LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class HEAT AND LIGHT ==: FROM MUNICIPALS WASTE WRITTEN FOR MUNICIPALITIES AND ENGINEERS BY Joseph G. Branch, B. S., M. E. Chief of the Department of Inspection Boilers and Elevators. Member of the Board of Examining Engineers for the City of St. Louis. Member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Etc. WITH FIFTY-SIX ILLUSTRATIONS PUBLISHED B'! WM. H. O'BRIEN PRINTING AND PUBLISHING CO. ST. LOUIS, MO. Copyrighted 1906 by JOSEPH G. BRANCH. CONTENTS m CONTENTS. Chapter. Page. I. Introductory Remarks 1 II. - Municipal and Other Waste 4 III. Incineration and Reduction 7 IV. British and Other Foreign Destructors and In- cinerators 16 V. American Incinerators 29 VI. The Branch Incinerator and Wagon Washer and Disinfector . 75 VII. . Steam and Hot Water Heating 108 VIII. Incinerators Combined with Central Heating Plants 120 IX. Elements of Electricity 170 X. Incinerators Combined with Electricity and Water W T orks 196 XI. Incinerator Sites and Buildings 203 XII. Natural and Mechanical Draft 210 XIII. The Comparative Advantages of Various Types of Steam Boilers for Incinerating and Central Heat- ing Plants 225 XIV. Classes of Engines and Pumps 250 XV. Gas and Oil Installations, and the Comparative Value of Fuels 269 XVI. Forms of Franchises and Ordinances . . 275 iv FRANCHISES FRANCHISES AND ORDINANCES. LEGAL FORMS. Page. Collection, Removal and Disposal of Refuse, Contract for 295 Construction Incinerating Plant 279 Disposal of Garbage, Contract for 283 Gas Works, Franchise for 281 Heating System Central, Franchise for 276 Lighting Electric, Franchise for 289 Lighting Electric, Heating and Power, Franchise for. . . . 294 Railway Electric Street, Franchise for . . . . 286 Statute Prohibiting Dumping of Refuse in Navigable Waters of the United States. . 275 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Figure. Page. 1. Transverse Section of Garbage Incinerator 74 2. Side Elevation and Vertical Section of Incinerator. . 77 3. Horizontal and Vertical Sections of Incinerator, without Boiler Attachment 78 4. Horizontal and Vertical Sections of Incinerator, with Boiler Attachment. 79 5. Detail Front Elevation of the Branch Garbage In- cinerator 82 6. Tank Steel Casing Enclosing Incinerator 82 7. Detail Top Plan View of Incinerator 83 8. The Branch Water Grates 90 9. View Showing Tanks and Connections of the Branch Garbage Wagon Washer and Disinfector 93 10. The Branch Wagon Washer and Disinfector, used by the City of St. Louis 94 11. Animal Wagon used by the City of St. Louis 96 12. 225-Foot Stack, Iron Lined with Brick. 200-ton In- cinerator 100 13. 125-Foot Brick Stack with Dimensions. 50-100-ton Incinerator 101 14. One Pipe and Two Pipe Heating Systems 110 15. Back Pressure System, Steam Heating Ill 16. Webster Vacuum System 116 17. Sectional Boiler for Heating 117 18. The Branch Steam Trap " 124 19. Radiator for Steam Heating 126 20. Central Station Heating Plant 127 21. Central Station Heating, Two Pipe Insulation lt>5 22. Type of Electric Generator 176 23. Series wound, Shunt wound, Compound wound, Class of Electric Generators 179 24. Winding for Separately Excited Dynamo 181 25. Cells in Parallel, Cells in Series, Connection of Cells and Lights in Series and Parallel . 185 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure. Page. 26. Two-Wire System, Three-Wire System, Alternating System, 'System of Connecting Lights 18G 27. Shunt Dynamos in Series 188 28. Shunt Dynamos in Parallel 190 29. Series Dynamos in Series 191 30. Series Dynamos in Parallel 192 31. Type of a Compound Dynamo, showing Fields and Armature 193 32. Compound Dynamo in Parallel 194 33. Connection o'i Voltmeter and Ammeter 195 34. Incinerator Euilding, Brick Enclosure for same.... 206 35. Front Elevation of Incinerator Building 208 36. Cross Section of Incinerator Building, Boiler House and Engine Room 209 37. Forced Draft System, with Blower 214 38. Induced Draft System 215 39. Draft Gauges 218 40. Type of Water Tube Boiler 224 41. The Sterling Water Tune Boiler, the Babcock & Wil- cox Boiler . . . 227 42. Setting Plan for Horizontal Tubular Boilers with full front 229 43. Upright Submerged Tubular Boiler 231 11. T\pe OL Internal Furnace Boiler 235 45. The Springfield Internal Furnace Boiler 237 46. Cornish Boiler, a Type of an English Boiler 233 47. Type of Corliss Engine 249 48. Type of Slide Valve Engine 251 19. Slide Valve Gear 254 50. Valves and Eccentric 255 51. Hamilton Corliss High Speed Engine 257 52. The Harrisburg Four Valve Eng.'ne 259 515. Type of Duplex Pump 264 54. The Cameron Pump 266 55. Oil Burner Installation 268 56. The Branch Oil Burner . . 