ' ? etc. Of course he assents to none of these things. He only objects to a temperance pledge, not to a church one. " The husband pledges himself to his wife, and she to him for life. Is the marriage ceremony, then, a curse, a hindrance to virtue and progress ? " I have known men who, borrowing money, refused to sign any promissory note : they thought it unmanly, and evidence that I distrusted them. Does Dr. Crosby think the world should change its customs and immediately adopt that plan ? " Society rests in all its transactions on the idea that a solemn promise, pledge, assertion, strengthens and assures the act. It recognizes this principle of human nature. The witness on the stand gives solemn promise to tell the truth ; the officer, about to assume place for one year or ten, or for life, pledges his word and oath ; the grantor in a deed binds himself for all time by record; churches, societies, universities, accept funds on pledges to appro- priate them to certain purposes, and to no other these and a score more of instances can be cited. In any final analysis all these rest on the same principle as the temper- ance pledge. No man ever denounced them as unmanly. I sent this month a legacy to a literary institution on certain conditions, and received in return its pledge that the money should ever be sacredly used as directed. The doctor's principle would unsettle society, and if one pro- posed to apply it to any cause but temperance, practical men would quietly put him aside as out of his head. " These cobweb theories, born of isolated cloister life^ do not bear exposure to the midday sun or the rude winds of practical life. This is not a matter of theory. It must be tested and settled by experience and results. Thousands and tens of thousands attest the value of the pledge. It never degraded, it only lifted them to a higher life." 78. To take up, in closing, some of the well-worn The fallacy arguments, based on exceptional instances, which greatly deductions help in forming and cementing the habit of drink, we may ^'^J cite the very common one of the man who says he has drunk from the daily, one, two, or three glasses of wine or beer, with or exce P tion ^- 328 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. without a glass or two of whiskey, for the last ten, fifteen, or twenty years. " Just look at me ! " he says. '" Don't I look well ? Why, I look in better health than you do, and I've never known a sick day. Don't that prove that moderate drinking is good for a man ? " This sort of talk never seems to arrest attention as to the selfishness * of thinking of such a broad question only as it concerns the individual. Concerning the individual, it sounds convincing, and does convince, or rather satisfy many. But considering it impartially, we have to inquire into the character and condition of this man. Is he trustworthy on other points ? for if not, there is, of course, no reason to take his testimony on this. If he is trust- worthy, the value of his testimony depends upon what are his notions of health ; whether he means by health merely the ability of daily attending in the usual more or less humdrum way to his duties, or the bounding energy which makes work a pleasure, and leaves one a surplus for joy and rest when work is done. We must know if his parents or grandparents drank, and to what degree ; whether he was orderly or dissolute in his youth ; at what age he began to use intoxicants, what his occupation has been, and what care or precautions he has taken to preserve his health. On such and many other points full information is essential to a just estimate of his evidence in favour of drinking. Examples. Until cases of moderate drinking continued through two or three generations can show generally healthy descendants in the third generation, this plea, usually claimed as a "knock-down" argument, has absolutely no value, except to point the self-absorption of the man who makes it, and those who are influenced by it. Another argument very frequently advanced is that drinkers, and not only moderate ones, live longer than other people, unless accident or high living carry them off. Such an argument regarding alcohol is neither better * " One long-lived glutton or drunkard kills more by his example, and the flattering hopes those who know not their own strength and what they were made to bear, entertain, than Hippocrates ever saved." George Cheyne, in Natural Method of curing the Diseases of the Body and the Mind (London, 1742). SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 325 founded nor more logical than it would bo if applied to exceptional longevity in cases of persons living in malarial localities, or surviving the ordeal of the Sierra Leone, or employed as needle-grinders in Sheffield. According to statistics, the age of the latter seldom exceeds forty years. In the face of this fact, occasional instances of a longer term of existence among them would hardly lead to an advocacy of the employment of needle-grinding as con- ducive to long life. Neither would the fact that a man and his family have lived in fair health all their lives to a good old age over a foatid cesspool as seems to have at times happened be likely to be advanced as an argument in favour of generally establishing such reservoirs of pestilence under the family hearth-stone ! "We once heard of an extraordinary accident happening to a man at work where blasting was being done. During a premature explosion, a long piece of the drilling bar shot upward from the pit which was being excavated, and, entering the man's head under the chin, passed vertically entirely through his head, and, still ascending, fell at last at some distance. He staggered and fell, and his instant death was naturally expected. Not so. To the amazement of all, and the downright incredulity of physicians, he recovered, and, whereas he had been before the accident morose and un- reliable,' he was now genial and to be depended upon. But from this it would hardly be argued that men should subject themselves to this sort of experiment as probably conducive to improvement in temper and character ! But even supposing this argument of alcoholic longevity were true, are not the drinkers overwhelmingly more numerous than the abstainers ; and therefore, other things being equal, the number of aged drinkers would, of course, be greater than that of aged abstainers ; and what criterion of comparison has been used for the longevity ? To judge from the insurance and other statistics which are quoted in chap, x., comparing, under equitable conditions, equal numbers of drinkers and abstainers, it was found that abstainers much more generally reached an advanced age than drinkers. But what does this plea for longevity mean, urged by THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. people "whose chief aim in life is not to live is to kill time, not to use it ; and who, if not successful in killing time, do not unfrequently kill themselves ? If longevity were the measure of effectiveness, if drinkers counted each day a priceless boon to be used as nobly as they knew how, then indeed would this argument, if true, be powerful in favour of alcohol. But we have yet to see a man whose character has been ennobled by drinking, or a drinker who grows nobler and better as he grows older. On the other hand, it is a fact that some of the most effective lives have been short. And of only three years of public work such work as no man has measured nor can measure did not the Master say, " It is finished " ? ( 331 ) CHAPTER XITI. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? " While drinking continues, poverty and vice will prevail ; and until this is abandoned, no regulation, no efforts, no authority under heaven, can raise the condition of the working classes. It is worse than a plague or a pestilence, and the man is no friend to his country who does not lift up his voice and proclaim his example against it." Mr. J. LIVESEY, in the Moral Reformer, July 1, 1831.* "Drink, the only terrible enemy whom England has to fear."^ The late PKINCK LEOPOLD, Duke of Albany. 79. IN discussing the question of what can be done to reduce and vanquish the drink-evil, the limits and propor- tion of the present work restrict me in touching upon what has been done a noble record, full of interest to only such general mention or occasional particularization as is essential to the consideration of further reform effort. In the opening pages of this book it was pointed out that among the ancients the severest laws were put in force against drunkenness ; that it was even, and not unfrequently, punished with death. Ancient legal and historical writings are replete with edicts and instances showing that drunkenness was treated as a great crime.t Why did the temperance reform efforts in the past fail? ' Why have such efforts failed even up to the present century ? Why, at various times during the last fifty years, have * Mr. Livesey's first public denunciation of alcohol. f See Xenophon, Plato, Athensens, Plutarch, Pliny, Dion of Hali- carnassus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and others. 332 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. apparently great strides towards temperance alternated with great relapses ? What reasons have we to expect or hope that the present popular interest and labours in the cause of temperance are sowing the seed of a permanent success ? why past One large general difference between past and present efforts in regard to temperance lies in this broad distinction between the two ages, that in antiquity the nation was for the government, or rather the sovereign; while in our days governments, generally speaking, exist for the people. Antiquity lacked the innumerable means of bodily and mental communication, which, irrespective of the demarca- tions of birth, fortune, and special circumstance, suffice in our day to bring men together on one common intellectual level in the study of mankind. Their cha- Among the ancients, temperance decrees proceeded racter. from the sovereign. They were framed to include only such of his subjects as enjoyed the royal favour, and to these the royal mandates were a matter of blind obedience, not of persuasion or conviction. Such decrees were as fitful in their character and occurrence as the whims of the monarch issuing them ; their observance depended on the subjects' loyalty, usually an allegiance of craft or fear; and they contained no element of reform, although at long intervals, great historians, philosophers, and physicians sounded the note of warning. In later ages the popes sometimes united with the rulers of Europe to stay the evil of drink, but to little purpose. So-called moderation societies were even formed among the nobles of Germany. Early Dr. Baer mentions, in his Alcoholismus (Berlin, 1878), SdrtiS 00 tliat " Tlie First Order of Moderation" was founded by Frederick III. ; that the badge, a cross with a design of tankards, and inscribed with the motto Halt Mass (be moderate), was worn by the emperor at festivities ; that his son, Maximilian I., publicly expressed his abhorrence of intemperance at a number of his diets ; that the knightly order of St. Christopher, "for the abolition of profanity and drinking," was founded early in the six- teenth century by Sigismund von Diedrichstein, a noble- man of Carinthia and Styria ; and that a few years later an abstinence fraternity was instituted by Louis, Count WHAT CAN BE DONE? 333 Palatine, and Richard, Elector of Treves, fifteen bishops and princes, and many nobles entering it. Dr. Baer also refers to the Palatine Order of the Golden Special Ring, the symbol of membership being a gold ring, which fttu fiinre. was forfeited back to the community by any member who proved recreant in drinking toasts ; and mentions the famous temperance order founded by the Landgrave of Hesse in 1600. Yet all these societies, and numerous others which succeeded them, like the efforts made in antiquity, soon passed away. Why ? Chiefly for these reasons : firstly, because they lacked what we possess the knowledge that alcohol is always a poison and therefore naturally imagined the only remedy necessary lay in moderation ; secondly, because these societies did not originate in moral conviction of the nature of the evil they were to operate against: they were not formed with any reference to rooting out intemperance among the people, but were due rather to the proud egoism of the nobles, who, indifferent to the vice as it existed among the masses, nevertheless disdained to practise in common with them. This century (nineteenth) has seen a marked departure Character- from the whole past in a great many respects, but in modern tem perhaps nothing so decisively as in the constantly in- P^"^ t creasing recognition of the sovereignty of the individual, mc and the absolute interdependence of all individuals, high and low, rich and poor, of which recognition the general education of all youth is a proud instalment. Whence we have the steadily growing tendency to level all barriers interfering with a universal mental development ; and in the struggle for progress, in the sturdy investigation of the causes of the inequalities which constitute all the difference between worth and worth- lessness, between happiness and misery, the students of humanity have discovered that alcohol is a chief agent, the chief agent, in the sense that intemperance produces, is often produced by, is associated with, and gathers to itself, all other kinds of vice and degradation. Hence the modern temperance movement is based on knowledge, conviction, and aspiration, and on a sentiment of fellowship and fraternity much deeper and stronger than has ever been felt before. 334 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. This points the essential difference between the past and the present. Theepoch About fifty years ago there sprang up almost simul- toepresein taneously from among the hard-working masses of America, popular Germany, Great Britain, and Sweden, the core of the pre- temperance * ', movement ; sent popular temperance movement. J5S5R* These little bodies took the position that alcoholic lapsed, and drinks are always harmful, to the individual, society, and revived - the State. They discontinued drinking among themselves. They went, like the apostles of olden times, among the people to preach the only temperance gospel ; they were loyal, patient, and earnest, and their words, works, and lives carried conviction into millions of hearts. Still, in a few years the whole movement had subsided, and most of those who had promised reform went back to their old habits and associations, but not all. Meanwhile, the great advance made in physiological science had naturally been applied to the investigation of the effects of alcohol on the human system, and the ominous dicta of that science, coupled with the appalling reports of the effects of drunkenness as made by a more perfect statistical system, corroborated and strengthened by the genuine and noble pleas of the little band of faith- ful ones, re-awakened public interest, and this fresh impulse, supported by increased practical knowledge of the true character of the evil, has led to many attempts and plans for reform. 80. The present remedial efforts are usually sum- marized under the follosving three heads political, social, and individual. And this being the order in which success is most generally anticipated, we will deal with them in this order, although, for our own part, we believe that individual and social reform must be the basis of any permanently good temperance legislation. There seems to be much misunderstanding and con- fusion as to what may reasonably be expected from Government. Summary of As regards England, every Englishman knows that WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 335 this Government is theoretically of the people, through the character the people, and for the people. Any Government lacking *? the Xten this qualification would soon cease to be. obiTations Modern English history teems with incidents sub- of the stantiating this statement. Even a single unpopular Government measure has more than once been sufficient to overthrow in internal the Government passing it. All that exists, therefore, ref politically speaking, by its very existence proves the nation's acceptance thereof, just as much as its disappear- ance would prove the nation's disapprobation. But while this is true theoretically, and would, in any matter which thoroughly aroused the masses, become true in fact, we have to remember that the masses are slow to bestir themselves. They are like the cow in the pasture, to use a homely illusti-ation calm, benevolent, cud-chew- ing, drowsily indifferent to what sort of measures or reforms are being adopted by the fence-makers, secreting and daily yielding with little demur rich streams of milk ; but if the cow be too much baited, the udders secrete little, yield less, and a vicious not-to-be-mistaken kick upsets the milk-pail, milk and all. The masses have practically let their power slip out of The sove- their hands, and, though they can at any time resume it, amFnen'ce' 6 *' busy and inured to routine, they are not readily roused to do so. Then the suffrage is restricted, the land and wealth of the country is controlled by the few magnates, and while the masses acquiesce in this state of affairs, the will of the people amounts to the will of the magnates. This will is expressed through the members of Parlia- ment, and the Government being party government, its existence depends upon its loyalty to party interests. Both of the ruling parties vie with each other for popular favour the Conservative in the direction of maintaining the past in politics ; the Liberal in the direction of a methodic, slow, and safe transformation and extension of political powers and rights in accordance with the impera- tive needs of the age. Both parties champion popular opinion when out of office, and both of them when in office, as far as is safe for their tenure of office forced, perhaps, by exigencies and considerations they had not pre-estimated ignore and defy it. In such circumstances the Govern- ment, being unable to pass measures without its party's 333 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. consent, cannot safely ignore or resist its party ; and, as the wealth of the country is largely concerned in the liquor trade, and as the liquor trade is the largest and surest resource of government revenue, it must be apparent that pressure for complete or only partial prohibition, unless such pressure be brought to bear by the solid masses of the country, is not likely to meet with ready response from either Parliament or Government. The people Another mistaken notion as to the nature and function f&?the S1 e of Government, is that of supposing it to be a moral "arttament g aar dian of the people. The office of a constitutional and Govern- government is nothing more and nothing less than that of Government 6 faithfully executing the laws and decrees of the country in for that of an almost machine-like manner, and of taking no initiative e peop e. ^^ either making or abrogating laws without unmistak- able evidence of the nation's readiness and desire. The avalanches of contumely which have been heaped upon governments for not supporting legislative measures of or tending towards prohibition, have mostly sprung from this erroneous assumption, that the Government is the moral guardian of the nation.* If temperance is made a national instead of a party question, Parliament and Government will make no objection, because on national questions Parliament speaks for the people, and on such questions the Government is as sensitive to Parliament as is the exchange to financiers. As long as the national will is not pronouncedly against the liquor trade, Parliament will remain practically deaf to special petitions ; but as soon as the nation sees the evil of the liquor trade no Parliament can uphold it. Any attempt by Government to fore- stall the popular mind on this question would be a usurpation of popular rights, likely to be productive of * We wish, however, not to be misunderstood as meaning that morality ought to be separated from politics. We think it indispen- sable to vital morality that no division should exist between private and public morality ; personally, we believe the two to be inseparable. But it is the people who are responsible for the morality of Parliament and Government, not the Government for that of the people. If a country is animated by morality, its laws, representatives, and govern- ment must be moral ; but if, on the contrary, greed, expediency, and political sophistry are the motive forces of national life, they will inevitably get their completest expression through the representative and executive bodice. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 337 more harm than good to the temperance cause ; although of course it is not only laudable, but the positive duty of Government members to, in an unofficial capacity, assist in educating the popular mind on this subject. As Zschokke says, in his Branticein Pest (The Brandy Pest), Arau, 1857), " All laws are powerless for extinguish- ing an evil which has taken root hi the life of the people ; it is from the people itself that the reform of morals must proceed, but no government is strong enough to bring it about." 81. It is sometimes asked whether the continuous Dangers bondiug of all efforts in the direction of legislation does not j)oiiticai g divert the individual mind from the individual importance of agitation on the subject. The danger is not in legislative controversy, ni but in the separation of morals from politics, thereby making a national and race issue a shuttlecock between political parties a gambling stake for office and thus vitiating the cause of temperance. The defence of the country against invading armies is not allowed to be a question of party tactics, neither should the question which, in case of an invasion, would more than any other decide the issue of the contest. As in the case of an invasion, her army and aavy would j^pa^ be England's dependence, the enforcement of absolute portance of sobriety among the defenders of the country, officers and th^proLfc/ men alike, would seem to be a paramount duty of Govern- tion of ment. History furnishes ample precedent that nearly all the ?ndepenY ancient, many mediaeval, and some of the modern powers ence - (notably American) prohibited and prohibit drinking in their armies and navies. In the vigorous days of ancient Carthage and Rome, the penalty for drunkenness in the army was death ; and long after, when the people generally had become abandoned to drink and debauchery, the discipline of sobriety was enforced among the troops, although at last they fell to drink and then their countries were vanquished. It is an historic fact that the Anglo-Saxon power was ^ t ^" Ie of conquered by its intemperance; just as were Babylon and lost through Syracuse of antiquity. Hume states that King Edgar strove drink - to check intemperance by allowing only one alehouse to each town. Still, we find that the Anglo-Saxon army passed the night before the momentous battle of Hastings in drink and Z 338 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. riot, while the numerically inferior Norman forces passed it in prayer and fasting. Says Fuller, in his Church History of Britain : " The English being revelling before, had, in the morn- ing, their brains arrested for the arrearages of the undigested fumes of the former night, and were no better than drunk when they came to fight."* Some of the principal English officers, in both army and navy, inveigh frequently against drinking among the troops. Commenting on the general condition of some troops that had just passed through Canterbury en route to India, tho The Echo on f] c j lo (January 4, 1884), said, "The march through the town '. to the station the next morning was most disgraceful. The men were too drunk to keep ranks, and dropped portions of their equipment as they staggered along. At the station they were quite mutinous, refusing to obey orders ; and one, in North-country brogue was heard to say he would shoot his captain when he reached India." England must look to it that the ravages from drink are stopped before it is too late. 82-83. It is claimed that the measure known as Local Option will best serve to promote that full deve- lopment of popular conviction, which will result in an irresistible demand for total national prohibition of the liquor traffic. t We will deal with Local Option, first, as to its character, as a general principle ; next, as applied to the drink traffic ; * E. C. Delavan, in his Temperance Essays (New York, 1866), quotes from the Richmond Enquirer, Confederate organ (Oct. 6, 1861), the following concerning the downfall of the Confederacy of the Southern States : "Do you ask for an explanation of these rapidly occurring disasters in a portion of the State, where the Confederates, until the 19th ult., never suffered defeat ? Here is the key to our reverses. Officers of high position, yes, of very high position, have, to use an honest English word, been drunk too drunk to command themselves, much less an army, a division, a brigade, or a regiment. And when officers in high command are in the habit of drinking to excess, we may be* sure their pernicious example will be followed by those in lower grades. The cavalry forces that had been operating in the valley were already demoralized, and since their last visit to Maryland they have been utterly worthless." f [At the time when the Foundation of Death was written (March 1883 to May 1884) we had not been able to make minute inquiries into the principle or the bearings and probable practical results of Local Option, til* agitation for which in this country was then at its height. This we WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 339 next, as to its results in the United States, Australia, and Canada; next, as to its moral character and prospects in England : (a) what kind of Local Option the agitation here has prepared for ; (i) what kind alone is possible, securable, and enforcable ; and lastly, draw the inevitable conclusions. That a community, whether small or large, shall be allowed to settle its own affairs, is as proper as that a house owner shall make what repairs and changes he pleases on his own property. This is the rightful province of Local Option. In a word, Local Option is legitimately applied to questions of Questions of common local interest, such, for instance, as improved com- i^tereft^th*' munications, bridges, street cars, ferries, etc., better and more rightful pro- general education, improved schools, free libraries, etc., etc., Local etc. But all questions of national extent and importance are P tion - plainly too large to be left to local decision ; for though they involve and include local interests and rights, it is only as proportionate parts of the great total of interests and rights. As soon as national affairs are left to local arbitration the dismemberment of the ^tate has commenced ; it is indis- Local arbi- putably the small end of the wedge for the disintegration of natTonaflf- State. No intelligent political economist will hesitate to fair ? affirm that the composite organism of individuals called the State, fulfils its mission only in the measure that it takes into fair account the natural functions and varying claims of its members, this being the only way in which the balance between anarchy and despotism can be stably maintained. Any action in, or demand on, the part of localities cal- culated to disturb this ever-trembling balance so essential to the interests of the whole, cannot be a rightful or allowable application of the principle of Local Option. Our next consideration is, whether the drink traffic is a proper question for solution by Local Option. This must, of course, depend upon whether and to what extent the drink traffic is a local issue, and upon whether its solution by Local Option would be a moral and righteous solution of the difficulty. The results of the Drink Traffic are everywhere essentially the same. It is a national crime, nationally sane- have since done in the most impartial, broad, and faithful manner in our power, with the result that we feel bound to give in this new edition some of the principal reasons why we are convinced that Local Option in general, but especially as regards this country, is neither legitimate nor expedient. A. G. and Z. B. G.] 340 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. tioned, and nothing short of national prohibition can remove from the nation its awful responsibility in this matter ; and nothing less than national prohibition can be effective. It is this national character of the whole problem that Local Optionists ignore or fail to see. The advocates of Local Option base their whole plea upon expediency, appealing to pocket and to sentiment. They ask if it is not fair and just that those who are most affected by the traffic, the ratepayers, should be allowed to decide for themselves whether they will have the drink traffic iu their midst or not ; and they aver that by means of the possession of this right, localities ripe for the suppression of the traffic would be enabled to suppress it without being obliged to wait for the rest, and that the benefits accruing would soon convert others to the same policy, and thus gradually the country would become educated to demand absolute national prohibition. Taking these points seriatim for England, the facts are that in comparison with the hopeless degradation of men and the dumb suffering of women and little children, in comparison with these, the whole financial side of the question, excepting that of the worse than waste of the money spent for drink, is insignificant. Again, if ratepayers are to vote on such ques- tions, surely all adult inhabitants should have the right to do so. But if the voting be confined to the ratepayers, on what principle of justice can Local Optionists propose a two- thirds vote for carrying the measure, no such provision being made for its abolition ? Questions of the rise and fall of ministries, of peace or war, are decided by simple majorities, why should not the question of Local Option ? And if a measure intended to do good requires a two-thirds majority, surely its abrogation should not be left to a simple majority. Fallacy of The claim that Local Option will empower localities under wm^e^e" *' * secure the suppression of the traffic is too wide and local sup- vague for any just application. Suppose, for instance, that trSficor by localities is meant counties (it is, of course, easily seen tend towards that the larger and the more thinly settled the area, the hfbitkm. pr greater the chance for enforcement, and rice versa) ; if the whole county is not ready, what then ? Must districts which are ready wait for the county ? And if districts are not ready must parishes wait ? If a whole city or town is not ready must the divisions wait ? Where does the principle of justice WHAT CAN BE DONE? 341 or injustice in waiting come in ? Has not the local minority as great interests at stake as the local majority, whether the its injustice area is large or small ? What justice, for instance, is there optiioiidis- in making districts which have voted down the traffic, but t^cts, and to are outvoted by other districts of the same area licence minoritfes in therein being thus continued pay in any proportion for jj^J* dis ' harm done by the traffic in that area ? What justice, indeed, can there be in making the anti-licence minority subject in purse and condition to the pro-licence majority, anywhere ? The third point, that the results of Local Option will be such as to inspire imitation so universal as will end in national prohibition, is an assumption without warrant.* Let us suppose Local Option to have become law, and certain localities to have adopted it. These localities would, of course, be those in which the drink traffic had the least power. In other words, in the measure that localities were comparatively free from the degradation of drinking habits and the dominance of liquor interests, would they adopt a law for securing total riddance of it. In the proportion that such law was enforced, would the liquor dealers in such localities emigrate to licensed localities, and thus strengthen the evil in the very areas expected to expurgate it by emula- tion with those object lesson localities from which these dealers have flowed in. Therefore in the degree that Local Option areas increased would the traffic gain strength in licence areas, and in two ways, they would have more dealers and more money than formerly, because and let this be noted the adoption of Local Option by a majority does not extinguish the alcohol thirst in the minority. That minority would buy its * A very early I think the very first effort to leave the solution of the drink problem to localities, signally proved the inherent immorality, and foreshadowed the futility of all such compromises. The English Deputy- Governor of the Delaware Settlements granted to them in 1675 what we term Local Option, with the result that in 1681 the Indiana presented to him a petition, entreating that " Whereas the selling of strong liquors was prohibited in Pennsylvania and not at Newcastle, we find it a greater ill-convenience than before, our Indians going down to Newcastle, and there buying rum, and making them more debauched than before, in spite of the prohibition. Therefore we, whose names are hereuiider written, do desire that the prohibition may be taken off, and rum and strong liquors may be sold (in the aforesaid province) as formerly, until it Ic prohibited in Newcastle and in the government of Delaware." 342 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. drink in the licensed districts, leaving its money out of its own Local Option community, but bringing the drink within it, and in the degree of the difficulty of obtaining it, would it take care to lay in a good supply both in immediate consumption and for carrying home. The drunkenness, riots, prison, and police expenses thus ensuing would come on the Local Option community. So far indeed from the General example of Local Option being likely to lead this nation to pregnabiy 11 cry out for prohibition, it is likely to strengthen licence ; fcJaffic'in an< ^ w ^ en a comparatively few rural districts had adopted great cities Local Option, the licensed traffic would be well-nigh to coniSe' i^pregnably intrenched in the rest of the land. As the city the idea of populations increase in more than double the ratio of those di^uragT' f the country, it becomes evident that with every year the wOTkSTSd P ower ? the traffic which will be in the cities will bring 6 a!bout increase in like ratio to that of the resistance to it in the country areas. Moreover, according to its scheme, the experiment of putting Local Option to the vote would have to be repeated every two or three years, the traffic, when the trial came, would be in flourishing condition, both in funds and arguments, and the temperance people corre- spondingly disheartened and weakened, with the result that a general return to licence would be almost inevitable. Another aspect to this so-called Local Option education towards prohibition (for Local Optionists generally claim to be aiming at prohibition) is that any Local Option law must be passed by one of the present political parties, and as NO effective both depend for their very existence upon the support of the 11 licensed traffic, neither is able to pass a measure which the traffic regards as dangerous ; hence any Local Option trade wiii be measure that can be secured will, for practical purposes, parties con- be worth less than the paper on which it is written, to say trolled by nothing of the precious time wasted in securing it. Local Option, therefore, will tend to educate the country against prohibition, not to an understanding or adoption of it. Failure of Now as regards the United States, Local Option i.e., ^Uriited ion an a ^ em P' 1 * abolish the drink traffic in given areas has states! there been upon trial for over seventy years. At first it met with much success. The country was then sparsely populated, the liquor traffic had little foothold, and the powers of the vast counties which tried Local Option were very great. But in the measure that the country has WHAT CAN BE DONE? 343 become peopled, the traffic strong, and the administrative powers centralised, in that measure has Local Option proved a failure. A few examples will suffice to show that in the present, after so long a term of trial, Local Option as a means toward prohibition is a failure in itself, and a foe to the cause of national prohibition. Says The New Era (Springfield, Ohio) of Ohio's present Local Option law known as the Dow Law : " It is the child of the Scott Law, which was the child of the Pond Law, which was the child of the saloon, which is the child of the devil." To show how this law, such as it is, is nullified, I will mention that a publican in a Local Option area need simply announce himself to be an agent for a brewery, and he will be allowed to sell liquor by the jugful, and the purchaser can take a drink and leave the jug, and call when he pleases to drink from it, and when that jugful is gone, can buy and drink another. The well-known German liquor organ of Ohio, the Cincinnati Volksblatt, recently said, "The Dow Law shall remain as it is, and that justly, for it is the final solution of the temperance question. It bars prohibition out, and insures the saloon business a legal basis." Says a correspondent of the New York Voice (National Prohibition party organ of the United States) : " Local Option in Illinois is as great a farce as in Ohio." Illinois, with two-thirds of its territory under Local Option and the rest under high licence, has one saloon to every sixty-one voters a larger proportion than in the adjoining licence States of Wisconsin and Indiana. As regards Missouri, the other adjoining State, the Wood Law (Local Option) waa passed there this year (1887). As some evidence of its character, it is noteworthy that the attorney of the brewers was one of its most vigorous upholders. The Mining Journal (Marquette, Michigan) condemns the Michigan Local Option law as " a piece of political law-making designed to let bungling political managers out of a bad hole. Whether it will do this or not depends on the prohibitionists. If they choose to accept Local Option in lieu of prohibition, as the best that is obtainable in the way of temperance legislation, the measure may have the political effect intended. But if they 'stick to their text,' and refuse to be satisfied with anything short of State prohibition, rigidly enforced by all the power of law it will have as little effect in taking the 344 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. troublesome ' third party ' out of politics as in stopping the consumption of liquor in Michigan. That it will accomplish nothing in the latter direction we firmly helieve." As regards New York, where Local Option is the law, we find that the State contains 30,908 saloons. In its recent State Convention the Republican party re-affirmed Local Option ; the Farm and Farmer (Springfield, Ohio, Oct. 15, 1887) stating concerning it, " that it had incorporated into its platform, Local Option and restriction by taxation, where Local Option fails to restrict." A fine testimony as to the effectiveness of Local Option in the State of New York ! ! One of their principal liquor men, an ex-assembly man of New York city, and the author of the notorious Mandamus Act, Charley Smith, said in an interview with the Evening Telegram, " The Local Option feature is just what we want, and will give us a great hold of New York" And Shed Shook the brewer, one of the principal wire-pullers in the New York Republican Party, also said, "I am in favour of Local Option and moderate licence." That Local Option, even where it is comparatively suc- cessful, does not educate the public mind up to prohibition, is further conclusively shown in the recent State elections in Texas and Tennessee. There are Local Option laws in both these States, and in Texas this measure is incorporated in the Constitution. In both these States the prohibitory amend- ment was defeated ; in both nearly every Local Option county gave a majority against it. These counties said they did not require it, it might result in bringing increased taxa- tion on them; if the licence counties wanted prohibition they could adopt Local Option like themselves. In a recent issue of The Christian World (London), its New York cor- respondent writes : " Local Option is growing in favour among a certain class of politicians because it enables them to avoid the issue, and just now the aim of political leaders "\ the United States appears to be not to frame clear and definite issues for the judgment of the people, but either to escape or confuse them." Failure in Australia, as a young and sparsely peopled country, Australia, possesses many local conditions calculated lor a time at least to disguise the complete inadequacy of Local Option ; though even there the keen sighted are perceiving and crying out against the danger. The Australian Christian World (Sydney, WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 345 September 29, 1887) concludes a leader on " Temperance Warfare " in these words : " The only way to make tliem feel the importance of our movement is to establish a purely political Temperance party, and for every Christian man in the country to pledge himself before God never to support a man who will not make the abolition of this detestable traffic the first and constant aim of his parliamentary life." And The Truth (Wellington, New Zealand) emphatically says : "Local Option is a failure . . . and no other course" (than prohibition) " is open if we wish to save our fellow-colonists from ruin." As regards Canada, with its vast territory and widely Failure in scattered populations, its excellent general laws, its loyal Canada - people, and its Local Option law as well framed as such a law can be, owing to its being granted in a struggle for total prohibition surely it would be there if anywhere that wo might reasonably expect Local Option to succeed. In some counties, large in area, thinly settled and far apart, it has in great measure succeeded, but in others it has not ; and the error of the notion that Local Option will not become opera- tive except when public opinion and sentiment favours it, and that hence, when it is enacted, it will be sure of being faithfully executed, is pointed out by the Canada Citizen, the organ of the Scott Act (Local Option) party. In its leader, October 21, 1887, in speaking of the efforts made to enforce this law, it says: "Constables have been resisted and assaulted, business places and dwellings have been blown up, residences and outbuildings have been burned, cattle have been destroyed, scoundrelism of all kinds has been reckless and defiant ; and yet the rascals who do all this still hang round the scenes of their villainy, apparently as fearless of the civil authorities as they are of divine or moral law. In some counties it has been absolutely necessary for private citizens to enroll themselves as special police, and take the place of cowardly officers who are in terror of the whisky fiends." Later, in its issue for November 4, 1887, the same journal says: "More outrages, more arson, and yet no action by the Ontario Government ; no reward for the detec- tion of the incendiaries; no indignant protest from our city daily press ; no evidence of realisation of the terrible state of affairs that exists in this Province ; no official recognition of the perilous position in which every man now stands, who 346 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. dares to oppose the infernal liquor system ; no action to put down this evidently well-organised villainy. Under no other circumstances was such apathy ever known. How much power has the liquor traffic got ? To what extent is it able to stay the hands of justice and muzzle the ' watch dogs of civilisation ' ? Shall we be compelled in this progressive age and this enlightened country to go back again to the methods of THE VIGILANCE COMMITTEE ? " But perhaps the most conspicuous example of the failure of public sentiment no matter how overwhelming to secure the enforcement of Local Option, is furnished by Hillsboro', Ohio, the world-famed " cradle of the crusade." On the 14th March (1887) it adopted Local Option. " Public sen- timent," says the New Era, Springfield, Ohio, Nov. 18, 1887, " was almost a unit in favour of closing the saloons. . . . Public sentiment could not have been stronger than it was in Hillsboro' last spring, or even is at the present time ; yet it is unavailing ... the saloons are practically in full blast . . . public sentiment will not enforce law, public sentiment will not close the saloon. There must be an organization at back of public sentiment and back of the law, or the law becomes a dead letter." In February 1887, even the Alliance News, in an article entitled " The Movement Abroad," states " ' Local Option ' has been a favourite idea. But such option, particularly in small towns, and in certain strongholds of the saloon element in large cities, usually proves to be that of the grog-shop keepers only, since they can afford to devote more time and money to the defence of their pet occupation than citizens in general can spare to oppose them. " High licence has also been tried, with the sole effect of rendering Bacchus a more potent god than ever. " Throughout the controversy, so long as these half- measures prevailed, the liquor interest has scored ten to its opponent's one, and the real disciples of temperance long since discerned that prohibition, pure and simple, is the only form of temperance legislation which meets the case." Yet the United Kingdom Alliance persists in trying to commit this country to a policy which has proved such a disastrous failure wherever it has been triend. Essential im. Regarded from the standpoint of morals, Local Option is unworthy of respect. The drink traffic is a crime. Com- WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 347 promise with crime is itself a crime. On exactly the same grounds that the compromise called licence is a crime, is the compromise Local Option a crime, the only difference being one of method, licence dealing with this crime in retail, Local Option dealing with it in wholesale. By the licence laws, magistrates of a locality are authorised to deal with the separate licensing of public-houses as they see fit. Local Option allows a certain majority of the ratepayers to deal with the entire traffic as they see fit. The immorality of both measures is seen in the fact that in licence, the magis- trates, by the licence, grant permission to one man to do a thing which would in that man or any doer of the same thing, without such licences, be a crime ; and in Local Option one district may totally prohibit drink, while in a neighbour- ing district it is licensed. Thus we have the vote of the people deciding that one and the same thing shall in one locality be sanctioned, in another be accounted criminal. Licence and Local Option alike set aside the decrees of God, for both measures, in their different ways and degrees, are parts of one and the same attempt to effect a com- promise in a clear issue between right and wrong. That the drink traffic is carried on in plain and awful defiance of God's prohibitory edict, is seen in the terrible results of the alcoholic habit upon the race ; in the universality of its death sentence ; death to purity and sanity of body and soul. Local Option will, in the legal field, establish the same kind of fatal truce between good and evil, right and wrong, as the Church double-basis temperance societies are doing in the moral suasion field, and prove just as much an auxiliary of the drink traffic, as the president of the Plymouth Liquor Dealers' Protective Society, Mr. J. James, recently declared the Church of England Double Basis Temperance Society to be. "There was a class," said he, "and a very powerful class, of temperance people in the kingdom which entertained very fair and reasonable views with reference to the licensing question, and as to how it should be dealt with in the future. He spoke of the Church of England Temperance Society (Hear ! hear !)