274 LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF TABLES. Page. Boilers, Water Tube, Average Dimensions of 234 Bids for Installing Incinerators from Leading American Companies 66 Central Heating Stations, with Reports on their Opera- tion 128 Central Heating Plant, Cost of Operation of 141 Central Heating System, Physical Value of a Two-Pipe Hot Water System 156 Chimneys, Height and Horse Power of 105 Chimnevs, Weights with Gauge and Prices of 106 Draft, Relative Cost of Chimney and Induced 222 Draft, Fan Tests with English Destructors 213 Draft, Mechanical, Standard Test for CO2 with 212 Evaporation Tests with English Destructors 28 Electric T T nits Generated per Ton of Refuse Destroyed in 24 Hours 197 Electric Plant, Cost of Operation 118 Fuel, Comparative Value of Coal as 271 Fuel, Value of Petroleum as 272 Fuel, Value of Refuse as 272 Garbage Kitchen, Analysis of 13 Horse Power from English Destructors 27 Insulating 12-inch Main, Cost Per Foot for 154 Insulating and Laving Pipe per Foot for Central Heating. . 15G Lighting Plant, 300 Arc Lights, 150 K. W., Cost of In- stalling and Operating, with Cost Per Lamp .... 201 Light and Power from a 150-Ton Incinerator, with Cost of same 198 Refuse Disposal, Cost Per Capita of 2 Refuse, Analysis of 12 Refuse Disposal in American Cities 32 Rochdale Destructor Tests 221 Steam Heating Plant, Cost of Operation of 118 Steam Jets, Tests Showing Percentage of CO2 with 212 Traps, Steam, Sizes and Capacities of 124 Waste Heat, Utilization by Foreign Incinerators of . 17 HEAT AND LIGHT -FROM - MUNICIPAL O SR WASTE CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. The first consideration with all municipalities should be the safety and health of its citizens, and next, to secure for them at a reasonable cost those necessities controlled by public grants. There is no more serious menace to the health of any community than its refuse, nor a greater necessity to the comfort and welfare of its citizens than plenty of heat and light at a moderate cost. For the last twenty-five years this country, like all other countries, has been trying to meet these requirements of its citizens, by a better system of garbage disposal, and by more heat and light at less cost. What has been the result of these efforts, I have at- tempted to set out in this work, without bias, and -with but one purpose in view, that of calling the attention of our public officials and engineers to the success that has been made in this line in other countries, and how little success has been made by us. 2 HKAT AND LIGHT. Not only has the disposal of refuse not as yet been made sanitary in this country, but the enormous amount of public money which is annually spent for this work, can be seen by a comparison of the cost of refuse dis- posal per capita of American and foreign cities. While the cost of refuse disposal rarely exceeds 1 cent per capita in any foreign city, it cost Philadelphia for the year of 1903, $514,875.00, or 38 cents per capita; Chi- cago $683,665, or 37 cents per capita; St. Louis $266,937,. or 44 cents per capita; Boston $651,000, or $1.09 per capita; New York $78,144, or 2 cents per capita. For 14 cities with a population above 300,000 the aver- age cost per capita is 28 cents. The average of 23 cities between 100,000 and 300,000 population, is 23 cents per capita, \vhile the average of 41 cities, between 50 and 100 thousand population is 26 cents per capita. It will be seen from this that New York City alone compares favorably with foreign cities in cost of dis- posing of its refuse. This city is also the equal of any city in Europe in its system of collecting its waste. The reason for this enormous discrepancy is that all refuse in foreign cities is incinerated, and the waste heat therefrom utilized for some public works, such as electric lighting, water works, sewerage pumping or mortar mills. With the single exception of New York City, which has recently installed an incinerating plant from which electric current is generated for the surrounding district, there is not another American city utilizing this waste heat in any form. But, far more valuable than for any purpose that this heat has yet been utilized, is its future value to the modern central heating plants, permitting them to supply heat for large districts at a small cost. HEAT AND LIGHT. The system of central heating is distinctly of American origin, and the official data collected by me from those cities in which such systems have been installed, show the general satisfaction that they are giving to the public. For the official data throughout this book, I am in- debted to the public officials of the different cities, who I found not only willing to assist, in every way in their power, but anxious to secure any information which might be of service in securing for their cities a more satisfactory and economical solution of these problems. JOSEPH G. BRANCH. St. Louis, March, 1906. HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER II. MUNICIPAL AND OTHER WASTE. The two forms of waste treated in this work include only public waste in the form of refuse matter, and the private waste of exhaust steam from the power plants of citizens. While both these forms of waste possess great value, the first, or the waste of the city's refuse, is by far the most important, for not only has it a much greater value, but is the source of constant danger to the health of every community. Its value consists in its use as a fuel in incinerating furnaces, and the clinker therefrom, and the further valu- able products derived by the reduction of its ingredients for grease and fertilizing purposes. Its danger lies in the noxious odors given off from the time that it becomes a refuse or waste until it is finally incinerated in high temperature furnaces, or reduced by proper reduction methods. The term refuse includes all garbage, both from the kitchen or market, dead animals, miscellaneous refuse, street sweepings, and "night soil." As the proper wording of contracts for disposal of refuse will depend not only upon what the term refuse includes, but upon its technical subdivisions, the follow- HEAT AND LIGHT. 