." Can any one of sane mind believe that such law will educate for righteousness and prohibition ? To secure pro- hibition will require unimpaired spiritual vision and unflinch- ing moral resolve. Will these qualifications be the outcome 348 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. of a long education in the policy of do as you please in regard to right and wrong ? why In view then of the inherent character of the Local ief prepared Option principle ; in view of the results where Local Option another 1 ^ as k een ^ e< * un ^ er circumstances in all respects more country. advantageous than England can present, what can be hoped from Local Option measures here ? England is an old country, with, in many respects, a more centralised government than any in the world, for many affairs of strictly local import are controlled by Par- liament. Then the country is small and very densely populated, and so closely and systematically intersected by railways and canals that intercommunication between any pai-ts is a matter of but a few hours' time. With the exception of the Channel between Ireland and Great Britain and the mountains that separate Scotland and Wales from England, no natural barriers exist, and the oneness and compactness of the country are further emphasised by its sea-separation from all other lands. All these conditions serve to make more difficult any attempt at disintegrated legislation, i.e., the strictly local treatment of national issues, which, as already pointed out, is a policy absolutely subversive of the State. Another consideration is the kind of Local Option pre- pared for by the agitation here. In a paper on Liquor Legislation (League Journal, October 1887), Ex-bailie Lewis, of Edinburgh, says, " One eminent statesman tells us that Local Option means the power to prohibit. " Another, no less eminent, tells us that it means the power to enable county boards and town councils to re- duce the number of licences. "Another tells us it confers upon town councils the power to introduce the Gothenburg scheme in a modified form ; and another affirms that it confers upon the people the power to have total prohibition or no prohibition ; to reduce the num- ber of licences or to increase them ; and to shorten the hours of sale or to extend them, and yet we are told this is tem- perance legislation." tiYe d non~ ^ n * s verv fo^ly expresses what notions about Local definable" Option have been developed here, for merely changing the d!araeter * erm * Direct ve * ^ oes no * change or explain the matter, WHAT CAN BE DONE? 349 unless, indeed, by Local Option was formerly meant that ratepayers had only a right to increase or diminish licences, but not to exterminate them. If that was the meaning then the whole agitation has been a humbug. Those examples of Local Option afforded by landlords who refuse to allow public-houses on their property are much vaunted by Local Optionists as proof of what Local Option can do. Now that is the kind of Local Option which the masses want. But such Local Option is possible only to arbitrary powers. A landlord is absolute in control over his own property, and can lay down absolute conditions for tenancy. Such powers alone will suffice to adequately en- force any Local Option law in this country. Only such powers can effectuate any moral kind of Local Option, because such a man is doing all in his single power on his own land to abolish drink, and just what the prohibitionist wants law to do by the whole popular estate, the whole country. But as to the practical application, how misleading and false to compare the absolute powers of the landlord on his property with that of the necessary majority of ratepayers in a locality. It is needless to go into the details to demon- strate an absurdity at once patent to all. Hence, we see that while the honest prohibition masses have been taught to expect total local prohibition, with ade- quate machinery for its thorough enforcement, and to expect that by the passage and adoption of the Local Option law the country will gradually become educated to and prepared for total national prohibition; the Local Option leaders, on the other hand, know perfectly well that no Local Option measure can be passed that has not first been approved by the Drink Traffic, and the sham of such a proceeding is plain to every one. However, we are promised the immediate in- troduction of a Local Option Bill in Parliament, and those who live will see. Agitation for Local Option, therefore, is most reprehen- sible. It is an agitation for an immoral measure ; at least it educates the public mind to set expediency above principle, to consider that the object sanctifies the means, whatever they may be ; and it is a delusion, inasmuch as no Local Option worth having is securable, except upon private estates ; and it serves to confuse the idea of prohibition and to defeat the forces in favour of it, by keeping the tern- S50 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. perance men within the old drink-traffic-controlled parties, thereby neutralising the weight of their protest, so that finally, no matter how strong the popular sentiment for prohibition may be, it will get no effective expression so long as its advocates remain within the great political parties. It is perhaps as well to state here frankly that we think Local Option will probably become law, because here, as in the United States, the drink traffic 'will realise that what- ever measure is passed must be passed by their consent, and they will see that by granting it in this case they will lay the parties under obligation to them ; they will understand that prohibitionists by accepting Local Option make themselves responsible for its success or failure ; and the drink traffic will know how to use the necessary pressure on the parties to prevent any serious inconvenience to the trade from its enforcement if and wherever it may be adopted. It is the prohibitionists who will suffer, with a defective law practically affecting only open retail sales, i.e., striking at the poor working man and leaving all others in about the same position as before regarding the obtaining of liquors, and thus straining the already intolerable relations between classes, so that prohibitionists, by accepting, in spite of their intelligence and their conscience, a Local Option law, will turn the masses against prohibition, and will themselves be fighting at great odds, having to pay from their narrow local resources for all legal expenses incurred in contending with an enormously wealthy, nationally organized, and vitally interested traffic. The failure of the law will be laid by the two parties at the door of prohibition. By skilful manipula- tion of the prohibition vote the political parties will be able to use the Local Option law like a football, each in turn promising better execution when they shall be in power. The Liquor Traffic meanwhile will use its power in both parties to compel party competition in the non-enforcement of the law, thus neutralizing, demoralizing, and indefinitely delaying the organization of the prohibition forces. Thus the entire responsibility for the existence of licence will by both parties be thrown upon the local ratepayers of the land. Wherever licence exists the drink sellers will claim that it exists by the special express will of the people. These are some of the evils which we have to dread, which the true prohibitionist does his utmost to prevent ; evils which, if we cannot avert WHAT CAN BE DONE? 351 them , will, we trust, lead us by their sharp terrible lessons to see at last what is the one only solution to this question. Said Mr. John B. Finch,* the late great leader of the United States Prohibition Party, " Local Option and high licence are subterfuges of the enemy, to postpone correct and right action." When indeed, men so conscientiously cautious con- cerning questions of popular liberties as was the late Samuel Samuel Morley, when such a man felt bound, in the ripeness of ex- ^^J'^J" perience and conviction, to declare his belief that " a new party having prohibition for its basis and aim, whose exist- ence should be wholly bound up in the success of prohibition, was the only adequate means for the abolition of the traffic, "t ought not those of us who have been trusting only in personal persuasion and in compromise measures as a means towards ridding this land of the drink curse, ought we not to pause and consider and resolve ? 84. When prohibition becomes law, there is one point The p^. which the temperance advocates should not lose sight of, mount duty namely, the exportation of liquor. The influence England Government has exercised in this respect on her colonies and those regarding savage nations forced by her fleets to trade with her, has ofiiqu put an immense responsibility on her shoulders.J * On the 3rd of October, 1887, the Order of Good Templars lost its tot ?HS. chief, and the cause of Prohibition of the Drink Traffic met with a p terrible calamity in the death of this Christian gentleman, John B. Finch. He was chairman of the National Committee of the Prohibi- tion Party of the United States. " Wise in counsel ; firm, kind, and judicious in administration ; fearless in conflict ; faithful in friendship ; he was singularly qualified for the pre-eminent position of leadership to which he was called." f " Life of Samuel Morley," by Edwin Hodder. Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1887. J "I am sorry to say that since the cession to the British Govern- ment the Griquas have become a debased people, as much as before they were respected. The first thing that the Government did after the cession was to license a liquor-shop at Griqua Town and at other places within the territory, and from that I trace the debasement of the tribe. In order to show you the change that has taken place for the worse, I may mention that prior to the cession I travelled for fourteen years through a great part of the country, and I never saw a drunken native. It was, in fact, against the laws of the country to introduce brandy or other spirituous liquors; but immediately after the cession and the licensing of drinking the state of things un- fortunately changed. At the time to which I have referred the Griquas had a council and a court of justice, in which a regular record of the proceedings was kept ; punishments were awarded for offences according to civilised ideas, and the country was remarkably free 352 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Quoting from the Gazette of India, (August 25, 1883), the Alliance News of December 8, 1883, says, " A compara- from crime." Hon. David Arnot, in Manchester Courier, March 13, 1879. " Griqnaland was annexed to the British Crown in 1871, and with it a large tract of Bechuana territory. Up to that time, the chiefs, Waterboer and Yanke (the former Griqna and the latter Bechuana), had prohibited, as far as possible, the sale of brandy in their respec- tive territories. So soon as the country was annexed, canteens were licensed and opened all over the country, and the people, who had become more or less civilized and Christianized, began to go back again. They took to drinking, and began to lose all they possessed. This became so bad in Griqualaud that, in 1877, the heads of the Griqua tribe drew up a petition in the Dutch language for presenta- tion to Her Majesty the Queen, imploring her to stop the sale of drink, as ifc was bringing them to ruin." Eev. A. J. Unkey, Bedford, August 14, to Wm. Hoyle. Appeared in Alliance News, September 27, 1879. The Friend for April contains a letter from the Nonconformist and Independent, from a missionary of the London Missionary Society, con- cerning the Bechuanas, the people among whom Dr. Moffat so long laboured. The writer, A. J. Wookey, says : " Magistrates were appointed to various districts to represent British authority amongst the natives at a distance from Kimberley, which was the seat of government and the great centre of European population. Gaols were built and police enrolled. At the same time canteens were licensed and opened in every available place for the sale of Cape brandy. Licensed hawkers, travelling in waggons, carried the same pernicious wares to all the native villages and hamlets, bringing dis- turbance and misery wherever they came. They would even cross the border, and, in defiance of the chiefs, carry on the sale in front of their very doors. And if a chief attempted to interfere, he would be threatened with the soldiers and police. One of the saddest sights to be seen there any day was that of natives riding backwards and forwards to these places on horseback or oxback, infuriated by drink, or to see men and women rolling about or lying hopelessly intoxicated under the shadow of the staff bearing aloft the British flag. This was the licensed process of civilization, under the patronage of the British Government the brandy shop, the magistrate's court, and the gaol. The effect of this state of things, especially in these outlying districts, was appalling, and many of the natives became more debased and impoverished than ever they had been as heathen. Up to this time the native chiefs had prohibited the sale of these drinks in their country, well knowing the evils they brought. But the Government deliberately broke down the feeble barriers, and flooded the country with ruin. At Griqua Town the chief became the prey of the canteen- keepers and others, and turned out a besotted imbecile ; and many 01 his people are very little better. In 1877 a number of the chief native inhabitants of Griqua Town drew up a petition addressed to Her WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 353 tive statement of the import revenue for the four months of the official year and of the twelve preceding years, published in the Gazette of India of the 25th of August, shows how far the imports of liquor are on the increase. The average of the four months (April to 31st July) for the ten years commencing from 1871-72 shows the follow- ing results, as compared with the revenue collected within three succeeding years : EEVENUE APRIL TO JULY. Average 10 years up to 18SO. 1831. 1882. 1883. Bengal ... Rs. 4,16,000 4,66,000 4,93,000 4,84,000 Bombay... 2,30,000 3,56,000 3,64,0^0 3,66,000 Madras 1,57,000 1,76,000 1,79,000 1,76,000 1,56,000 2,34,000 2,98,000 2,83,000 " What do these figures indicate ? That in Bengal the average increase during the last three years, compared Majesty Queen Victoria, imploring her to stay the ruin coming open them, and stop the sale of drink. This petition reached the Colonial Office in November, 1877, but no notice was taken of it further than an acknowledgment to the forwarder. Had the wrongs of these poor people been inquired into at the time, it is probable that much misery and bloodshed might have been averted ; but the cry of the helpless was disregarded." Alliance News, April 17, 1880. The Temperance Record for July 24, 1883, quotes Mr. Mackay, the Missionary of the Church Missionary Society from Lake Victoria Ny- anza, as saying : " Go where you will Usequha, Usagara, Ugogo, Un- gamwezi, Usukuma, Ukerewe, or Uganda you will find every week, and, when grain is plentiful, every night, every man, woman, and child, even to the sucking infant, reeling with the effects of alcohol. On this account, chiefly, I became a teetotaler on leaving the coast, and have continued so ever since. I believe, also, that abstinence is the true secret of continued and unimpaired health in the tropics. Who wishes to introduce civilization into Africa ? Let a sine qud non of the enterprise be that its members be total abstainers. The West Coast is ruined with rum ; it is killing the Kaffir in the South ; and even at the East Coast, at Zanzibar, a vile liquor is distilled from the sugar canes at Kokotoni, that is retailed by every Hindu, Banyan, and Goa merchant in all the coast towns, to the destruction of the Suaheli race. Matama or pinicnm is the general malt, but, failing that, Indian corn and a small millet called mewere are called into requisition, the strength being often increased by the addition of honey. On the shores of Nyanza, plantains are plentiful, and from them a wine is made which causes king and people to meet on the low level of intoxication." 354 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The Tent- peranc* League Annual on this point. with that of the ten years preceding, is 16 per cent., in Bombay 56 per cent., in Madras 13, and in Burmah 74 ! This increase is most significant. It is full 36 per cent, for the whole of British India, or at the rate of 12 per cent, per annum. Is such a progress in the revenue derived from spirits no cause for apprehension ? " In his speech in St. James's Hall (May 19, 1870) the Hindoo reformer, Baboo Keshub Chnnder Sen, bitterly complained of the curse the English liquor traffic had been to India. " The whole atmosphere of India," said he, "seems to be rending with cries of thousands of poor helpless widows, who curse the British Government for having introduced that thing." In its retrospect for 1882, the Temperance League Annual says, " The influence which the English nation exerts on the social customs of the colonies is very great, and in the matter of our drinking habits, incalculable harm has been done to many of our dependencies. Temperance reformers, recognizing this, are bound to do all in their power to prevent other communities from being saddled with an evil which they themselves are endeavouring to get rid of." He then speaks of the audience granted to the National Temperance League by Cetewayo, of his cordial sympathy with its views, and his assurances that he had issued a proclamation against the introduction of spirits, which he would renew on his restoration. " Your spirits and in- stranceswith toxicants are death," said the king, "but it is no good England. shutting the door on my side, for I have no distilleries. I think the proper way would be for the Natal Government to assist me by placing restrictions upon the introduction of spirituous liquors in my country."* * The Alliance News (October 4, 1879) quotes the following from the Birmingham Daily Mail : " It has been discovered that Cetewayo has most advanced notions on the subject of the liquor traffic. He strictly prohibits the sale of Cape rum and other spirits in his country, and a curious story appears in a contemporary to-day, showing how this law was promulgated. A well-known trader, some time within the last four years, on a visit to Ulnndi, surreptitiously introduced a quantity of liquor ; and a native, a relapsed missionary convert, who was working for the king, got outrageously drunk thereon, and meet- ing the king, abused him to his face, calling him every bad name in the Zulu vocabulary. Instead of the king wreaking his vengeance Cetewayo's WHAT CAN BE DONE? 355 How needful strict laws against liquor exportation The liquor will be when prohibitive measures are secured, is fore- aiSaTiuT shadowed by the two notable liquor treaties concluded during the last session ; the first one with Siam,* in April (1883), providing the importation of all kinds of spirits, beers, and wines by British subjects on the same conditions as those exacted of Siamese subjects ; and the second with the government of Madagascar, f May 25. Both treaties leaving Siam and Madagascar bound literally hand and foot to the liquor-traders in England and the British subjects (a term specially and broadly defined) in both these countries. Commenting on the treaty with Siam, the Daily News says, " Much of the alcoholic liquor which summarily upon the inebriated fool, he waited until the next day, when the man was sober, and then accepted his apology, at the same time expressing an opinion that they who supplied the drink were more to blame than he was. A law was, however, thereupon made by Cetewayo, wholly prohibiting the sale of spirits." * The treaty with Siam has encouraged Holland, where the number of public-houses is limited by law, to follow the example of Great Britain, and force upon Siam a liquor treaty identical with the one concluded by Great Britain. t Says the Alliance News (September 13, 1879), " The effects of rum on the native inhabitants of Madagascar are so pernicious, lead, ing to commission of fearful crimes when under its influence, that a number of Consuls, missionaries, and other influential residents of Madagascar, have addressed a memorial to Queen Eanavalona, asking that its importation into her kingdom may be prohibited absolutely. The memorial and the reply sent by the Queen's Chief Minister are in La Sentinelle de Maurice of April 28, and from the reply we give the following translation, showing that the Queen is quite alive to the necessity for restricting the sale of the spirit among her subjects : " ' The Queen has directed me to thank you for the desire which you express that she will not permit rum to enter her kingdom in such quantity as to allow the people to drink of it to excess. That God may bless your good idea is the earnest wish of the Queen. As for myself, I have attentively considered your statements, and they have afforded me much pleasure, and I take the liberty of thanking you, for I see by them how great is the interest which you take in the Malagasi nation. I have the honour to tell you, gentlemen, that already a law has been framed which prohibits the drinking of rum in the kingdom of Madagascar. In your letter you have shown the effects of rum-drinking in all its hideousness, and above all how it brutalizes men. You are right; and the Queen thanks you for your thoughtfalness, which has been inspired by your friendship, and for the great good of her people.' " 358 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. finds its way into countries in the position of Siam, is little better than poison, and ought to be so labelled." As to Madagascar, it is but eight years since the pi-ess of England rung with praises of the Madagascan Queen for her liquor prohibition proclamation (1876). England's responsibility for the moral and social con- dition of affairs in Madagascar is indicated in the following ?uery and answer in the House of Commons debate, April 9, 1883 : "Mr. Buxton asked the Under- Secretary for Foreign Affairs whether it was a fact that Tamatave, the principal port of Madagascar, was supplied to an enormous extent with inferior and poisonous rum from Mauritius, for which no other market could be found ; whether it had been the cause of general and disgusting intoxication throughout the town and neighbourhood ; whether the Hova Govern- ment formerly imposed a duty of thirty-three per cent, on the importation, and was only compelled by English and other consular pressure to reduce such duty to ten per cent. ? . . . " Lord E. Fitzmaurice : ' I regret to say that it is a fact that a large quantity of inferior rum is imported into Madagascar from Mauritius, and it has. no doubt, been the cause of the evils to which my honourable friend refers.' " If, when drink shall he prohibited in England, the expor- tation is not at the same time provided against, such treaties as these (passed in order to make up for those .5, 000,000 less of revenue * so much rejoiced over hy the Chancellor of the Exchequer, in the last budget ?) are significant of how further internal deficits might be made up. * The causes of this deficit were well pointed out by the Right Honourable Balfonr, Lord Advocate of Scotland, " The weightiest utterance on the liquor traffic in Scotland came from the highest Scottish Parliamentary official, the Right Honourable Lord Advocate Balfonr. "We read with much pleasure all that his lordship so elo- quently said with regard to the progress made by the temperance reformation, especially in Parliament, and we commend his lordship's testimony to those who would fain believe that tbe temperance re- formers are unable to move on. Of the 5,000,000 which is lost to the revenue, a large share of credit is justly due to the prohibitionists. The Cameron Act of 1876, the Irish Sunday Closing Act of 1878, and the Steamboat Passengers Sunday Act of 1880 have been eminently helpful in that beneficial reduction." The Social Reformer, Februarv. 1884. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 357 85. Morewood, in his Inebriating Liquors (1838), National quotes the following pregnant saying of Playfair : underThe " When a nation becomes the slave of its revenue, and Hqr sacrifices everything thereto, abuses that favour revenue are difficult to reform." And liquor legislation in England to this day has proved the truth of this statement. For some three hundred years it has been the case that in the measure revenue has been needed, English Governments have almost invariably encouraged distillation and increased the facilities for the consumption of liquor. As early as 1552 the first Licensing Act was passed : Brief sum- " An acte for keepers of ale-houses to be bound in recog- Sstory f of he nizances, and giving the justices power to close ale-houses licensing, in such town or towns as they shall think meet and convenient." In 1553 a law was passed providing that no town should be granted more than two wine licences, excepting 22 ; among these last, London was allowed 40, York 8, Bristol 6, and the others 4 and 3. But neither Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, nor Leeds were included among these exceptions. During James I.'s reign (1603) licence was granted by letters patent. In 1643 the Long Parliament laid a tax on beer and ale for the ensuing year, calling it by the new name excise, pro- bably an anglicizing of the Belgian acciisse, signifying tribute. In 1753 an Act was passed for the more easy conviction of persons selling ale and strong liquors without licence. In 1828 the liquor-dealers got permission to appeal to the quarter sessions from decisions by justices of peace. In 1830 the pernicious Beer Act was passed, to rival the public-house, it was claimed. In 1860 the Refreshment Houses and Wine Licences Act was passed, " to facilitate the sale and consumption of light foreign wines in con- fectioners' shops and eating- ho uses." February 10, 1860, Mr. Gladstone made a proposition for reducing the The Grocers- duty on brandy from fifteen shillings per gallon to eight LicenceAct - shillings and twopence the colonial duty ; and although this effort failed, he succeeded in 1861 in passing the Grocers' Licence Act. The harm that Act has done is incalculable. Already 358 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. in the Evidence on Drunkenness before the House of Commons, 1834, it was shown that Grocers' Licences did great harm. The Saturday Eeview (January 21, 1871), in an article on Drawing-room Alcoholization, says in regard to the results from these licences " If the Lancet laments, as it has done, the over-prescrip- ** on ^ s ti mu l ari t s which was ' too mnch in fashion a few years ago,' its acknowledgment of the perhaps irreparable evil is unseen by the general reader. The literature of temperance societies and police reports does not affect the divinities of our Olympus, who hardly guess the striking resemblance between their nectar and the gin of the 'masses.' . . . The rich escape the publicity of their practices which befals our poor, and consequently we cannot so well guess at the causes of that failure in duty at home, and in discretion abroad, which appears fco be on the increase ; but there is reason to believe that the frequent ' pick-me-up,' the mid-day and afternoon sherry or cham- pagne, may have much to do with the pace at which young men and maidens, old men and children, Mavfair mothers and Belgravian beauties, are posting downhill. ... In- dulgence in any vice always entails others, but the distinct effect of alcohol is so to affect the nerves and brain that the material power to resist any temptation is lessened in proportion to the quantity taken. This is hardly, then, a safe stimulant for women, nor will it, even in small quan- tities, advantageously develop their peculiarities. . . . Supposing the lady of the house never exceeds the sherry she can carry with dignity and self-approval, and get decently through her daily round of deadly-lively occupa- tion, she remains a proof that a woman with a taste for strong liquors has seldom any other taste. Her maid puts on her clothes, but she is careless of her appearance, and even liable to personal unkemptness. She is often Tin- punctual, fractious before her dram, and dull afterwards. She does not cultivate friends or acquaintances who could be any check to her practices. She likes her mankind to be much away from the house, and if they take no notice of the quantity of wine consumed in their establishment she will be affectionate, if rather stupid, to them. Of what is pure and noble in life she loses appreciation, while all WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 359 that is animal is intensified in her. If she has children, they will probably suffer from constitutional depression and weakness, and ' tone ' will be plentifully supplied by port wine, and even brandy, from their infancy up. With the career of the boys we are not here concerned, but of the girls what may or may not be prophesied ? If they have escaped positive disease by the time they are launched in the world, they will be, at all events, dependent for their ' go ' in society on copious champagne and frequent sherry. Naturally they will join the increasing mob of fast girls, with all that is involved in that evil. We are sensible of a distinct moral relaxation among women, and of a new sort of unwomanly recklessness in the presence of men. We complain of a prevalent coarseness even among the virtuous, not only of manner, but of imagination and pur- suits, and we are sometimes tempted to prefer the age of Nell Gwynne or Madame de Pompadour to the actual con- fusion of daredevil women and unabashed spinsters. It would seem that alcohol has something to do with this disorder, for the physical effects of it on women are proved by medical investigation to be precisely what would denaturalize them." Commenting on this article Dr. Anstie, in a paper on The Prac- The Use and Abuse of Alcohol by Women, in the Practitioner JJttaMin* (March, 1871), says "The fact is, that all tipplers become more or less untruthful, but that female tipplers invariably become shameless and most skilful liars. And the favourite lie which they invent as an excuse for their habits is an apocryphal medical order ' to take plenty of support and stimulants.' We have personally detected the manufac- ture and skilful dissemination of this particular falsehood in several instances, and the practice is notorious to physicians who see much of nervous diseases." And the Spectator (February 18, 1871) says, in an article The on Women and Alcohol ffwo^n " It is ruin for them, as it is for men, and in both cases and alcohol, for the same reason, because any narcotizing poison, once in possession of the system, pai'alyzes the will ; but it is rnin far quicker, and, owing to the organization of society, more complete. We are not inclined to believe what the Saturday says and the Practitioner hints, that liquor impairs 360 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. chastity in women more than in men ; but women depend upon the will, which the influence of the poison cripples, and suffer more visibly when its paralysis has thrown them back defenceless upon impulse, whether the impulse be kleptomania or concession to solicitations." Protests Mrs. Dawson Burns, writing in the Alliance Neivs, eajall!st January 4, 1879, says the Grocers- " The motive prompting these Acts was good: it was Licence Act. , ITT j v i The Alliance avowedly to draw away the public-house and beershop .VM. votaries. Statistics signally show a failure in that object ; going still further, they unfortunately prove that, rather than lessening the one evil, these Acts open up channels for a different class of women obtaining drink who would rarely, on account of their social status, have ventured into either a public-house or beershop. " These licences, though not restricted to, are chiefly granted to grocers, confectioners, the keepers of refresh- ment bars, and restaurants ; and through such facilities' the mischief is extended to a section of our female popula- tion who largely avail themselves of these means women who, by reason of their educational attainments and position, exercise a wider influence than others. " These Acts have led to two results : First, the well- known habit of ladies, even young ladies, in their ordinary walks and shopping, entering these more respectable refreshment places, and partaking of stimulants between the hours of meals. Second, the inducement they have given to secret drinking by ladies in their own houses." The same article quotes the following from the Lancet's protest against the continuance of this Act, which protest was signed by 920 physicians, surgeons, and medical practitioners : " We, the undersigned, being members of the medical profession, beg to record our strong persuasion that the facilities for obtaining spirits, wines, stout, and ale, in bottles, which are provided by the ' Grocers' Licence,' have a most injurious tendency. We believe that women, servants, and children of respectable households, who could not, or would not, procure intoxicating drinks at public- houses, are encouraged to purchase and use these liquors by the opportunity offered when visiting the grocers' shops for other purposes. Female domestic servants are often WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 36 1 enabled to obtain bottles of spirits, wine, and beer at a small cost on credit, or as ' commission ' on the household bills. This trade is wholly removed from police super- vision, and it is a direct incentive to secret drinking, a practice more injurious to the health and moral and social prosperity of the community than the ordinary trade in intoxicating liquors as carried on by the licensed victuallers. We protest against the continuance of this licence on grounds moral and medical ; and we urge its consideration by a ' Select Committee of the House of Peers ' now in- vestigating the subject of intemperance, and the measures expedient to reduce the evils of excess. The abolition of this special licence we hold to be the first, and perhaps the most practical, step within the province of the Legislature." In the Lords Committee on Intemperance, 1879, abundant proofs were given that the grocers' licences were a most prolific cause of increased drunkenness among women. Early in the present year (1883) the Lancet says The Lancet " When, some years ago, we made an energetic but, as it unhappily proved, a vain endeavour to influence public opinion in favour of the total abolition of gr-ocers' licences to sell spirits and wines in bottles, we pointed out how women obtained intoxicating beverages under cover of ' groceries,' and how grocers not uncommonly gave Christmas presents to customers and their servants in the shape of bottles of brandy, whisky, or wine. At a recent inquest on the body of an old woman, who was found dead in her bed after a drinking bout, it was stated that a bottle of whisky, which had been presented by the grocer, was found under the bed-clothes nearly empty, but still clutched by the poor victim of this false kindness, although the hand with which she seemed to grasp it was dead. This is only an incident, but it will serve to show how this most mischievous licence tells against public and social pros- perity. . . . Probably, hereafter, when much dire and irreparable mischief has been wrought, it will be seen that this State facility for the secret pursuit of vice, ' the grocers' licence,' ought to be abolished." And a little later, the Lancet adds " The demoralization of women by these most senseless and mischievous licences is an evil we have deplored, and 362 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. which would long since have found a sufficient remedy but that the great landlords of London and elsewhere would find their personal interests affected by the passing of any law putting an end to the social plague of the grocers' licence. Unfortunately, these landlords occupy positions of influence in the Legislature, and therefore the evil cannot be wholly remedied. " The attitude The attitude of the Church of England Temperance "/England Society on this most important matter has been noble. Its Temperance Women's Union addressed letters inquiring into the actual facts as to the evils wrought by these licences, to " clergy- men, medical men, coroners, and others." The responses to these inquiries, published in pamphlet form early in 1883, fully substantiate by various and conclusive evidence the fact that the grocers' licences have carried, and are carrying, the evil of drink among women to an alarming extent, and particularly increasing it among a class of women who would not think of resorting to the public- house. Canon In the Church of England Temperance Chronicle (May advfre'tothe 12 ' 1883 ) we find the following quoted from the speech of Women's e Canon Leigh, delivered in Exeter Hall (April 26) : boycott" " "^ WOTl ^ wish to draw attention, as it has been drawn liquor-sell- over and over again, to the dreadful svstem of grocers' ing grocers. ]i cenceSj wn i cn I am quite certain is contributing more than anything else to the increase of drinking amongst women. I should strongly urge upon all the members of the Women's Union never to deal with grocers who trade in spirituous liquors, and to advise their friends not to do so either." The Temper- Of the steadily increasing intemperance among women, on"tbf hT d tne Tem per a n c e Record (November 15, 1883) says- creasing in- " It is one of the most discouraging features of our temperance ^ me Recent judicial statistics clearly show not only that omen as there is a greater proportionate increase of drunkenness dueTo thf 6 y amongst women, but that in their case the habit is more Grocers' inveterate than in men. In the Judicial Statistics for 1882, recently published, it is stated that the offenders who have been convicted for any crime above ten times are 4391 males, and 8946 females, or 8'9 and 29'3 per cent, respectively on the total commitments. In other words, more than a quarter of all women in prison, whose offence WHAT CAN BE DONE? 363 is not the first, have been in over ten times. A comparison of five years will show how women have been steadily getting worse in this respect : 1878, 5673 females ; 1879, 5800 females ; 1880, 6773 females; 1881, 7946 females; 1882, 8946 females. This preponderance of women, according to the competent testimony of the Rev. J. W. Horsley, is almost entirely due to the special character, and the increase, of female intemperance. . . . One cause against which the Lancet has nobly protested fs what is fajniliarly known, as the Grocers' Licences Act. The repeal of that Act, we feel persuaded, would put a decided check upon the increase of female intemperance, and should be urgently pressed upon the Legislature by all classes of social reformers." The following picture is taken from the chapter on Mr. George " The Secret Sin," in the Social Kaleidoscope by George ^ e s ^f a ? n B. Sims. Drawn by a pen to which the world is deeply effects of the indebted for a circumstantial knowledge of the drink-evil licences, in its connection with poverty, and for striking practical suggestions as to remedies and reforms, its details are vouched for from personal observations. " The pen almost hesitates brutally to describe a high- bred, lovely woman by the word ' drunkard.' It seems as if such an appellation could give rise in the mind of the reader only to vicious, coarse, degraded womanhood. It is, alas ! a revelation of these later days of modern civilization that intemperance is almost as prevalent among the higher ranks of female society as it is among the very lowest. There is, however, this difference. Sally Giles, of Lant Street, Borough, gets drunk in the public-house and rolls about the streets ; Lady Clara Sangazur drinks in her boudoir, and dozes off her ' bad headache ' in the quietude of her bedchamber. We know through the police reports, and we see with our eyes, the havoc which drink is making among the lower orders ; its ravages in the upper classes of society are known only to the doctor and the friends of the family, save when every now and then an aristocratic divorce case reveals the fact that the lady was 'in- temperate.' Seeing it not, good folks are inclined to doubt its existence. Alas ! it is the great social evil of the day ; and until it is thoroughly exposed, the means taken to stamp it out must necessarily be insufficient. Look at 364 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH Mabel North, this fair young creature, the picture of health and pleasure. Who among the admiring crowd about would suspect that she is a dram-drinker, a woman who gets helplessly drunk whenever she has the chance, and who will pour ardent spirits down her throat like water ? No one. But I, knowing the history of her case, deem it my duty to drag her before the world in her real character and lay bare the canker-worm in this lovely flower. I will write no word of her that is not true. I have seen her within the last twelve hours, and I am yet trembling at what I saw. But, lest I should be accused of endeavouring to work up a sensational story out of an every-day cata- strophe, let me give you the details of her case in the ordinary matter-of-fact way " Mr. North looks anxiously at his wife in the refresh- ment-room this evening, and sighs, because she has for three days kept her promise to him that she would not touch drink of any sort. Yielding to her earnest solicita- tions, he has brought her to the ball, though he would rather for the present she had avoided the excitement. And now, flushed with the dancing and pleased with the admiration her beauty has aroused, she has resented his anxious and meaning glance, and has accepted iced cham- pagne from the hand of her partner. Later on she returns again for sherry. At supper she has more champagne. After supper she goes again into the refreshment-room and has an ice= She eats half the ice, and feels faint. In the ladies' dressing-room she knows she will find what she requires, and thither she repairs. 