5 ing definitions will be of service not only in drawing con- tracts for refuse disposal, but for city ordinances, which will legally cover the subject. By the term "garbage" is meant all refuse of animal and vegetable matter which has been used as food for man, and all refuse animal and vegetable matter which was intended to be so used, and includes food condemned by the proper public officials. The term "dead animals" means all dead animals or parts thereof, not intended to be used as food for man. The term "night soil" means the contents of box privies, except such as are established by contractors for tempo- rary construction work, and human fecal matter deposited on streets, alleys, avenues, roads and open lots. The term "miscellaneous refuse" means all refuse from places of residence and business except garbage, dead animals, night soil and ashes. Household rubbish does not include any material whatever in the nature of loom or sand, wall paper, lumber, bricks, stone, plaster, or other substance that may accumulate as the result of repairs to yards and dwellings, or other building operations. Ma- nure is not included under any of the above classes of material. The term "ashes" means ashes from coal and other fuels, including such mineral substances as fallen plaster- ing, etc., as may accumulate in connection with the ordi- nary conduct of dwellings and places of business, but not such as may accumulate as the result of building opera- tions. PRODUCTS OF INCINERATION. The only valuable product of incineration is the clinker, which is formed from the organic ingredients of the refuse burned. 6 HEAT AND LIGHT. The vapors and gases given off during incineration, are not only of no value whatever, but injurious to health unless completely consumed before being discharged into the atmosphere. EXHAUST STEAM WASTE. The discharge of exhaust steam from non-condensing engines and pumps, is the source of constant waste, as steam in this form retains a great number of heat units. While there is no danger to health, or injury other than financial in its waste, if it cannot be utilized by the plant itself for heating purposes, or, used again as condensation, it should be sold to central heating plants at rates which will make it a source of mutual profit. VALUE OF REFUSE AND EXHAUST STEAM. The value of refuse and its products, and that of ex- haust steam for our many modern requirements, will be gone fully into by me in the succeeding chapters, with the hope that it will call public attention to the rich com- mercial field hardly as yet entered by capital, and by so doing afford luxuries to many which are now enjoyed by but a few. HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER III. INCINERATION AND REDUCTION. Both the incinerating and reduction methods of refuse disposal have been on trial in this country for the last twenty years, and both methods to a large extent have proved failures. This is not due to any defects in the methods themselves, but alone due to the gross ignorance displayed in their application and operation. To attempt the incineration of refuse in a low temperature furnace is as absurd as to expect any method of garbage reduc- tion to be a success, without requiring the proper sorting of all waste by the householder, and the hauling to the reduction works of only such refuse as is capable of sani- tary and economical reduction. But it must be admitted that irrespective of what method of reduction is adopted or how carefully the re- fuse may be sorted, that reduction works have always been, and will continue to be, a nuisance in any neigh- borhood in which they are located. The very character of the refuse which must be delivered to the works for reduction, being dead animals and kitchen and market garbage, must make it such, even with the most recent improved methods of destroying the noxious odors by passing them over live coals, or through high tempera- ture furnaces. But as such refuse has a greater value for the produc- tion of grease or a fertilizer, than it has as a fuel, it should 8 HEAT AND LIGHT. be sold, or properly reduced, and not destroyed by inciner- ation. It is for this reason that at least one reduction plant should be operated by the city, but located without the city limits, or, in a locality where it cannot cause complaint. As only 23 per cent of the refuse can be so reduced, the remaining 77 per cent of the refuse should be incinerated at plants conveniently located in different sections of the city. When dead animals and kitchen garbage is reduced by private companies, as is now done in most cities, it is not only a source of constant complaint, but of injury to the health of all the citizens within its locality. Unless incinerating plants can be made self-supporting, companies operating reduction works will continue to offer to municipalities the seemingly more advantageous offer of reducing all the refuse for a term of years at no expense to the city, but such offers always carry a provision that the city must deliver all refuse to their reduction works. Public officials deem it necessary to protect themselves by favoring any proposition which seemingly gives the city something for nothing. In fact, ordinances in most cities require that all contracts above a small amount shall be awarded to the lowest bidder, regardless of merit, or the ultimate cost or damages which may result. So long as such laws remain in force, just so long will American cities continue to be defrauded, and all public works be botched and retarded. While it is possible for proposi- tions to be made in all fairness to reduce all refuse at a lower cost than can be offered by incinerating companies, the actual cost to the city can never be as small, for the reason that the length of the haul necessary to reach the reduction works can never be one-half as short as that HEAT AND LIGHT. to the incinerating plant. As the cost of collection con- stitutes about 70 per cent of the total cost, the cost of disposal necessarily becomes secondary to the cost of col- lection. A reduction plant has always been and will always be a source of complaint in any neghborhood, and must therefore be removed to a locality distant from the city, thereby requiring a long haul to it. As a garbage wagon collects not more than \]/2 tons of refuse on a trip, and as only, one trip can probably be made each day from certain sections of the city to the reduction works, . allowing $3.00 a day for a team, the great cost of collec- tion, where reduction is employed, can be seen. While under the contract, the disposal would cost nothing, its collection would cost $2.00 per ton. On the contrary, an incinerating plant, or plants, being located in convenient sections of the city, would permit the wagon to make six or eight trips per day, thereby reducing the cost of collection to not more than 35 cents per ton. No reduction method will ever be devised which will enable a company or city to make a profit out of the refuse alone, for the analysis of the refuse of different cities shows that it cannot be of sufficient value to pay more than the expense of extracting those ingredients which have any value. Such companies must therefore rely upon a bonus paid by the city for their profit. It is equally as true no incinerating plant can ever be made a financial success without utilizing the waste heat for some useful and profitable work. There is hardly a civilized country on the globe, except America, which has not incinerating plants in successful operation, but they all utilize the waste heat for supplying light and power, and in this way succeed in disposing of 10 HEAT AND LIGHT. their refuse in both a sanitary and economical way. Our country alone is just beginning to realize that there is nothing which affects the health of a community more than the sanitary disposal of its refuse, and that to do this, incinerating plants must be installed by competent engineers, and not by those whose only interest is a per- sonal one. Incinerators of approved design must be in- stalled by sanitary engineers who have made the subject not a study of a few months, but of many years. The 187 incinerators in successful operation in Great Britain were built by high-class engineers, while not one of the hundred of failures in this country were designed or installed by an engineer of more than local reputation with the one notable exception of W. F. Morse, whose ability as a sanitary engineer is universally recognized. The following report made by me contains the result of my investigation of this most important subject to all citizens alike : REPORT. Honorable Sanitary Committee, City Council, St. Louis. GENTLEMAN : I respectfully submit for your consid- eration the following official statistics collected by me of garbage and refuse disposal in the different cities of this country and Europe and Asia, together with a com- parison of the reduction and incineration methods, both as to their sanitation and cost. It is admitted by all en- gineers, that England is at least fifty years in advance of this country both in the collection and the disposal of its garbage and refuse. It is further admitted that until recently both the reduction and incineration methods were in an experimental stage in this country. It was only after the reduction method had been tried and failed AND LIGHT. 