'I feel faint,' she says to the maid. The maid smiles, and produces the brandy- bottle. She is used to her business, and she knows what the lady of to-day takes for faintness. You who would ape the manners and customs of modern fashion, mind that you put a plentiful supply of brandy and gin in the ladies' dressing-rooms they look for it. You might as well have no ices in the refreshment-room as no spirits in this apartment. Presently North peremptorily bids his wife put on her cloak and come ; he sees the warning look in her eyes, and the nervous dread that some one else will notice it comes upon him at once. She obeys, and they drive home. In the carriage he remonstrates with her. She is sleepy and sullen, and makes no reply. Only she WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 365 feels the sense of thirst 'growing upon her, and when she gets home she will drag another bottle of brandy from its hiding-place in her maid's room and empty it. ****** " The next day Mabel North's husband is the picture of despair. Incensed at her open defiance of her plighted word, he has taken her somewhat harshly to task, and dared her to drink any more spirits. He has commanded her to be temperate, as if that were any use. She defies him openly. The spirit has done its work, and she laughs foolishly, and tells him he may lock the cellar and do what he likes, but she will get it still. He fancies he can be clever enough to keep drink from her if he tries. He locks up all the wine and spirits. She sends her servants to the public-house. He finds it out, and threatens them with dismissal if they repeat the offence. She goes out and gets it herself brings it in from the grocer's in the carnage, and carries it upstairs under her cloak. For six weeks she is in a semi-maudlin state of intoxication, and his every effort to stop the supply is defeated. In despair he takes away her money, and refuses to give her any. He will pay all bills himself. The first result of this arrangement is a discovery that there are five times as many pounds of tea charged in the grocer's bill as could possibly have been consumed. He makes inquiries, and finds that tea in a grocer's bill means spirits ; that it is supplied to the lady of the house in this manner, and is called tea to deceive those it may be necessary to deceive. Challenged, the grocer defends himself. He states that it is the custom of the trade to supply ladies with spirits and charge them as tea and sugar and sauce. It is the large secret consumption of spirits by well-to-do women that renders the grocers' licences so valuable. Ladies cannot buy at the public-house ; to draw heavily on the cellar would alarm the husband ; but an unlimited quantity can be sent into the house quietly by the grocer, and charged as tea or some other article of daily household consumption. I have not the slightest doubt that the growth of secret drinking among ladies is largely contributed to by the system of grocers' licences. . . . To watch the woman he loves becoming" gradually dead to fine feeling, dead to social etiquette, and at last dead even to decency, is the lot of 360 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. more men at the present moment than the world dreams of. The secret is hideous, and is sacredly kept as long as possible. . . . "Mr. North made another despairing effort to rescue his wife. He set a watch upon her, and kept her entirely without money. At first, unable to obtain alcohol, she drank scent ; but the cunning bred of dipsomania suggested to her a means of obtaining both money and brandy. She opened his correspondence, abstracted all sums it chanced to enclose, and hid or destroyed all letters which asked him for the return of sums she had borrowed. On discovering this, her husband made inquiry in the neigh- bourhood, and found that she had borrowed money wherever she had upon any pretext found it possible to do so, and had even borrowed valuable articles from different shops and pawned them. He was forced to check these proceed- ings by advertisement, in order to escape ruin. This seemed to break the last tie that restrained her. She borrowed small sums of the servants, pawned her jewellery, stole from her husband's pockets, resorted to every trick she could think of to get money, and every farthing went down her throat. " Her health now began to give way, and she grew violent. Once, when he seized her by the arm, she rushed at her husband and tore his face with her nails ; she cursed the servants if they interfered with her; and the doctor who attended her roundly told her at last that if she did not alter, he would certify that she was mad and put her under restraint. For a time this threat had an effect, but the disease had advanced to a stage when it is rarely cured. In a week she had a relapse, and, managing by some means to get half a dozen of brandy into the house, she drank the lot in four days, and was mad drunk. Like a beautiful fiend, she tore about the room cursing and raving, and shrieking that she was pursued by devils. The servants, terrified by a sudden access of violence, called her husband, and he entered the room and ran towards her with a cry of horror. He had never seen her like this before a foul-mouthed madwoman, tearing at the air, and threatening murder to any one who came near her. As he ran towards her to secure her she flung up her arms. . . . WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 367 " She met her death leaping from an open window to avoid her husband ; and the coroner's verdict, translated into plain English, says that her death was due to a drunken frenzy. I have glossed over this ghastly picture, merely suggesting the outlines of it. And yet, toned down as it is, there will be hundreds who will question its truth and say it is overdrawn. To such I would say, Who are the men most likely to know ? The medical pro- fession. Ask, then, any medical man whose practice lies among women of the better, middle, and upper classes, and he will tell you there is no doctor with any connection at . all who has not half a dozen lady secret drinkers on his books. This secret drinking is a social cancer, and it is eating away all that is noblest and best in womanly nature. We have asylums for idiots and lunatics ; when are we to have an asylum for dipsomaniacs? " When we remember that insanity is more prevalent and The most less curable proportionately among drinking women than re^^for among drinking men ; that the children of the drinking * h re ^ s ? f mother are more certainly victims of alcoholic heredity in licences! all its either fatal or most baneful and degrading forms, than are those of the drinking father ; when we remember these things, then indeed does the necessity for the repeal of such an Act as the Grocers' Licences come home with overwhelming force. bb'. Besides these large measures, there are many Various minor legislative steps of more or less importance, both of iaS?e legi * preventive and restrictive character, which might be taken. mea 8res- For example, it should no longer be left optional with Restriction licensing magistrates to renew licences to publicans who of rene^ing r are disreputable and strain or transgress the law. It ought licenc - I to be compulsory to have large and low windows to public- J^ houses (as is the case on the continent), so that passers compulsory cnuld see what was going on within. If it is a respectable fjP ublic - thmg to frequent public-houses, why should the scenes within be concealed ? If it is disreputable, why should it have the encouragement of being specially screened, and the police be at the same time hindered in their duty of watching such places ? Publicans ought to be forbidden to employ women as Prohibition bar-tenders.* Among incitements to drink, especially in * The Church of England Temperance Chronicle (February 17, 368 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. women as England, Denmark, and Sweden, are the barmaids. Somo ? of the prettiest girls in England are to be found behind the liquor bars, a fact illustrated by the Annual Barmaid Show?. The Danish town of AVile has recognized the presence of these girl bar-tender's, as a cause of intemper- ance, by imposing restrictions on public-house keepers, who I are forbidden by the town authorities to employ servant- \ maids under the age of forty years ! If such a law as this could be passed and enforced in London, and other large centres, what incalculable good would be the result as regards both drink and the social evil ! It is well known that the women thus employed are demoralized and de- graded in body and mind. They live generally but a few years, and the majority of them, whether death comes early or late, die as abandoned women. Not a few students of the social evil regard the public-house as the chief recruit- ing office of the brothel. Public con- The starting and stopping stations of public omnibuses ] should* 3 should not be at public-houses, nor should these vehicles ^ e labelled from tliese resorts. Nor should inquests ever be held at public-houses, wnose traffic is so prolific a source of them. And pub- licans should not be allowed to sell drink to known habitual drunkards, nor to children. In a paper read some years ago in Liverpool, before the National Association for Promoting Amendment in the Laws relating to the Liquor Traffic, Canon Ellison quoted the following from a country journal : " On Monday morn i n g ^ ne magistrates of Liverpool had before them 1833 ) cites ^ f ollows f rom tne Irish Temperance Leag ue Journal : " The disestablishment and disendowment of ' Barmaids ' is a coming question. In many quarters there are signs of the steady advance- ment of a determination to do away with this blot upon English civilization. Why fair girls should be stationed behind bars for ten, ) twelve, and fourteen hours a day to bear the brunt of the meaningless compliments of the brainless boobies who pay so many twopences for the privilege, is more than passing strange. We put girls into taverns to sell drink to men, and men into shops to sell ribbons to girls ! " '"I have heard publicans say they wished they had never entered the business, and would be glad to get out of it.' It was very difficult for barmen and barmaids to get out of it, as no one would employ them after they had been engaged in a public-house." Tlie Christian, March 6, 1883. houses. Canon juvenUe in- Chester? 1 ' WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 369 twenty boys and girls under the age of seventeen, all of whom had been found beastly drunk in the public streets on Sunday, and incapable of taking care of themselves. . . . Again, on a given Sunday 22,000 children were counted in the public-houses and beershops of Manchester ; and the clergyman', entering one of the beershops at one in the morning, found it full of boys and girls drinking." During late years juvenile intemperance is on the instances of increase. As recently as last Christmas the papers reported t^^rance many pathetic examples. In the Daily News (December cited by the 28, 1883) appeared the following touching letter : 1883. " GIRLS AND DOGS. " SIR, Your column of ' General Home News ' of this morning has two items, which, as they are next to each other in grim satire, ought not to be passed over without public attention being called to them. The first is the horrible story from Birmingham of two little girls, nine and twelve years old respectively, together with a cousin ten years old, purchasing whisky, getting drunk, and almost killing themselves. The next is the story of three dogs at Castle Hedingham falling sick upon the road to the meet for fox-hunting, presumably having been poisoned. In this case 'great indignation was expressed by the public,' ' and the hunting for the day was postponed.' A reward of 50 has been offered for information which may bring the guilt home to the perpetrators. And what about the persons who supplied the drink to the three little girls ? Apparently no public indignation is expressed at the Birmingham outrage. What, after all, are three children more or less in our overcrowded towns ? The bay of the foxhound is pleasant and cheery, and we cannot afford to lose that music on the hillside. The bitter cry of the outcast is not sweet, and the sooner we quench it in the water of death the better. So, of course, 50 for the discovery of the miscreant who poisoned the dogs ; for the licensed trader who gave the children whisky, com- pensation when the time comes to shut up his dram-shop. We have received from Birmingham much political light and leading. We shall wait anxiously to hear her voice, in answer to the piteous wail of her three children 2B 370 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. poisoned upon the nativity of the Bethlehem infant. Yours, etc. "LiLEWELLYX D. BEVAN. "Highbury, N., December 27." By theZo6e. A- f ew days later the Globe, commenting on this wicked condition of things, said " It is most painful to see, from the provincial police- court records of Christmastide crime, that juvenile intem- perance is increasing. Instances are reported all over the kingdom, and in some the tipplers were girls of tender years. Thus, at Birmingham, two little damsels, the one nine and the other twelve, opened their money- boxes one night, and invested the contents, 2s., in whisky. Being joined by a ten-year-old cousin, the three sat down, and then and there consumed every drop of the spirit. They were afterwards found in a helpless state of intoxica- tion, and the youngest still remains seriously ill. But a boys' drinking-bout at Warrington actually terminated in the death of one lad, aged twelve, from alcoholic poisoning. He, and three other youngsters, bought a pint of whisky and drank it out of an egg-cup, apparently in an undiluted state. We could multiply these shocking instances almost indefinitely, and the question therefore arises as to whether some more stringent restrictions should not be placed on the sale of stimulants to children. In the "Warrington case, the publican declared that he would not have sold the whisky to the lads if he had thought they intended to drink it themselves. The coroner, nevertheless, censured him for his carelessness ; and never was reprimand more richly deserved. When children ask to be served with spirits, it rests with them to show that they are merely employed as messengers, and any publican who does not exact full evidence on that head would not be a bit too heavily punished were his licence endorsed." imprison- It ought to be practicable to pass a law preventing the ' proper possibility of such degradation as this. No physician of penalty for any standing denies that drink is a poison to the young, sefiing'or f an ^ no father, mother, or guardian worthy of the name giving drink will allow minoi'S under their charge to drink. It ought, lren- indeed, to be a penal offence for any full-grown person to be guilty of forcing or coaxing little ones to drink. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 371 "There can be no question," says the Lancet (May, The Lancet's 1883), "but that some change is urgently necessary Pi g nion in t n in relation to the facilities publicly offered for juvenile drinking, and, consequently, juvenile inebriety. Even ordinarily observant persons must have noticed the in- creasing frequency of that most melancholy and humili- ating of street spectacles a drunken child. A drunken woman is a deplorable presentment of human nature, but a drunken girl or boy is a more pitiful creature still. We have recently seen girls of apparently thirteen ; or fourteen years of age intoxicated with alarming fre- \ quency. Surely a short Act should be passed to render * the supply of spirits, wine, or beer ' to be drunk on the premises,' by a boy or girl under sixteen years of age, a misdemeanour. All would unite in expediting such a measure. At present, as it appears to us, even respectable publicans have no objection to supply drink to mere children, although they are conspicuously zealous in thrust- ing these poor creatures into the street as soon as the first indication of drunkenness is apparent." Unless the British (^vrnfflpit snn^ affipify *? +Tlpsft evils^lt^seems likely that Russia will take precedence in ref ormat ory Teg'isTa t ion upon the drink question. Accord- ing to a "letter from Odessa to Sir Wilfrid Lawson, dated March 21, 1884, and published in the Alliance News March 29, the new Russian project for regulating the sale of alcoholic liquors is thus quoted : " Clause II. enacts that any publican supplying drink | to a person already intoxicated, or to young persons, is liable to a fine of 850 roubles (about 85), and to the deprivation of his licence or patent for three years, during which period he will not be allowed to occupy himself in | any capacity whatever connected with the sale of liquors not even as a waiter." * * The next two clauses are given as follows : "Clause III. enacts that any publican supplying a person with such a quantity of drink as to make him irresponsible for his actions, and if such person, after leaving the premises, be robbed or injured by accident, the publican in addition to the fine imposed under clause II., shall make good any loss by robbery in the one case, or pay all medical expenses in the other. " Clause IV. declares that where a person through excessive drinking dies in a public driuking-house, or if an intoxicated person X. _* 372 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Early habits There isno doubt that the amount of drunkenness we example 6 see amon g a ll classes of people is in a very great degree the largely re- outcome of habits formed in earliest youth. The use of thep S reva- Or alcohol is associated with home scenes around the parents' lenceof this table and with social pleasures ; it is carried on by the very adults 008 passivity and plasticity of man's moral development, up through the whole period of physical construction and ripening, until it is fixed in and part of his maturity. 87. Another indirect prohibitory measure that may become practicable applies to the prevention, by law, of pro- pagation of the race by habitual drunkards. Why should such a suggestion as this be adjudged out of the pale of consideration ? Laws are made and executed, by which life itself and all that is meant by individuality are under given circumstances deemed forfeit. Why should there be no laws, adequately conceived and effected, which might practically abrogate the death-penalty by guarding the Sir wuiiam doors of life ? In an address to the Elswick Works Insti- o^rt 2 tute > August 8, 1883, Sir William Armstrong made the hibition of following statement : " The rapid growth of population ia tio^of 1188 *" adverse to moral development, and, by increasing corn- poverty and petition, for instance, tends to increase poverty. A crisis vlce ' must apparently come when further multiplication must be f\ ~ controlled by legislation, and the violation of liberty may ; be involved." What Sir William Armstrong thus impressively says of the propagation of poverty is certainly applicable to the propagation of habitual drunkards, even without dwell- ing on the point that poverty and drunkenness produce each other. Dr. Norman 88. The brave efforts of Dr. Norman Kerr for the Dairyinpie 1 * realization and extension of the Dalrymple Home for the cure of habitual drunkards, deserve encouragement and support. But the authority of the management should also be enlarged. The chief support of this or any similar insti- tution ought to devolve upon the State. Any one who had a respectable medical certificate that he was an eligible applicant, should be admitted, and the satisfactory evidence lose his life in any drunken brawl on the premises or after leaving (cases, unhappily, not uncommon in Eussia), the publican shall suffer two years' imprisonment and make a suitable provision for the wife and family or dependent relatives of the deceased." WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 373 of a person's being an habitual drunkard should make his / x removal to an asylum for habitual drunkards as compul- ' sory as- would be the removal of a proved lunatic to an asylum for the insane, and State supervision ought to be as strict as over our prisons and insane asylums absolute cure being the condition on which an inmate would be allowed to re-enter the world." , . fY\J*~*J~A~4**' *** Those who were present at the inauguration of the Dalrymple Home (October 29, 1883), and heard the earnest addresses by Sir Charles Tupper, ex-premier of Nova Scotia, who instanced the model management and grand success of such institutions in America ; * of Sir Spencer Wells, * These details are from the Temperance Record (November 1, 1883) : " The Hon. Conrad Dillon, who has recently returned from a rapid trip through the United States, has favoured us with a few notes of visits paid by him to four institutions for the reclamation and reformation of the victims of strong drink. " At San Francisco, California, the Inebriates' Home is under the management of a body of trustees who are recognized by the State, and have power to receive and detain persons for certain periods. The home is situated in a pleasant part of the city, and has accommo- dation for about sixty or seventy inmates, about two-thirds of whom are males. Manyof the. patients, go voluntarily, butjjthers are com- niitted under a judge's order for a term of twenty days. Dr. R. H. McDonaM, the president of the Pacific Bank, an active temperance reformer and philanthropist, is the chairman of the trustees, who are assisted by Dr. Jewell, the resident physician. The patients are detained for a few days in the hospital, after which they have access to the reading-rooms and other more cheerful parts of the building. The women's department is of course entirely separated, though under the same roof. No report is published of the home, and every effort is made to avoid publicity, which might deter sufferers from taking advantage of it. " The Washingtonian Home of Chicago is somewhat larger. Here the average number of inmates (all male) is about eighty, the total number of admissions last year having been six hundred and seventy, of whom one hundred and two were police-court cases. The com- mittee of directors have power to admit and detain prisoners com- mitted to the bridewell for " intemperance, drunkenness, or any misdemeanour caused thereby," for the term of their sentence. The patients are required to contribute according to their means, though many are admitted free. On the whole nearly sixty per cent, of the expense is contributed by the inmates. The special feature of this home is that an attempt is made not merely to recover, but to educate i the patients. During the first fortnight, as a rule, they remain in the ) home, and attend a series of lectures on physiology, especially relating to tl;e effects of narcotics and stimulants on the various organs, as 374 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. president Royal College of Surgeons ; Dr. Hare, president of the Metropolitan Branch of the British Medical Associa- tion, and other well-known workers in the temperance cause, cannot help feeling that it is the great duty of Englishmen to urge adequate legislation on this subject. V h well as the effect of alcohol on the moral affections and passions. Pro- fessor Wilkins, the superintendent, whose heart and soul is in the work, soon makes an impression on all who have the slightest desire to reform, and, by his kindly sympathy and advice, revives hope in the breast of many a poor victim. If sufficient progress is made at the end of a fortnight, the patient goes out during the day to his employment, returning for meals, and thus gradually slides back to his place in the outer world. The experience meeting on Sunday evening is a serious affair, and though the histories related are often sad, many successful cases starting from declarations made there in years gone by, testify to the value of the work. Friends of the inmates and former inmates are welcome at the meetings. " The Martha Washington Home, which is situated about six miles out of the town, is conducted by the same board, and though only opened recently, gives promise of that reward which always attends the untiring efforts of thoroughly earnest workers, guided alone by the highest religions motives. The money raised by licences in Chicago and Cooks County, amounting to about 1,200 a year, is entirely devoted to these two institutions. " The New York Christian Home for Intemperate Men, which was till lately presided over by the Hon. W. E. Dodge, has recently moved into a fine new building at the corner of the Madison Avenue, and 86th Street. Here the committee have power to receive and detain inebriate men who enter voluntarily for a period not exceeding sixty days, and every effort is made during that time for their " physical, social, mental, and spiritual " improvement. The institution claims that of the nine hundred men who have been received since 1877, a majority give every evidence of living consistent lives. This result is attributed to the prominent position given to religious instruction and exhortation, and, indeed, unless patients express a desire to reform they are not allowed to remain. " The value of these homes cannot be accurately estimated, for many who have benefited most by them follow the example of the nine lepers. That the work is of great practical value cannot be doubted, though many will avail themselves of the relief and then return straight to their old habits. The stay in all is too limited for much good to be expected in old cases, but the easy access and prospect of returning quickly to the world no doubt induces many to avail themselves of the treatment at an earlier stage than they would if the seclusion were longer. The facility for a recommencement of work which is impossible in a country home, is an important feature, as well as the opportunities offered for joining temperance societies before throwing off the restraint of the home." WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 875 In his report (March, 1884, about four months after its inauguration) on the working of the Dalrymple Home, made to the Medical Temperance Association, Dr. Kerr said " Without an exception, all whose terms have as yet expired have applied, to be allowed to remain longer as long, in fact, as financial or business considerations will admit of. " With all this success, there is one regret, the necessity of refusing many applications for admission. If the sum of 2,500 were forthcoming, accommodation for twelve more patients could be added, and we rely on the prompt and liberal support of the Christian and philanthropic public. Were the committee supplied with adequate funds, they would gladly establish a Home for Females, and a third Home for Habitual Drunkards of very limited means. To free the existing Dalrymple Home from debt 2,000 is still needed." Dr. Thomas Hawksley is quoted in Church of England Dr. Thomas Temperance Chronicle (October 6), as saying : " It is use- Se^ureTf " less to tell these fallen and unhappy ones of the virtues of habitual temperance ; their consciences are dead, and an impervious and insatiable demon has possession of them. You might as well attempt to reason with a hopeless lunatic. Until the laws of the country treat this form of madness like other lunacy, and deal with it by a sufficiently long sus- tained coercion, so long, it is to be hoped, there will be found a self-denying and heroic band of men and women who, by a vow of total abstinence faithfully carried out, show the right way to their weaker brethren, and demon- strate how perfectly health and happiness may be sustained without the smallest aid from agencies which to so great an extent are proved to be the facilis descensus to all the other sins and crimes of our fallen moral nature." The Church of England Temperance Chronicle, November The Lambeth 15, 1883, says : " At a meeting of the Lambeth Board of ^.dof ^ Guardians on Wednesday, it was moved ' That this board, the necessity being deeply impressed with the necessity of provision tiL^Habftiuu being made for the more stringent dealing with habitual Drunkard's drunkards, do memorialize the Local Government Board Act> to take such steps as will lead to the law being so amended as to give power to local authorities or boards of guardians 376 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. view of dn ? nk\egiB. ution. * to establish and maintain inebriate retreats, either in con- nection with existing workhouses or asylums or in separate establishments, as may be thought most desirable ; and, further, that power be given to magistrates to commit habitual drunkards to such retreats with or without their consent, provision being made for the recovery of the cost of their maintenance when it is ascertained that persons restrained have means for their own support, or that there are relatives or guardians who under the existing law are liable and able, wholly or partially, to maintain them.' The motion was carried, there being only one dissentient." 89. One powerful and comprehensive initiatory mea- sure * en ^ m o t war< l prohibitory legislation, for which the times seem ripe, is that of the establishment of international re l at i olis on * ne drink question. There can be no doubt that for England to inaugurate a system of drastic liquor legislation without such an understanding with other countries would seriously affect international commercial relations ; i.e., if those countries in which such legislation would most interfere with the existing order of things, had not first been taken into England's confidence and invited to co-operate, and had their just demands considered and, so far as possible, satisfied. But having faithfully made these efforts, England ought then to carry her scheme into effect. And there should be no question of compensation for direct losses to other countries, and on exactly the same grounds and for the same reasons that no compensation except such as lies in special opportunities in proper fields of commerce ought to be made to dispossessed publicans. For if publicans within the country are compensated, then, logically and upon the same scale, ought compensation to be extended to foreign traders. . Indeed, there are certain measures which only an t na international agreement would make possible, such, for ri 8^ e B r ne ~ i nstance > as * ne "ght to suppress the liquor traffic at sea. sfonof liquor In the International Conference at the Hague in 1881, the traffic on the fearful consequences in shipwrecks and loss of life due to this cause were pointed out, and a resolution passed to try and induce the respective governments to put an end to that form of the traffic ; and it was recently stated by a correspondent of the Liverpool Journal of Commerce that The need of WHAT CAN BE DONE? 377 the British Government are taking steps to put an end to this traffic on the North Sea, and to that end would seek to arrive at an understanding with the other countries which are parties to the North Sea Fisheries Convention. International exchange of information as to the various legislative measures taken, the commissioning of official representatives to international conferences on the drink question, and other steps of a cognate nature, would all be means for promoting the good work of bringing the nations into a closer bond of common fellowship, and, at the same time, tend to bring about a most healthful spirit of inter- national emulation for good legislation. 90. Alcohol is so potent and subtle a destroyer of The need for the best qualities in man and the race ; so much more for- menTofa' 81 ' midable and complex in its effects than is any other foe to permanent man's physical, mental, and moral health to his happiness comtnission and usefulness on earth that governments ought to insist ?^ n ^ ry upon the establishment of permanent national commissions, whole in every way fitted and provided with the necessary means au^ho for investigating the whole question of alcohol and man. man. It is a far greater evil than that of poverty, and, in fact, as was pointed out in chapter x., poverty would hardly prove a considerable problem to a sober nation, and even if it were, a sober nation would be amply adequate to cope with it. If the Royal Commission * for Housing the Poor will study the cause, the all-promoting cause, of poverty drink and probe and expose this source of evil in a thorough conscientious manner, then will its work be, and deserve to be, blessed indeed, and its members will reap for themselves the rich harvest of the people's con- fidence and gratitude. But this should only precede, not take the place of, the establishment of a permanent official commission of inquiry into the whole drink question, which should annually issue a full report of the results of its investigation, the report to be sold at cost price all over the land. The commission established in Switzerland to this end might furnish suggestions for formation, character, duties, responsibilities, etc. Among reforms needed to facilitate effective legislation generally would be that of an enactment by which members directly interested in any legislation should de facto be * See D, 241. 378 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. disqualified from voting in such cases ; just as much, and for precisely the same reasons, that interested parties are excluded from juries. 91. Legislative and social efforts essential fore- runners of direct temperance legislation have been for some years continually increasing in number. One of these, known as the coffee tavern and street stall move- ment, has already become very popular.* * It is of the utmost importance that the public mind should be disabused of the idea that the various non-alcoholic drinks are substitutes for alcohol, or that any such substitutes are required. Alcohol is a poison through and through; the real substitutes for it are also poisons, viz., ethers, chloral, etc. The Son of Temperance (April, 1884) makes these pertinent remarks " When a man who sticks to alcohol sees an abstainer drinking a 'donu or "an 'aJt-.lie naturally concludes that the whole question at issue is simply one as to the sort of tipple. The alcoholist declares his weak wine to be no viler a compound nor more hurtful than the stuff drunk as a substitute by the abstainer. And in this particular he is not very far wrong. The habit of using a substitute gives an impression that there is a natural want. Taste and expense then become important factors. It" there be no saving in the latter the former prevails, and a lapse is the consequence. Many a man who has by his own habits thus obscured the issue has been lost to the movement. Then, again, quite apart from economic and physical considerations, there is the habit of drinking for the mere purpose of drinking. Substitutes perpetuate this ridiculous and pernicious habit. What greater folly can be conceived than liquoring-up at all hours of the day, and for every possible excuse ! Substitutes supply the means, and the result is a waste of time and energy by continuance in the old practice." Ginger beer, if made, as it generally is, by fermenting a mixture I of sugar, ginger, and water, contains as much alcohol as ordinary > ale ; and this is also true of the herb or root beers commonly ' used in the manufacturing districts. Among healthful invigorating drinks, besides water, are : Hot milk, of which the Louisville Medical News (November 10, 1883) says, " Milk that is heated too much above 100 Fahr. loses, for the time, a degree of its sweetness and density ; but^no one fatigued by over-exertion of body or mind who has ever e5J5e"ff5n"ced the reviving influence' of a tumbler of this beverage as hot as it can be sipped, will willingly forego a resort to it because of its having been rendered somewhat less acceptable to the palate. The promptness with which its cordial influence is felt is indeed surprising. Some portions seem to be digested and appropriated almost immediately ; and many who fancy that they need alcoholic stimulants when exhausted by labour of brain or body, will find iu this simple draught an equivalent that WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 379 The British coffee tavern temperance movement seems The origin to have had its origin in the novel and very noble efforts i^^t'of temperance will be as abundantly satisfying and more enduring in its effects." coffee- And oatmeal drink, the late Dr. Parkes' receipt for which is given gT!^ 11 here as found in the Church of England Temperance Chronicle (June Their 9, 1883) : " The proportions are Jib. of oatmeal to two or three quart si character of water, according to the heat of the day, and the work and thirst 5, it should be well boiled, and then an ounce or one and a half ounces; of brown sugar added. If you find it thicker than you like, add threej quarts of water. Before drinking it shake up the oatmeal well through the liquid. In summer drink this cold ; in winter hot. Yon Vill find this not only quenches thirst, but will give you more strength and endurance than any other drink. If yon cannot boil it, you can take a little oatmeal mixed with cold water and sugar, but this is not; so good ; always boil it if yon can. If at any time you have to make a very long day, as in harvest, and cannot stop for meals, increase the oatmeal to lb. or even fib., and the water to three quarts if you . are likely to be very thirsty. If you cannot get oatmeal, wheat-flour will do, but not quite so well. Those who tried this recipe last year found that they could get through more work than when using beer, and were stronger and healthier at the end of the harvest. Cold tea and skim milk are also found to be better than beer, but not equal to, the oatmeal drink." An excellent promoter of easy digestion is malt extract. Barley possesses such an abundance of diastase or starch-digesting principle, that malt or an extract from it, if properly prepared, is not only nutritive by reason of the malt sugar, dextrine, and phosphates which it contains, but highly digestive of other starchy foods also, aa bread, potatoes, etc. Many persons who are aware of the nutritive and digestive properties of barley malt, resort to beer and other fermented alcoholic liquors, prepared in part from malt, as the most available or proper preparation. But this course is a most mistaken one ; for in the first place, in the process of boiling the sweet wort or infusion of malt for the manufacture of beer, all the digestive properties are entirely destroyed, as diastase is rendered quite inert by a temperature of 130. Therefore beer possesses no ability to aid digestion, and the alcohol it contains we know to be a retarder of digestion. Secondly, in brewing, the nutritive principles are almost all sacrificed by fermentation for the production of alcohol. We find, therefore, in beer hardly anything whatever of the nutritive or digestive beneficial properties of malt, but simply a solution of weak alcohol in a great deal of water, with such other additions as brewers chose to make for- the sake of colour or flavour. In order to preserve the nutritive value of malt, Prof. Baron Liebig originated, the idea of evaporating the infusion or sweet wort to the consistency of a syrup, in which condition it would keep indefinitely. This pro- cess, however, being conducted in an open pan or kettle, and by boiling, the digestive principle was entirely destroyed. Bvjthe Kepler process, the evaporation of sweet wort is conducted at a low temper. 380 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The promi- nent part taken by Mrs. Mary Bayly in this movement. Reasons for the poor results of the coffee taverns in London. of Captain George Bayly and his wife, Mrs. Mary Bayly. In 1853 Mrs. Bayly had started a series of Mothers' Meetings in dotting Dale and its vicinity for the purpose of rendering mutual assistance in saving young men from the drink-shops, and helping those women who suffered because of a drinking husband or father. It was finally resolved at these meetings that steps must be taken to reach the drinking men directly, and in relation to this, Captain Bayly, writing to us, April 11, 1884, says, " On the 1st of February, 1860, Mrs. Bayly invited sixteen of the most notorious drunkards in the Potteries (Kensington) to tea and spend the evening, the result being that five signed the pledge, and in the course of the year more than one hundred signed. . . . At a meeting a man said, ' We want a public-house without the drink ! ' and on March 16th one was opened and called the 'Workmen's Hall.' " The " public-house without the drink " became the coffee taverns of which, particularly during the last two or three years, a great number have been established all over the land, owing chiefly to the exertions of the Church of England Temperance Society. That great good has been accomplished through the agency of these taverns and stalls cannot be doubted; but while in Leeds and other places the coffee taverns pay fifteen or twenty per cent., in London the results have been most unsatisfactory, 'shing and wretched management ot these places r~ At a meeting (March lo, 1^-i) of the relieving officers atnre in vacua, not exceeding 100 Fahr., SQ_tliat-the diastase ia fully preserved ; and in this product all the valuable properties of malt are preserved in concentrated form, viz., diastase, dextrine, malt sngar, phosphates, and albuminoids, all highly necessary to the human physical growth and health. The Medical Press and Circular (London), in reporting on this subject, says that the Kepler Extract of Malt is reliable, and is manufactured in such careful manner as to ensure the preservation of its valuable constituents. It is very delicious to the taste, and has been found by analysis to be exceedingly rich in diastase, and consequently is a valuable digestive agent. The Lancet reports upon the Kepler extract as the best known, and in this country (England) the largest used extract of malt. It is as distinct an advance in therapeutics as was the introduction of cod- liver oil. Used with milk, with water, or with soda-water, it makes a nourishing, refreshing drink. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 381 of metropolitan unions invited by the committee of the National Temperance League, " Mr. Birch, for sixteen years a relieving officer in the Holbom union district, said he thought that drink produced three-fourths of the pauperism with which they had to contend. . . . He sincerely hoped that the friends of temperance would endeavour to find some really palatable drink to take the people off intoxicating beverages. As_to the coffee taverns, the stuff they sold w;is not worth drinking. The one they opened in Gray's Inn Eoad sold articles which the British working man could not be expected to consume, and it was now shut up. ... A relieving officer from the Whitechapel district said he was glad the first speaker had put the estimate of the drink- caused pauperism at three-fourths. It was a low estimate, but it was one with which they could all agree. Had it been put as high as nine-tenths, he personally should not have objected to it. ... Mr. Wright said that he had an all-round experience of London, and could testify that the great cause of pauperism was drink. Another cause was the wretched homes in which the people lived, making the public-house the only bit of comfort they could get. His_experience of the coffee tavern was anything but to their credit. The articles sold at them were so bad that he did not woncfeY at people l'n:-s;iking them for the public-house. There was one man: doing an immense and successful work for temperance, and that was Mr. Lockhart. The viands he sold were worth I the moneyT^BEargecT for them, and his establishments : | were greatly appreciated by the poor. Let the coffee taverns imitate his method, and they would succeed." * Recently a number of interesting letters on this subject have appeared in the Daily Chronicle, on which, in its editorial, April 21, 1884, it comments as follows: " That the Coffee Palace Movement, in the metropolis The D*Uy ,-,,, i_ -IT n c i "A Chronicle on at least, has not been so brilliantly successtul as its pro- the manage- moters anticipated must, we fear, be admitted. We have nmt of these received numbers of letters from correspondents complain- ments. ing of the wretched accommodation provided and the doubtful rjjialify of the refreshments supplied jat many of the establishments described as coffee palaces. ... It would * Temperance Record^ March 20, 1884. 382 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. be unfair to deny that some of these temperance restaurants are admirably conducted and well-found in every respect, but, as a rule, the coffee palaces are scarcely places to which a philosopher would resort in order to find justifi- cation for taking a cheerful view of the problem of existence. When we remember that the great object of the coffee palace movement was to provide counter attractions to the public-houses, and thus to mark the commencement of a new era in the history of social recreation and enjoyment, we cannot admit that the object has been fulfilled. The muddy-brown liquid sold for coffee ; at the coffee palaces is not calculated to impress people ;' with the advantages of a temperance dietary. If the British workman is to be persuaded to give up his beer, he must be offered something better than a washy solution of horse-beans, rotten dates, and burnt figs. Genuine coffee can be brewed for the price charged for the adulterated rubbish which, if our numerous correspondents are to be believed, is supplied at most of the coffee palaces. We call attention to this matter in the interests of temperance, and should be sorry to say anything detrimental to the cause. We do not see how it is to prosper with the assistance of adulteration. Coffee palaces cannot be suc- cessful unless they supply the public with coffee. We trust, therefore, that the promoters of the temperance movement will endeavour to put a stop to the distribution of the objectionable stuff at present sold at their 'palaces.' The buildings themselves, too, would be better adapted to the purpose for which they were designed if an appearance of cheerfulness, comfort, and cleanliness were imparted to them." Tojbe completely successful, English coffee taverns 1\ must . supply '.tli e best coffee, tea, etc., at the cheapest 11 rateg^flpd to enable them to do this, the duty on. tea, \\ coffee, cocoa, etc., ought to be removed, and Java coffee should be' a's easily 'obtainable as any other kinds. The ladies wlio superintend these taverns should thoroughly understand how to prepare the drinks ; a book of com- plaint of management should be on hand at all taverns, in which complaints could be entered and subscribed to by witnesses or partners in the grievance. Friends and sup- porters of temperance should take a personal interest in WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 38 the attractiveness, propriety, excellence, and cheapness of such taverns, securing for them the best bread and butter, cold meats, cheese, coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, milk, etc. They should have neat reading-rooms, with the prin- cipal daily and weekly papers, magazines, and sterling light and simple literature in plenty, not simply such books as can be got cheapest, at an auction, or given by some- body without care or selection; on the contrary, it should be an absolute condition that none but thoroughly whole- some books should be admitted, i.e., upon the decision of a competent committee. There should be special meetings and gatherings so arranged as to secure not only social entertainment, but strengthening of the main purpose which brings them together.* For unless the coffee tavern outbids the conveniences of the liquor shop, it will be beaten in the race. But in order to meet the great requirement of the time Suggestion a substitute for the public-house ; a substitute not in the thecoffee" 5 sense of equivalent, but a substitute in the sense that it tavern pro- shall displace and victoriously supplant the public-house irth why should not the coffee-tavern system be merged in kitchen. a more comprehensive plan, by which not only healthy drinks, good amusements, and wholesome literature, but the entire physiological needs of man could be amply and cheaply supplied ? One of the first efforts in this direction was made at First efforts the close of the last century by the famous scientist and *? the'steaiu philanthropist, Count Rumford, who invented the well- kitchen known Rumford soup. The institutions supplying the onThe^onti- Rumford soup, during 1818, and again in 1846, 1847, and 5? nt- T . 1848, did much to save Germany from the horrors of a Morgen a stern's steam * The Echo (October 11, 1883) mentions a good movement in Berlin behalf of boys, as follows : "To-morrow a meeting will be held at the Mansion House to promote the formation of a Working Lads' Institute for East London. The object is to promote the welfare of the working lads of the Metropolis by establishing in those neighbourhoods where large numbers are employed or reside, institutes where such youths may profitably spend their evening hours, and so be saved from tempta- tions and snares of the streets, the public-houses, music-halls, and ' penny gaffs.' In connection with each institute will be provided healthy recreation, good and useful reading, and the means of educational and moral improvement." 