11 in England, was incineration adopted there, and to-day there is not one municipal reduction plant in England, so far as I have been able to ascertain, while there are 143 municipal incinerating plants in successful operation, 120 of which plants supply, without extra cost, their different cities with electric lights, or power for their street rail- ways, water works, or sewerage systems. In addition to the above number of incinerating plants in England alone, the three principal cities of Scotland, and the eight large cities of Ireland, dispose of their entire refuse by incineration. There is not a large city in Europe, South America, Africa, India, or Australia, which does not do likewise, and in every one of these different cities and countries the waste heat from the incinerating furnaces is utilized for municipal purposes of some description, usually for electric lighting, pumping or mortar mills. Owing to the prevalence of cholera in the far Eastern countries, the question of the collection and disposal of garbage w r as given for years their most careful consid- eration, and the incinerating method finally adopted. Both Calcutta and Bombay, India, employ incineration for the disposal of their garbage with perfect satisfaction, as well as Singapore, and even Shanghai, China, has an incinerator now under course of construction. The adop- tion of incineration for garbage disposal throughout the world can be seen from the appended list prepared by me. It will be further seen from the official data collected by me, and which is also appended to this report, that the average cost per ton for disposal of the refuse in the English cities herein named is 26 cents, and in only six of these cities does the cost of disposal exceed 40 cents per ton. In Vienna, where the system of garbage reduc- tion or utilization originated, it is not at present used, 12 HEAT AND LIGHT. and I can ascertain no city in Europe which is at present using the reduction method. Official reports show conclusively, that the reduction process has been a failure in every city in this country which has tried same, and especially so in Denver, St. Paul, Buffalo, Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, New Bed- ford, Reading, Pittsburg, Syracuse, Paterson and New Orleans. There is but one municipal reduction plant in operation in this country, being the one at Cleveland, Ohio, and as to what success this city is having, it is sufficient to say that her sister city, Columbus, Ohio, is now having esti- mates prepared for an incinerating plant, after having tried the reduction method. It has been repeatedly stated that the success of incin- eration in England and foreign countries was no criterion for American cities, as the composition of the refuse of this country is entirely different, it being more moist, and not having the same calorifc value. THIS IS INCOR- RECT. Official analysis shows but little difference where the WHOLE refuse is collected, which includes all ashes, street sweepings and combustible waste, as is clone in England and in other foreign countries. The refuse of the average American cities is of the following com- position : By Weight. By Volume. Garbage 13 per cent 18 per cent Ashes . . 80 per cent 57 per cent Rubbish 7 per cent 25 per cent 100 per cent 100 per cent HEAT AND LIGHT. 13 Ordinary kitchen garbage consists approximately of : By Weight. Animal and vegetable 20 per cent Rubbish, cans, rags, etc 7 per cent Grease 3 per cent Water 70 per cent 100 per cent To cook the raw garbage and separate it into the four ingredients, i. e., rubbish, water, grease and fertilizer material, is the object .of all reduction systems. The rubbish itself, being tin cans, rags, etc., has scarcely enough value to repay its separation, while the water has no value at all. These two ingredients. compose 77 per cent of all garbage, and the expense of their separation constitutes the chief expense of all reduction plants. The remaining 23 per cent is of value, and should not be de- stroyed without some financial return, but it is equally as true that the high temperature necessary for the com- plete incineration of refuse should not be wasted up the stack, but utilized for power or heating purposes. This is apparent from repeated demonstrations that the waste heat from a 150-ton incinerator will develop 1,200 horse- power, the equivalent of 895 kilowatts of electric cur- rent, and smaller incinerators in like proportions. The loss from the failure to utilize this power would be greater than the loss from attempting to reduce the entire city refuse. The clinker which is left as a residuum forms 30 per cent of all the garbage and refuse incinerated, and this by-product has a ready sale and is especially valuable for street and paving purposes. The city of Memphis, Tenn., 14 HEAT AND LIGHT. has twenty miles of her streets made from this clinker. It makes a high-grade mortar, and is otherwise exten- sively used. Should this city collect all its refuse, including its ashes and combustible waste, as can be done by ordinance, there is not the slightest doubt but incineration will be a complete success, the same as in all the above-named cities, and at a cost not exceeding 15 cents per ton for its disposal, provided the waste heat is utilized. But, to attempt incineration without making use of the ashes, which contain at least 20 per cent of coal, and conse- quently of a high calorific value, and the further use of all combustible waste, consisting of street sweepings, boxes, etc., will render the cost excessive, and, indeed, prohibitive, if the waste heat is not utilized. The per cent of coal in the ashes in this country is much greater than in foreign countries, making such waste more than ordinarily valuable. It has been clearly shown that where incineration failed in this country, that it was due to improperly constructed furnaces, and attempting to burn the wet garbage alone, without the aid of the combustible refuse. This is as great a mistake as to employ the reduction method, with- out requiring a sorting of all refuse by the householder. As only 23 per cent of the refuse of a city is capable of reduction, it leaves the remaining 77 per cent to be dis- posed of by incineration. Whether the city can best dis- pose of this 23 per cent by selling the same outright, as it is partially now doing, or by reducing it at its own municipal plant, or by incinerating it with the other refuse, is a question for the decision of your Honorable Committee. Should the incinerating method be adopted, either in part or for the entire refuse of the city, no HEAT AND LIGHT. 15 incinerator should be accepted, in my opinion, which does not provide for the utilization of the waste heat under boilers, should, at any time, it be desired to use same, and I base my opinion upon the fact that of the 184 incinerat- ing plants in successful operation, that there is not one which DOES NOT UTILIZE THE WASTE HEAT in this manner. I know of no method other than the use of boilers, separate and distinct from the incinerator, which is either practical, or will develop more power than is merely necessary for the operation of the incinerator itself. For such power purposes the use of water-jacketed fur- naces is impractical, while the use of an auxiliary fur- nace, as a stench destroyer, renders the use of boilers for such purposes impossible, and is also antiquated. I know of only three plants, out of the above number of 184 plants, employing such a stench destroyer, it being entirely unnecessary in a properly built furnace. As the cost of collecting the garbage and refuse con- stitutes 70 per cent of the total cost, there should be at least four incinerators located in different sections of the city, or three incinerators and one reduction plant for the animal and grease matter alone, thereby reducing as far as possible the length of the haul. At present some of the wagons are able to make only two trips a day, and several only one trip. As the city at present is paying about $40,000 annually for its lighting, in addition to the expense of its own municipal plants, I would advise the saving of this by having built properly constructed furnaces, and utilizing the waste heat therefrom for boiler power. 16 HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER IV. BRITISH AND FOREIGN DESTRUCTORS AND INCINERATORS. As it was in England that the incinerator was first made a complete success, it is to the English incinerator or destructor, as it is there called, that we should look for information and reasons for our numerous failures. The first successful English incinerator was erected in 1876, at Manchester, by Mr. Alfred Fryer, and during the thirty years intervening, this incinerator has been in daily use and giving such perfect satisfaction, that there is hardly a town or city in England, Scotland or Ireland that has not now in successful operation, or in course of erection, some type of an incinerator patterned after this one. In 1886, only ten years after the installation of the Fryer iffcinerator, the Engle incinerator was installed in this country, and yet today incineration here is not as far advanced as it was thirty years ago in England. We are still working with low temperature furnaces, using natural draft and operating the plant with cheap labor, all of which was discarded as improper by English engineers at least fifteen years ago. The success of incin- eration in England is due largely to the high class of the HEAT AND LIGHT. 17 engineers who have devoted their time and talents to what has long been recognized the world over as a problem requiring the highest class of engineering skill for its solution. The designor of the modern incinerating plant must not only be a competent sanitary and mechanical engineer, but an electric and steam engineer as well. The trouble with us has been, not that we have no com- petent engineers, but that they have not been called upon by our cities for this class of work. Following the successful test of the Fryer incinerator at Manchester, other successful types were rapidly pro- duced, and at present there are a dozen high-class com- panies installing and remodeling incinerators throughout the British islands. Among the leading types of British incinerators which are now in successful operation, are the Beaman & Deas, the Fryer, the Heenan, the Horsfall, the Meldrum and the Warner. The following list of English and foreign cities employ- ing incineration for the disposal of all refuse, with the purposes for which the waste heat therefrom is utilized, was compiled by me from the official data given in that most thorough English work of W. F. Goodrich on "Refuse Disposal and Power Production." MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS for GARBAGE DISPOSAL AND POWER PRODUCTION. ENGLAND. Daily Cost City. Population Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Accrington 43,122 60 31 cts.Electric Lighting. Aldershot 14,248 11 25 " Sewerage Pumping. 