384 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Mr. L. 0. Smith's kitchen in general famine. In 1866 Mrs. Lina Morgenstern * built her large and now famous steam kitchen, where all food is prepared scrupulously in accordance with the highest sanitary and scientific methods, is served daintily on the premises, or sent to order, and in all cases sold at the cheapest possible rates. This experiment is now being tried in Stockholm with marked success by Mr. L. O. Smith, Stockholm *^ e " ex - Brandy King" of Sweden, and there can be no and his own doubt of its success, if properly introduced, in England. Co-operation is the watchword of the hour. We practise it with advantage in commercial, industrial, and agricul- tural pursuits, why should not co-operative food prepara- tion and sale prove successful ? Indeed, so far as the masses of both head and hand labourers are concerned, there is every reason to expect that such co-operation will prove in almost every respect more advantageous than any other form. We have not the space here for treating this great question in detail, we can only throw out a hint or two, and cite briefly from Mr. Smith's experiences. It is impossible that food should be prepared either as well or as cheaply in the labourer's home, with its generally imperfect domestic facilities, as it could be in a large steam kitchen specially and skilfully constructed, and stocked with utensils and material for feeding thousands of persons. And while poor and badly cooked food notably prepares ^he stomach to crave for strong drink, nutritious, easily * digested, and well-cooked food as notably serves to render ^the system less tolerant of strong drink, and good health means temperate desires, better work, and that self-reliance which makes a man able to take proper care of himself, and be helpful to others also. From Mr. Smith's views of the working and results of the steam kitchen system, as reported in the Pall Mall Gazette (April 3, 1884), we make the following quotations : " Of the expenditure of a working man, 15 per cent, only goes in house-rent, while 60 per cent, goes in food. Therefore, if you provide every working man with a free house for ever, the effect is only equal to saving him * Die VolksMcJcen Wirtschaftliche Anstalten fiir biUiye nahrende und Schmackhafte Massenspeisung im Krieg una Frieden. Liua Morgenstern. Berlin, 1883. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 385 15 per cent, of bis wages. But if you can make a radical reformation in his food, you have a much greater margin to play upon. If you could provide him with food twice as nourishing as that which he gets now, so that he only needs to buy half as much of it, or if you give him as much food as he gets at present at half the price, you save him at one stroke 30 per cent, of his wages, or twice as much as the whole of his house-rent. And it can be done." * As to the best system of cooking, Mr. Smith says : " I have examined almost every system of cooking that ] is known to civilized man ; and I have now come to the conclusion that no system is so good as that of cooking by steam water bath, so economical, so efficient. In cooking the o-reat tiling is temperature; and by this means it is possible cither to roast or to boil each description of food at the exact decree of the thermometer that is necessary. The system at present in use in the barracks of the German army is by far the best. I have bought up the patent for Norway and Sweden ; and before long I expect to have the machines in working order in every town in the whole country. You may think this is a simple matter ; but let * I me tell you the results. In Sweden the working man, at j , the ordinary cook-shops, will pay Is. 2d. a day for three meals for himself. At my kitchen I supply him with three meals a day for 8d., making a saving of 40 per cent., and for this Sd. I supply much better food the very best that can be bought anywhere, and much better cooked than you can get in any hotels in London. I can do this and make a profit at it a profit of '2%d. on each day. I charge them more than cost price in order that the profits may accumu- late for establishing other kitchens in other places, and for furnishing the kitchens with adjuncts in the shape of music- halls, libraries, etc., while a part of the accumulated profit is devoted to providing pensions for members in old age." And as to the management, he adds : " Come to Stockholm, and I will show you my kitchen f in working order. Every Saturday night those who wish to avail themselves of the kitchen must pay an advance * In an Open Letter to the Working Hen of Sweden, Mr. Smith says he even thinks that as much as 40 per cent, of the present costs of food might thus be saved. 2c 386 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. for the whole seven days. They receive twenty-one tickets/' one for each meal. They can give them away if they please, but they are never wasted. We know, therefore, exactly to one meal how many will be required througk the week. At Berlin, where there is a society of charitable ladies who supply cheap food for the people, they supply it to any one who comes, and, as a consequence, they never know whether their demand will be great or small, and they have to eat up one day what is left over from another. Under my system nothing is left over. We know exactly '.what is wanted, and it is cooked fresh when it is wanted. The people can either come and eat their meal at the kitchen, or they can bring it home in vessels which keep it warm. I send out meals to factories and workshops in vessels so constructed that they keep warm for hours. There is nothing wasted, and the food is apportioned, according to the season of the year, on the most scientific principles. Care is taken to provide exactly the number - of grammes of fatty matter and albumen in winter more '. fat, in spring more albumen ; but the correct proportion is always maintained. We have all varieties of food, each cooked in its own proper way to perfection. In the course of the year we have as many as sixty menus from which people can take their choice. The economy resulting is surprising. The waste of separate fires and separate kitchen rooms is appalling. I undertake to provide any family of man, wife, and two children, who will pay me the rent of their kitchen and the cost of their fuel, with j dinner all the year round for nothing ! " During his recent visit to London, Mr. Smith told us that by next autumn he expected to have ten large steam kitchens at work in Stockholm. Pure water 92. A remedial measure of the very first importance, essentfaifor * n w hi cn State, Church, society, and the individual ought to life and co-operate, is that of procuring for all localities an abundant, permanent, free supply of fresh, pure, sparkling water. Mr Thomas " Spring or fountain water," says Thomas Tryon, in his w3?(i67). Way to save Wealth (London, 1697), " is the most whole- some and sweet of all drinks. A sober man coming to a feast eats his meat (food) with six times more delight than the other, because he brings an exact palate to taste, and a clean and sharp stomach to entertain it." WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 387 In An Essay on Health and Long Life (London, 1725), Dr. George Dr. George Cheyne says " Without peradventnre water ^Mme" was the primitive original drink, and happy had it been (ms). for the race of mankind if other mixed and artificial liquors had never been invented. Water alone is sufficient and effectual for all the purposes of human wants in drink. Common sense will tell us that the purest and thinnest water is fittest to circulate through tubes so infinitely small as some in animal bodies are, and even that it alone will nourish plants and bring them to perfection." In dealing with the physiological effects of alcohol we saw how overwhelming is the bodily need of water, that water is the first, food the second, necessity. And there- fore it may justly be claimed that for health and normal living, the supply of pure water is as necessary as the supply of pure food. Some cities Antwerp among others have recently Water secured this priceless boon for the inhabitants, and the Antwerp! '" laws for the water supply in Antwerp provide that in whatsoever house the landlord has not complied with this ordinance, he can be legally compelled at once to do so. As to London, for upwards of thirty years there has been The agiu- a constant agitation in this direction, though it has not as pur e f ^. r ater yet met with complete success. Early in 1859 an associa- supply in tion for the erection of drinking-fountains was formed in during n the London by Lord John Russell, and in April of that year it last twenty- held an important meeting.* Lord Shaftesbuiy and the chairman, Lord Carlisle, were the most prominent speakers. The latter said he thought "all present would agree with him" that "gin- palaces and beer-houses were the most besetting evils of London, and that drinking-fountains would in some measure alleviate these." Earl Shaftesbury said that pure water was an im- perative need ; they were to recollect the general condition of the working classes in this respect. The water was generally received into butts which stood in the outer yard, * The first fountain, near St. Sepulchre's Church, in Skinner Street, was built the same month. In June, 1862, the magnificent fountain in Victoria Park was inaugurated by its donor, Miss now Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Since then between three and four hundred have been erected all over the metropolis. 388 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. where they absorbed all the foul air and gases that passed over them.* Daring last year an agitation of a more effective character, and which gives promise of nltimate success, A writer in called forth the following letter to the Pall Mall Gazette 3Kr (August 13, 1883) : the present witersuppiy " SIR, Five of the metropolitan water companies draw in London, foei? supplies from the Thames above Teddington Lock. The average daily flow of the river at the intakes during August is 500,000,000 gallons. These companies abstract 68,000,000 gallons per day that is, a little more than one eighth of the total flow. They possess power to abstract 110,000,000 gallons per day. On the drainage area of the Thames there dwell 900,000 people (including 200,000 in towns of upwards of 2,000 inhabitants), and upon it there , v /Hve 60,000 horses, 160,000 cattle, 900,000 sheep, and ^120,000 pigs. Their sewage and refuse pass into the Thames, either directly or indirectly. The theory that polluted river-water purifies itself in its flow has been proved to be false. After filtration this water is sent to London. It is considered very satisfactory when filtration removes 28 per cent, of the organic impurities, leaving 72 per cent, to be supplied in solution to the consumer. The companies derive a gross annual income of 750,000 for this supply. The volume of the flow in the river is fairly constant, but the amounts of its pollution and of the quantities abstracted daily are necessarily increasing ones. The whole of these figures are taken from Bluebooks, and, if disputed, the reference for each will be given. " If it were possible for these companies to have a reservoir containing 68,000,000 gallons of absolutely pure water, and into it were allowed to go the contents of water-closets, household slops, and manufacturing refuse of 112,500 people, in the same proportion in which they respectively enter the Thames at the present time, and in addition as much of the manure of 7,500 horses, 20,000 cattle, 112,500 sheep, and 15,000 pigs, as could find its way there, and if 28 per cent., or even 50 per cent., of * Recent inquiries into the circumstances of the London poor have shown that the eondition of things deprecated in 1859, have not A /^ 1'een much improved in some of the London slums to-day, \j WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 389 these organic impurities were removed by nitration, is there any householder in London who would use it for drinking and domestic purposes ? Yet this is pro raid what they uncomplainingly receive and use every day. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, "S." Undoubtedly there would be a hue and cry about the enormous cost of an undertaking such as has been carried through in Antwerp, but suppose it were possible at the same cost to as liberally supply beer and wine, would not the money be forthcoming ? And yet those compounds are poisons, and water is the principal need of life. There is little doubt that the use of intoxicating drinks would be infinitely reduced if, instead of these dead fluids from aqueducts and reservoirs, everybody in the large centres of the world could have an abundance of fresh pure water always at hand.* Any one who has drunk from a mountain spring realizes the difference. Grandly and permanently successful may the temperance agitation hope to become if it can secure sufficient public interest to obtain this priceless boon, this daily necessity to health from the cradle to the grave, and one more calculated than is almost any other agent to widen the distance between thera. Under the heading of Water for Infants, the New York The New Medical Record (August 18, 1883) says : "With the exception of tuberculosis, no disease is so water for fatal in infancy as intestinal catarrh, occurring especially infiint8 - during the hot summer months, and caused, in the majority of cases, by improper diet. There are many upon whom the idea does not seem to have impressed itself that an infant can be thirsty without at the same time being hungry. When milk, the chief food of infants, is given in excess, acid fermentation results, causing vomiting, diarrhoea, with passage of green or yellowish-green stools, elevated temperature, and the subsequent train of symptoms * Drinkers no less than abstainers ought to interest themselves in this subject, because their drinks, besides the alcohol and various adulterating compounds, consist, as they know, mostly of water exactly the same kind of water which the abstainer takes, minus thfl other compounds. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Dr. James AVilson on the thera- peutic pro- perties of water. The Lancet on water- drinking. which are too familiar to need repetition. The same thing would occur in the adult if drenched with milk. The infant needs not food, but drink. The recommendation of some writers, that barley-water or gum- water be given to the little patients in these cas.es, is sufficient explanation of their want of success in treating this affection. Pure water is perfectly innocuous to infants; it is difficult to conceive how the seeming prejudice to it ever arose. Any one who has ever noticed the avidity with which a fretful sick infant drinks water, and marks the early abatement of febrile and other symptoms, will be convinced that water as a beverage, a quencher of thirst, a physiological necessity, in fact, should not be denied to the helpless member of society. We have often seen an infant who has been dosed ad nauseam for gastro-intestinal irritability assume, almost at once, a more cheerful appearance, and rapidly grow better when treated to the much-needed draught of water. If any prescription is valuable enough to be used as routine practice, it is, ' drive the babies tcater.' " Of .both the health-preserving and medicinal qualities of pure water, Dr. James Wilson writes : "There is no agent applied to the human body, ex- ternally or internally, that has such influence in awakening all the vital powers to their great restorative capabilities, in arresting the progress of disease or preventing a fatal termination, as pure water. Administered at various tem- peratures, it is the most powerful remedy we possess ; a stimulant, a sedative, a diuretic, a sudorific." In an article on Water-drinking, The Lancet (December 15, 1883) says " It is somewhat surprising that in a country in which rain falls almost every day in large or small measure, the use of pure water as a drink is not better understood than it is. Even now that the sway of temperance is weil estab- lished, and continues to extend^ we should be surprised to learn that a majority of Englishmen do not habitually dis- card the use of the natural beverage for one or other in which it is compounded with foreign ingredients. Yet its very purity from all but a salutary trace of mineral matter is what renders it capable of exactly satisfying, and neither more nor less than satisfying, the needs of thirsty tissue, and of assisting by its mere diluent and solvent action, WEtAT CAN BE DONE? 391 vithout stimulation or other affection of function, the digestion and excretion of food. No other qualifications are necessary. Given digestible, solid food, and fair that is, normal digestive power, water alone is all-sufficient as linuid. During the feebleness consequent on disease or overwork everything is changed. There is blood, though impoverished in quality, to receive and convey nutritive material, and there are tissues to be fed ; but the vis a tergo, the driving power of the heart, resides in a languid muscle, and the alimentary canal, itself but poorly irrigated from that centre of supply, receives what food is taken only to prove its incapacity to utilize it. Nature is flagging, and a stimulant alone will make ends meet in the circle of tissue-building processes. As a general rule, however, abstinence holds the first rank, both in theory and practice. We do not assert that the man who regularly, and in ' strict moderation, partakes of a light stimulant claret, for instance may not, especially if he is equally regular in regard to outdoor exercise, live comfortably to the full term of human life ; but what we say is that the more simply the man fares, the more he employs such adven- titious measures for actual physical necessity, the more he will gain in health, in life, in working power, and in aptitude to benefit by stimulation when strength is failing from disease or from decay. But if water be the drink, how shall it be drunk ? The means must have regard to the end required of them. To moisten food and prepare it for digestion, it is hardly necessary to say that it should be taken with a meal ; a couple of tumblerfuls at dinner is not an excessive quantity for most persons. For thirst- quenching properties nothing can surpass this simplest of drinks, and all which approach it in efficacy owe their power almost entirely to it. As to temperature, there is no real ground for supposing that one should not drink sufficiency of cold water when the body is heated by exertion. The inhabitants of hot climates have no such objection. Some tropical wells are dug so deep that the water within them, even in hot seasons, is as cool as that of a European spring. In fevers, too, the use of ice in quantities sufficient to allay thirst is a part of rational and legitimate treatment. The shock which has to be avoided in all such states is not that which cools the mucous 392 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. membrane, but that of sharp chill applied to the surface , of the body. Some persons, however, find it convenient and beneficial to imbibe a certain amount of warm water daily, preferably at bedtime. They find that they thus obtain a bland diluent and laxative, without even the momentary reaction which follows the introduction of a colder fluid, and softened by abstraction of its calcareous matter in the previous process of boiling. This method, which is an accommodation to jaded stomachs, has its value for such, though it is not great even for them ; but it affords no noticeable advantage for those of greater tone. The use of water as an aid to excretion deserves some remark. In certain cases of renal disease it has been found to assist elimination of waste by flushing without in any way irritating the kidneys. Every one is probably aware of its. similar action on the contents of the bowel when taken on the old-fashioned, but common-sense, plan of drinking a glass of water regularly morning and evening, without any solid food. Whatever may be true of harm- less luxuries, enough has been said to show that health, happiness, and work find stimulus enough in the un- sophisticated well of nature." Dr. Piohn's Those who imagine water to be such a weak and vapid on'water'ii 1 ^ thing, would be interested in examining the bibliography Dr. ziems- O n water (by Dr. Plohn) published in Dr. Ziemssen's bktf and ~ Handbook of General Therapeutics (Leipsic, 1883), occupy- Gema i n g twenty-eight large octavo close and small-printed pages, '"' showing the medical literature on water to be almost as voluminous as the religious literature on the Bible, interesting Dr. Morel, in speaking of the fact that the practice Dr^More^ f ^ milking cows all the year round, during long ranges of generations has made the secretion of milk a constant ve instead of temporary function, cites the interesting cognate f atm \>n fact, that in Columbia, where circumstances, such as the when per- great superabundance of cattle, etc., have interrupted this themare 0f practice, only a few years of freedom from its constraint desisted have sufficed to restore the organization to its primitive So if in our case the practice of drinking without reference to real thirst, and in obedience to craving pro- duced by injurious fluids, could be abrogated, and pure water be permitted to resume its original office in the WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 393 system, which it would do in all likelihood in an astonish- ingly short time, we are justified in believing that it would mark an epoch in the condition of mankind, not only of physical, but of moral, mental, and spiritual health far closer to the pure ideal of humanity than we have yet reached or prefigured. 93. A great step in the direction of reform in part The import- commenced, is that of educating the young to understand gating 1 " and respect their bodies. As early as 1856, at the Congres de Children to Sienfaisance (Brussels), it was proposed, as a means against their own intemperance, that all obstacles to the spread of useful ^^aiiyin knowledge to the very lowest grades of society should be regard to the removed ; and Frere Orban, Belgian Minister of Finance, doeTtotSem! in his report on intoxicating drinks, to the Chamber, (1868), proposed the establishment of " a public system of education which tends to inculcate in the children, by counsels, pictures, and writings, horror of excess and fear of the evils sure to result from intemperance or the least use of intoxicating drinks." The first active step in the direction of temperance education in England was taken by the National Temper- ance League, and in a special memorable meeting at Exeter Testimony Hall (February 13th, 1878), the Lord Bishop of Exeter, in 3^^ the chair, in a powerful and eloquent speech said, " Long Exeter, before this we ought to have made it one of the ordinary lessons in our elementary schools that one of the most awful evils that ever afflicted the country is to be found in the use of intoxicating liquors." Eev. Dr. Adamson, of the Edinburgh School Board, at Of the Rev. a public meeting at Galashiels (February, 1881), stated ^eEdin-' that " Ninety-four per cent, of the cases in which parents burgh School failed to provide education for their children were found to be addicted to intemperance." Although elementary temperance literature has become more familiar to the children since it was allowed among text-books, very much yet remains to be done before either the schools or the little ones can be in a fit state for purposes of education. The popular education system is poor because it is so why the meagrely supported by public funds. Leon Donnat, the j^uooton Belgian Statistician, in speaking of the relative amount of 394 T&E FOUNDATION OF DEATtt. system is poor. public money devoted to war and education, gives the following figures per capita, quoted in the Pall Mall Gazette for May 5, 1883 : Leon Don- " War. Education. War. Education. nat's esti- s. d. *. d. s. d. . d mates quoted France 20 .. ... 1 5 Eussia 10 2 ... ... H Mall Gazette England 18 6 ... ... 3 1 Denmark . . 8 8 ... ... 4 7 of the rela- Holland 17 9 .. ... 3 2 Italy 7 6 ... ... 8 tive amounts Saxony 11 9 ... ... 3 4 Belgium 6 9 ... ... 2 3 education Wurternberg.. 11 9 ... ... 1 9 Austria 6 8 ... ... 1 6 and war by Bavaria 11 9 ... ... 2 6 Switzerland . .. 4 10 ... ... 4 2 the European powers. Prussia 10 11 ... ... 2 5 of the Com- pulsory Education Act and of sanitary agencies to uproot or essentially diminish the vice and misery pro- puWtc- This comparison, of course, takes no account of the frightful waste entailed by the sacrifice of the labour of able-bodied men during the period of military service." As a consequence, there is neither the inducement nor effort on the part of the State to engage the best minds and characters in the education of the growing generation. Again, education is poor because it is almost wholly confined to the cultivation of the intellect : practical goodness, patience, conscientiousness, and self-control do not enter into the curriculum. How inadequate purely intellectual training is likely to be to fulfil the needs of well-rounded education, is strikingly indicated by the statistics as to the results of the Compulsory Education Act during the last ten years at Edinburgh. At the great Temperance Convention in Edinburgh, March 3, 1884, ex-Bailie David Jjewis said that " During the last ten years the Compulsory Educa- tion Act had been in operation, and in this city had been wrought with an efficiency second to no other place in the kingdom, while the educational system in Edinburgh was equal to that of any city of Europe. During the last ten years there had been expended on education in Edinburgh a sum of 1,035,000, while there were at present engaged a staff of 730 teachers. NotAvithstanding the enormous amount of moral and educational power here represented, they found from the police returns that the number of drunken cases had increased from 5317 in 1872 to 7236 in 1882, being an increase of 26 per cent., while the increase of the population had only been 16 per cent. Again, they found Edinburgh presented an illustration of WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 395 the extent to which sanitary agencies were counteracted by the drink evil. In 1867 an Act was passed for im- proving the waste places of the city. Upwards of half a million was expended in rooting out the haunts of wretchedness and vice ; while another half-million was expended on improved dwellings and other sanitary reforms. That the results of this grand sanitary experiment had been largely counteracted by the public-house was only too apparent. From 1867 up till 1879, when they had a change in the police law, the number of drunken cases increased 43 per cent., while the population had only increased 16 per cent." Says Dr. Channing,* " To educate is something more Dr. Chan- than to teach those elements of knowledge which are n^nof 8 " needed to get a subsistence. It is to exercise and call out education, the higher faculties and affections of a human being. Education is not the authoritative, compulsory, mechanical training of passive pupils, but the influence of gifted and quickening minds on the spirits of the young. " Of what use, let me ask, is the wealth of this community His views on but to train up a better generation than ourselves ? Of what ofVeaith! 86 use is freedom, I ask, except to call forth the best powers of all classes and every individual ? What but human improvement is the great end of society ? " The poorest child ought to have liberal means of self- improvement, and were there a true reverence among us for human nature and for Christianity, he would find them." Education is poor, also, because it almost wholly fails to teach the knowledge of the body and how to take care of it. But in this respect a little light is breaking. In sect. 10, chap. 38 of the Revised Statutes of Temperance Massachusetts for 1872, occurs the following :" It shall SSof be the duty of the president, professors, and tutors of the Massachu- University at Cambridge and of the several colleges, of K 8> all preceptors and teachers of academies, and of all other instructors of youth, to exert their best endeavours to impress on the minds of children and youth committed to their care and instruction the principles of piety and justice, and a sacred regard for truth; love of their * Temperance address, Boston, 1837. 396 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The noble labours of the National Temperance league for the spread of temperance education. Cardinal Manning's order for the establish- ment of branches of the Catholic Total Absti- nence League in every Catholic school in the Archdiocese of West- minster. country, humanity, and universal benevolence ; sobriety, industry, and frugality ; chastity, moderation, and temper- ance." In England, owing to the faithful and skilful labours of the National Temperance League,* temperance has become a familiar theme in public schools. The Temperance Record for September 13, 1883, notes that " The Lords of the Committee of Council on Education have added hygiene to the list of sciences towards instruc- tion, in which aid is afforded by the Science and Art Department. " The syllabus of the subject that has been issued by the Education Department is as follows : " ' Elementary Stage. (1) Food, diet, and cooking ; (2) water and beverages ; (3) removal of waste and impurities ; (4) air ; (5) shelter and warming ; (6) local conditions ; (7) personal hygiene ; (8) treatment of slight wounds and accidents. Advanced Stage. (1) Food and adulterations ; (2) water and beverages ; (3) examination of air chemical and microscopical ; (4) removal of waste and impurities ; (5) shelter and warming ; (6) local con- ditions ; (7) personal hygiene ; (8) prevention of disease. The Honours Stage embraces, in addition to the above sub- divisions of the subject, (1) trades nuisances ; (2) vital statistics ; and (3) sanitary law.' " And Cardinal Manning, according to the Daily News (November 28, 1883), "has issued an order that a branch of the Catholic Total Abstinence League of the Cross shall be formed in every Catholic school in the Archdiocese of Westminster ; and that the manager of each school shall be the president of each branch ; and temperance literature is to be supplied to the pupils at weekly meetings of the branches." Considering the almost incalculable influence teachers have over children, and the fact that in the elementary schools of England there are over four millions of children, what power, must the teachers exert in determining the whole future of the nation ! and if they will use this power in impressing the growing minds under their care with a full and particular knowledge of the facts concerning * The apostles of the National Temperance League are doing a great work in both army and navy. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 397 the evil of alcoholic liquors, what a mighty work for temperance will be accomplished with the little ones them- selves and, through them, in innumerable homes threatened with or already fallen under this curse ! That similar grand school reforms are going forward on the continent, is evident from the report, in the Temper- ance Record (September 20, 1883), of "an address delivered by Dr. Scholtz, of Bremen, on the 17th of May last, before the Allgemeine Deutsche Lehrerversammlung, a national union of teachers, not exclusively, though of course largely, composed of elementary teachers, which met this year in that town. Dr. Scholtz propounded four theses, each of which he defended in turn. (1) That the teaching of hygiene should be obligatory in all schools. (2) Hygiene should be treated as a part of natural science. (3) The teaching of anatomy and physiology should be strictly limited to such points as have a direct bearing on the health of the individual. (4) Dr. Scholtz's last thesis was, that in the seminaries (i.e., training colleges) hygiene should be taught as an integral subject of study, for the good reason that he who attempts to teach the elements of a science should first be master of every part. The outline he sketched of the subjects to be taught is nearly identical with the syllabus recently issued by our department." Elementary temperance teaching is at present furnished And in in many schools in Canada as well as in Australia, and the Australian, Temperance Record (January 31, 1884) contains an article on and temperance work in United States' schools taken from the National Temperance Advocate of New York, which says " Already laws have been passed in Minnesota, Vermont, and Michigan, placing among the required studies in all schools supported by public money or under State control, physiology and hygiene, which shall give special promi- nence to the effect of alcoholic drinks upon the human Rystem, and teachers must be examined in this as in other necessary studies. By circulating petitions and by other means similar laws for compulsory temperance education can be passed in every State, because people will vote for the education of their children far sooner than they will for prohibition." The Pall Mall Gazette (February 16, 1884) says " An American Assembly-man, who holds that besides THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the three R's instruction in physiology and hygiene should be given in the public schools of America, has drafted a bill for that purpose. In his opinion it is necessary that some knowledge of the human body, and of the conditions under which that body can live in a healthy state, should be imparted to a child. And not only should this be taught, but it should be taught with especial reference to the effect of narcotic and alcoholic poisons on the human system. His bill requires that teachers applying for positions in the public schools shall be examined with reference to their knowledge of physiology and hygiene." An institution in connection with the public schools in Sweden which is greatly promotive of temperance is the school savings-bank system, by which the pupils, boys and girls, are from their earliest years encouraged to deposit small sums, of only a few ore (ten ore a little more than one penny) at a time till a crown (a little over a shilling) has been laid up, when it is transferred to the real city savings-bank, so that when they come of age they have a little nest-egg to begin life with, and at the same time have acquired a rational practical habit of economy. The industry which goes naturally with economy and temperance is also practically taught in the workshop department of these schools in which the pupils receive regular instruction in all sorts of useful handicraft, and ornamental also. They receive twenty per cent, on the sale of the tools and implements they make, from knife handles and knife trays, to blackboard brashes and step- ladders. These schools have special tuition in the laws of health; and as to the products of both the auimal and vegetable kingdoms, the girls are taught all the mechanical processess of milk and butter-making, the character and names of all portions of fish and flesh as sold in the markets, and how to utilize them in the best methods of cooking, what to do with bones, fat, etc. ; the same with regard to vegetables, flax, hemp, etc. They are trained to describe the different materials and values of the clothing they have on, where in Sweden each particular animal product or fabric is to be found, etc., etc., A most admirable prepara- tion against the waste, carelessness, and degradation which are so much the results of ignorance. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 399 But the worst cause why popular education fails, and Poverty the the most difficult of remedy, is the miserable poverty * of ot^ P ^ y the masses whose children form the vast majority of the education, attendance at public schools ; and that drink is the chief ^chie? cause of this poverty ,t does not change the fact that the c*" 86 f children, hungry, ill-clothed, and full of premature care, are in no condition to study, or to profit by teaching. Mr. E. N. Buxton, Chairman of the London School statement by Board, in his opening address to that body, October 4, Jfuxtonf' 1883, drew a dismal picture of the failure of the Education Chairman 01 Act of 18 TO. Among other sad examples he quotes school" " The School Management Committee lately had a Bo * rd - report in which an analysis was made of the mode of living of the parents whose children attend school in the metro- polis. In one, the scholars came from 313 families, and 182 of these families live in a single room. In the second school, the scholars came from 487 families, 400 of whom lived in one room. In a third school, the children came . from 339 families, 289 of whom lived in one room." In his address to his constituents at Sheffield (December statement by 11, 1883), Drink in its Bearing upon Education, the Right Hoi?Mr! Honourable Mr. Mundella, M.P., said Mundeiiaon drink in its * The education of the wealthy is often, though in the very oppo- bearing upon site direction, almost as ineffectual as that of the poor. With birth and money, one or both, behind them, the young Farintoshes and Lord Verisophts have it all their own way with their tutors and pro- fessors ; at home, at school, at the university they are deferred to, flattered, and coached into what is deemed a gentlemanly education. The system fosters indolence, dissipation, and the concrete vices of selfishness, totally unfitting them for doing their part in this or any great work of reform. Yet it is as essential to the well-being of society that the education of the wealthy should be practical, serious, and broad as it is that the children of the poor should be properly fed, clothed, and cared for before they are put to'books. " If I were called upon to name those within my knowledge who have ruined their prospects in life, who have lost good situations and have fallen from comparative care and competence to a state of degradation, they would not be the men belonging to the labouring class, following agricultural or mechanical pursuits ; but they would be men of a superior class, of good education men who have enjoyed comfortable homes and good salaries, and who, in spite of all, have fallen victims to this abominable and frightful vice of drink." Quotation from an address by Mr. Walter, M.P., proprietor of the Times, cited in Rev. Dr. Dawson Burns' Christendom and the Drinfc Curse (London, 1875). t See Chap. x. pp. 234-265. 400 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. " Now, here is a block containing 1082 families and 2153 children of school age ; mind, that excludes children below five years of age, and above thirteen. There are three schools in the block, two churches, three chapels, and forty-one public-houses. Now, what does that mean ? I want yon just to think this out for a moment. For these 1082 families wretched, poverty-stricken, miserable in all their surroundings there are forty-one public- houses ! That means that every twenty-five of these wretched families have one public-house ! If you will carry it out for yourselves that is to say, if you consider what it costs to maintain an average public-house in London, and consider what these twenty-five families must spend in drink to maintain it you will form some idea of one of the greatest causes of this misery among our population. When Mr. Forster was passing his Education Bill, Mr. Bartley made an investigation, which showed I that less than one penny per week per family in a square mile of the East of London was spent on education, and more than 4s. 3d. in drink. That means, in the whole of this area of wretchedness of a mile square, the education cost less than four shillings a year for the family, and the drink more than 11." Poverty win, Yet with all that England has done to relieve it, "TYdrink! especially during the last forty years, we see this poverty U removed, not only not overcome, but steadily growing. "Why ? Because those who see and seek to alleviate poverty do not first attack the root of the evil, drink. In chapters vii. and x., on moral and social results, it was explained at length how omnipotent a cause drink is, of all evils and of poverty with all its concomitants of misery. Forty years ago an agitation for the removal of poverty, very similar to the present, shook the whole of England. Mr. Glad- On the 13th of February, 1843, Mr. Gladstone said to the ?ve e rty, in House of Commons : the House of " It is one of the most melancholy features in the social In ma" 81 state of this country that we see, beyond the possibility of denial, that while there is at this moment a decrease in the consuming powers of the people, an increase of the pres- sure of privations and distress, there is at the same time a constant accumulation of wealth in the upper classes, an increase of luxuriousness of their habits and of their WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 4oi means of enjoyment, which, however satisfactory it may be as affording evidence of the existence and abundance of one among the elements of national prosperity, yet adds bitterness to the reflections which are forced upon us by the distresses of the rest of our fellow-countrymen." To-day most radical measures are proposed even by the i^rd Saiis- members of former cabinets, as well as by members of the g^uonTfoi- present cabinet. Lord Salisbury, member of the Beacons- theaiievia- field cabinet, and present leader of the Conservative party, poverty as contributed to the National Review (November, 1883), a $^j the notable paper on Labourers' and Artisans' Dwellings, in Review, which he advocates measures for the "housing of the f 8 8 mber> poor," of a state-socialistic nature. The following is a fair digest of this article : " The housing of the poor in our great towns, especially in London, is a much more difficult and much more urgent question, for the increase of prosperity tends rather to aggravate the existing evil than to lighten it. It is, in fact, directly caused by our prosperity. . . . "Thousands of families have only a single room to dwell in, where they sleep and eat, multiply and die. For this miserable lodging they pay a price ranging from two shillings to five shillings a week a larger rent, on the whole, than the agricultural labourer pays for a cottage and garden in the country. It is difficult to exaggerate the misery which such conditions of life must cause, or the impulse which they must give to vice. . . . These over- crowded centres of population are also centres of disease ; the successive discoveries of biologists tell us more and more clearly that there is in this matter an indissoluble partnership among all human beings breathing in the same vicinity. If the causes of disease were inanimate, no one would hesitate about employing advances of public money to render them innocuous. Why should the ex- penditure become illegitimate because these causes happen to be human beings ? . . . The question remains whether more can be done by Parliament than has been done, and if so, in what direction ought it to move ? A more im- portant subject of inquiry could hardly be suggested ; for it concerns, directly or indirectly, the well-being of hundreds of thousands. ... I see a statement in the newspapers that the Liberty and Property Defence League are prepar- 2 D 4)02 THE FOUNDATION "OF DEATH. ing to denounce any such interference as unsound in prin- ciple. If this account of their views is a true one, I think they have in this instance gone farther than sound reason- ing and the precedents of our legislation -will justify. . . . This unhappy population has a special claim on any assist- ance that Parliament can give. The evil has in a great I measure been created "by Parliament itself. . . . Under these circumstances, it is no violation even of the most scrupulous principles to ask Parliament to give what relief it can. Laissez faire is an admirable doctrine, but it must be applied on both sides." This shows how keenly alive Lord Salisbury is to the horrible condition of the poor in the city: how about those in the country ? But he has not a word to say of drink, the chief cause of it ; and, curiously enough, states that "the evil has been in a great measure created by ^Parliament itself." Mr. Cham- ' Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, President of the Board of Sime" Trade, contributed to the December number of the Fort- topidn nightly Review (1883) an article on the Housing of the Fortnightly ^ J , . , . v ' ,. , , T J o i- i i Review, roor, which is even more radical than Liord oalisbury s in December, j ts suggestions for the removal of poverty. It opens with this ominous paragraph " Social reform is in the air. In the pages of this review able writers have for some time past endeavoured to impress on statesmen and politicians the urgency of social questions and the magnitude of the evils which have silently undermined the extraordinary show of outward prosperity on which we have been congratulating ourselves during the last thirty years. Never before in our history were wealth and the evidences of wealth so abundant ; never before was luxurious living so general and so wanton in its display ; and never before .was the misery of the very poor more intense, or the conditions of their daily life more hopeless and more degraded. In the course of the last twenty years it is estimated that the annual income of the nation has increased by six hundred millions, but there are still nearly a million persons constantly in receipt of parish relief, and millions more are always on the verge of this necessity. The vast wealth which modern progress has created has run into ' pockets ; ' individuals and classes have grown rich beyond the dreams of avarice, and are WHAT CAN BE DONE? 403 busying themselves in inventing methods of wasting the money which they are unable to enjoy. But the great majority of the 'toilers and spinners' have derived no proportionate advantage from the prosperity which they have helped to create, while a population equal to that of the whole metropolis has remained constantly in a state of abject destitution and misery. Is it wonderful that from time to time are heard murmurs of discontent and even of impatient anger ? What manner of men and women must these millions of paupers be if they can see without re- pining or resentment the complacent exhibition of opulence and ease which is for ever flaunted in their faces, within a few hundred yards of the noisome courts and alleys in which they huddle for warmth and shelter, without a single comfort, and in hourly anxiety for the barest necessaries of life ? The cry of distress is as yet almost inarticulate, but it will not always remain so. The needs of the poor are gradually finding expression ; the measures proposed for their relief are coming under discussion. The | wide circulation of such books as the ' Progress and * Poverty,' of Mr. Henry George, and the acceptance which his proposals have found among the working classes, are facts full of significance and warning. If something be not ' done quickly to meet the growing necessities of the case, ; we may live to see theories as wild and methods as unjust ' as those suggested by the American economist adopted as the creed of no inconsiderable portion of the electorate." He also ignores drink as a chief agent in this^ misery, and suggests a principal remedy in these words : " Let us go to the root of the matter, and state the principle on which alone a radical reform is possible. The expense of making towns habitable for the toilers who dwell in them must be thrown on the land which their toil makes valuable, and without any effort on the part of its owners. " When these owners, not satisfied with the unearned increment which the general prosperity of the country has created, obtain exorbitant returns from their investment by permitting arrangements which make their property a public nuisance and a public danger, the State is entitled to step in and to deprive them of the rights which they have abused, paying only such compensation as will fairly represent the worth of their property fairly used." 404 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Dangers If legislation could remove poverty, Mr. Chamberlain's planting*" remedy would doubtless go far towards doing so ; but if moral im- this matter be left to legislation only, or chiefly, i.e., if the mere 8 y question of poverty is made principally a political one, and political therefore through political interests and reasons introduced into Parliament instead of being brought there by force of the earnest, calm, intelligent expression of the popular will, because it is known and felt that the solution of the poverty problem is of paramount importance to the welfare of the whole nation it is too likely to meet with the same fate which has befallen other great moral measures when dealt with from a chiefly political point of view. Earl Shafts- Earl Sbaftesbury, in his part, The Mischief of S fate Aid, in the symposium on poverty and its remedies (Nineteenth V entur y> December, 1883), admirably points this fact in century, these words : December, << jf ^e gfote is to be summoned not only to provide houses for the labouring classes, but also to supply such dwellings at nominal rents, it will, while doing something on behalf of their physical condition, utterly destroy their moral energies. The State is bound in a case such as this to give every facility by law and enabling statutes,* but the work itself should be founded and proceed on voluntary effort, for which there is in the country an adequate amount of wealth, zeal, and intelligence. . . . Were a.' central committee formed in the city of London, consisting of gentlemen of power, wealth, and influence, who would undertake to organize such a movement, form local com- mittees (for local committees there must be in the several districts), and issue an appeal, there would be in the present day, few can doubt it, a ready and ample response. These gentlemen would determine how far they could proceed without new legislation ; though additional laws, if required at all, would be req aired rather for the completion than for the commencement of the work. The powers already in existence should be called into operation. They are far greater than most people are aware of." wri shafies- These are invaluable suggestions, but, as Earl Shaftes- nient that**" bury himself told us, " It is impossible, absolutely impos-' "^ibi" s ibl e to do anything to permanently or considerably relieve; absolutely this poverty, until we have got rid of the curse of drink." wything * Enabling Statutes, 14 and 15 Viet. chap. 34 of 1851. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 405 And towards this end a report from such committees as to penna- Lord Shaftesbury suggests, would undoubtedly accomplish ^nsiderabiy much. The very removal of drink would make it physically Entuwehave impossible for the poor to sink so low as they now do, ^e^of * the because it is only by means of the deadening, narcotizing drink." effects that drink exercises on body and soul, that human beings can be brought to endure the lowest kinds of degradation. Without the benumbing influence of drink, many would awaken to their degraded condition, and this awakening would enable poor relief committees to do most beneficent and effective work. For example, a Working Woman, in the column on The A working London Poor (Daily News, December 1, 1883), suggests the UtterTsuR- establishment of " A Labour Registry Office, conducted by gesting the Government or a company, where information might be mentofa obtained as to every kind of labourer, mechanic, or clerk Labour" 161 * required. To be effectual, it should of course be necessary Registry to have these offices in all parts of the country, connected 2fem, l y perhaps with the post-office or workmen's clubs ; they could f^? lber ' be applied to by letter or personally. A certificate or recommendation from the last employer should be made a sine qua non; thus enabling all good workmen to obtain employment, which is far from being the case now. It seems to me that the matter is worth a trial, especially as a successful instance is before us of a domestic servants' agency. At this establishment no servant is put on the list until a form has been sent to the former master or mistress, which they are desired to fill up as to the character of the servant applying for a place. This, if conscientiously filled up, is a great deterrent to character- less servants from applying." Another remedy, which Government, and such poor Suggestion relief committees as Earl Shaftesbury suggests, might ettabHsn- co-operate in effecting, consists in the establishment of sober ment of working men's banks,* where those deemed by a proper in g men's ' reliefbanks. * A most valuable suggestion as to the formation and conduct of working men's banks is given in Mr. L. 0. Smith's Open Letter to the ' Labourers of Sweden (Stockholm, 1883). This letter is, as a whole, ! so rich in practical suggestions, that if translated and sown broad- cast over Great Britain, it would do much to produce in working 406 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. board of judges fit recipients of pecuniary aid, should obtain it free of interest, and on the understanding that it was left to their honour to return such sums when able to do so. But no drinking person should be entitled to such aid, simply on the ground of his unreliability, and the probability that the money would go to the publican rather than to the improvement of his own condition. Special arrangements encouraging the deposit of savings, with a view to the support of widows and children of sober working men, might be made in these banks ; and a special department could be provided for the deposit of savings from drink, which could be promoted by many carefully considered regulations ; such, for instance, as the surety that when the total amount of deposit of this character representing moral growth through resistance to tempta- tion should have reached a certain figure, it should be tugmented by a liberal gift, and a similar gift follow upon i future specified increase; so that reformed drinkers would be strengthened in their reformation, not only by knowing that something was safe for a rainy day, for accident, for illness, or for some good enterprise for better- ing their condition, but that in case of their death their wives and children would be provided for. If the aristocracy and the wealth of London would establish and maintain an adequate institution of this kind, the expense to them individually would be trifling in proportion to their means, while the return in the diminution of poor rates, and in the imperishable wealth of doing good, would be very great ; and, a still more vital point, they would lessen the gross total of wrong which saturates civilization, retarding human progress in the proportion of the existing amount of ill. There are links between the den and the palace, ties between the millionaire and the beggar, the virtuous and the wicked. Generally there exists a constant gradation between these conditions, at times there is a sudden trans- position from the one to the other ; the connecting pro- cesses are usually invisible, but they are none the less real, and work out the results with terrible certainty and accuracy. men's minds an intelligent notion of how to improve their whole economic, moral, social, and nolitio*! oositiop. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 407 If England continues practically to ignore, or condone and minimize the. drink evil as the root of poverty, infamy, and crime, she will reap the fruits of this error. Only with the solution of this problem will rea/goodness, with the happiness and peace they engender, come into those hearts and homes where wealth and luxury now only emphasize the unrest, the hollowness, and the hardness of their prosperous inmates. Contrasting the scenes in the London slums with the Mr. Francis splendour and lavish luxury of London's wealthy homes, reTponsi* Mr. Francis Peek (Social Wreckage, London, 1883) says, ^^ " How startling the contrast between the magnificence queVtion'of there and the sordid destitution here ; between these fair, ^ e ^ ty aild richly clad, attractive women and those hideous human beings of the same sex, who sit shivering in rags and grimed with dirt ! Is it asked who is responsible for such a contrast? Surely every indolent man or woman, who, living- in ease and plenty, leaves things to take their chance under the excuse of business for want of power, bat really with the unexpressed plea of Cain, 'Am I my; brother's keeper? ' | " Retribution is the law of the universe. If we allow our brothers and sisters to drag out their existence in degradation, pauperism, and crime, a time will come, even in this world, when selfishness, pride, and indolence will bring their bitter reward. If,, the Christian teaching of brotherhood be ignored, the words 'liberty, faternity, e'qTniJity ' may once more become a battle-cr^pf revenge from those to whom the acknowledgment of their fraternity has been denied. Every Englishman, every Englishwoman, can do something, and they who decline to work in the cause of the poor, fail not less in their duty to their countiy and to their God." We feel impelled to repeat that if this problem of poverty i is left to general legislation only, it will in the first instance ' be most probably long delayed, while the royal commission gathers evidence, and much time will be wasted in con- troversy and fencing over the report, with danger of its being ultimately shelved or rendered inoperative ; other measures more suitable for legislation, and for that reason more practicable, will be deferred, and when the longed- for legislation does come, it will hardly, as the saying 408 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. goes, be worth the candle. Parliamentary effectiveness is well summed up in the ancient threadbare hexameter " Parturiunt montes nasceittir ridiculus mus." Generally speaking, legislation has thus far been satis- factory only in the degree that a minimum of private and corporate interest is at stake, and as very large individual interests are in manifold ways concerned in any legislation for poor-maintenance by the State, it seems sanguine to expect very much directly from the present movement. We wish, however, not to be understood as saying or meaning that the State has no responsibilities or power to do much toward the alleviation of such suffering as the press of England is now discussing ; nor would we, if we knew it, say anything to check tbe beneficent warmth that has burst out toward the poverty-stricken. But it is surely well to remember that even the most excellent legislation, if not preceded by the necessary preparation for its application and reception, must largely become a failure. Legislation for poverty must, almost more than any other, be assisted by moral education and reform ; otherwise even the best legislation would only remove poverty, as we remove fruit from a tree, leaving behind all that will produce another harvest of the same kind. This fact was terribly and thoroughly illustrated in the great French Revolution. The watchword of the Assembly was, " Let no one bring up in opposition the rights of property. The right of property cannot be the right to starve fellow-citizens. The fruits of the earth, like the air, belong to all men." Wages were determined by law, and bounties were created for the poor. Hianqulon I 11 speaking of this time the eminent French economist, oni"ative BIan q ui ^ his History of Political Economy (Paris, 1860), measures Says cure for* \ " ^ of wealth and felicity which philanthropic legis- poveity. lation could decree was decreed, but the people found that public wealth followed other laws than those of compul- sion. Governments and individuals were forced to seek the elements of future greatness elsewhere than in mere legis- lative programmes ; " they found " that the finest laws are insufficient to secure to each citizen a prosperous WHAT CAN BE DONE? 400 condition, unless he co-operates with, them in labour and morality." Laws, then, as such, must depend for any thorough JJJ^^ execution and effect upon proper conditions and proper men. only stable It may truly be said that ideal laws and institutions pre- SSSS*- maturely secured, i.e., secured to people very unfit either to appreciate, enforce, or maintain them, are likely to result not only in certain immediate disasters, but in complications susceptible of a long evil evolution, such as would force the realization of our ideals into a more distant future than the processes of wise approach would have made necessary. A scheme for the relief of poverty, which has within a few years taken great hold of the public mind, is that of land nationalization, i.e., the transfer of land from indi- vidual to state ownership. (See p. 403.) It is of most ancient origin, having been practically applied by several of the great nations of antiquity. In modern times, during the French Revolution, it was tried with signal failure, when the Constituent Assembly of 1789 decided to put the whole burden of taxation on the land, except the property tax and custom duties. However monstrous and absurd the present scheme of Mr. Henry land nationalization may at first thought appear, it cannot ^, e r ^j 8 f be denied that its idea is noble ; and further, it must be land nation- admitted that in theory this scheme, as advanced by Mr. cure for 1 " ' Henry George in essence the same as the schemes of poverty. Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer is unassailable ; and were the elements and conditions of society ideal in them- selves and ideally adjusted, it would be practicable and a blessing. But the practical solution of the problem in this case as in so many others is quite different from the theoretical one. If we investigate the scheme of land nationalization to Neither time. see what are the possibilities for its becoming a blessing, ^people we are faced at the outset with conditions most unfit prepared and people most unripe for so profound an experi- ment. No one who understands human character expects that ! the landed proprietors would yield up their lands merely because of a popular demand. Holders of the land, they (hold the power, and, holding the power, can defy public opinion. A revolution, therefore, would be required, a 4-10 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. (terrible and bloody revolution for dispossessing the land- lord. History has shown that it is not the truest, most un- selfish, and wise men who lead revolutions, but rather those who can vie with and surpass the masses in inflamed counsel, in passion, in unreflecting hardihood, brutality, and crimes. And, after a successful revolution, what then ? In~tlie stead of experienced and reflecting, if of times hard and selfish, governments, we should find an ignorant, selfish, bigoted populace, frenzied and seething under the new tyrants, self-substituted for the former masters ? And if the revolutionists had been unanimous in their vengeance (upon the holders of land, where would this unanimity be when it came to the division of the spoils ? Violence, arrogance, greed, these are the motives which actuate and appeal to the masses in excited times, and would naturally be the characteristics of those who, having led the revolution, would next assume leadership in shaping the new order of things. And such certainly would not be the men most qualified to reconstitute humanity upon a basis of liberty, equality, and fraternity, or fitted to recast the whole mould of social life in a harmonious correspondence with these principles. The wolf is not the fitting guardian of the sheepfold, nor is the coarse, brutal, successful revolutionist the right agent to manage the affairs of the helpless. Again, such a reconstruction as is implied by land nationalization would require years and years of peace and tranquillity for its realization. It would require not only the wisest, firmest, and largest harmonious council of men, but also the most unselfish, the moat consistently self- abnegating. Where are these men to be found ? Where is that great body of officials which in the development and management of this subversive experiment would need, and indeed could have, no check upon their activity, but that of their conscientiousness ? There is not enough individual unselfishness cultivated and practical unselfishness in the whole range of humanity covered by the word civilization to stock one county or state with enough religion, pure and undefiled, enough WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 411 of neighbourliness such as the Master taught, to make the land nationalization experiment other than dangerously revolutionary, and one whose worst effects would be suffered by its noblest upholders. Where is the nation, the people, ready to accept all the risks, adversities, and innumerable calamities certain to accompany so stupendous a reconstruction of state and society, and go on waiting for an indefinite period, patiently for the outcome ? Until man has been regenerated, thorough -going schemes which involve a general levelling of social and economic inequalities and distinctions must be premature, and there- fore the land nationalization as now proposed is out of the question ; selfishness cannot be permanently trusted to guard against selfish and administer unselfish decrees. Thefonnda- And the foundation of any individual or national regene- i^divlduaT ration must be laid in temperance. or national This truth was inculcated and emphasized in the first mnsUxf laid plea made by the founder of the modern English Temper- j^ mper " ance movement, Mr. Joseph Livesey (The Moral Reformer, July 1, 1831), in these words : " While drinking contimies, poverty and vice will 'prevail, and until this is abandoned no rity under heaven, can raise / , frfwijr classes." FJLIIUVS speak loudly and clearly on this point. In round numbers the total rents in the United Kingdom annually for farms is 60,000,000, and for houses, 70,000,000, and the cost of the drink traffic, as we saw in chap, x., far exceeds both these sums put together. And when we remember that the increase or decrease Suggestions of this enormous drink bill has depended chiefly upon might^e*' opportunity; that it has increased with the increase of expected, prosperity and decreased with the decrease of prosperity, it lanTnaUon- seems very clear which reform, drink or land nationaliza- g^jj ^ ,tion, is of paramount importance to the nation. For accomplished i ! were land nationalization realized without temperance, temperance Ithe enormously widened opportunity for drink would reform. , soon show, in overflowing lists of poverty, insanity, and crime, how idle must all schemes of reform be which are not based, in the first instance, on the self-control of the individual, the very power which drink most fatally (destroys. 112 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Commenting on the appalling Black List of drink criminality occurring in England during the last -week of 1883 and the first week of 1884, and summarized in the Alliance News, the Grimsby News says "Mr. Henry George is going up and down lecturing about ' Progress and Poverty,' and telling us that all the evils from which we suffer may be directly or indirectly traced to our land laws. Surely, even Mr. George must see that no reform in land laws can do much for a nation that permits itself to be demoralized in this way by the traffic in strong drink. "\\\- .-pnicl twice as much on drink as on rent, and the resuTFs are "Before tis"m this "blackest of black lists. Talk of our people now "being able to enjoy them- selves ' rationally ; ' how can this be affirmed so long as in two short weeks we produce results like these in our towns and cities ? Some one has said that so long as we drink bitter ale, our cities must send up their ' Bitter Cry,' and we believe this is the sober truth. The other day Mr. Chamberlain told the shipowners of this country that the present loss of life among our seamen could not be any longer allowed to go on, and that Parliament must take decided action. It is high time that some one said the same thing about the loss of life and character and pro- sperity through the drink traffic. The fact is, we are as a nation thoroughly demoralized by this bloated interest." It is not easy to picture what the condition of this nation would be were the scheme of land nationalization to be accomplished without having been preceded by thorough temperance reform and that establishment of individual self-control, of sanity of mind and conscience inseparable from true temperance reform. The results likely to spi-ing from those ample opportunities for un- limited supplies of drink, which the prosperity promised to the individual by the land nationalization scheme would afford, may be partly understood from a considera- tion of the scenes described in our papers and journals as occurring at Brighton beach, early in 1884. We quote the following from the Evening Standard (February 7, 1884) : The Evening " The disgusting scenes which took place near Brighton, description consequent upon some casks of beer and spirits from the of the scenes ill-fated Simla being washed ashore, are enough to excite cask" On-own wonder as to how much a man is, even in the - nineteenth WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 413 century, the superior of the beasts. It is a humiliating ashore from fact that there is a considerable portion of the population o^&rigiuoii who, if given free access to intoxicants, will drink until ****& they fall insensible. The crowd on the beach near Brighton fell upon the casks like wild beasts, numbers became in- toxicated, many would have been drowned had not the coastguard dragged them beyond the reach of the advancing tide, several had the narrowest of escapes of death from the quantity of spirits they had swallowed, and one man actually died. It would seem, then^J;hat it is from no consideration of decency, morality, or self-respect that a '"vast number of men are restrained from drinking to a point of intoxication, but that it is simply a question of expense. Given free liquor, and a mad debauch is m- dtrtged in. T>ueh a fart as this seems to show that all our boasted advances, all the moral benefits of an extending education, all the conventional restraints of society are but surface deep, and that, given temptation that is, liquor without having to pay for it a disgusting carouse, which would disgrace the dwellers on a savage island, is the result." * Unfortunately, this record by no means stands alone, similar The Weymouth and Portland Guardian, in relating the Sg^he scenes which followed upon the rescue of the cargo of the ^' e f f t t h ^ e Royal Adelaide, wrecked in the winter of 1872, says : wrecked " Amongst the cargo of the Royal Adelaide were a large number of casks and bottles of spirits, and these, with the rest of the cargo, have been constantly coming ashore. At the time of the rescue of the passengers and crew there were a number of fishermen and others who exerted them- selves nobly, worked most indefatigably, and deserved the highest praise. When, therefore, the wreckage began coming ashore, some spirit casks were broken open for the refreshment of the men. . . . What was our astonishment, on visiting the beach next morning, to find that not only did the wreck present a very melancholy aspect, but that there was a much more appalling and heart-sickening sight on the beach. . . . Men were found lying insensible beside a * " Some Bo-called savage races set a better example. In Asuncion jj del Paraguay, in 1864, at a national fete, casks of wine and rum j free to all comers, and amongst some thousands of mestizos, the few j intoxicated were all English mechanics." 414 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Mr. Joseph Cowen on the para- mount im- portance of sobriety. Dr. Chan- ning on the reforming power of innocent 3ask of spirits, or with flasks, bottles, and other vessels Beneath them. In the vicinity of two or three casks there svere two men lying head to head in this condition. The irst fatal case was that of a lad employed as errand boy by a Weymouth grocer. Then we beard of a man named Smith, who was not expected to live another hour. On Droceeding to the Ferry Bridge, we saw two men, one of whom was just brought from the beach insensible and died mmediately, and the other of whom had been lying in a state of insensibility for upwards of three hours." And the Temperance Record (December 7, 1872), in an article on Drinking Disasters and Shipwrecks, says : "On the Irish coast, ai'ter the recent wreck of the Kinsdale, upwards of eighty men were lying in a state of stupor from the horrible effects of the drink extracted from a hundred and fifty barrels of ale that had been washed ashore." How true are Richard Cobden's words, that " the temperance cause lies at the foundation of all social and political reform " ! As Mr. Joseph Cowen, M.P., said, when addressing a Blue Ribbon meeting atNewcastle-on-Tyne (January 19), " Neither franchises nor education nor social transforma- tions will, of themselves, keep people sober; and sobriety must precede all moral, mental, and political reformation, if that reformation is to be real." * 94. There is a great lack of innocent and cheap amusement for the masses, and a fatal plenty of cheap amusements which are not innocent. " Innocent pleasure," says Dr. Channing (op. cit.), " has not been sufficiently insisted on. ... A people should be guarded againsttemptation to unlawful pleasures by furnish- ing the means of innocent ones, such as produce a cheerful frame of mind, such as refresh instead of exhausting the system, such as recur frequently rather than continue long, such as send us back to our daily duties invigorated in body and mind. . . . Such as we can enjoy in the presence and society of respectable friends ; such as are chastened with self-respect, and accompanied with the consciousness that life has a higher end than to be amused. ... In every community there must be pleasures and relaxations and * Report in Good Templar's Watchword, February 4, 1884. direction. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 415 .means of agreeable excitement, and if innocent ones are '{not furnished, resort will be had to criminal. Man was made to enjoy as well as to labour, and the state of society should be adapted to this principle of human nature." He speaks earnestly of the humanizing power of music,*} The po^er^ its influence in homes and in public assemblies, to protect! of th^ 1 """' from the vice of drink and its kindred dissipations. Of' mtbis the stage, he says, " The drama answers a high purpose when it places us in the presence of the most solemn and striking events of human history, and lays bare to us the human heart in its most powerful, appalling, and glorious workings." A play of this kind, which occupied with an almost T^ m is, tithes, educational aHad religious enoVvvments,Vy dealer^, and Because oMarge ownership, in public-house property. In tafi days wxen this relatio^ of thinVs was fiim estab- lished, drtck, asNre know, wa8\egardeckas a legitimate and rational- exhilaration of the senses ; it was even called that " good creatureVf God," and coupled with His "Word in the 'phrase " Beer a^ This notion, though not dissipated everywhere even yet,* has been vigorously pushed from its vantage in the centre of general acceptance by the broad shoulders of Progress, the knowledge now universal, whether welcome * The Alliance News (November 24, 1883) reports Mr. H. E. Edwards as saying, in an address to a conference of licensed victuallers in Birmingham, November 7, " It used to be ' Beer and the Bible.' Now the Church says, ' Kick the beer-barrel away.' The beer-barrel, however, will stand as long as the Church." WHAT CAN BE DONE? 419 or not, that alcohol is always poison to body and mind, and even especially to the latter. Thus no alternative is left open to the Church but that of severing itself from all association with it, and it must be admitted that it has set bravely to work to do this. When the modern temperance movement first began to The origin obtain hold of the public heart of England, the Church Sy^otaSdi opposed it strenuously, and the bitterness against it may of England be said to have reached its height when the Evangelical movement 6 Alliance of Edinburgh propesed, in 1847, as subjects for discussion " How far the study of physical facts led to infidelity, and the connection betwixt teetotalism and in- fidelity." In 1862, some two hundred clergymen, headed by Canon Henry J. Ellison, initiated a church temperance movement, which, chiefly owing to the devotion, enthu- siasm, tact, and capacity of Canon Ellison, has strengthened and spread until now it virtually embraces the largest portion of the Church of England. Of this movement, known as the Church of England Temperance Society, the Queen is patron, the Archbishop of Canterbury is president ; all the bishops are enrolled under its banners, and Canon Ellison is still its chairman. "When called before the Lords' Committee in 1880, Canon Ellison said "I call your lordships' attention to the prayer of The earnest 14,000 clergy, from whom I believe the call for this com- nEnhe" mittee originated. In their memorial to the bishops they Church of ask this r ' We, the undersigned, clergy of the Church of Temperance England, venture respectfully to appeal to your lordships, ^^^ as the only members of our order in Parliament, as such, Committee most earnestly to support measures of the further restric- canonHenry tion of the trade in intoxicating liquors in this country. J^JJJ^' f We are convinced, most of us, from an intimate acquaint- thesode'ty, ance with the people, extending over many years, that f^ e t ^ v ? n their condition can never be greatly improved, whether favour of intellectually, physically, or religiously, so long as in- tem P erance - temperance extensively prevails among them ; and that intemperance will prevail so long as temptations to it abound on every side.' I cannot help saying that seeing that the excessive drinking of this country now is of such a wholesale character, and has its roots so very deeply in the habits of the population, you must attack it upon 420 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Archbishop Benson's position re- garding temperance reform. every side. We believe it is like a great fortress it must be attacked by investment, by mine, by sap, and by direct attack ; but whatever other agencies may be used, the strong conviction of all those who, like myself, have been engaged in parochial temperance work for many years, is, that we can do very little without the assistance of the legislature ; that so long (as this memorial says) as the temptations exist to the extent that they do exist now, we shall scarcely be able to make any impression upon the intemperance of the country." When the present president was the Archbishop- Designate, he wrote from Truro (January 13, 1883), that he would "gladly and anxiously use any opportunities which the new position to which God has called him in the Church may give him to promote by legislation and other means the cause of temperance in this country." And now, in the beginning of the second year of his great responsibilities as the Primate of all England, he has preached a. temperance gospel which will make the record of his archiepiscopate grow ever brighter in the widening light of man's advancement, as the years of reform and progress come gathering in with their blessings of en- lightenment to the generations we work and hope for, but shall not see in the flesh. On the occasion of the annual meeting of the Church of England Temperance Society, held at Lambeth Palace, April 29, 1884, he said " All England is caring about the housing of the poor of London and the great towns, and must do its utmost to put the poor into decent dwellings. But then, ladies and gentlemen, what good will this have done if you have not taught the people to abstain from drink ? To go in for housing the poor properly is a pressing duty, but with all the cleanliness and regulation that you introduce yon know it will be in vain unless you. can teach the people to keep themselves temperate. Do not let us be content with sweeping and garnishing the house. We have it upon our Lord's word what that comes to when it is done by itself. We must get a good spirit into the house if we wish the seven spirits not to come back spirits of evil in sevenfold force, remember, and much more wicked than the first. It would be but sweeping and garnishing if we clean and clear and rebuild those houses, and do not teach the people WHAT CAN fcE DONE? fi to be sober. ... In no past time had the preachers of the gospel to contend with the demon of drink as they have in this age of ours. To accept the gospel, to live conscientiously under the precepts of the gospel, to be fol- lowers of Christ, to be built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, and to drink! The two things cannot co-exist. We must drive out the spirit of drink by the Spirit of the gospel. Veiled or unveiled, drink must be driven out, or else vre have what we may call whole countries and whole regions inaccessible to the word of truth." * On the 19th of November, 1883, the Church of England Temperance Society celebrated its twenty- first anniversary, and the sermon delivered by Canon Farrar in Westminster Abbey, if indicating the real spirit of the Church on the subject of temperance, shows that this society has nobly understood its mission. In calling for funds for the labours of the coming year, the society thus explains its purpose : " To send into every diocese a resident and efficient The par- organizing agent. SSSfaSrf " To carry on the rescue work of the society by earnest, the church devoted police-court missionaries. Temperance " To establish army, naval, workshop, servants', and cabmen's branches. " To prosecute the work of the branch in connection with the missions to seamen society. " To supply tracts, leaflets, and publications for general circulation. " To send gratuitously to clubs, schools, institutions, and colleges, copies of the weekly Chronicle. "To assist in providing coffee and cocoa stalls and barrows, ninety of which have been sent out. " To aid in the introduction of temperance teaching into colleges and schools. " To promote wise and remedial legislation as embodied in the society's proposed bill. "To form diocesan, parochial, and juvenile branch societies. " To send out fit and competent deputations (clerical * Temperance Record, May 1, 1884. 422 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The Bishop of Carlisle on the success of the labours of this society (St. James's Hall, No- vember 20, 1883). Canon Basil Wilberforce in denuncia- tion of and lay), and generally to extend the objects of the society by moral, social, and educational means." At the society's breakfast the next morning (November 20, 1883), in St. James's Hall, the Bishop of Carlisle, in alluding to the activity of the Church in the directions of relief and education, said " It would be in vain to attempt an enumeration of all the works now going on quietly in parishes under the direction of the clergy works of which the world knows nothing beyond the limits of the parish. I will mention the works going on in one metropolitan parish, the report of which lies before me. (1) The whole machinery of confirmation, including classes in which young and old are prepared ; (2) instruction classes, in which the Scrip- tures are taught and good books circulated ; (3) a provident club ; (4) working classes, in which the poor are taught habits of industry ; (5) parochial mission ; (6) a society for aid during illness ; (7) a society for visiting the poor and aiding tkeir distress ; (8) a society for aiding church einging ; (9) guilds for men and old and young women, and promoting their religious welfare; (10) mothers' meetings for the study of good books ; (11) dispensaries and aids for the sick ; (12) a society for district visitors and their meetings ; (13) meetings for school teachers and Sunday school teachers ; (14) ragged and night schools, and their support ; (15) soup kitchen for the poor ; (16) societies for waifs and strays, or children deserted by their parents ; (17) working men's benefit societies ; (18) multitudinous Christian charities supported by en- dowment or subscription ; (19) needlework society ; (20) penny banks ; (21) young men's friendly society for pro- moting wholesome amusement for Sunday evenings; (22) juvenile guild a branch of the same ; (23) a confraternity society for communicants; (24) young men's friendly society ; (25) a branch of the C. E. T. S. ; (26, a society in aid of the propagation of the gospel. Such are the works going on quietly and unostentatiously in connection with one Church." * On every hand clergymen with the courage to speak and act in accordance \vith their convictions are coming to the front. Writing to the late Archbishop Tait of Canter- * Church of England Temperance Chronicle, November 24, 1883. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 423 bury, in July, 1882, Canon Basil Wilberforce denounced Church pro- the holding by the Church of property in public-houses. [*ubii<> P Since then, in various places, public-houses belonging to nouses - the Church have been closed. Says the Temperance Eecord (November 8, 1883) "A public-house of rather a low class, the Golden Practical ex- j Lion, in Gravel Lane, Southwark, has lately been vacated ?he S Eccies by its tenant, and the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, to asticaiCom- ; whom the premises belong, in their desire to minimize their oTtheir'in'- interest in public-house property, have let it for half the ^ r ^ ^ n h o f ! rent offered by a firm, of brewers to Mr. Fegan, of the Boys' temperance Home, Southwark, who proposes to open it as a place of ttont^nv-" recreation for working boys in this densely crowded ^^ No district, so that it will become a boon instead of a pest ^nber 8> " to the neighbourhood. The Golden Lion adjoins Mr. 1883 )- Fegan's Home, and is now being rapidly prepared for its new career." The Dean of Westminster recently told me that he had closed and pulled down a public-house in Westminster. The most important and most difficult question "which The question confronts the Church is that of the use of wine in the ^ne e inie f Lord's Supper. Numbers of clergymen have, in obedience to their convictions, introduced into this rite in their own churches the use of non-intoxicating instead of intoxicating wine. We have been told that the Bishop of London grants absolute freedom to the clergy of his diocese as to the character of the wine used in the Communion. In the Convocations of Canterbury last July (1883) the subject came up for decision. An appeal was made from the Lower House " praying " that the Upper House should " take such measures as they may deem best for checking such innovation " (of using Co nvocations unfermented wine in the Lord's Supper). In the answer bury, July, we read, " This House is of opinion that agitation of any 1883> question on so sacred a subject is much to be deprecated, j as tending to distress many religious persons, to unsettle ' the weak, and even to lead to schism ; that it is quite ' unnecessary to raise the question referred to in the gravamen, inasmuch as the Church, though always in- sisting on the use of wine in the Holy Communion, has never prescribed the strength or weakness of the wine to be used, and, consequently, it is always possible to deal 424 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Modern dis- coveries as to the nature and eflectsof alcohol- leave no alternative to the with even extreme cases without departing from the custom observed by the Church ; and that it is, there- fore, most convenient that the clergy should conform to ancient and unbroken usage, and should discountenance all attempts to deviate from it " (Chronicle of Convocation. 1883).* Thus the representative body of the Church of England, though deprecating agitation on the subject of the use of unfermented wine, does not positively condemn it. This is a great step, because this issue, once having become debatable, there can be no doubt as to its ultimate settle- ment. Both intoxicating and unfermented wines were used by the Jews in the time of Christ, but we possess no know- ledge whether the wine used by Jesus in the last supper was intoxicating or unfermented. The best Hebrew authorities, living and past, either regard intoxicating or tinfermented wines as equally lawful in Passover, or lean in the direction of the unfei'mented, inasmuch as fermented (leavened) food was forbidden at Passover. Therefore either complete liberty as to the use of intoxicating or un- fermented wines at the Lord's Supper must be granted, or, to be consistent, the use of wine at all must be abandoned. But aside from the question of the nature of the wine used by Jesus, modern discoveries as to the nature and effects of alcohol leave but one alternative in the use of wine to any conscientious clergyman. Jesus, when He took the cup and asked His disciples to drink in remembrance of Him, was the same Jesus who ^ e< ^ on *ke cross ^h^ -^ e m ight save sinners; was the same Nazarene who, in His own prayer, teaches His disciples, " Lead us not into temptation,' 1 who, in His agony in the garden, begged His disciples to watch and pray against temptation ; was the same Jesus who sternly told His disciples that it was letter for a man to phick out his eye or cut off his hand rather than that his whole body should be cast into hell; was the same who said, " Woe unto the world because of offences, for it must needs be that offences come, but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh." Would He who spake these things desire the use of intoxicating drink in sacramental commemoration of Him ? A writer in the Church Quarterly Review early last * See chapter xi., pp. 301, 302. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 425 year asserts that the belief in the efficacy of the sacrament will protect the believer from harm. What authority is there for such an assertion ? Has any promise been given anywhere in the Bible to that effect ? (And what imputa- tion on the character of this sacred rite lies in the mere suggestion that special divine intervention is essential to the safety of one participating in it !) Certainly, the saddest facts of almost daily experience disprove such assertions. To the reformed drunkard, alcohol is like the taste of blood to the tamed lion or tiger. What shall be done for those innumerable ones, who, knowing their inherited predisposition to drink, can keep away from the public- house only so long as they do not approach the communion table ? As long ago as 1826, the Rev. Moses Stuart (Prof, of The Rev. Theology in Andover College, Mass., U.S.A.), in his Wines and Strong Drinks of the Ancient Hebrews, arrived at the ^^fjj conclusion that " it is a matter of expediency and duty for qualification our churches not to admit members in the future except membership, on the ground of total abstinence from the use of intoxi- cating liquors and from all traffic in them." The Rev. B. Parsons, in his Anti-Bacchus (London, The Rev. B. 1840), stos, " We ought to substitute an innocent beverage S^iSit for the poiSon which is now used at the Lord's table. . . . r j^j n - Not long aga^ reformed drunkard, and apparently a con- attendance at verted man, apfj^oached the Lord's table of a church which ^i^ " 1 ' 8 I could name ; mhyk the result. The wine tasted at the sacred Cornmunion\revived the old passion, and he, who seemed a saint, was ^rrupted by the sacramental wine, went home, got drunk, tyid died a drunkard." Mr. E. C. Delavan, IW his Temperance Essays (New Mr. E.G. York, 1866), in Letter ll\Relative to Communion Wine, t D h e e la ? n written in 1841, says, "Let i*e illustrate the sacrament of wine in the the Supper by the water used ill. baptism. What Christian parent would be willing to have^uch substances as com- pose the liquor generally used at tktf Supper mingled with the water with which his infant chHd is baptized ? Pure water is the only proper symbol of Ikmptism. The pure blood of the grape, for the Supper." In the Concordance of Scripture and Science (London, Archdeacon 1847), Mr. Peter Burne, in speaking of tifc| use of in- S25. f toxicants at the Communion, quotes the following 1 remarks on the same. 426 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. made by Archdeacon Jeffreys, of Bombay : " We agree'to abstain from all intoxicating drinks, except in a religious ordinance, the plain interpretation of which is, that such mischievous liquors are too bad tp be used anywhere but at the Lord's Supper. . . . So* long as intoxicating wine is dealt round at the cpafmunion table, the reclaimed drunkard (as well as,jw*ybody in danger of becoming one who is sure P^i^s of right no business there, for the sacred place is^as morally unfit for him as the taproom and the gjji^alace ... It is a mockery of God to pray for deliverance from evil and temptation while abandoning oneeTf to it with open eyes." The Lord ^^ The Lord Bishop of Exeter, who, in the Upper House Exeter on of Convocations, seconded the above-quoted decision as to the same. the use of wine in the Holy Eucharist, in an address at the Guildhall (October 17, 1883), said, " The temptations of the flesh are generally very strong, if they are near, and when such temptations were near to some men, their strength seemed to desert them altogether. The only thing they could do was to get away and keep away from such temptations altogether. Drunkards who had fallen under this particular temptation of the flesh must be, if they were to recover themselves at all, total abstainers." Does this mean that the very ones who stand in greatest need of the consolation and help of the most sacred religious rites shall be shut out of it ? Or does it mean that the form of the rite must be modified, to meet the need of those for whom it was first instituted ? * Canon Canon Wilberforce answers these questions. Replying Wilberforce on the same. * Eev. James Smith, in his work on The Temperance Refonnation and its daims upon the Christian Church (London, 1875), proposes : " The general adoption of the pure juice of the grape," and thinks that it would be well "if the churches could agree to adopt it both as appropriate in itself and as a pi-otest against the intemperance that prevails." It the use of unfermented grape juice could gradually replace the use of fermented and distilled liquors, not as a beverage but as an occasional tonic, it would possibly, more than any other purely physical agent, in conjunction with water, counteract and overcome the vitiated taste created by our long use of alcoholic drinks. I There is. as far as we know, but one establishment in England I where genuine unfermented wine is to be procured, and that is at ' frank Wright's manufactory in South Kensington. It is claimed that some two thousand churches now use it. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 427 to the Rev. C. R. Chase, he remarked "that he had known terribly real and undoubted instances in "which men, by partaking of wine from the sacramental cup, had been started on their downward course to a dishonoured grave. If it came to be a question whether the wine or the Christian should be banished from the table of the Lord, he could not hesitate a moment as to which should go. From the sacramental table over which he had more immediate control intoxicating wine had now long been banished, and in this he believed they were carrying out the true spirit and meaning of the sacrament. If it was not a spiritual communion with the blessed Lord, beyond and above anything the mere elements could convey, then it failed in the great purpose for which it was ordained." * Will any one say that it is by Christ's command that Various loa- the Communion is used as the bulwark and the recrniting SdwSiJrw 1 " office of the public-house ? " If good people can take involve* in intoxicating drink at the communion table on Sunday," says the liquor seller, and all those who want a good excuse for drinking, "there can be no great harm in a glass at home, or even at the public-house." Surely this consideration alone ought to suffice to banish alcoholic drink from the sacrament. No doubt many clergymen and many Christians shrink with sincere piety from making any change in the sacra- mental rite, regarding it to have been taught and founded, as now observed, by the Master Himself ; but will not all personal shrinking, all minor scruples give way to the larger and holier shrinking which must accompany our knowledge, that alcohol is now proved to be a poison which ruins body and soul ? It cannot be inappropriate to say " minor scruples," since we are authoritatively assured that the Church " has never prescri-bed the strength or weakness of the wine to be used." If the Church does insist upon the custom of using alcoholic drink in the Communion, many, if not all, conscientious persons may be driven to abstain from the Lord's Supper, if not on their own account, lest offence come through them to others. Is it not better that " ancient aad unbroken usage " in this respect should be deviated from, in order that the * League Journal, November 3, 1883. 428 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. ancient and unbroken usage of sin may be overcome, in the rite that remembers Him ? 96. The principal part for society to take in the battle against drink is the abolition of the drink customs. Dr. Chan- " In proportion as ardent spirits are banished from our drink houses, our tables, our hospitalities," said Dr. Channing customs. (op. ciY.), " in the proportion that those who have influence and authority in the community abstain themselves and lead their dependents to abstain from their use, the tempta- tions to drink must disappear. It is objected, we know, that if we give up what others will abuse, we must give up everything, because there is nothing which men will not abuse. We granted that it is not easy to define the limits at which concessions ought to stop. Were we called upon to relinquish an important comfort of life because others were perverting it into an instrument of crime and woe, we should be bound to pause and deliberate before we acted. " But no such plea can be set up in the case before us. Ardent spirits are not an important comfort and in no degree a necessity. They give no strength, they contribute nothing to help. They neither aid men to bear the burden nor discharge the duties of life." The origin The drink customs are very difficult to eradicate. They the drink' ^ave g rown through the ages and become ingrained with customs. the growth of national and social life and institutions, and in no country have they struck root so deeply as in England. History relates that the Danish conquerors punished with death any native who drank in their presence with- out permission. Some writers claim that the custom of pledging health originated at that time. Strutt, in his Manners and Customs of Ancient Britain, says strntt on the " The meaning of a pledge was a security for the safety of the individual drinking, who all the time was exposed to the attack of an enemy by his arm being raised to his head, his face partly covered, and his body unprotejted. When, therefore, a person was about to drink, he asked the guest next to him if he would pledge him, and being answered in the affirmative, the sword or dagger was raised to protect him while drinking." And this custom, sign of England's degradation under WHAT CAN BE DONE? 429 the heel of her conqueror, not only was not dropped with the slavery that imposed it, but outlived it, and by some mysterious process got transposed into such a sign of glorification at both official and private banquets, that to omit it has until very recently been considered almost tantamount to treason to the throne and to the altar of personal friendship ! There are many drink customs. At the Temperance Congress of 1862, a paper was issued enumerating four hundred drink laws and usages ; * but the principal and universally observed drink custom is that of drinking to the health and success of persons and undertakings. In chapter xi. it was shown how drinking originated at Court, and afterwards became the vice of the masses ; and how much might be hoped from the initiative of the Court in temperance reform. It would seem as if this responsibility was becoming felt at Court. In his address to the York Licensed Victuallers' Association, February 8, 1881, the Lord Mayor of York said he had accepted the invitation of the association with much pleasure, especially when they had been so courteous as to give him the liberty to refresh himself with whatever beverage he thought proper. It reminded him of an occasion when some one dining at her Majesty's table was The Queen' drinking water, and it was pointed out to her Majesty, thfsodai 1 who replied, " There is no compulsion at my table." the drink* At the great Scottish Temperance Convention held in customs; her Glasgow on the 28th of April, 1884, Mr. Robert Rae, the SSSSSS secretary of the National Temperance League, said dangers from " It often happens that the Queen dines many people, ^pkt and I am glad to state that a good number of the guests are teetotalers. Especially is this the case amongst her chaplains ; and to show that the temperance movement is spreading in the Queen's establishment, I may say that * A great number of these are mentioned with the special penalties to be inflicted on those who break them. As recently as last June (1883) the papers furnish an account of how a labourer named Ellis, an abstainer, was maltreated because he refused to stand treat. " A pair of clamps pieces of wood fastened by a screw in the middle were placed on his neck, and he was held till signs of suffocation were apparent. He was then released, but he was in such a condition that he had to be taken to the infirmary, where he remains." 430 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the last two domestic chaplains who were appointed were total abstainers. It is a significant fact that nearly all the new bishops recently created in the Church of England have been total abstainers." In her book, My Holidays in the Highlands, 1862-1882 (London, 1884), the Queen identifies herself in a very simple and effective manner with the cause of temperance reform. In referring to the work of her " dear and valued friend," the late Dr. Norman Macleod, she mentions with especial interest his sermon on the 2nd of October s 1870, in these words : " Dr. Macleod gave ns such a splendid sermon on the war, and without mentioning France he said enough to make every one understand what was meant, when he pointed out how God would punish wickedness, and vanity, and sensuality ; and the chapters he read from Isaiah xxviii.,* and from Ezekiel, Amos, and one of the Psalms, were really quite wonderful for the way in which they seemed to describe France." Such expressions are a touching revelation of her Majesty's anxiety concerning the condition of things in her own realm, which has been practically evinced also by her becoming patron of the Church of England Temper- ance Society. * " 1. Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious beauty is a fading flower, which are on the head of the fat valleys of them that are overcome with wine. " 2. Behold, the Lord hath a mighty and strong one, which as a tempest of hail and a destroying storm, as a food of mighty waters overflowing, shall cast down to the earth with the hand. " 3. The crown of pride, the drunkards of Ephraim, shall be trodden under feet. " 7. But they also have erred through wine, and through strong drink are out of the way; the priest and the prophet have erred through strong drink, they are swallowed up of wine, they are out of the way through strong drink; they err in vision, they stumble through judgment. " 15. Because ye have said, We have made a covenant with death, and with hell are we at agreement ; when the overflowing scourge shall pass through, it shall not come unto us : for we have made lies our refuge, and under falsehood have we hid ourselves. " 16. Therefore, thus saith the Lord God, . . . " 17. Judgment also will I lay to the line, and righteousness to the plummet : and the hail shall sweep away the refuge of lies, and the waters shall overflow the hiding-place." Isaiah xxviii. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 431 Thus it is seen that drink customs are no longer a matter of rigorous observance at court. The Queen her- self has done the temperance cause the inestimable service of removing from the relations between host and guests, from social etiquette and good manners, the burdens of an irksome obligation, in the exchange of social amenities; and society is no longer shielded under the pretence of loyalty nor by the code of good breeding, in using her formidable weapons of ridicule and satire against those who seek, by appropriate means, to liberate themselves and others from the evils of drink. From a paper on Freemasonry and Temperance in the The interest Western Morning News, the Good Templar's Watchword b^helwL (January 28, 1884) quotes the following, showing the of Wales in interest felt by the Prince of Wales in temperance reform: re "Lodges can choose as to when and where members i shall take refreshments, and as to what shall be included or excluded in connection with those refreshments.; Acting upon that privilege, a movement is progressing in the order for lodge to decree that no intoxicating liquors shall at any time be permitted to be introduced at their refreshment boards ; and, in some instances, new lodges are being formed with a clause in their bye-laws to this effect. Such an one, on a large scale, was opened at Manchester in the beginning of last year, and now the three towns are about to follow the same course. A suggestion was made a few months since among a few of the temperance brethren that it would be worth while to ascertain if such a lodge could not be established there, and on the question being put to the test, they were astonished at the popularity of the movement. With scarce an effort over sixty masons, nearly all of several I years' standing, and embracing numerous P.M.'s and provincial officers, came forward at once as being desirous { to become members of the new lodge. The proposition ' was then submitted to the heads of the order in the three towns, when the whole of them, with, it is believed, only one exception, signed a recommendation that a warrant for the new lodge should be granted. The Provincial Grand Master added his recommendation, and now the information has been received that the Prince of Wales, M.W. Grand Master, has been pleased to grant a warrant 432 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. The interest shown by the late Duke of Albany in the condition of the poor and in temperance reform. The practi- for the holding of the said lodge under title of ' The St. George, No. 2025.' The membership is not confined to pledged teetotalers, nor will any attempt be made to so limit it. At all its banquets and entertainments every endeavour will be made to make the social gatherings enjoyable, but without the aid of alcohol. The three principal officers named in the warrant will be provincial officers, who are total abstainers the W.M. for twenty- eight years, the S.W. for eighteen years, and the J.W. a life-long abstainer. There were nearly fifty petitioners for the new lodge, and many of the brethren are active ' blue ribbonists ' and total abstainers." At the distribution of prizes to the children of ele- mentary schools by the Liverpool Council of Education (January 26, 1884), the late Duke of Albany* presiding, in speaking of improved cookery and coffee taverns, said " I should like to see a rapid lift given to the standard of cleanliness and care in the preparation of food in the poorest homes. I should like to see meals which are now mere scrambles become points of real family union occasions for showing forethought and kindliness and self- respect. And where circumstances make this too difficult, I should like to see the family enjoying a cheap and decent meal together at the coffee tavern, instead of the father being at the alehouse and the wife and children with a crust at home. And I think that if we can train the children early to see the difference between what dirt and waste and selfishness make of a poor man's dinner, and what thrift and care and cleanliness can make of it at the same cost, we shall be civilizing them almost more directly than by our sums or our grammar, and shall be taking in flank our great enemy, drink drink, the only terrible enemy whom England has to fear."f Public bodies also are beginning to manifest a sense of responsibility in'this direction. At the annual dinner of the Metropolitan Board of * The late Duke of Albany was for nine years patron of the Oxford Diocesan Branch and a president of the Church of England Temperance Society. Annual Report Church of England Temperance Society, 1884. t The Duke of Connanght ascribes his good health during the Egyptian campaign to his abstention from the use of intoxicating liquor. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 433 Works, April, 1883, the imperative toasts of loyalty, etc., cai were drunk in water. drinking At the inauguration of the Society for the Study Jjjjjjjj 1 ^ and Cure of Inebriety (Rooms of the Medical Society Metropolitan of London, April 25, 1884), at which about one hundred ^{jg * physicians were present, the toasts were drunk in tin- April, issa. fermented wines. Toasts In this struggle against the public drink customs, the uSermented remembrance of their inherent absurdities ought to weigh wines at the greatly with intelligent people. luncheon'of" " It is not usual," says the German Prince Puckler J^J^gfty (according to Dr. Grindrod, op. cit.), " to take wine during and Cure of dinner in England without drinking to another person. ^"25^' When you raise your glass, you look fixedly at the one 1884. with whom you are drinking, bow your head, and then The German drink with great gravity. Certainly many customs of the p^ eT on South Sea Islanders, which strike us the most, are less theabsnrdi- ludicrous. It is esteemed a civility to challenge anybody drink in this way to drink ; a messenger is often sent from one custom*. end of the table to the other to announce to B that A wishes to take wine with him, whereupon each, and some- times with considerable trouble, catches the other's eye, and goes through the ceremony of the prescribed nod with great formality, looking at the moment very like a Chinese mandarin." " Never perhaps," says the Rev. B. Parsons (op. cit.}, "was there a more irrational or absurd practice. As the though we could not express our loyalty to the Queen, our good wishes to the bishops, clergy, and Church, or our affection to our friends and country, without swallowing a portion of poison ! In thousands of instances, love of drink, not love to the monarch, is the origin of the toast, and those who are most noisy with their 'three times three.' are swallowing their money, their morality, their loyalty and patriotism all at the same time. Some of these would curse God and the king for a pot of beer, and others ruined by drinking and toasting are ready for any- thing that would mend their affairs and get them some drink. The most disloval and disaffected of our country- men are those who have beggared themselves by drinking. It is impossible to tell the crime and misery which drink- ing of toasts has originated. Louis XIV. of France is said 2 w 434- THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. to have foreseen the consequences, and to have prohibited the drinking of toasts." A working In 1864, A Working Man published a trenchant little ^ e . n t! ' pamphlet, entitled Philosophy of Toasts andHealth Drinking, from which we quote the following : " The toast is applied to the health of the living, and to the memory of the dead ; to things far and near, past, present, and to come ; through every department in all the affairs of life, and prevails among all classes of society, from the peer who toasts the Queen's health to the beggar who drinks the publican's health with his last penny. . . . The simple ' Luck ! ' of the poor gives way to the toast in society. A gentleman stands on his feet and expatiates in glowing terms, it may be on the virtues of the Queen, or some other great one present or absent, living or dead, and, whatever the toast may be, the speaker is sure to conclude his speech by requiring the company to empty their glasses for the success, health, or happiness of the subject of the toast. If there existed any connection between the real and the possible, between that which the company desires to honour or promote, so that the one could be regarded as the cause and the other as the effect, or the one the means and the other the end, then there might be some show in reason for the practice, and so far a palliation of the evils resulting from excess. . . . But where is the connection between health and prosperity and the act of drinking strong liquor or wine ? Suppose a doctor took it into his head some fine morning, that instead of going out to visit his patients as usual, he would swallow pills to their health in the laboratory, and that he did so. He swallowed a pill to the health of each in succession, according to the order of his visits. ' Well, here goes a pill for the health of the man with the broken arm,' etc. Twenty-two pills in all ! What would be the state of the doctor ? what that of the patients ? and what would be said of his actions ? " ^ Let us substitute for toasting with wine some kind of < spice, salt or pepper, and the absurdity of toasting becomes / as absurd in appearance as it is in fact. The Rer. " The habit of toast- drinking, whether public or onThesame! 1 P r i vate >" sa 'J a * ne ^ ev - James Smith,* "is one which only * Temperance Reformation and its claims upon the Christian Church (London, 1875). WHAT CAN BE DONE? 435 long- established usage and familiarity enable us to regard as otherwise than highly ridiculous, and in every way un- worthy of an enlightened and civilized community. Does anybody really imagine that the Queen enjoys better health, that the army and navy are in a more nourishing condition, that the Church, the Press, or the Government do their work more efficiently because they are so frequently and enthusiastically ' toasted ' ? Is there any rational connection between the good wishes entertained and the mode in which they receive expression ? If any one really supposed that the person or subject in hand would prosper all the better in proportion to the frequency and enthusiasm of the toasting and the quantity of liquor consumed in the process, there would be some excuse for his indulging in the practice, whatever might be thought of his intellectual development ! There was more reason, if less civilization, in the action of the African mentioned by Dr. Livingstone, who emptied his snuff-box at the foot of a tree, in order to ensure the success of his comrades, who were engaged in an elephant hunt ! He, poor savage ! performed this ceremony ignorantly and superstitiously, believing that it would have some real efficacy ; while we, enlightened Christians ! perform an analogous heathenish ceremony, knowing it to be meaningless and vain. If health- drinking were confined to the health-giving beverage, water, the folly of the custom would speedily become apparent to all, and the practice would soon be numbered among the antiquarian relics of a barbarous age." There are many trade usages still extensively prevalent which tend to create and foster a love for strong drink, and are, consequently, instrumental in promoting intemper- i ance among those concerned. Among such customs may / be mentioned the payment of wages at public-liouses, whereby V ON[ many are brought into temptation, the young and in- jnl^Ky experienced become the prey of confirmed inebriates, and / /^^ those who may be desirous to reform have difficulties '/ thrown in the way of their doing so. Thanks to the efforts of Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., in g**^*, the Commons, and of the Earls Stanhope and Shaftes- Motiey^u 5 ., bury in the Lords, this_mischievous practice was abolished HJaftrabmy in the spring session of 1883. and stanhope .'S tlie drinking customs aud usages, there are the tosecurin s 436 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the abolition of the eas- tern of the payment of wages at public- houses. The Rev. William Moister on the variety and prevalence of social drinking habits. social drinking habits to combat. The Rev. William Moister, in his book, The Evil and the Remedy (London, 1877), well describes their vai'iety and prevalence in the following words : "Intoxicating drink, in some form or other, has at length come to be used on a variety of occasions, the very mention of which is somewhat startling, when we consider its character and tendency. It is frequently given to working men and others by employers of labour, to stimulate them to greater exertion in the discharge of their respective duties. It is introduced at almost all public and festive gatherings ; at marriages, baptisms, and funerals ; at sales, contracts, and friendly meetings , and, in many otherwise well-regulated families, spirits, wine, ale, or porter are placed on the table every day as common beverage at meal- times as well as on other occasions. In many localities the hospitality of the host is measured by the frequency and earnestness with which he presses the intoxicating cup on the attention of his guests. As soon as you arrive at the dwelling of your friend, the all-important question is put, ' What will you take to drink ? ' If you are weary with your journey, you are urged to take a glass of wine, beer, or other stimulating drink to refresh you ; if you are cold, it is recommended to warm yon ; and if you are warm, it is represented as a cooling beverage. By some it is taken before dinner to create an appetite : at meals as a diluent of food ; afterwards to aid digestion ; and imme- diately before going to bed to induce sleep. " In fact, alcoholic liquor, in some form, has come to be regarded by many as a common necessary of life ; and as such it is procured and kept in store for ordinary use, the same as bread, butter, meat, and other provisions. If a journey has to be taken, as a matter of course, the familiar bottle is replenished with the favourite liquid and placed in the basket or pocket with other refreshments. You cannot travel far by rail or otherwise, without being pain- fully reminded of the degeneracy of our race, and of the fearful extent to which the drinking customs of our nountry prevail among all classes." It is, of course, necessary, in order to make headway against these most widely observed and popular drink customs and habits, to inspire a healthy public sentiment, WHAT CAN BE DONE? 437 in which their continuance shall be clearly seen to be both ridiculous and wrong. In his paper on The Wine Question of Society (Scribner's Dr. J. G. Monthly, August, 1872), the late Dr. J. G. Holland pro- gJJISjrf posed a method for arousing such healthy public sentiment society in ^ in these words : " Society bids us furnish wines at our feasts, and \ve furnish them just as generously as if we did not know that a certain percentage of all the men who drink it will die miserable drunkards, and will inflict pitiful sufferings on those who are closely associated with them. . . What we need is a declaration of independence. There are a great many good men and women who lament the drinking habits of society most sincerely. Let these all declare that they will minister no longer at the altar of the great destroyer. Let them declare that the indis- criminate offer of wine at dinners and social assemblies is not only criminal but vulgar, as it undoubtedly is. Let them declare, for the sake of the young, the weak, and vicious for the sake of personal character, and family peace, and social purity, and national strength, that they will discard wine from their feasts from this time forth and for ever, and the work will be done. ... If the men and women of good society wish to have less drinking to excess, let them stop drinking moderately. If they are not willing to break off the indulgence of a feeble appetite for the sake of doing a great good to a great many people, how can they expect a poor broken-down wretch to deny an appetite that is stronger than the love of wife and children, and even life itself ? " Perhaps no moral cause ever came up for general con- sideration more requiring the uncompromising action that is here suggested than the cause of temperance, or more in need of the conciliating influence of perfect good breed- ing and inexhaustible patience on the part of its upholders, or one more endangered by irritating, unenlightened prejudiced opinion, or having more to hope from the right exercise of enlightened and noble public sentiment.* 97. In his Temperance Address at Boston (184G), the Rev. Dr. Chapin exclaimed "Who stand between the temperance movement and * See chapter xi. pt>. 300, 301. on the re- sponsibility of wealth tor 438 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the preva- lenceofthe drink evil. f.ord Claud Hamilton's statement in St. James's Hall (May 19, 1870). about a pro- hibition estate in Tyrone. The evidence of Mr. T.W. Russell on the prohibi- tion estate of Bessbrook. its triumph ? I answer, the wealthy, the fashionable, the influential. The rum power in our country is backed up by the money power. Mammon and alcohol go hand in hand." This was true then. How much more true it is to-day, and truer still of Great Britain than of the United States? Indeed, the whole wealth of England is in so com- paratively few hands that practically the magnates, by refusing the renewal of leases for public-houses on their estates, could, in a very few years, establish an almost complete prohibition, and, therefore, the wealth of this country must be largely responsible for the fate of the English temperance movement. Bat there are hopeful signs that this responsibility is being rightly felt. At St. James's Hall (May 19, 1870), Lord Claud Hamilton, ex-M.P., said about a prohibition estate of some 10,000 population in County Tyrone, Ireland, " the result has been that whereas those high-roads were, in former times, constantly the scenes of strife and drunkenness, necessitating the presence of a very considerable number of police to be located in the district, at present there is not a single policeman in the district. The poor rates are half what they were before, and all the police and magis- trates testify to the great absence of crime." Mr. Richard- son's flax-mills at Bessbrook, on the Belfast and Dublin railway, near Newry, are well known. We quote here at length from the report of the evidence given by Mr. T. W.~Russell, of Dublin, and Mr. J. G. Richardson, the proprietor of Bessbrook, before the Lords' Committee on Intemperance (1880), as given in the Alliance News (May 15, 1880). Says Mr. Russell, "Bessbrook was got possession of by Mr. John Grnbb Richardson in 1847. It was just a hamlet of a few small houses, and now he has built a very fine town there ; there is no such town in Ireland, so far as sanitary arrangements are concerned. He has made it a rule that he will let no house for the sale of drink in any form, and, as a matter of fact, there has never been a drop of drink sold in Bessbrook since Mr. Richardson got possession of it. It is situated in the county of Armagh, three miles from Newry. Newry is a town of 14,000 inhabitants. Mr. Richardson has a large mill at Bessbrook, which employs the whole of the people. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 439 There has never been a police-barrack, nor a policeman, nor a pawn-office in Bessbrook. I have a letter from the [ inspector of police at Newry, stating that there were only / three cases of drunkenness from Bessbrook during the eighteen months previous to his writing, and I am very much of opinion that those were cases of farmers going home from Newry and passing through Bessbrook on j their way ; but there everything is peace, prosperity, and comfort. It was submitted to the vote by ballot of the householders two years ago as a test, whether they would prefer a public-house being admitted or not, and the vote was nine to one against the introduction of public-houses. There is a district, in county Tyrone, covering sixty-one and a half square miles ; it adjoins the town of Dungannon, f and goes near to Cookstown, covering three great public .' roads. I lived in the town of Dungannon for five years, and there were public-houses on that territory when I first went there; but Mr. John Kinley Tener, who became the agent of the properties in the district, refused, I believe, to renew the leases of public-houses, and, as a matter of fact, the public-houses vanished. There were police' barracks in the centre; they were closed in twelve months afterwards, and the policemen removed. The poor rates came down from Is. 4>d. and Is. Qd. in the pound in the different townlands to 5d., Qd., and 8d. Of late a spirit grocer has forced himself in upon the borders of that, district ; the magistrates resolutely refused a licence within the district, in order to keep the district clear ; but a spirit grocer has planted himself, in defiance of the public opinion of the place, right on the border of the place, and I con- ceive that he will do damage there. That I conceive a very great hardship. This range of country belongs to three proprietors. The population were not consulted, but I am bound to say when Mr. Tener gave up the agency some years ago, they presented him with a carriage and pair of horses, and an address, in which they referred to his action of clearing off the public-houses as one of the greatest blessings which had occurred in the locality, and hoped that his successor would take care that the same | rule prevailed. The population is 10,000. Now, I would * venture to say that if it is right to allow Mr. Richardson and Mr. Tener to have the power to say, as Mr. Richardson 440 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. says, to 4000 people in Bessbrook, ' You shall not have a public-house for the sale of liquor, because I think it will injure your interests and my interests,' and to carry out that rule, I do not think it can be wrong to allow occupiers of property to say it, if they wish to say it, in their localities." The evidence And this is Mr. Richardson's testimony : R f i<*aVdson' " I &*& the owner of some very extensive linen-mills at ^ l n ^ e Bessbrook. It is a manufacturing town, containing about 4000 people, largely employed in a factory built by the Richardson family, situated about two miles from Newry, in the county of Armagh. The trade principally carried on there is the spinning, weaving, and bleaching of linens and linen yarns of all kinds. About 3000 are employed in the general work of the concern, and 1500 outside in handloom weaving, etc. We began the concern in 1847, thirty-one years ago, and being then convinced that strong drink was the cause of serious injury, we resolved that no house for its sale should be established in our colony, and our experience has enabled us to prove that the absence of the liquor traffic has been a real blessing to our population. The result has been that we have been able to do without police, have no pawn-shops, and have very few people sent to the poorhonse, and have had no prostitution. I made inquiry before coming to give evidence before this com- mittee, and found that two persons, out of some 4000 people, were in the poorhonse one a weak-minded woman who came from Lnrgan, twenty miles off, and who was for a time out of charity brought to our place. On referring to the poorhouse returns for last week, I found that there were eleven inside and nine outside persons receiving relief in our electoral division, called Catnlough, containing more than 8000 people; while in Newry, a respectable and wealthy town near us, containing by the last census 14,000 inhabitants, and which now probably contains 16,000, there appear to be 126 inside and eleven outside paupers. In the town of Newry there are 127 public- houses, two spirit grocers, and fifteen to twenty wholesale dealers in the liquor trade, making 149 in all ; thus giving one dealer in liquor for every 126 persons, which shows six and a half times as many in proportion to our electoral division, which is really a poor one, including the village WHAT CAN BE DONE? 441 of Camlough, containing seven public-houses, which, no doubt, add to the poverty of our district. So far as I can remember, we have not had thirty cases before the bench of magistrates out of our town of Bessbrook in the thirty- one years ; unfortunately, I have left behind me a letter I had from the late inspector of police on this subject. Wo have had more cases during the last two years in con- sequence of the increased facility of our people getting into Newry by new conveyances which have been recently established, and, perhaps, from our not having been so strict in choosing some new families. I may add that, considering the population, we have had during our . time very few illegitimate births, and that the death-rate has been from 12 to 14| per 1000, and that, for a factory : population, the committee will agree is a very small pro- portion. We have about 1000 children and young people on the Protestant sabbath school rolls, and a large number of our respectable young men and women teaching in them." There are several estates in England where for a long time no liquor-shops have been allowed; in South Hamp- shire, for instance, near Winchester, there is said to be a manor of some two thousand acres, where, as far as is known, there never was a public-house. Referring to the village of White Coppice, near Chorley, statement of Lancashire, before the House of Lords' Committee (1877- ** A. E. 1878), Mr. A. E. Eccles said S^he" " The first nine years I lived in the village we had no r rohibilion illage of Vhite Cop- let liquor- shops, and then for seventeen years we had liquor- shops, and for the last fifteen years we have been entirely without. Being young, I recollect very little about the first period, but during the seventeen years we had beer- shops in the village immorality was very common. I should say we had illegitimate children in every other house ; but during the last fifteen years we have had only two cases of illegitimacy, and we have had only one illegitimate child born in the village, and very little drunkenness. That is a very striking contrast to the time when we had two beer-shops." Another vast and most successful estate in England The Saitaire where no liquors are allowed is Saitaire, owned by the late P r ^ ibitlon Titus Salt, M.P. 442 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. he pro- There are in all, it is said, almost one thousand estates and villages in England where proprietary prohibition is enforced. Some large real estate companies, in London and Liverpool, wherever they extend their operations, exclude the public-house. In Liverpool, the firm of Mr. John Roberts, M.P. for the Flintshire boroughs, hold vast amounts of property in the city, so that in 1882 the land laid out, or in course of being laid out by him, amounted to between 300 and 400 acres, with the number of about 10,000 houses and a population of 60,000, and nowhere on the property in Mr. Roberts' hands is a public-house suffered to exist ; and Mr. Balfour, in his article in the Contemporary (August, 1879), speaking of Mr. Roberts' . transactions, says that Mr. Roberts declares, " That he never yet heard of a complaint being made of the want of a public-house, either from the houseowners or the tenant." And it is well known how prosperous is that vast real estate company in London, the " Artisans' and Labourers' General Dwelling Company." Only last August they opened a new estate, the Noel Park Estate, the Earl of Shaftesbury presiding, and when only this estate is com- pleted, it will contain between 2000 and 3000 houses, with a population from 16,000 to 18,000. And they not only do not allow public-houses on their estates, but they even exercise what influence they can on neighbouring landowners to prevent the establishment of a cordon of public-houses around them. Commenting on the estates managed by the "Artisans' and Labourers' General Dwelling Company," the Pall Matt Gazette says " The most remarkable fact of all, however, is that on all these three large estates there is not a single public- house, and that the inhabitants not only do not demur to this regulation of the company, but actually congratulate themselves on the existing condition of affairs, and strenu- ously resist all attempts to open public-houses near the estates." Mr. Hep- Mr. David Lewis, in his The Drink Problem and its Dtxon's Solution (London, 1881), quotes the following graphic description description by the late Mr. Hepworth Dixon of the WHAT CAN BE DONE? 443 practical application of prohibition in the town of St. of the results V i i TT ofprohibi- Johnsbury, Vermont: tioninst. " No loafer hangs about the curbstone, not a beggar J olm8bur y. can be seen, no drunkards reel along the streets, there seem to be no poor. I have not seen in two days' wander- ing up and down one child in rags, one woman like a slut ; the men are all at work, the boys and girls at school. I see no broken panes of glass, no shingles hanging from the roof, no yard is left in an untidy state. What are the secrets of this artisans' paradise ? Why is the place so clean, the people so well housed and fed ? Why are little folks so hale in face, so smart in person, and so neat in dress ? All voices, I am bound to say, reply to me that these unusual yet desirable conditions in a workman's village spring from a strict enforcement of the law pro- hibiting the sale of intoxicating drink." And the subjoined list of questions, asked by Mr. F. B. Success of Boyce, Hon. Secretary New South Wales Local Option League, and recently answered by the chief clerk of the town of Pullman, U.S.A., is full of pertinent interest : " In what year was the city of Pullman founded ? " Answer : 27th May, 1880. " What is the population at present ? "Answer: 7500. " How many churches does it contain ? " Answer : Five have organizations here. "How many schools also, and teachers employed ? " Answer : Two school buildings, and thirteen public school teachers. " How many lock-ups or gaols ? "Answer: None. " Number of magistrates, with amount of salaries ? "Answer: None. " Number of police, and their cost ? "Answer: One, at 12 a month. "What is the annual amount spent on relief of the poor ? "Answer: Nothing. " Can you furnish us with your statistics of crime ? " Answer : We have had no crime. "Have you any asylums, such as those for lunatics, orphans, benevolent, etc. ? 444 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Temperance measures which might be adopted by the wealthy rail- way com- panies of Great Bri- tain. Dr. J. G. Holland on " Rum and Railroads." The lead taken by Engineer George Stephenson. Action by the West Lancashire Railway Company in this direc- tion. "Answer : None. " Is the trade in strong drink prohibited ? " Answer : Sale of malt, vinous, and spirituous liquors forbidden. " Do you attribute to the absence of facilities for getting drink any improved state of morals, as compared with other cities in your state ? " Answer : We certainly do, as one important aid in this direction." 98. Great good could be accomplished if the wealthy railway companies of Great Britain would exclude liquors from their refreshment-rooms, and furnish thirsty travellers with plenty of fresh pure water and the various non- intoxicating drinks. In his paper on Rum and Railroads (Scribner's Monthly, May, 1872), Dr. J. G. Holland says" There is an influence proceeding from the highest managing man in a railroad corporation, which reaches further for good or evil than that of almost any other man in any community. If the president or superintendent of a railroad is a man of free and easy habits, if he is in the habit of taking his stimu- lating glass, his railroad becomes a canal through which a stream of liquor flows from end to end. A drinking head man on any railroad, reproduces himself at every post on his line, as a rule. A thorough temperance man at the head of a corporation is a great purifier, and his road becomes the distributer of pure influences." The famous engineer, George Stephenson, manager of the Darlington and Stockton Railway Company the oldest in the world allowed no liquors to be sold at the stations of his line, and, after twenty-five years' connection with the company, declared that he was satisfied " that if all railway companies were to do away with the sale of drink at their stations, they would be best consulting the interests of the shareholders and the welfare of the travelling public." Since his day, until recently, temperance reform has made but slow progress among railway men, but of late years it is advancing both here and in other countries. In the winter of 1883 an encouraging example in this direc- tion was set by the West Lancashire Railway Company, whose general manager, Mr. T. Gilbert, wrote to the British Women's Temperance Association: WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 445 " I have the pleasure to inform you that this company has no refreshment-rooms at any of its stations where intoxicating liquors are sold. It may be also interesting to you to know that the whole of the company's officials are total abstainers, and that no man receives an appointment under the company unless he has previously been an abstainer of some standing." At the Annual Meeting of the Midland Railway** Growing Temperance Society, held at the Derby Station in February, 5tl 1884, the chairman, Mr. John Noble, gave a most en - '' ^e'ment couraging account of the growing success of the total on the abstinence movement, not only all along the Midland line, .^ 1 J Jj n $ 1 g net but the Railway Union at large, and stated that public : , Kan way sentiment along these great lines was daily becoming more;}^"*' favourable to this reform. A correspondent of On the Line states that the Great Eastern Railway supplies the "men at the London depots with oatmeal drink, in large cans with a tap to them, with drinking-cup attached, available to the men as they are at work, and that it is greatly appreciated by them." In its annual report, May, 1884, the Church of England ! Temperance Society states that " at least 10,000 out of \ 350,000 railway men work in the cause of temperance." In a paper on Drinking and Positions of Trust, the Toronto Globe (Canada, February 6, 1884) says maiy6,i884) " The authorities of the Wisconsin Central Railway JJ'JBf* issued in October last an order requiring the instant dis- ?^,? 