3 18 HEAT AND LIGHT. Daily City. Population Tons. Ashton-imder-Lyne.. 43,890 30 Aston . . 77,310 75 Bangor 11,770 9% Barry 27,000 25 Bath 49,821 45 Beckenham : 26,000 24 Batley 30,321 15 Birkenhead . ..111,102 180 Birmingham 522,204 400 Blackburn 129,216 130 Blackpool 50,330 . . . Bolton 171,082 ... Bootle 58,566 ... Bournemouth 47,000 30 Bradford 279,767 240 Brentford . 15,613 14 Cost per ton. Power Purposes. 23 cts. Electric Traction. 22 " Two Installations. Mortar Mills and Clinker Crusher and Lighting. 32 " Electric Lighting. 28 " Mortar Mills. 27 " Mortar Mills and Crusher. 42 " Electric Lighting. 30 " Electric Lighting. 21 " Two Installations. Mortar Mills. 90 tons each. 19 " Four Installations. Mortar Mills, Work Shop, Machinery and Electric Lighting. 21 " Four Installations. (1) 40-ton Mortar Mills; (2) 15 ton Work Shop; (3) 30- ton Gas Works; (4) 45-ton Water Pump'g 30% " Four Installations. Electric Lighting. 20 " Four Installations. Mortar Mills and Sewerage Pumping. 22% " Mortar Mills and Crusher. 18 ' No power available. 18 Four Installations. Electric Lighting and Works Purposes " Sewerage Pumping and Lighting. AND LIGHT. 19 Daily Cost City. Population. Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Brighton ........... 124,539 72 31 cts. Mortar Mills. Bristol ............ 328,842 108 22%" Mortar Mills. Burnley ........... 97,044 70 . . " Two Installations. Electric Lighting, Fan Engine only. Burstem ........... 38,766 25 29 " Two Installations. Burton-onTrent ..... 50,386 45 32 " Works Purposes and Water Pumping. Bury .............. 58,028 ... 23 " Two Installations. Buxton ............ 10,181 12 22 " Sewerage Pumping. Cambridge ......... 38,398 35 27 " No power available. Canterbury ........ 24,868 20 26 " Sewerage Pumping. Cheltenham ....... 49,439 40 15 " Electric Lighting. Chesterfield ........ 27,185 25 15 " Mortar Mills. Cleckheaton ....... 15,250 12 . . Sewerage Pumping. Colne ............ 23,000 18 21 " Electric Traction. Croydon ........... 137,000 ..... Electric Lighting. Three Incinerators in course of con- struction. Dartford ........... 18,643 20 .. Electric Lighting and Pumping. Darwen ............ 40,000 35 24 " Electric Traction and Lighting. Derby ..... . ....... 113,863 ..... Two Installations. Dewsbury ......... 28,060 28 28 " Mortar Mills. Ealing ........ ..... 33,040 ..... 79-H.P. Sewerage Pumping and Sludge Eastbourne ........ 43,337 35 . . Natural draft, 3 B & W boilers. Eastham .......... 100,000 ..... Sewerage Pump'g. Experimental Power Plant. . Sewerage pumping and Clinker Crushers . Electric Lighting . . Just completed. Eccles ............ 34,369 30 Elland ............ . 10,412 Epson ............ . 10,915 10 10 20 HEAT AND LIGHT. Daily Cost City. Population Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Fleetwood 12,082 12 .. cts. In course of erection Electric Lighting. 200-h.p. 600 amp. hrs. Folkstone 30,G90 ... . . In course of erection Garston, Electric Traction. (City of Liverpool) . 18,710 25 . . 140-h.p. 400 amp. hrs. Glancester 47,955 25 20 " Electric Lighting. Gosport 28,887 ... . . In course of erection Gorton 28,000 ... . . In course of erection Grantham 17,598 No data. Grays 15,834 8 20 " Electric Lighting. Grovesend 27,196 25 . . Electric Lighting. Great Grinsley 63,318 30 .. Mortar Mills and Electric Lighting. Great Yarmouth 51,250 78 .. Natural Draft. Handsworth 52,921 50 21 " Fans only. Henley 61,599 60 . . Electric Works. Hartle Pool 22,737 20 .. Fan Engine only. Hastings 65,528 36 38 " Pumping Salt Water Heckmondwike .... 11,000 ... 24 " Two Installations. Works Purposes only Hereford 21,328 10 18 " Sewerage Pumping Heywood 25,461 25 . . Sewerage Pumping Holyhead 10,079 10 . . Electric Light, not complete. Hornsbury 6,736 6 .. Sewerage Pumping Not complete. Hornsey 77,938 75 18 " Mortar Mills, Clinker Crusher. Huddersfield 95,047 70 .. Two Installations. (1) 50 ton Works Purposes. (2) 20-ton Sewerage Pump. Hall 240,739 135 30 " Two Installations. (1) 45-ton Works Purposes. (2) 20-ton Lighting. HEAT AND LIGHT. 21 Daily Cost City. Population Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Hunstanton 1,893 SVs 24 cts. Water Pumping. (Smallest known Produces sufficient power installation) steam to operate modern pumping pit. Hyde 32,766 30 28 " Sewerage Pumping. Ipswick 66,630 40 .. Electric Lighting. Kettering 300,000 30 . . Electric Lighting. Kingston 34,375 30 . . Work Purposes only. Not yet in operation. Lancaster 40,329 30 32 " Electric Traction. Leamington 26,888 25 .. Sewerage Pumping. Lee'ds 428,968 ... 