8 of missal of any employe who might drink even beer whether off or on duty. There was a good deal of opposition to the order at first, as if it infringed upon private rights, etc., but it has wrought so well that we are told several other large railway corporations are thinking of following the same course. This is in the right direction. The travelling public have a right to the greatest possible pro- tection, when on their necessary journeyings, and they will be pleased to know that none who are in charge of trains have even the chance of becoming drunkards. A man does not need to be drunk in order to work irreparable mischief. An extra glass, by giving him a certain amount of unsteadiness of hand or brain, may do all ; and these railway authorities in Wisconsin do well to say to all who seek employment from them, ' You can't drink and work 446 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. for us. We don't ask you to give over drinking. That's your look-out, and you have a right to do as you please. But if you will drink you are not for us. We require men who have all their wits about them, and that any one who drinks never has.' What is wrong in that ? We can see nothing. More than this, we can see nothing but what is reasonable in employers of labour all round adopting the same principle. It is not the man who is actually drunk that causes the mischief by breaking machinery, com- promising his employers, and causing confusion all round. It is the man who thinks himself perfectly sober the man who has only taken ' a couple of glasses of beer,' or a single ' horn ' of ' summat,' but who by these means has had his pulse raised a few degrees, has been made aggressive, daring, slightly reckless, yet sufficiently so to make all the mischief. It is the man who thinks that drink ' could not be known on him,' but whose tongue has been slightly loosed, and who has been led to believe that usually he had been but a slow-coach, and must show some more ' go.' This is the sort of man that a shrewd employer ought to fight shy of. ... The clear brain and the steady nerve are more and more in requisition, and these are not compatible with even moderate tippling and occasional * bursts.' " Mr.w. J. And the Temperance Record (February 28, 1884) quotes Spicer's the following circular to the Grand Trunk Railway, issued the C Gr a a r nd by its superintendent, Mr. W. J. Spicer : Trtmk^ j wou id. ask you to consider very seriously the advisability of joining our temperance movement for the year 1884. In my circular, December, 1880, I said ' there were a good many reasons specially applicable to railway employes for abstaining from the use of intoxicating drinks.' "You have the lives of the public and the safety of persons and property entrusted to your care, requiring at all times the utmost possible caution and vigilance in the performance of your duty. Again, railway employes, from their liability to night work, irregular hours, exposure to all kinds of weather, and from the foolish and expensive custom of ' treating,' are exposed to much danger and many temptations. Even passengers have gone so far as to offer, and in fact urge, conductors and brakesmen, when WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 447 On duty, to take drink, and have been the cause of tiain- jnen's dismissal from the service. I am sorry to say that I have had to deal summarily with such cases as have come to my knowledge. I only wish I could deal as severely with the perhaps good-natured but most thought- less and inconsiderate passengers. " Men subjected to such temptations, at any time, are safe only as total abstainers. The ' one glass more ' often has the effect of making a man careless, sleepy, and in- different to danger, if not worse, at a time when he most needs to have all his senses clear and wide awake for his own and others' safety. " I have only to refer you to the Offence Circulars to satisfy you that I am speaking in the best interest of every employe of every grade, and in the interest of the company and the public, in urging you to become total abstainers for the year 1884." The discontinuance of the custom of distributing drink to crews now so largely the rule both on the inland lakes of the United States, on river crafts, ocean steamers, sail- ing vessels, and men-of-war, originated with Mr. Charles Howard, one of the pioneer shipping merchants of the United States. His son, the distinguished American author and playwright, Mr. Bronson Howard, tells the story so well that we prefer giving it in his own words from a letter written to us March 31, 1884, as follows : " My father was personally associated with the shipping H^/ 011 of the lakes from his earliest manhood, being half owner account of and master of a vessel, the New York, before he was twenty- tem^Lncf five years old ; and he was said to have been the original reform on of Fennimore Cooper's young sailor Jasper in the Pathfinder. Jhe ocen. and In 1830, when he was about twenty-six years old, and while he was master or ' captain ' of this vessel one of a large fleet in Lakes Erie and Ontario the incident of which I spoke to you occurred, and which was, I think, the beginning of the temperance system now almost universal in the mercantile marine of the ocean and the lakes. " In those days of general ' hard drinking ' it was the custom on our lakes to have a keg of whisky in the com- panion-way of every vessel, with its tap free to every member of the crew. Any deviation from this rule would have been considered mean and niggardly. The rule on 448 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. the ocean was, I believe, to serve out ' grog ' to the men, but this was done in such liberal quantities as to make the custom differ but little from that in vogue on the American lakes. No owner or captain was free from the absolute tyranny of this custom-law. " During one of my father's voyages, late in December, 1830, the crew suffered frightfully from a violent storm, with snow, sleet, and ice. All their physical energies were needed to control the vessel. What makes such a situation doubly fatiguing and perilous is the fact that it is impossible to run before the storm as on the ocean, and the men are obliged to handle the sails and rigging at frequent intervals, though every rope and every inch of canvas is coated with ice. About one-half of my father's crew drank nothing in the way of spirits while at work ; the other half drew liberally on the keg to ' keep them warm.' If ever whisky could do this service for mankind, it could do it under such circumstances. The result was that my father was obliged to depend entirely on the half of his crew that did not drink, for nearly thirty-six hours. At last they were forced to do the duty of both watches ; and as the second in command, the ' mate,' was one of the alcoholists, my father was compelled to remain in active command during the whole time without rest, until the vessel was safe. He told me that the men who drank did not make themselves drunk, and were not in that sense incapacitated ; they simply could not withstand the cold, while the other men were able to do double work. " This was only the last of many similar experiences, which had been almost as bad, and after the storm had subsided, my father, in a spirit of utter disgust, turned open the tap of the whisky keg, on his way down to the cabin, leaving the sacred fluid to its own unfettered fancy ! Soon after the mate appeared, and father saw him looking at the open faucet and shaking the empty keg with an expression of wonderment and dismay. When my father told him that the last drop of spirits had been drunk on board that vessel in the way of ' grog,' the mate exclaimed in astonishment and said that no owner nor captain could carry out such a wild plan. He and his fellow-drinkers left the crew at the end of the trip. Others, willing to go without 'grog,' were engaged in their places. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 449 " To meet the certain charge of niggardliness, the ordinary rough sailors' fare was changed to the best food the market of each port could supply, including the finest coffee and other luxuries, such as oysters, etc., when within reach. " My father persisted in the plan he had thus marked out, and the result was a very important one, far beyond his anticipation, for an all-powerful commercial ally suddenly ranged itself on the side of temperance the marine insurance companies began at once to allow dis- criminating rates on his vessel and on goods carried in it. All the other shipowners and masters on the lake were compelled to adopt the temperance rule, by the exigencies of business competition. From the lakes the custom spread undoubtedly through the powerful pressure of the insurance companies to the ocean ; and at the present day the custom of supplying liquor freely to sailors is a very rare exception, if it exists at all. Its latest strong- hold was the navy, which the interests of insurance com- panies cannot reach, of course. " The great reform resulting from my father's action, though not anticipated, was a matter of sincere pleasure to him in after years, as he watched its general develop- ment." A most valuable suggestion to wealthy merchants was suggestion made about four years ago by Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P. m <"ie by " The City of London Total Abstainers Union had its Moriey^xifp., origin in my warehouse," said he, " and I cannot but think some such association should be attached to every Union commercial concern." 99. The aristocracy, as a class, have been tardy in every corn- adding the weight of their example and influence to the m? a success of the temperance movement. But on the 21st of Action in April, 1883, a large number, both ladies and gentlemen, favour of the of the wealth and aristocracy of London, met at Stafford moTeS"' House, in response to an invitation from the Duchess of f^ *^* Sutherland, to join in the Blue Ribbon movement, for the measures'* promotion of the cause of temperance. aristocrat Lord Mount Temple presided, and said of England. " The object of the meeting was to bring under their notice the overwhelming evils to the country resulting from the misuse of intoxicating and stimulating drinks. 2G THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. That abuse filled our gaols, poor-law unions, and lunatic asylums ; brought misery, strife, and ruin to many of the homes of the working classes ; and overshadowed with sorrow and sympathy even those who were free from any personal experience ef its evils, and who lived in comfort and refinement in such houses as that in which they were gathered. Another point to consider was the remedy for this deplorable state of things. The remedy which had been found by experience to be the most complete and satisfactory was for persons to pledge themselves to resist temptation. But that was beyond the reach of many. There had now been established a new form of fellowship, conviviality, and brotherhood, and that was the fellowship of the Blue Ribbon. The Blue Ribbon established a public opinion adverse to the drink influence.* It had created a large amount of public opinion in favour of total abstinence. It brought together the middle, lower, and upper classes, and established a common feeling. The question then arose, What was their duty to help on the new movement ? Their example would be felt much more than any amount of precept. He earnestly appealed to the aristocracy to join the new movement, as a means of conferring great and lasting benefits upon the poorer classes. It would necessitate some self-sacrifice, and perhaps call down upon them sneers and censure, but it was their duty ; and not only that, but, as in his own case, they would find many compensations for the sacrifice. The noble lady, too, who had invited them had exercised disinterested- ness, almost chivalrous courage, in adopting the blue ribbon, an example which he trusted would be widely fol- lowed, for it would help to cany light and joy into many a home." During the year 1883, several of the nobility have identified themselves in a practical way with the temper- ance cause. Thus, according to the annual report of the * " The Rev. S. Sturges, M.A., Vicar of Wargrave, in his stirring speech in Willis's Eooms, remarked, ' What a glorious thing it would be if the Princess of Wales and her daughters would assume the blue ribbon ! The Princess of Wales has endeared herself to the people of this country by her many admirable qualities. Recently she has discountenanced the cruel sport of pigeon-shooting. But what is that compared to the cruel sport of drinking ? ' " Church oj England Temperance Chronicle, May 12, 1883. WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 451 Church of England Temperance Society, just published, " during the year coffee-taverns have been opened in Marylebone, at the sole cost of Viscountess Ossington ; in Wells, chiefly owing to the activity of the Lord Bishop of the Diocese ; and only in January last Lord Pembroke announced his intention of providing similar institutions upon his own estates. . . . In May last, Lady de Rothschild invited the leading agriculturists, farmers, and others to a conference at Aston Clinton, when 62 out of 66 farmers invited attended. A resolution approving the payment ; of wages in money instead of beer was unanimously At the laying of the oorner-stone of the new wing of the London Temperance Hospital on the 24th of April, 1884, the Duke of Westminster, who officiated, said of alcohol -, that it had a tendency to produce artificial craving, and that many ignorant people had been led to suppose, because doctors prescribed wine and spirits, they must be a necessary means of cure for most maladies, and this mis- taken notion had laid the groundwork for habits of dangerous self-indulgence which might otherwise never have been formed. The Duke of Westminster informs us that since 1877 there have been "twenty-seven public- houses abolished on his London property." It is of great importance that temperance workers rhould know and value the blue ribbon. It has a deep symbolic meaning, and in a manifold sense: sympathy with the fallen, sorrow that such a badge is necessary; hope, because of faith in God and man ; and help, by fellow- ship and willingness, to do each his part in saving from the evil of drink. The blue ribbon is a personal protest against drinking, a Christian Carthaginem, proeterea censeo against the public-house, a reminder and check against personal temptation to drink, a protection against solicitations to drink, an example and encouragement to those who might falter and fall, and a bond of fellowship between all those who wish to see man lifted out of the degradation into which alcohol has plunged him. The bit of blue ribbon which Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., wears in the House of Commons and in the streets of the city, or when presiding over large temperance and other meetings for reform, is greater in its silent influence than anything 452 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Mr. Glad- stone's utterance as to the significance of the Blue Ribbon The plan and organization of the Tem- perance Federation of Great Britain, 1S83. he could say if that little sign were missing. Many think that the wearing of the blue ribbon is a childish sign of an enthusiasm that will vanish as qnickly as it sprung up. Bnt they who wear it hope and pray that, like that tiny portent in the sky, "no bigger than a man's hand," it will spread and spread until among all peoples in all lands the parching thirst, the destroying drought of alcohol, may be quenched in healing streams of pure invigorating water. The Rev. A. G. Bevington, minister of the Methodist New Connexion Chapel at Hawarden, writing to the oditor of the British Temperance Advocate, says that the Bight Honourable W. E. Gladstone, in a recent conversation with him at Hawarden. thus expressed himself relative to the Blue Ribbon movement : " From the first, I have watched the temperance question with great interest ; but I am bound to say that no phase of it has ever yielded me so much satisfaction as this has done. To witness the large number of ministers of all denominations, and, of course, the still larger number of members of perhaps all the Churches, weai-ing the ribbon of blue, is an exceedingly gratifying circumstance, and speaks well for the future ; * indeed, I firmly believe, as far as this matter is concerned, that much brighter days will soon, in God's good providence, dawn upon us." 100. The initiative in a measure of very great import- ance if harmony can be maintained to the temperance movement has just been taken in the proposition of Alder- man Clegg of Sheffield (chairman of the British Temperance League), that all the temperance organizations of Great Britain and Ireland should form a Temperance Federa- tion. To this end a meeting was held at Manchester, on the 17th of October, at which some seventeen temperance societies were represented. After long discussion, it was resolved " That in the opinion of this meeting it is desirable to federate the various temperance organizations of the United Kingdom in favour of measures upon which there is a general agreement, and that a committee of delegates be * It is an encouraging fact that so important a personage as Sir W. F. Stawell, the Chief Justice of Victoria, has donned the blue ribbon. (See Temperance Record, May 8, 1884.) WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 453 appointed by this meeting to confer with the British Temperance League, and to draw the basis upon which such federation should be founded." On the 8th of November, another large conference of delegates from the United Kingdom Temperance organiza- tions was convened at Exeter Hall, representing some two million total abstainers, for the purpose of drawing up a constitution of federation. The following rules were adopted : "1. That the Federation be styled 'The National Temperance Federation.' 2. That the objects of the Federation shall be the promotion of temperance, both by moral suasion and legal enactment, by aid of the joint action of temperance organizations. 3. That the Federation shall consist of temperance leagues, unions, associations, and orders, and such other representative organizations as may be approved by the Executive Committee. 4. That the General Council shall consist of not more than five delegates from each federated society, and shall meet annually in London in January or February; and an autumnal meeting shall be held in some provincial town. 5. The officers shall be elected by the General Council at the annual meeting, and shall consist of a president (who shall be elected annually), vice-presidents, treasurer, and secretaries. 6. The Executive Committee shall consist of one representative president from each federated society, together with the treasurer and secretaries ; and shall meet not less than once a quarter, at such time and place as they shall from time to time determine. 7. That the Executive Committee shall appoint a Parliamentary Committee, which, during the sitting of Parliament, shall meet once a week, or as often as may be necessary. 8. That no expenses shall be incurred without the consent of the Executive Committee, and such expenses shall be met by contribu- tions from the federated societies. 9. That no alteration in the above rules (when once adopted by the General Council) shall be made except at the annual meeting, or at a meeting specially called ; and that one month's notice of any proposed alteration shall be given through the secretary, and shall not take effect except there be a two-thirds majority in its favour. SUGGESTED BASIS. The basis of co-operation for the federated societies is that they should work together in view of legislative and other action on the points upon which they are agreed, and briug their influence to bear on Parliament, and with 454 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. her Majesty's Government, and through the countrt generally, as a united body ; such common action to extend, of course, only so far as there is common agree- ment, and to be made subservient to the carrying of measures of positiye advance, as well as to the careful guarding against any proposals of a retrograde nature. SUGGESTED POINTS ON WHICH COMMON ACTION MIGHT BE TAKEN. 1. The Federation might at once, by a united memorial, signed by the officers of each organization, urge on the Cabinet the duty of extending and making perpetual the Irish Sunday Closing Act, and of acceding to the nation's manifest desire for an English Sunday Closing Bill ; and also the duty of their seeing that time is made available during the coming session for such legislation ; and at the proper time the Federation might be strongly represented in the lobby of the House of Commons, in order to ensure the success of these measures. 2. The federated organizations might urge upon her Majesty's Government the further duty of fulfilling the pledges so often given by them, to deal with the Licensing Laws in general, and to no longer postpone action in this regard; viewing the now thrice-expressed opinion of the House of Commons in favour of an efficient measure of Local Option. They might urge especially two points : (a) That the control of the issue of licences, whether for the first time, or by way of renewal, transfer, or removal, should be in the hands of the ratepayers, and that in present cir- cumstances this may be done by the formation of Licens- ing Control Boards, specially elected for the purpose by the ratepayers, and with full power to withhold all or any of the Licences ; but that in any well-defined area forming part of a district for which a board has been elected, the ratepayers shall have a direct veto for the withholding of all licences. (b) That by no parliamentary enactment should there be a creating of vested interests in licences, which interests legal decisions have emphatically declared do not exist. With reference to this question also a joint memorial to the Cabinet might be of value at this time, as well as the careful watch- ing of any Government, or other measure proposed, and prompt action either in support of, or opposition to, or for amendment of, the same. 3. An emphatic joint expression of opinion in favour of the sup- pression of grocers' and off licences might likewise be at once for- warded to the Government ; as well as against the power of granting occasional licences, or extension of hours, and in favour of closing public-houses on the days of municipal and parliamentary elections. It was also resolved 1. That the Federation does not WHAT CAN BE DONE? 455 approve of, but will oppose to tLe full extent of its influ- ence, the placing of the power of granting licences in the hands of Town Councils or County Boards. 2. That each organization represented be invited to contribute not less than 5 each, to meet the incidental expenses of the Federation during the first year." On the 6th of February, 1884, a meeting was held at Exeter Hall by delegates of this proposed federation, and it was resolved to form a National Temperance Federation on the folloAving basis : " The basis of co-operation for the federated societies is that they should work together in view of legislative and other action on the points upon which they are agreed, and bring their influence to bear on Parliament and with her Majesty's Government, and through the country gene- rally, as a united body ; such common action to extend, of course, only so far as there is common agreement, and to be made subservient to the carrying of measures of positive advance, as well as to the careful guarding against any proposals of a retrograde nature." Mr. W. S. Caine, M.P., was elected president, and vice-presidents and other officers were appointed. 101. Yet all these noble and heroic efforts will Thefoundv collapse, as in the past, if they be not founded in individual temperance character and worth. reform in On the individual, be he rich or poor, eminent or character 1 obscure ; on his patience, unselfishness, wisdom, constancy, and worth - and humility, all reform, all regeneration, comes at last to depend ; without these, Church, State, and society, together with their loftiest schemes, fall little by little into moral decay. The first thing is, for each man, woman, and child of us, yes, each one, the greatest and the least, to start with the conviction and understanding that temperance is not limited to abstinence from alcoholic liquors, but that it means, as Cicero expressed it, " the unyielding control of reason over lust and over all wrong tendencies of mind . . . modesty and self-government . . . abstinence from I all things not good and entirely innocent in their character." And to remember that while the work to be done is so ' 4-56 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. great that no one person could ever hope to do it, and the evil to be uprooted so strong and full-grown that we may not reasonably look for its subjugation in our own day, yec that the work will be done, the evil overcome, if each one does Ms part towards it.* " The one secret of life and development is not to devise and plan, but to fall in with the forces at work to do every moment's duty aright." f Then, in whatsoever place, circumstance, or condition reform-like we are placed, we are to find out, each of us, what our o\vn the hope of personal individual duty is, and we shall be sure to find this out if we care supremely to know. With the performance of duty will come wisdom, show- ing us how to avoid giving offence, how to undermine and subdue evil without wounding friend or affronting opponent. With wisdom also will come patience, because we shall learn to understand that what is gained easily, too often passes quickly because it is not gained thoroughly, and we shall learn not to be dismayed by much labour, and much waiting, because we shall, by our persistence and constancy, have learned unselfishness, and know that what we are sowing shall be reaped by them that come The hope of all other reforms is vested in love, labour, and humility. * A noble instance of just this individual fidelity, as related of the late Mr. Joseph Sturge by the philanthropist Mr. T. B. Smithies, is thus reported in The Christian (March 6, 1883) " One day Mr. Sturge met a drunken man, and questioned him as to his condition. The man replied that he had got drunk at such and such a public-house, and added, ' The beer was made from your barley.' The statement startled him, but it at once influenced his action. The following issue of the Mark Lane Express contained a notice from Messrs. Stnrge that under no circumstances would they in future supply barley for malting purposes. This decision struck off 8000 a year from their income." An equally admirable individual effort for temperance was that made by the Eev. Carr Glynn, Vicar of Kensington, when appointed at Doncaster. Having observed the temptation the public-house offered to early outdoor labourers, he procured a cart, supplied it with a first-class coffee-stand ; went himself with it to places where early outdoor labour was going on, and induced the workmen to take his coffee instead of going to the public-house to get whisky or beer. We have this incident on the authority of Mr. Hcaton, Commissioner of Lunacy. t See George MacDoiiald's noble storv of Sir Gilbie (London. 1879). WHAT CAN BE DONE? 45? after us, when " bells in unbuilded spires, and voices of unborn choirs " shall bless our names and the good work we have done ; and we shall be happy in knowing that the saplings we set out, though they grew too slowly to give shade to us, will make the green and healthy ever- lasting bovvers where our children's children's homes shall be. APPENDIX. THIRTY-SEVENTH EEPORT OF TABLE XXII. SHOWING THE ASSIGNED CAUSES OF INSANITY* BOKOUGH ASYLUMS, REGISTERED HOSPITALS, NAVAL AND MILITARY WALES, DURING THE YEAR 1882. [The total number of these admissions during 1882 was Number of instances Causes of insanity. As predisposing cause.f As exciting cause.f M. F. T. M. F. T. MORAL. Domestic trouble (including loss of relatives and friends) 42 78 120 174 554 728 Adverse circumstances (including business anxieties and pecuni- ary difficulties) 88 43 131 431 207 638 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not included under the above two heads); and overwork ... 49 31 80 263 289 552 Religious excitement Love affairs (including seduction) ... 6 4 14 15 20 19 155 39 188 129 343 168 Fright and nervous shock 5 5 10 36 96 132 PHYSICAL. Intemperance, in drink 135 33 168 904 364 1,268 sexual 13 .7 20 54 32 86 Venereal disease 14 ~2 16 14 7 21 Self-abuse (sexual) 1C 2 18 79 5 84 Over-exertion 11 5 16 27 29 56 Sunstroke 64 2 66 67 7 74 Accident or injury 104 20 124 160 35 195 Pregnancy 11 11 37 37 Parturition and the puerperal state 31 31 346 346 Lactation 24 24 _ 123 123 Uterine and ovarian disorders ^ 21 21 __ 95 95 Puberty 3 18 21 30 33 Change of life 88 88 138 138 Fevers 9 10 19 26 20 46 Privation and starvation 9 35 44 55 114 169 Old age 98 142 114 139 212 281 65 352 78 416 143 768 Other bodily diseases or disorders ... Previous attacks - i - _ Hereditary influence ascertained ... Congenital defect ascertained - - - - - Other ascertained causes .. . 27 25 52 127 32 159 Unknown * These "causes" are not taken from the "statements" in the papers of admission the asylums. t With reference to the above distinction between "predisposing" and "exciting" any individual case. J These totals represent the entire number of instances in which the several causes mental disorder. The aggregate of these totals (including " unknown "), of course, THE COMMISSIONERS IN LUNACY. IN THE CASES OF ALL PATIENTS ADMITTED INTO COUNTY AND HOSPITALS, STATE ASYLUMS, AND LICENSED HOUSES IN ENGLAND AND 13,581, being 6,G63 of the male, and 6,918 of the female sex.] In which each cause was assigned. Proportion (per cent.) t- As predisposing or exciting cause (where these could not be distinguished.) f Total.J the total number of patients admitted during the year. M 10-3 66 82 148 282 714 996 4-2 7-3 90 32 128 615 282 897 9-2 4-0 6-6 84 54 138 396 374 770 5-9 5-4 5-6 35 33 68 196 235 431 2-9 3 4 3-1 6 27 33 49 171 220 7 2-4 1-6 18 21 39 59 122 181 9 1-7 1-3 269 74 343 1,308 471 1,779 19-6 6-8 13-1 18 9 27 85 48 133 1-2 7 1-0 10 5 15 38 14 52 6 2 4 25 1 26 120 8 128 1-8 1 9 3 1 9 46 35 81 7 5 6 28 1 29 159 10 169 2-4 1 1-2 101 13 114 365 68 433 5-5 1-0 3-2 7 7 55 55 8 4 79 79 456 456 6-6 3-3 10 10 157 157 23 1-1 16 16 132 132 1-9 1-0 9 8 17 15 56 71 2 8 5 48 48 274 274 3-9 2-0 7 8 15 42 38 80 6 5 6 26 27 53 90 176 266 1-3 2-5 1-9 86 loa 194 249 300 549 37 4-3 4-0 255 208 463 749 763 1,512 11-2 11-0 11-1 - - - 878 1,273 2,151 13-2 18-4 15-8 1,239 1,506 2,745 18-6 21-8 20-2 363 229 592 5-4 3-3 4-3 50 34 84 204 91 295 3-0 1-3 2-1 1,417 1,441 2,858 21-3 20-8 21-0 of the patients, but are those which have been verified by the Medical Officers of causes, it must be understood that no single cause ia enumerated more than once in (either alone or in combination with other causes) were stated to have produced the weds the whole number of patients admitted ; the excess is owing to the combinations. 462 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. TABLE XXIII. SHOWING THE ASSIGNED CAUSES OP INSANITY IN REGISTERED HOSPITALS, NAVAL AND MILITARY HOSPITALS, STATE THE YEAR 18S2, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE CLASS OP THE Causes of insanity. MOIIAL. Domestic trouble (including loss of relatives and friends) Adverse circumstance? (incl uding business anxieties and pecuniary difficulties) Mental anxiety and "worry" (not included under the above two heads) ; and overwork Religious excitement Love affairs (including seduction) Fright and nervous shock PHYSICAL. Intemperance, in drink sexual Venereal disease Self-abuse (sexual) Over-exertion Sunstroke Accident or Injury Pregnancy Parturition and the puerperal state .. Lactation Uterine and ovarian disorders Puberty Change of life Fevers Privation and starvation Old age Other bodily diseases or disorders .. Previous attacks Hereditary influence ascertained Congenital defect ascertained Other ascertained causes Unknown Number of instances in which PRIVATE. The total number admitted was 2,212. (1,134 males and 1,078 females.) M. F. T. 57 123 180 123 40 163 152 94 246 19 53 72 13 43 56 7 30 37 198 73 271 27 2 29 15 1 16 29 4 33 11 4 15 29 1 30 40 13 53 9 9 _ 66 66 11 11 49 49 3 8 11 53 53 17 10 27 1 1 31 35 66 102 105 207 146 194 340 214 236 450 77 53 130 97 22 119 170 157 327 APPENDIX. 463 THE PATIENTS ADMITTED INTO COUNTY AND BOROUGH ASYLUMS, ASYLUMS, AND LICENSED HOUSES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, DTJBING PATIENTS. each cause was assigned. Proportion (per cent.) to the total number of patients in each class admitted during 1882. PAEPER. The total number admitted was 11,369. PRIVATE. PAUPER. (5,529 males and 6,840 females.) M. F. T. M. F. T. M. F. T. 225 591 816 5-0 11-4 8-1 4-0 10-1 7-1 492 242 734 10-8 3-7 7-3 8-9 4-1 6'4 244 280 524 13-4 8-7 11-1 4-4 4-8 4-6 177 182 359 1-6 4-9 3-2 3'2 3-1 3-1 36 128 164 1-1 3-9 2-5 6 22 1-4 52 92 144 6 2-8 1-6 9 1-6 1-2 1,110 398 1,508 17-4 6-7 12-2 20-0 6-8 13-2 58 46 104 2-4 2 1-3 1-0 8 , 9 23 13 36 1-3 1 7 4 2 '3 91 4 95 2-5 3 1-5 1-6 8 35 31 66 9 3 7 6 5 6 130 9 139 2-5 1 1-3 2-3 1 1-2 325 55 380 3-5 1-2 2-4 5-8 9 3-3 46 46 '8 4 8 4 390 390 6-1 2-9 6-6 3-4 146 146 ro 5 2-5 1-3 83 83 4-5 2-2 1-4 7 12 48 60 2 7 5 2 *8 5 _ 216 216 5-3 2-6 3'7 1-9 25 28 53 1-5 9 i"3 4 4 4 89 176 265 1 1-6 3-0 2'3 218 2U5 483 2-7 3-2 2-9 3-9 4-5 4-2 647 658 1,305 8-9 9-7 9-3 H-7 1T2 11-4 732 1,079 1,811 12-8 17-9 15-3 13-2 18-4 15-9 1,025 1,270 2,295 18-9 21-8 20-3 18-5 21-7 202 286 176 462 6-8 4-9 5-9 5-2 3'0 4-0 107 69 176 8-5 2-0 5-4 1-9 11 1-5 1,247 1,284 2,531 14-9 14-5 14-8 22-5 22-0 22-2 464 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. TABLE XXIV. SHOWING THE ASSIGNED CAUSES OF INSANITY IN THE CASES OP THE GENERAL PARALYTICS ADMITTED INTO COUNTY AND BOROUGH ASYLUMS, REGISTERED HOSPITALS, NAVAL AND MILITARY HOSPITALS, STATE ASYLUMS, AND LICENSED HOUSES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, DURING THE YEAR 1882.* [The total number of these admissions was 1,151, being 923 of the male, and 228 of the female sex.] Causes of insanity. Number of instances in which each cause was assigned. Proportion (per cent.) to the total number of general paralytics admitted. M. F. T. M. F. T. MORAL. Domestic trouble (including loss of relatives and friends) 35 22 57 3-8 9-6 4-9 Adverse circumstances (including business anxieties and pecuni- ary difficulties) 126 15 141 13-6 6-5 12-2 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not included under the above two heads) ; and overwork 65 3 68 7-0 1-3 5-9 Religious excitement Love affairs (including seduction) ... Fright and nervous shock 10 3 3 1 2 11 5 3 1-1 3 3 4 9 9 4 2 PHYSICAL. Intemperance, in drink 234 30 264 25-3 13-1 22-9 sexual ... 28 7 35 3-0 3-0 3-0 Venereal disease 9 4 13 1-0 1-7 1-1 Self-abuse (sexual) 3 3 3 2 Over-exertion 14 _ 14 1-5 _ _ 1-2 Sunstroke 32 1 3-5 4 2-8 Accident or injury 71 3 74 7-7 1-3 6-4 Pregnancy 4 4 1-7 3 Parturition and the puerperal state 13 13 5-7 1-1 Lactation 4 4 _ 1-7 3 Uterine and ovarian disorders 2 2 _ 9 2 Puberty Change of life 6 G _ 2-6 5 Fevers 2 2 2 2 Privation and starvation 18 7 25 1-9 3-0 2-1 Old age 3 5 8 3 2-2 7 Other bodily diseases or disorders ... 115 35 150 12-4 15-3 13-0 Previous attacks 63 18 81 6-8 7-8 7-0 Hereditary influence ascertained ... 161 42 203 17-4 18-4 17-6 Congenital defect ascertained 1 1 2 1 1 2 Other ascertained causes 9 2 11 1-0 9 9 Unknown 242 75 317 26-2 32-9 27-5 * This table may be compared with Table XXII., which shows the Causes of In unity in the cases of all the patients admitted during 18S2. APPENDIX. 465 TABLE XXV. SHOWING THE ASSIGNED CAUSES OF INSANITY IN THE CASES OF THE PATIENTS WITH SUICIDAL PROPENSITY WHO WERE ADMITTED INTO COUNTY AND BOROUGH ASYLUMS, REGISTERED HOSPITALS, NAVAL AND MILITARY HOSPITALS, STATE ASYLUMS, AND LICENSED HOUSES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, DURING THE YEAR 1882.* [The total number of these admissions was 3,877, being 1,785 of the male, and 2,092 of the female sex.] Number of instances Proportion (per cent.) to the total number Causes of insanity. in which each cause was assigned. of patients admitted with suicidal propensity. If. F. T. M. F. T. MORAL. Domestic trouble (including loss of relatives and friends) 110 269 379 6-1 12-8 9-7 Adverse circumstances (including business anxieties and pecuni- ary difficulties) 121 104 225 6-7 49 6-0 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not included under the above two heads) ; and overwork 138 153 291 7-7 7-3 7-5 Religious excitement 63 79 142 3-5 3-8 3-6 Love affairs (including seduction) ... Fright and nervous shock '. 16 17 60 40 76 57 9 2-9 1-9 1-9 1-4 PHYSICAL. Intemperance, in drink 340 130 470 19-0 6-2 12-1 sexual 15 6 21 8 3 5 Venereal disease 9 5 14 5 2 3 Self-abuse (sexual) 37 3 40 2-0 I 1-0 Over-exertion 10 10 20 6 5 5 Sunstroke 26 2 28 1-4 1 7 Accident or injury 100 25 125 5-6 1-2 3'2 Pregnancy 15 15 7 4 Parturition and the puerperal state 147 147 7-0 3-8 Lactation 66 66 __ 3-1 1-7 Uterine and ovarian disorders 54 64 2-6 1-4 Puberty 7 12 19 4 6 5 Change of life _ 112 112 5-3 2-9 Fevers 10 7 17 6 3 4 Privation and starvation 29 64 83 1-6 2-6 2-1 Old age 61 60 121 3-4 2-9 3-1 Other bodily diseases or disorders ... 210 226 436 11-8 10-8 11-2 Previous attacks 248 368 616 13-9 17-6 15-8 Hereditary influence ascertained ... Congenital defect ascertained 385 53 502 38 887 91 21-6 2-9 24-0 1-8 22-8 2-3 Other ascertained causes 39 22 61 2-2 1-0 1-6 Unknown 344 387 731 19-2 18-5 18-8 * This table may be compared with Table XXII., which shows the Causes of Insanity in the cases of all the patients admitted during 1332. 2 H 466 tHE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. i$i 2 t * e. *- n *>^ 2^2 1 : : i i || : i ^ EC on g o g a i "*" C * | 1 fj . w i 1 5 : I I |3 x i S Q Q -s '-'S * ^ < s i I : : S g - Nd 8 S I * .S ^ -2 -S o X H nJ i - 1 1 *i 5 ? M p J5 S * "3 S ^^'^' "3 * P ^ & < O g "-g ^1 ^ 1 I 1 1 ! 1 467 PEEFACE TO BIBLIOGRAPHY. IN researches for the foregoing work the want of a bibliography on the drink question was very much felt, the only attempts at such worth mentioning so far as we could ascertain within the short time at our command being Dr. Joseph Frank's Praxeos Mediciiwe, Leipsise, 1818 ; Prof. Gustav Friedrich Klemm's Allgemeine Culturwissenscliaft (11 B.), Leipzig, 1855 ; Raige- Delorme et Dechambre's Dictlontiaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales (tome ii.), Paris, 1865 ; that in Mantegazza Quadri della Natura, Milano, 1871 ; and the Index-Catalogue of the library of the Surgeon-general's office, U.S. Army (vol. i.) Washington, 1880. But these, excepting the last, are very inadequate, and therefore we hope that the following carefully classified bibliography consisting almost wholly of works examined in preparing this book may prove useful in future researches on this great question. The great bulk of the writings are of a scientific character, though many dealing with the historical, political, social, and religious aspects of the question have been included. A few allegories have been entered ; but works of fiction, as well as special writings on the manufacture and adulteration of alcoholic drinks, have been as a rule excluded. For the convenience of the reader, the works have been arranged according to countries, thus : Great Britain and the Colonies, the United States, Germany, and France ; the smaller countries in alphabetical order, except Mexico. The works under each country have been placed chronologically, with the authors' names under each year, alphabetically. This rule has been followed strictly except in cases where more than one work of an author is included, when all his works are grouped under the 468 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. earliest one. A complete alphabetical key to the bibliographical list of Great Britain and the Colonies is also supplied. As regards Great Britain and the Colonies, we have en- deavoured to give as full a list as possible, in the time at our disposal, of works appearing previous to 1870. Since then their number is legion, and some selection was indispensable. For brevity's sake, titles have been shortened, and writers have been distinguished simply by Rev. if clerieal, by Dr. if medical, and by Sir when knighted. Now and then a Prof, has been used^ and specially characteristic or well-known titles, as in the case of Archdeacon Jeffreys. Current temperance literature, i.e., newspapers and journals, have been omitted, except when there have been some special reasons for their insertion. A large number of works for which no date could be found have been excluded. Many are not in the British Museum, but those which are there have been titled according to its catalogue. In the preparation of the biblio- graphy we have been most kindly assisted by Mr. Garnett and Mr. Eccles, of the British Museum ; and by Mr. T. H. Evans, at the National Temperance League publication depot ; but for valuable and constant services, much beyond what we could justly claim on the ground of his position, we are indebted to Mr. John P. Anderson, assistant librarian of the British Museum. ALPHABETICAL KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHY 0"F GREAT BRITAIN AND COLONIES. Author. Year of first work. Page. Abbey, John 1881 ... 541 Accum, Freidrich Christian A. ... 1820 ... 519 Adair, Robert Graham 1869 ... 534 Ackroyd, William ... ... ... 1883 ... 542 Agg-Gardner ... ... ... ... 1884 ... 542 Aitkin, Dr. William 1880 ... 540 Alcohol in Grape, etc 1847 ... 527 Alcohol, etc. 1862 ... 532 1874 ... 537 and Spirit-drinking, etc. ... 1877 .., 539 Question 1880 ... 541 Alford, Stephen Shute ... ... 1875 ... 537 Allen, N 1877 ... 538 Ames.R 1693 ... 516 An Account of the Drunken Sea 1877 ... 539 Anderson, Rev. John Bonnet ... 1868 ... 534 Andersen, Peter ... ... ... 1838 ... 522 An Earnest, etc 1796 ... 518 An Essay, etc 1858 ... 530 Animal Chemistry ... ... ... 1846 ... 526 Annual Reports, etc. ... ... ... 1871 ... 535 Anon ... ... ... ... 1711 ... 516 1724 ... 516 1830 ... 520 1887 ... 522 1840 ... 524 1840 ... 524 1841 ... 524 1841 ... 525 1842 ... 525 1850 ... 528 1850 ... 629 470 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Author. Year of first work. Page. 1863 ! ! 532 1865 ... 533 ... 1880 ... 541 A ustie, Dr. Francis E. 1862 ... 532 Armstrong, Dr. John ... ... 1744 ... 517 Arnold, Robt. Arthur 1877 ... 538 Articles on Dr. Magnus Hus#, etc. Ashcroft, Rev. T ... 1851 ... 1875 ... 529 537 Atkin, Frederic ... ... , .. 1874 ... 536 Atkinson, Dr. F ~ 1879 ... 539 B 1760 ... 517 Bacon, Friar Roger 1542 ... 513 , George W. ... 1878 ... 539 Baker, Rev. W. R. ... 1838 ... 522 Baird, Dr. Robert ... 1870 ... 535 Balfour, Mrs. C. L 1846 ... 526 , Dr. C. W. Barclay, Dr. John ... ... 1879 ... 1861 ... 539 531 Barker, Joseph ... 1863 ... 532 Barnes, Rev. Albert 1852 ... 529 Barrow, John H. ... 1845 ... 526 Barry, Sir Edward ... 1775 ... 517 Batchelor, William ... 1842 ... 525 Bayly, Mrs. 1859 ... 530 Bay nard, Dr. Edward ... ... 1706 ... 516 Beardsall, Rev. F. ... 1839 ... 522 Beaton, John ... ... 1841 ... 525 Beaumont, Dr. Thomas 1830 ... 520 Beddoes, Dr. Thomas ... ... 1793 ... 517 Beggs, Thomas 1849 ... 527 Begie Jac 1821 . . 519 Bell, Dr. John 1791 ... 517 Bennet, Dr. Dalby W. ... Settle, William ... 1883 ... 1854 ... 542 529 Bible and Strong Drinks ... 1875 ... 537 Bidwell ... 1815 ... 519 Binz, Prof. Carl ... 1873 ... 536 Birmingham, Rev. James Blacke, Dr. A 1840 ... ... 1823 ... 522 519 Blake A ... 1840 ... 522 Booth, George ... . . 1838 ... 522 Boulton, Richard ... 1714 ... 516 Braithwaite, George .. 1733 ... 51G Brand, W. T 1813 ... 519 Brathwaite, R. ... 1617 ... 513 Brewers' Plea 1647 ... 514 ALPHABETICAL KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHY. 471 Author. Year of first work. Page Brewster, Rev. James ... ... ... 1832 ... 521 Bridgett, Rev. T. E. 187G ... 537 Brinton, Dr. William ... ... 1861 ... 531 Brodie, Dr. B. C 1811 ... 518 Browne, Rev. Peter ... 1713 ... 516 Brown, Dr. 1828 ... 519 , Dr. Fergus Malcolm ... 1880 ... 540 Bruce, Edgar 1835 ... 521 Brunton, Dr. Lauder ... ... ... 1883 ... 542 Buckingham, J. Silk 1834 ... 521 Buckle, James ... 1846 ... 526 Bucknill, Dr. John Charles ... 1878 ... 539 Bullock, Rev. Charles ... ... 1877 ... 538 Burgh, James ... ... 1751 ... 517 ... 1847 ... 526 Burns, Rev. Dawson 1840 ... 523 Burrowe's Modern Encyl. ... 1820 ... 519 Burrows, George Man 1828 ... 519 Burton, Robert ... 1621 ... 513 Bury, Edward ... 1677 ... 514 Buxton, Charlea ... 1855 ... 529 C Caine, Rev. William ... 1882 ... 541 Carlysle, Dr. A. 1810 ... 518 Carpenter, Dr. Alfred ... ... 1882 .. 541 Carpenter, Dr. William B. ... 1847 .. 526 Carvosso, Rev. B. ... 1841 .. 525 Chadwick, Dr. John 1849 .. 527 Chamberlain, Right Hon. Joseph ... 1877 .. 538 Chambers' Cyclopaedia 1874 .. 537 Charleton, Dr. Walter ... ... 1668 .. 514 Cheyne, Dr. George 1725 .. 516 Child Samuel ... ... ... ... 1798 . 518 Christison, Sir Robert 1829 .. 520 D r 1839 522 Clark, James 1837 ... 521 Clark, Dr. Andrew ... 1881 ... 541 Clarke, Ebenezer ... 1877 .. 538 Clinical Lecture ... 1842 .. 525 Close, Rev. F 1860 .. 531 Clouston, Dr. T. S. ... 1883 .. 542 Clowes, Frederic ... 1879 .. 539 Cobbett, William ... 1820 .. 519 Coleman, J. J. ... 1878 .. 539 Collinson, Rev. J. ... ... 1838 .. 522 Combe, A. 1841 .. 525 Conolly, Dr. John ... 1830 .. 520 Copland, Dr. James ,,. 1858 .. 530 472 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Author. Year of first work. Page Corfield, Dr. William H. 1880 ... 540 Couling, Kev. Samuel 1851 ... 529 Courtenay, A. ... 1856 ... 530 Coventry, John 1845 ... 526 Crane, Eev. J. T. 1877 ... 538 Crowquill, Alfred ... 1877 ... 538 Cruikshank, William ... 1840 ... 523 , George 1847 ... 527 Crumpe, Dr. Samuel 1793 ... 518 Cup of Sack 1644 ... 514 ... 1872 ... 535 C. W 1878 ... 539 D Daniel, J. J 1875 ... 537 Darby, C.... 1860 ... 515 Darton, Thomas Gates ... 1877 ... 538 Darwin, Dr. Erasmus 1794 ... 518 Davis, H. H 1838 ... 522 Davy, Sir Humphry 1828 ... 520 Dearden, Joseph 1840 ... 523 Democritus 1840 ... 523 Denman, James L. 1866 ... 533 Dent, Daniel 1628 ... 513 De Quincey, Thomas 1845 ... 526 Dewhurst, Dr. W. H. 1838 ... 522 Dialogue, etc. ... 1692 ... 516 Digby, Sir Kenelm 1665 ... 514 Disney, Rev. John 1729 ... 516 D'Israeli, Isaac 1807 ... 518 Does Alcohol, etc. 1862 ... 532 Dolan, Dr. F. M. ... 1879 ... 539 Donovan 1830 ... 520 Dossie, Robert 1770 ... 517 Down ame, John 1613 ... 513 Drawing-room Alcoholism 1871 ... 535 Drinking, etc. ... 1692 ... 516 Druitt, Dr. Robert ... 1873 ... 536 Drysdale, Dr. Ch. R. ... 1879 ... 539 Dubue, M. 1814 ... 519 Dugeon, Dr. R. E. 1879 ... 539 Dunckley, Henry ... Dunlop, John ... ... 1851 ... 1828 ... 529 520 Dunmow Med. Dis. 1847 ... 527 Dupre', Dr. A 1872 ... 536 Dyer, John ,,. 1849 ... 527 ALPHABETICAL KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHY. 473 Author. Year of first work. Page. Easton, George ... 1859 ... 530 Edgar, Rev. John ... 1829 ... 520 Edmunds, Mrs. E. L. ... ... 1865 ... 533 , Dr. James... 1867 ... 533 Edward, J. R ... 1859 ... 530 Ellis, Mrs. 1860 ... 531 , Charles 1861 ... 531 Ellison, Rev. H. J. ... 1869 ... 534 Elscholt, J. S ... 1677 ... 514 Evans, Joseph 1876 ... 537 ,T. H 1882 ... 541 Eve, P. F. 1866 ... 533 Evidence on the Forbes-Mackenzie Act ... 1878 ;.. 539 Evils of Grocers, etc. 1883 ... 542 F Faber, A. O. ... ., 1594 ... 514 Farrar, Archdeacon F. W. ... 1877 ... 538 Figg, Dr. E. G. ... 1862 ... 532 Firth, R 1841 ... 525 Fletcher, F. D. ... 1864 ... 532 Forbes, Sir John ... 1847 ... 527 Forster, Dr. Thomas ... 1812 ... 519 Fothergill, Dr. J. Milner 1876 ... 537 Foulface, William ... 1594 ... 513 French, Rev. Richard Valpy 1877 ... 538 Frinus, D. 1668 ... 514 Full Report 1857 ... 530 G Gairdner, Dr. W. E. ... 1861 ... 531 Gale, Rev. Henry ... 1856 ... 530 Gallobelgicus ... ,, 1629 ... 513 Garnett, Dr. Thomas 1797 ... 518 Garrod, Dr. Alfred Baring ... 1859 ... 530 Geree, Rev. John ... 1648 ... 514 Gilbert, William ... 1882 ... 541 Gillespie, David 1874 ... 536 Gilmore, Rev. A. ... 1841 ... 525 Glasgow and West of Scotland, etc. ... 1830 ... 520 Glauber, J. R. ... 1869 ... 515 Good, Dr. John Mason ... ... 1825 ... 519 Gough, John B. ... 1855 ... 530 Graham's Temperance Guide 1866 ... 533 Granville, Dr. J. Mortimer ... 1879 ... 539 Great Evil of Health-drinking 1684 ... 515 474 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Author. Year of first work. Pge. Greenwood, E. 1837 ... 522 Green, Samuel 1848 ... 527 Greville, Robert K. 1834 ... 521 Griffin, John J. 1872 ... 536 Grindrod, Dr. R. B. 1839 ... 522 Gustafson, Axel 1884 ... 542 Gut hrie, Rev. Thomas ... 1850 ... 528 , Rev. John 1877 ... 539 Guy, Dr. 1857 ... 530 H Had don, James 1876 ... 537 Hales, Rev. Stephen 1734 ... 516 Hall, Rev. Newman 1844 ... 525 , Dr. J. 1880 ... 540 Hargreaves, Dr. William 1881 ... 541 Harley, John 1869 ... 534 Harris, Rev. Robt. 1630 ... 513 , Dr. Svlvanus ... 1872 ... 536 , Dr. William 1882 ... 541 Hart, M. B. 1843 ... 525 Tliirtnuin Gr 1695 516 Harwood, Rev. Edward 1774 ... 517 Hassall, Arthur Hill ... 1876 ... 537 Haughton, James ... 1849 ... 527 Haynes, Matthew P. 1840 ... 523 Headland, Dr. F. W. 1852 ... 529 Hemingston, John Leeds 1788 ... 517 Hempel, Dr. Charles J. 1861 ... 531 Henderson, G. ... 1813 ... 519 A 1824 519 Henry, Rev. William ... 1761 ... 517 Heslop, T. P. 1872 ... 536 Hey wood, Thomas 1635 ... 513 Higginbottom, John 1842 ... 525 Hill, Rev. John 1831 ... 521 Hindle, Frederick G. 1883 ... 542 Hinton, Dr. James 1880 ... 540 H. J. 1829 ... 520 Holroyd, W. H. 1854 ... 529 Hopkins, W. B. 1879 ... 540 Hornby, William Horsfield, Rev. T. ... 1619 ... 1849 ... 513 527 Howarth, Rev. F. 1850 ... 528 Howie, Dr. James M. 1880 ... 540 Hoyle, William 1864 ... 532 Hudson, Thomas ... 1849 ... 527 Hunt, Thomas P. 1850 ... 528 - .Colin A. 1851 ... 529 ALPHABETICAL KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHY. 4? 5 Author. Year of first work. Page. Ingham, John ... ... ... 1880 ... 540 Inman, Dr. Thomas 1861 ... 531 Inwards, Jabez ... ... ... 1849 ... 527 ... 1743 ., 517 Jeffreys, Archdeacon 1840 ... 523 Jenkins, E. . .. ... ... ... 1876 ... 537 J. F. M 1840 ... 523 Johnson's Debates ... 1742 ... 517 Johnson, Dr. Edward 1843 ... 525 Johnston, Rev. A. ... 1867 ... 534 , Prof. James F. W. 1879 ... 540 Jole William 1680 515 Jones, Andrew 1663 ... 514 Junius ... 1836 ... 521 K Kallos ... 1883 ... 542 Kerr, Dr. Norman ... 1876 ... 537 Kirk, Rev. John ... 1862 ... 532 Kirton, J. W 1865 ... 533 Klein, Magnus ... 1837 ... 522 L Ladies' National Temp., etc. Laird, Dr. Samuel ... . 1876 ., 1856 ... 538 530 Lankester, Dr. Edwin ... 1861 ... 531 Larwood, Jacob 1866 ... 533 Lawson, Dr. Robert ... 1878 ... 539 , Sir Wilfrid 1879 ... 540 Leech, Dr. John ... 1848 ... 527 Lees, Dr. F. R. 1840 ... 523 Letters in Chemistry ... ... 1844 ... 526 Lettsom, John Coakley 1789 ... 517 Levi, Prof. Leone ... 1866 ... 533 Levison, Dr. J. L. ... 1839 ... 522 Lewis David .. 1859 ... 530 , Dr. J. P 1877 ... 539 , Dr. Wm. Bevan ... ... 1880 ... 540 Licensing System ... 1872 ... 536 Liquor Traffic ... Livesey, Joseph ... 1879- ... 1832 ... 540 521 Logan, William London Chemical Gazette ... ... 1849 ... 1854 ... 528 529 476 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Author. Year of first work. Page. Looking-Glasse, etc. ... 1652 ... 514 Luard, P. F 1808 ... 518 Lucas, Dr. Thomas P. ... ... 1874 ... 536 Lysh, William J. H. 1873 ... 536 M Macdonald, Rev. G. B. ... ... 1841 .. 525 , George . 1879 .. 540 Mackinzie, Dr. J ... 1868 .. 534 Macnish, Dr. Robert 1827 .. 519 Madden, Dr. R. H. ... 1847 .. 527 Magnan, Dr. Victor 1877 .. 539 Maguire, J. F. ... 1863 .. 532 , Rev. Robert ... 1879 .. 540 Malins, Joseph Marcet, Dr. William ... 1880 .. 1860 .. 540 531 Marshall, Thomas ... 1839 .. 522 , Mrs. 1852 .. 529 Marston, Dr. Jeffrey A Mayn waring, Everard ... 1860 .. 1683 .. 531 515 M'Culloch, Geo. E ... 1846 .. 526 ,Dr.J.M 1860 .. 531 McClintock, A. H. ... 1873 .. 536 Medical Experience, etc. 1870 .. 535 Opinions, etc. ... 1872 .. 536 Temperance Journal 1870 ... 535 M G. ... 1685 515 Mihles, Dr. S 1745 ... 517 Miller, Dr. James ... 1857 ... 530 Milne, Rev. Robert 1884 ... 542 Moister Rev William ... 1877 . . 539 Montagu, Dr. Basil 1814 ... 519 Morewood, Samuel ... 1838 ... 522 Morrel, Rev. J. M 1883 ... 542 Morris, Edward ... 1855 ... 530 Morton, Dr. T. 1878 ... 539 Mott, Albert J. ... 1884 ... 542 Mudge, Dr. Henry ... 1848 ... 527 Mulder, G. J ... 1857 ... 530 Mulled Sack 1640 ... 514 Mundy E 1867 534 Munroe, Dr. Henry 1865 ... 533 Murchison, Dr. Finlay ... ... 1876 ... 538 , Dr. Charles ... 1877 ... 539 X Nash, Thomas ... 1592 ... 513 National Temp. League Ann 1881 ... 541 Nott, Rev. Eliphalet ... 1863 ... 532 ALPHABETICAL KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHY. 477 Author. Year of first work. Page. Ogston, Dr. F ... 1833 ... 521 Oinophilns, etc. 1723 ... 516 Ollis, Kev. Thomas ... 1882 ... 541 On the Administration, etc. ... 1845 ... 526 Ouvaroff ... ... 1817 ... 519 P Page, Thomas ... ... 1846 ... 526 Paget, Sir James ... 1879 ... 540 Paris, Dr. John Ayrton ... ... 1826 ... 519 Parkes, Dr. E. A." ... 1870 ... 535 Parliamentary Proposals, etc. ... ... 1811 ... 519 Parsons, Rev. B. ... 1839 ... 522 Parton, James . . 1877 . 539 Paterson, Dr. H. Sinclair 1884 ... 542 Patterson, James ... 1877 ... 539 Pavey, Dr. T. W. ... 1874 ... 536 Pearson, S. B. ... ... 1813 ... 519 , Eev. Thomas 1881 ... 541 Pecldie, Dr. Alexander ... ... 1854 ... 529 Peek, Francis 1883 ... 542 Percy, Dr. John ... 1839 ... 522 Pereira, Dr. Jonathan 1853 ... 529 Perfitt P W 1849 528 Permanent Documents, etc. ... 1841 ... 525 Physician, By a ... 1829 ... 520 Physiological Influence, etc. 1875 ... 537 Pigot, J. M. B. ... 1870 ... 518 Pinkerton, John 1806 ... 518 Play fair, William ... 1805 ... 518 Polities of Temperance Powell, Frederick 1859 ... ... 1870 ... 531 535 Praise of Drunkenness 1812 ... 519 Prescott, H. P. ... 1869 ... 534 Price, Mrs. 1883 ... 542 Prichard, Dr. James Cowles ... 1835 ... 521 Proceedings of the World's, etc. 1846 ... 526 Proceedings of the International, etc. ... 1862 ... 532 Prynne, William ... 1660 ... 514 Pye-Smith, Rev. John ... ... 1834 ... 521 Q Quain, Dr. Richard ... ... ... 1882 ... 541 R Randolph, Thomas ... 1632 ... 513 Randies, Marshall ... 1864 ... 533 Reade, A. Arthur ... 1883 ... 542 Bedding, Cyrus 1836 ... 521 478 TttE FOUNDATION OF DEATfl. Author. Year of first work. Bees Cyclopaedia ... ... ... 1819 . Reid, Thomas 1850 ... , Rev. William ... 1850 ... Religious Tracts, etc. Report of the Com., etc. Report of Public Meeting, etc. 1800 ... ... 1874 ... 1875 ... Reynolds, G. W. M ... 1841 .. , Dr. J. Russell 1868 .. Richardson, Dr. B. W. ... ... 1869 .. Riddel], Mrs. J. H. 1872 .. Ridge, Dr. J. J. ... 1879 .. Rigby, Joseph 1656 .. Ringer, Dr. Sydney ... 1874 .. Ritchie, Rev. William 1855 .. Roaf, Rev. William ... 1840 .. Robson, Dr. W. 1803 .. Rolleston S . . ... 1750 .. Rooke, Rev. Thomas 1867 .. Russell, Richard ... 1678 .. , Rev. A. G 1868 ... , T. W. ... 1884 ... Kussom, J. 1849 ... S Salmon, Dr. William ... 1696 ... Samuelson, James ... 1870 ... Sandford, Dr. William ... 1799 .. Scholfield, Amos 1880 .. Scrivener, Matthew ... 1685 .. Second Annual Report, etc. ... 1879 .. Sedgwick, James ... 1725 .. Self-cure, etc. ... ' 1879 .. Sharman, H. R. ... 1884 .. Sharpe, Samuel Shaw, Thomas George ... 1870 .. ... 1863 .. Sheen, James R. ... 1864 .. Sherlock, Frederick ... 1879 .. Sherman, Rev. J. ... 1838 .. Shirley, Stephen ... 1854 .. Short, Dr. Thomas... 1750 .. Shrewsbury, Rev. J. ... 1840 .. Skey, Dr. F. 1867 .. Smith John . . . . ... 1723 .. , George 1749 .. , Dr. Edward ... 1860 .. , Rev. J 1875 .. , Dr. Ernest L. T ... 1876 .. Solly, Rev. Henry ... 1872 .. Southey, Dr. Reginald ... 1879 .. ALPHABETICAL KEY lO BIBLIOGRAPHY. 4? 9 AutLui. Year of first work. Page. Speagle, H. vaa 1637 ... 514 Spears, Michael 1851 ... 529 Spencer, Rev. A 1856 ... 530 Spratt, Rev. John ... ... ... 1849 ... 528 Spriggs-Smith, Rev. ... ... 1884 ... 542 Stewart, Rev. Alexander 1872 ... 536 Stokes, Rev. George ... ... 1838 ... 522 Stott, John 1876 ... 538 Stuart, Rev. Moses... ... ... 1831 ... 521 Stubbs, Philip 1583 ... 518 Sullivan, A. M 1882 ... 541 Sutherland, Dr. Henry ... ... ... 1880 ... 540 Button, Dr. Thomas ... ... 1813 ... 519 Swig, Sal 1835 ... 521 Taylor, John (the Water Poet) 1635 ... 514 t ... ... .., 1860 ... 531 , Robert 1863 ... 532 Teare, James 1846 ... 526 Temperance Reformation 1852 ... 529 Pulpit 1859 ... 531 Congress... ... ... ... 1862 ... 532 Shorter Catechism 1877 ... 539 International, etc. ... ... ... 1880 ... 541 Temple, Sir William 1677 ... 515 Third Report on Intemperance, etc. ... 1877 ... 539 Thirty-fourth Report, etc. ... 1880 ... 541 Thompson, Thomas ... ... ... 1612 ... 513 , Rev. D 1840 ... 524 , Dr. Spencer ... ... 1850 ... 528 Thomson, Dr. R. Dundas 1841 ... 525 Thudicum, Dr. J. W. L. 1869 ... 535 Trail, Dr. Russel T. 1845 ... 526 Trotter, Dr. Thomas ... ... 1788 ... 517 Tryou, Thomas ... ... ,. e 1682 ... 515 Turner, Dr. William 1568 ... 513 Tweedie's W., etc. ... 1856 ... 530 Dllmub. Johu Francis ... ... ... 1589 ... 513 Vaughan, F 1867 ... 534 Verdad, Pedro 1876 ... 538 Vizetelly, Henry 1875 ... 537 Voice from the House, etc. ... ... 1852 ... 529 480 THE .FOUNDATION OF DEATH. Author. Year of first work. Page. Wagstaff, Rev. F ... 1875 ... 537 Ward, Rev. Samuel 1682 ... 515 George 1868 534 .Robert 1872 ... 536 Walter, Rev. J. ... 1871 ... 535 Warning Piece, A ... 1678 ... 515 Watts, Dr. Henry Wesley, Rev. John ... ... 1872 ... 1760 ... 536 517 Weston, Agnes ... 1879 ... 540 White, G. 1840 ... 524 Whitecross, John ... 1840 ... 524 Whittaker, Dr. Tobias 1638 ... 514 Whit well E 1880 . 541 Why ? A pamphlet, etc. 1878 ... 539 Whvte, James ... ... 1880 ... 541 Wightman, Mrs. ... 1860 ... 531 Wilks, Dr. Samuel ... 1867 ... 534 Williams, J 1855 ... 530 Wilson, Rev. T. C ... 1850 ... 528 , Dr. Charles ... 1854 ... 529 , Rev. J. H. ... 1859 ... 531 , Rev. A. M 1877 ... 539 Wine and Spirit, etc. ... 1828 ... 520 Wine and the Wine Trade ... 1867 ... 534 Wines and their Uses ... ... 1858 ... 530 Winskill, P. T. 1881 ... 541 Winslow, Rev. F. E. ... 1881 ... 541 Women and Alcohol 1871 ... 535 Wood, Mrs. Henry ... 1860 ... 531 1871 535 Woodman, W. B. ... 1860 ... 533 Woodward, Dr. Josiah 1798 ... 518 Wooler, Dr. William ... ... 1840 ... 524 Working Man Worsley, Rev. Henry ... 1864 ... ... 1849 ... 533 528 Wright, J. 1795 ... 518 W. U. ... 1829 ... 520 Y Yonge, R. ... 1658 ... 514 Youmans, Dr. Edward 1846 ... 526 Young, Thomas ... 1617 ... 513 , Arthur 1798 ... 518 ... ... ... ... 1879 ... 540 BIBLIOGRAPHY. GREAT BRITAIN AND COLONIES. Bacon, Friar Roger (Flourished in the year 1270), De mirabili potestate artis et naturae. London, 1542. Turner, Dr. William, A new Boke of the Properties ef all Wines. 1568. Stubbes, Philip, The Anatomies of Abuse. 1583. Ullmus, John Francis, De Ebrietate FugiendS. 1589. Nash, Thomas, Summer's Last Will and Testament. A Drama performed before Queen Elizabeth. (Temperance Worker, vol. 13, p. 99.) London, 1592. Foulface, William (pseud.), Bacchus Bountie ; describing the debonaire deitie of his bountiful Godhead in the royall obser- vance of his great Feast of Penticost. (Harleian Miscellany, vol. 2, 1744.) 1594. Thompson, Thomas, Diet for a Drunkard. London, 1612. Downame, John, Foure treatises tending to disswade all Christians from . . . Swearing, Drunkenness, etc. London, 1613. Brathwaite, R., A Solemne Joviall Disputation, Theoreticke and Practicke, briefely shadowing the Law of Drinking, etc. CEnogythopolis, At the Signe of the Red Eyes. 1617. Young, Thomas, England's Bane. London, 1617. Hornby, William, The Scourge of Drunkenness. London, 1619 Burton, Robert, Anatomy of Melancholy. Oxford, 1621. Dent, Daniel, A Sermon against Drunkenness. Cambridge, 1628. Gallobelgicus (pseud.), Wine, Beere, and Ale together by the Eares, a Dialogue, etc. London, 1629. Harris, Rev. Robert, The Drunkard's Cup. (A sermon on Isaiah, chap. v. 11-18.) London, 1630. Randolph, Thomas, Aristippus, a Play so called. With a Dialogue between Wine, Ale, Beere, and Tobacco, by another hand. London, 1632. Etywood, Thomas, Philocothonista, or the Drunkard, opeaed, dis- sected, and anatomized. London, 1G35. 2 I 482 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. [1635-1677. Taylor, John (the water-poet), The old, old, very old man; or, " the age " and long life of Thomas Parr. London, 1635. , Drinke and Welcome ; or, the famous Historic of the most part of Drinkes in use. 1637. , Ale Ale-vated into the Ale-titude ; or, Al-earncd oration before a civil Assembly of Ale-drinkers, etc. London, 1651. Speagle, H. van (pseud.), Drink and Welcome. London, 1637. Whitaker, Dr. Tobias, The Tree of human life ; or, the bloud of the Grape. London, 1638. Mulled-Sack. The Times Abuses ; or, Mulled-Sacke his grievance, etc. London, 1640. Cup of Sack, A. London, 1644. Brewer's Plea, The; or, a Vindication of Strong Beer and Ale, wherein is declared the wonderful bounty and patience of God ; the wicked and monstrous unthankfulness of man ; the unregarded injuries done to these creatures, groaning as it were to be delivered from the abuses proceeding from disdainful aspersions of ignorant, and from the intemperance of sinful man. London, 1647. Geree, Rev. John, &ei$apn Joseph, An ingenious poem called the drunkard's prospective or Burning-Glasse. London, 1656. Yonge, R., The Blemish of the Government, the Shame of Eeligion, the Disgrace of Mankind ; or, a charge drawn up against drunkards and presented to His Highness the Lord Protector, in the name of all the Sober Party in the three nations, etc. London, 1658. Prynne, Wm., The odious sin of drinking healths, with a brief of Mr. Pryn's solid arguments against it. London, 1660. Jones, Andrew, The dreadful character of a drunkard ; or, the most odious and beastly sin of drunkenness described and condemned. London, 1663. Digby, Sir Kenelm, Receipts of surgery and physick, also of cordial and distilled waters and spirits. London, 1665. Charleton, Dr. Walter, A discourse of the various sicknesses of wines. London, 1668. Faler, A. 0., Some kindling sparks in matters of physick. London, 1668. Frinus, D., A new and needful treatise of spirits and wine offending man's body. London, 1668. Bury, Edward, England's Bane ; or, the deadly danger of drunken- ness. London, 1677. ElschoU, J. S., The Curious Distillatory ; or, the Art of Distilling 1677-1685.] BIBLIOGRAPHY. 483 Coloured Liquors, Spirits, Oils, etc., from Vegetables, Animals, Minerals, and Metals, a thing hitherto known to few. London, 1677. Temple, Sir William, Miscellanea, Part I. An Essay upon the cure of gout by moxa. London, 1677. 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S., The Works of, containing great variety of choice Secrets in medicine and alchymy, in the working of rnetallick 484 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. [1689-1734. mines, and the separation of metals, also cheap and easy ways of making saltpetre, and improving of barren land, and the fruits of the earth, etc. 1689. Dialogue between Claret and Derby-ale. London, 1692. Drinking Fatal Friendship; or, the drunkard's misery, being a satyr against hard drinking, by the author of the search after claret. (A Poem.) 1692. Ames, R., Bacchanalian sessions; or, the contention of liquors. London, 1693. Hartman, G., The true preserver and restorer of health, with ex- cellent directions for cooking, preserving, conserving, making, metheglin, etc., with a description of an engine for dressing meat, distilling cordial waters, etc. 1695. Baynard, Dr. Edward, Biographical notices of water-drinkers. 1706. , Discourse on longevity. 1706. Anon., A Dissuasive from the sin of drunkenness, by a member of the Church of England. London, 1711. Broivne, Rev. Peter, On drinking in remembrance of the dead. (A Sermon.) 1713. , A Discourse of drinking healths, wherein the great evil of this prevailing custom is shewn, etc. 1716. Boulton, Richard, Physico-Chyrurgical treatises of the gout, the king's evil, etc. 1714. Oinophilus Boniface de Monte Fiascone (pseud.), Ebrietatis Enco- mium ; or, the praise of drunkenness, etc. : a translation of the Eloge de 1'yvresse of A. H. de Sallengre. London, 1723. Smith, John, The curiosities of common water. London, 1723. Anon., A letter to George Cheyne . . . occasioned by his essay on health and long life. London, 1724. Cheyne, Dr. George, An essay on health and long life. London, 1725. - , An Essay on the nature and methods of treating the gout. London, 1737. ' , The Natural Method of curing the diseases of the body, and the disorders of the mind depending on the body. London, 1742. 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Inwards, Jabez, Dewdrops, etc. London, 1851. , Temperance Reminiscences ; or, glimpses of the past. About 1856. , Memorials of temperance workers. London, 1879. Logan, William, The moral statistics of Glasgow. Glasgow, 1849. , The great social evil. London, 1871. , The early heroes of the temperance reformation. Glasgow, 1873. Ptrfitt, P. W., Human physiology the genuine advocate of total abstinence from all kinds of alcoholic beverages. (The Abstinence Standard.) 1849-1850. Bussom, J., The evil effects of beershops. (A Prize Essay. N London, 1849. , A word to the working classes, etc. London, 1850. Spratt, Bev. John, An appeal to the people on the horrid crime of drunkenness. Dublin, 1849. Worsley, Rev. Henry, Juvenile depravity. '(Prize Essay.) London, 1849. Guthrie, Bev. Thomas, A plea on behalf of drunkards and against drunkenness. Edinburgh, 1850. , The city ; its sins and sorrows. Edinburgh, 1857. Howorth, Bev. F., Popular objections to total abstinence calmly examined. 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Riant, Aime, De 1'alcool et du tabac. Paris, 1877. Bitter, E., Des vins colores par la fuchsine. Paris, 1877. Baudrimont, Marie V. Ernest, Dictionnaire des alterations et falsifications des substances, alimentaires medicamenteuses et commerciales avec 1'indication des moyens de les reconnaitre. Sur 1'alcool, pp. 88-106. Du vin, pp. 1209-1289. Paris, 1878. Garaudeaux, De la phthisic chez 'les buveurs, et de ses rapports avec la cirrhose du foie. (These pour doctorat.) Paris, 1878. Homais, M., L'Alcoolisme. Paris, 1878. Rabiiteau, A., Des Alcools et de L'Alcoolisme. ^aris, 1878. Compte-rendu du Coiigres International pour 1'Etude des Questions Relatives a 1'Alcoolisme tenu a Paris, 1878. Belieres, L., Rapports cliniques et anatomo-pathologiques de alco- olisme avec le paralysie generale. Paris, 1879. Holler, A., Theorie gfoe'rale des alcools. Paris, 1879. Metman, M., Etude sur les Legislations Europeenes relative au debits de Boissons Alcooliques. Paris, 1879. Congres International pour 1'Etude des Questions Relatives a 1'Alcoolisme. (Tenu a Paris du 13 au 16 Aout, 1878.) Paris, 1879. L'lvrognerie ses effets sur 1'individu, la famille, et la Societe. Rouen, 1879. 1879-1883.] BIBLIOGRAPHY. 539 Lassegue, C., Les Troubles visuels de 1'alcoolisme. (Archives Generates de Medecine, tome cxliv. p. 342.) Paris, 1879. Chevalier, L., De la Pneumonic chez les alcooliques. (These pour doctorat.) Paris, 1880. Comptes Eendus du Congres International de Medecine Mentaie tenu a Paris du 5 au 10 Aout, 1878. Paris, 1880. Gendron, K, Alcoolisme Hereditaire. (These pour doctorat.) Paris, 1880. Dumouly, M., Recherches cliniques et experimentales sur 1'action hypothermique de 1'alcooL (These pour doctorat.) Paris, 1880. Liston, Note sur une nouvelle forme d'alcoolisme latent professionel et sur le moyen de la combattre. (Annales Bodier, and Albin Koch, on pro- portion of , in blood, 64 ; drinking, 390 ; drinking in 1498, 308 ; for infants, 389; functions of, 63; pure, greatest essential for life and health, 386; in beer, 55; of paramount importance to life, 63 ; ordinance in Antwerp, 387 ; quantity of, in human body, 63 ; scavenger of body, 84; thera- peutic properties of, 390 ; treat- ment in fevers, 204 Wealth, Dr. Channing's true use of, 395 Wealthy, education of, 399 note West Lancashire Railway Com- pany and temperance, 444 Westminster, Duke of, on temper, ance, 451 White Coppice, prohibition in, 4il Whortleberries used in colouring wine, 55 Will, clever disguises assumed by the alcoholized, 164; difference between intention and, 160 ; effect of alcohol on, 160 ; in general life, 165 ; in political life, 164; in the relations be- tween master and man, 164 ; instance of power of drink to annihilate, 160; negative loss of, 165 ; positive loss of, 166 Wine, ancient traditions, 6-12; commencement of drinking, in England, 309 ; milk of Venus, 11 ; use of, in Lord's Supper, 423 Wines, adulterations of, port, 48, Rhine, 48, sherry, 49; fortified for export, 51, 5~2; fortified by potato spirit in London docks, 52 ; ills caused by drinking adul- terated, 54; Lancet on nutritious elements in, 76 ; mallow-bloom, whortleberries, elderberries, co- chineal, and logwood used in colouring, 55 ; reasons for adul- teration of, 47 ; rectification with prepared chalk, 53 ; Spanish, manufactured from raw German spirits, 52 ; Daily Telegraph on, 52 Wisconsin Central Railway and temperance, 445 Women and alcohol, 358-367 Work, capacity for, reduced by alcohol, 123 Worth, human, foundation of, 167 Yeast fungi, generation of, 40 NOTICES OF THE FIRST EDITION. "I know of no other work so elaborate or so complete. The immense mass of miscellaneous knowledge contained in it can, so far as I know, be found nowhere else ; and the arguments by which you prove the perilous and pernicious effects of intoxicating drink, in all its forms, are, in my judgment, irresistible ; and equally so are those by which you prove that Total Abstinence is not only a generous use of our Christian liberty for the sake of others, but that it is wholesome and beneficial for all men, and vitally necessary for those over whom intoxicating drink has gained a dominion. ... I rejoice to hear that it is so soon going into a second edition. I hope it will be diffused wheresoever the English language is spoken." HENRY E., Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster. "I can conceive nothing better calculated to awaken enthusiasm in Temperance Reform where it does not yet exist, or to sustain it where it does. It can hardly fail to be a handbook for Temperance Preachers an* Speakers ; and if it could only find its way into the hands of the inert mass of English men and women who are as yet indifferent to the subject, it would go far to form that public opinion without which we shall make no progress in lessening this amount of vicious temptation put in the way of our people, by the faulty legislation of the last two hundred years." CANON HENRY J. ELLISON, Chairman of the C. E. T. 8. " The amount of information it contains in a small space is amazing, and the marginal notes and indices make that information at once available. The book bids fair to be for many years to come the Text Book of Temperance Reformers. I have written to Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Morley commending it to their notice, and wherever I go I shall not fail to express my opinion of its high merits. As a Total Abstinence advocate during forty years, I hail its appearance, and heartily thank its author." The REV. NEWMAN HALL. "I think that it is seriously of great importance to the whole cause of Temperance in England, and to every branch of it also, that yonr book should appear as soon as possible. It has been done with sincere fidelity to the subject, and the labour expended on it, which must have been very great, has been so well wrought through your mind into its fitting form, 2 NOTICES OF THE FIRST EDITION. that His worth much more to the reader than it could have been in hands less capable of skilful arrangement. In fact, it is just what is wanted a book eminently usable, which will supply in portable and admirable form the ground-work of lectures, addresses, etc., etc., all over England. . . Many of the phrases are such as will cling to the whole subject always. I am heartily glad that, while you have spoken of this curse with the strength and ardour necessary, you have yet treated all debatable parts of the subject with scientific temperance." From the REV. STOPFORD A. BROOKE to the Author, after examining the proof sheets. "'The Foundation of Death' brings the subject into line with the present day, and it is not possible to speak too strongly of its great value to the Temperance Movement. It should be in the library of every Politician and Social Reformer, to whom it will prove an invaluable handbook. I have no doubt it will have the extended circulation a book of such great value deserves." W. S. CAINE, M.P., President of the National Temperance Federation. " No one in England hails more heartily than I do, the help which the volume 'The Foundation of Death' will give to the great effort we are making, to rid ourselves of the frightful incubus of drink. The more I have thought on the subject, the more convinced I am that this book will supply a want much felt, and I will do what I can to promote its circulation." SAMUEL MORLEY, M. P. " A vast deal of careful research must have been given to the summary of the literature and history of alcohol in its relations to man. Tho abstracts are carefully selected and are the best things extant upon the question. The scientific and physiological data are very exact and well digested. . . . What I have always termed a ' so-called stimulant,' Mr. Gustafson terms ' a pseudo-stimulant,' which is, I think, the happiest epithet I have seen for alcohol in small doses." DR. JAMES EDMONDS. "I may here refer to a remarkable work by my friend Mr. Axel Gustafson, a well-known contributor to the principal American periodicals, now in the press, entitled ' The Foundation of Death : a Study of the Drink Question.' I have had the privilege of reading the manuscript of the book. . . . The author has read an enormous number of works on Alcohol in various languages, and has presented the whole question in its varied aspects in an original and fresh guise. This great work will, I feel convinced, have a profound and permanent influence on the educated mind, and on the public opinion of America, Britain, and the continent of Europe." DR. NORMAN KERR, in a lecture delivered in Exeter Hall. " We'may feel pretty sure that ' The Foundation of Death : a Study of the Drink Question,' by Axel Gustafson, will for a long time to come be a Text Book amongst Temperance Reformers. The different aspects of the drink question from the subject of ' Drinking amongst the Ancients,' to the political social inquiry ' What can be done ? ' are considered in a lucid and striking descriptive detail and summary. A splendid bibliography, in itself a study, completes the labour." DR. B. W. RICHARDSON, in the " Atclepiad." NOTICES OF THE FIRST EDITION. 3 "Mr. Gustafson'sJlThe Foundation of Death 'is a laborious work, and has, as far as we have tested it, the merit of accuracy. ... A word of praise is due to an ardent reformer who, whether alcohol be a poison or not, has laboured zealously to expose the enormous evils which arise from its exces- sive use. The book is full of quotations. . . . Mr. Gustafson has been fair in his selection, often reproducing passages which tell against his own convic- tions. . . . The admirable bibliography with which the book concludes does not profess to be exhaustive ; we have not, however, found any important book omitted." Athenaeum. "From the first page to the end there is ample evidence of honest work in the collection of facts drawn from the literature of Europe and America, ;md Mr. Gustafson has added to the usefulness of his undertaking by the compilation of an elaborate chronological bibliographv of the literature of the drink question." The Academy. " A conclusion the result of much study, and at the same time a chal- lenge to those whose views differ from his own, is conveyed in the title of Mr. Axel Gustafson's new book on the drink question, ' the Foundation of Death.' . . . The object he has set himself to accomplish, and kept steadily in view, is the preparation of a learned disquisition upon alcoholic stimu- lants, their history, tendency, and control. . . . Other sections are devoted to a more modern view of the subject, such as the adulteration of the people's liquors, the effects that result specially from this, and generally from a use of wines and spirits, with an exhaustive inquiry into the relations between drink and crime. . . . Mr. Gustafson,- who is fully conscious of the disagree- ments and discrepancies which exist among the host of previous authors on this subject, has done a good service in exposing some glaring errors, and his concluding chapter, ' What can be done ?' may especially be read with advantage." Daily Telegraph. " A very large amount of information on this deeply interesting topic will be found in a book recently published by Messrs. Kegan Paul, called The Foundation of Death : a Study of the Drink Question,' by Axel Gustafsen. M. Axel Gustafson is in every way qualified as a student of the great drink question. . . . But this is not the place for controversy. All I can do is to advise earnest people to read Mr. Gustafson's book (although it is one of nearly six hundred pages, and the thermometer is at eighty-five in the shade), and to compliment him on the extraordinary industry and acu- men which he has displayed in collecting facts and figures in support of his theories." GEORGE AUGUSTUS SALA, m " Illustrated London Neiot." " The work deals with the subject under all its aspects the history ; the results, physiological, pathological, moral, social ; the views of do'c- tors on the use of alcohol as a medicine ; and a full answer to the question, ' What can be done ? ' Every one who is interested in the great Temper- ance question should read the book." The Graphic. " Books on intemperance and the alcoholic drink question are very numerous; but they are sectional, and there is scarcely one comprehensive work on the subject. Mr. Axel Gustafson has put an end to this state of things. He has produced a book which covert all the ground. It is a 4 NOTICES OF THE FIRST EDITION. history of alcohol and of alcoholic drinking; it is an exhaustive survey of the whole literature of the subject, of the whole aggregate of statistics and the conclusions of scientific and general investigation. It brings all testimony on the subject as it were into a focus. It treats the question fully, compactly, and completely, though not voluminously, in all its branches and bearings. . . . Seeing what a vast number of persons are engaged in writing and in delivering addresses, directly or indirectly, on this subject, it is impossible to exaggerate the utility of a book so full of easily discoverable exact information. It is a book for all reference libraries, and, indeed, for all libraries and all bookshelves, quite apart from the question whether the reader has or has not arrived at definite con- clusions on the drink question. It would not be easy to overrate the value of the work in the hands of the teacher, seeing that, apart from any question of teetotalism, every man and woman who teaches must be under the most absolute obligation to let our children know as much as possible of the dangers and the evils of alcohol and of intemperance." The School Board Chronicle. " In very many respects this is a most remarkable book. It is a bulky volume, containing information up to the present date, and gathered from the most reliable sources, on every phase of the Temperance movement. There is scarcely anything that any one studying the drink question mav want to know but what may be found in the volume before us, with all the authorities quoted whence the information has been derived." The Freeman. "No man can read Mr. Gustafson's book without acquiring a thorough knowledge of what not to drink. -'The Foundation of Death' will be the Bible of Temperance reformers for years to come." GEORGE R. SIMS, in the "Referee" "Mr. Gustafson has constructed what may be denominated both a stronghold and an armoury of Temperance truth. . . . He has done his part in a manner worthy of admiration, and it is for the friends of Temperance to do their part in giving to his efforts the widest possible effect." Alliance News. " Mr. Gustafsen is to be congratulated upon having produced a work which will be of immense service to those who are actively engaged iu the promotion of Temperance. For a long time a want has been felt foi- some book which should present, in popular language, a comprehensive survey of the drink question, exhibiting the latest facts and figures illustrative of the rapid advances made in recent years, and, so far as our judgment goes, 'The Foundation of Death* splendidly fulfils this condition. . . . Mr. Gustafson has imparted a freshness to the treatment 01 the subject, which cannot fail to delight and charm. The reader will find himself irresistibly led on from point to point, and, if we are not much mistaken, will be brought to see that the Temperance crusade has a substantial claim to recognition from every standpoint. The different phases of the question are grouped under suggestive headings, and by the aid of marginal paragraphs and a copious index ready reference is conveniently facilitated." Church of England Temperance Chronicle. "There is a refreshing vigour and breadth of view in this unique and remarkable volume which will amply fulfil the high expectations that NOTICES OF THE FIRST EDITION. 5 were formed concerning it by those who knew something of the capa- bilities of its able and painstaking author. The Temperance literature of all nations was carefully examined, the archives of the British Museum being ransacked in a way never before attempted by any Temperance enthusiast ; and the result is given in the present bulky volume, which deals with almost every phase and ramification of the alcohol question, and gives a list of British, American, and Continental works relating to the subject which will astonish even the best informed in our Temperance ranks. The general contents of the work are exceedingly comprehensive and varied, and furnish many valuable quotations which are not elsewhere accessible to the general reader ; and the concluding chapter a long and important one gives an exhaustive reply to the momentous question, ' What can be done ? ' " Temperance Record. " The moral characteristics of this latest invaluable contribution to the literature of Temperance are worthy of the highest developments and divinest aspects of this or any century." Blue Ribbon Chronicle. It is the fullest, truest, and saddest representation of the evil of drinking and of the drinking trade we have seen; and no one who examines the book will be surprised that Mr. Gustafson should at the close of his work have been driven to the adoption of 'The Foundation of Death ' as its title." Edinburgh Daily Review. "By dint of unsparing and well-applied labour, Mr. Gustafson has produced in ' The Foundation of Death ' a world literature of alcohol drinking." Edinburgh Courant. "A more terrible indictment of the traffic in all its bearings we have never read." Dublin Daily Express. " The most complete and exhaustive treatment of the alcohol question that has yet appeared systematic, well arranged, in style compressed and clear, and arranged with scientific exactitude . . . The conclusion reached is that alcohol, even in moderation, is evil and not good, and Mr. Gus- tafson brings overwhelming weight of authority to prove his point." Liverpool Mercury. "A volume which represents a vast amount of well -organized and thorough research on a subject which is undoubtedly of primary social importance. ... A book which will be a standard work of reference to social reformers." Bradford Observer. " This book is the outcome of an earnest effort to grapple with the drink question in all its bearings historical, physiological, pathological, therapeutic, moral, and social. . . . The whole work is distinguished by thoroughness, completeness, and suggestiveness." Glasgow Herald. "By careful and systematic arrangement and indexing the book is a very useful repertory of information on one of the most important topics of the day." Manchester Guardian. "In this book Mr. Gustafson has brought such a tremendous array against the consumption of alcohol in any form or in the most minute 6 NOTICES OF THE FIRST EDITION. quantities, that if one-half only be true the very first duty of the legisla- ture would be ignoring Franchise Bills and Egyptian Finance to banish every drop of the accursed thing out of the country. . . . The book should certainly have the attention of all who value the moral and physical well- being of individuals or communities." Manchester Courier. "Careful arguments are supported by convincing statistics." Man- chester Examiner. " It is the most remarkable and powerful contribution to the generally unattractive drink question that has ever appeared." Staffordshire Sentinel. " If any man's mind is undecided as to the effects of alcohol on the world's history, Mr. Gustafson's book ought to remove all his doubts." Eastern Morning News. " Temperance reformers of all schools will find the book an admirable vade mecum, for it is full of facts and statistics well classified, and is written in a good spirit." Northern Whig, "It is the most complete storehouse of information on the subject which we hare ever seen." Londonderry Standard. PLATFORM ECHOES. Leaves from my Note-Book of Forty Years. Illustrated by Anecdotes, Incidents, Personal Experiences, Facts, and Stories, drawn from the Humour and Pathos of Life. Seventh Thousand. In Demy 8vo, price 55., with Twelve Choice Engravings. " The author's influence over vast audiences can be no secret to any one who has made himself acquainted with these chapters, which abound in apt illustrations and in anecdotes both humorous and pathetic, drawn in great part from personal experience, and introduced in a homely but effective manner. Not a little wisdom and some practical teaching is involved in Mr. Cough's 'facts and stories,' which, however, are certainly not the less amusing on this account. The volume is accompanied by some excellent woodcut illustrations." Daily News. "A very stirring and powerful book it is, one which will interest many classes of readers and do goqd to them all." Alliance News. "It is teeming with thrilling incidents, experiences, and facts, and will make for itself a place in our libraries, not merely as a collection of enter- taining anecdotes, but chiefly on account of the powerful lessons brought home with each incident. Our temperance friends will find this book most helpful to them." Methodist Times. ' It would be impossible to exaggerate the opulence of the volume in humorous, pathetic, and tragic anecdote." Christian Leader. SUNLIGHT AND SHADOW; or, Gleanings from my Life- Work. Comprising : Personal Experiences, Anecdotes, Incidents, and Reminiscences ; gathered from Thirty-seven Years' experience on the Platform and among the People at Home and Abroad. Fourteenth Thousand. 8vo, cloth 33. 6d. " Mr. Gough has gathered together a number of most interesting and stirring incidents, experiences, and reminiscences from his thirty-seven years' work at home and abroad." Record. "We wish to commend it as a gift-book for the season, which will not only afford unbounded entertainment to all classes of readers, but will confirm the faith and fan the zeal of temperance reformers." Christian. "We can promise our readers a feast of good things in this, the most notable temperance book of the year." Church of England Temperance Chronicle. "This admirable volume so full of word -pictures, vivid sketches, humorous touches, and earnest, practical reflections." Temperance Record. "A splendid volume the latest and noblest record of the great philan- thropist." Christian Age. K It is packed with charming, racy, and pathetic incidents of men and things not only in temperance, but in general matters, drawn from the experience of thirty-seven years." Methodist Recorder. LIFE'S BATTLES IN TEMPERANCE ARMOUR. By THOMAS WHITTAKER. Second Edition, price 75. 6d., with Portrait. " It is full of pith, and it sparkles in every page with native wit and humour. It is a record of moral heroism not often paralleled, and it is entertaining to the last degree." Leeds Mercury, "Mr. Whittaker had a good story to tell, and has told it well." Temper- ance Record. "A remarkably interesting autobiography, abundant in racy narrative." Alliance News. ILLUSTRIOUS ABSTAINERS. By FREDK. SHERLOCK, Author of " Heroes in the Strife," etc. Fifth Thousand. Crown 8vo, price 33. 6d. " Advocates of the cause of total abstinence will be highly interested and as highly edified by the perusal of a bright little volume entitled ' Illustrious Abstainers.' It is refreshing to find enumerated such personages as Sir Garnet Wolseley, President Hayes, Sir Henry Thompson, Dr. Richardson, Sir Hemy Havelock, Elihu Burritt, and Sir John Howard. It is an excellent book." Illustrated London News. LIFE, FUNCTION, HEALTH : Studies for Young Men. By H. SINCLAIR PATERSON, M.D. Complete in One Volume. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. 600 pages. Second Edition. "The facts are well selected, the setting out is clear, the argument or statement is well sustained, and the style is so easy that, he who runs may read." Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S. " We have never read such able medical advice put in such charming and lucid language." Rev. C. H. Spurgeon. STUDIES IN LIFE. By the same Author. Crown 8vo, boards, is. HEALTH STUDIES. By the same Author. Crown 8vo, boards, is. THE HUMAN BODY AND ITS FUNCTIONS. By the same Author. Crown 8vo, boards, is. "This most useful little work. Of that which is physiological, and which makes up the chief part of the volume, I can speak with unqualified praise. The facts are carefully selected, the setting is clear, the argument or state- ment is well sustained, and the style so easy that he who runs may read." B. W. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. THE TRINITY OF EVIL. I. Infidelity. II. Impurity. III. Intemperance. By the REV. CANON WILBERFORCE, M.A. Crown Svo, cloth, 25. 6d. Third Thousand. " If we could place a copy in the hands of every reader capable of following the author's lucid exposition of his themes we would gladly do so ; such teaching is needed in every social sphere in these days. Written from the emphatically Christian standpoints the book strikes at the root of political and social evil that many Christian men and women are sadly slow to rebuke and withstand. Long may the writer be spared to lift up his clarion voice and powerful pen in the cause of righteousness and truth as he has done in these sparkling and inspiriting pages." Christian. " One of the most sonorous and telling trumpet blasts against Infidelity, Impurity, and Intemperance we have ever heard. Every page of the Canon's not only throbs with passionate earnestness in the cause of truth and righteousness, but is full of point and fine literary power." Literary World. r, SJjsiw gabifrsmt's "Quoins for fining *$m. i. THE CITY YOUTH. Fourth Thousand. Crown Svo, cloth, 33. 6d. "Dr. Davidson's matter and manner are alike excellent." The Globe. "Weighty counsels. Dr. Davidson is remarkably at home in talks with young men. His words glow with an intense earnestness which demands and obtains attention from his readers. These lectures must have been grand in the hearing ; they are really a fine series of sermons, without the sermonic form. They make a handsome substantial volume." Sword and Trowel. TALKS WITH YOUNG MEN. Eighth Thousand. Crown Svo, calf 33. 6d. " It is full of wit, wisdom, geniality, and high-toned manly Christian teaching. '' Sheffield Independent. " For sterling common sense, combined with true spiritual feeling, they have not been surpassed for many a day. The addresses bristle with telling metaphors and illustrations, and the book can be read from cover to cover with profitable interest." Literary World. in. FOREWARNED FOREARMED, Fourth Thousand. Crown Svo, cloth, 35. 6d. Weighty counsels. Dr. Davidson is remarkably at home in talks with young men. His words glow with an intense earnestness which demands and obtains attention from his readers. These lectures must have been grand in the hearing ; they are really a fine series of sermons, without the sermonic form. They make a handsome substantial volume." Sword and Trowel. JUST IN TIME; or, Howard Clarion's Rescue. Hand- somely bound, crown 8vo, cloth, 33. 6d. "It is really one of her very best books, and that is high praise indeed. She always writes with a purpose, and her stories clearly indicate both culture and a wide knowledge of the world and its needs. The secret of her success doubtless lies in the fact that her pictures of life are real, and consequently true to the experience of the reader. The present story, which is gracefully told, is likely to have many appreciative readers." Christian Commonwealth ii. DAISY SNOWFLAKE'S SECRET. A Story of English Home Life. New and Cheaper Edition. Elegantly bound, 33. 6d. "Winning in style, pure and earnest in tone, and of command 'rig interest." Daily Review. in. OUR DAUGHTERS. Their Lives Here and Heieafter. Eighth Thousand, cloth, 33. 6d. "A thoroughly wise and helpful book. Christian. OUR BROTHERS AND SONS. Fourth Thousand. Elegantly bound, 33. 6d. " One of her best books, written in .excellent English, and with a racy, earnest pen." Euangelical Magazine. Aeries. Tastefully bound in doth, price is. each. Found at Last. Little Glory's Mission. Unspoken Addresses. Number Four, and Other Stories. Chippings. Not Alone in the World. " Written with all the author's well-known sweetness and persuasiveness of style." The Outlook. "Good little books in Mrs. Reaney's very best style. We hope they will sell by hundreds of thousands." Sword and Trowel. THE SISTERS OF GLENCOE ; or, Letitia's Choice. By EVA WYNNE. Twenty-first Thousand. Crown 8vo, cloth elegant, price 53. " Its life pictures are skilfully drawn, and the most wholesome lessons are enforced with fidelity and power." Temperance Record. " An admirable story, illustrating in a most effective manner the mischief arising from the use of intoxicating liquors." Rock. LONDON : HODDER & STOUGHTON, 27, PATERNOSTER Row, E.G.