21 " Four Installations. Works Purposes. Leecester 211,581 180 17 " Four Installations. Works Purposes. Mortar Mills. Levensulme 11,435 ... . . Now in course of Construction. Liverpool 710,737 Four Installations. (1) Mortar Mills and Works Purposes. (2) Works Purposes. (3) Works Purposes. (4) Elec. Lighting. Liversodge 13,980 13 . . Works Purposes. Llandudno 9,310 15 31 " Electric Lighting. Longton 35,815 70 44 " Works Purposes. Two Installations. Lowesroft 29,850 28 23 " Mortar Mills. Loughborough 21,508 40 28 " Sewerage Pumping. Two Installations. Luytham 7,185 10 16 " Sewerage Pumping. Manchester 543,872 ... .. Mortar Mills and Works Purposes. Mansfield 21,445 21 .. Electric Lighting. Mexborough 10,430 20 22 " Electric Lighting. 22 HEAT AND LIGHT. Daily Cost City. Population. Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Morecambe 11,798 11 25 cts. Mortar Mills and Electric Lighting. Moss Side 26,677 26 16 " Mortar Mills, Works Purposes. Nelson 32,816 30 24 " Electric Traction. Newcastle 215,328 150 17 " Two Installations. No power available. Newmarket 10,686 9 22 " Sewerage Pumping. Northampton 87,021 80 . . Electric Traction. Nottingham 239,753 ... .. Three Installations Electricity. Nuniation 15,246 15 20 " Sewerage Pumping. Oldham 137,238 120 57 " (1) Works Pur- poses; (2) Clinker Crusher, Mortar Mills. (3) Public Baths and Wash- houses. Padiham 12,005 12 44 " Works, Power and Electric Purposes. Pantypridd ........ 32,319 ... . . Power and Elec. Purposes. Plymouth 107,509 100 .. Three Installations (1), (2), no 'data. 25 " (3) Elec. Traction. Preston 112,989 108 23 " Three Installations. Radcliff 25,368 26 20 " Sewerage Pumping. Ramsgate 27,686 26 . . Works Purposes. Rawtenstall 31,053 28 .. Works Purposes. Rhyl 8,473 16 32 " Electric Lighting. Rochdale 83,114 40 15 " Works Purposes. Rhonda 117,000 16 62 " No power available. Rotherham 54,348 40 25 " Works Purposes. Royton 14,881 20 19 " Works Purposes. St. Annes-on-Sea . . . . 6,807 6 32 " Works Lighting. St. Helens 87,385 32 28 " Electric Traction. St. Heliers 15 . . Forced Draught. AND LIGHT. 23 Daily Cost City. Population Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Salford 220,957 ... .. cts. Five Installations. No. data 1, 2, 3, & 4. (5) Works Purposes. Salisbury 17,117 16 30 " Sewerage Pumping. Shierness 14,492 10 24 " Water Pumping. Sheffield 410,991 200 46 " Two Installations. Works Purposes. Shipley 26,000 25 21 " Electric Light, Sewerage. Smethwick 54,537 55 .. Not yet decided. Southampton 107,833 70 59 " Two Installations. Sewerage Pumping. Southport 48,083 40 28 " Gas Works. Southwold 2,800 2 . . No power available. Stafford 20,894 20 32 " Sewerage Pumping. Stockton on-Tees 51,478 20 18 " Mortar Mills. Stoke-onTrent 30,800 30 .. Electric Lighting. Stowbridge 16,302 No data. Stretford 30,436 18 32 " Works Purposes. Sudbury 7,109 5 . . Sewerage Purposes. Swansea 94,615 No data. Taunton 21,078 20 . . Sewerage Pumping. Taequay 33,625 25 19 " Works Purposes. Tottenham 106,800 80 . . Electric Lighting. Wakefield 51,544 40 .. Two Installations. Electric Lighting, Sewerage Pumping. Wallasey 55,000 40 22 " No power available. Walker-onTyne 13,335 30 14 " Works Purposes. Watford 29,023 40 . . Sewerage Pumping. Warrington 64,242 64 55 " Two Installations. (1) Elec. Lighting. (2) Sanitary Manure Works. Wellingborough .... 18,142 12 .. Electricity. Wess Bridgeford 7,018 7 .. Sewerage Pumping. 24 HEAT AND LIGHT. Daily City. Population Tons. West Hartlepool 62,627 60 Cost per ton. Power Purposes. 21 cts. Electric Light and Works Purposes. Two Installations. Weymouth 19,831 16 .. Sewerage Pumping. Wimbledon 45,000 54 40 " Sewerage Pumping. Winchester 20,919 19 20 " No data. Withington 36,032 36 16 " Sewerage Pumping. Wolverhampton 94,187 ... .. Works Purposes. Worthing 22,617 ... . . No data. Wrexham 14,966 35 .. Electric Lighting. York 77,914 Works Purposes. SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. Ayr 28,697 30 . . Electric Lighting. Edinburgh 316,793 60 59 " Forced Draught. Glasgow 781,000 400 .. Six Installations. No data 1, 2, 3. (4) Works Purposes. (5) Forced Draught. (6) Works Purposes. Gourock 5,261 5 20 " Fan Engine. Govan 82,174 80 24 " Works Purposes. Paisley 79,363 62 19 " Mortar Mills, Two Forced Draught. Partick 54,298 42 39 " Electric Lighting. Port Glasgow 16,857 25 .. Not yet determined. Belfast 348,965 100 18 " Fan Engine. Dublin 265,000 25 19 " Mortar Mill, 12-h.p. Pembroke 25,524 12 23 " Electric Lighting. CANADA. Montreal . 267,516 No data. HEAT AND LIGHT. SOUTH AMERICA. 25 Daily Cost City. Population Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Bahia . . cts. No data. Buenos Ayres .. No data. (Argentine) Georgetown .. No data. (British Guinea) Manaos . . No data. (State of Amazonas) Para (Brazil) No data. Pernambucco 26 .. Mortar Mills. (Brazil) Peru . . No data. BELGIUM. Brussels . . Work Purposes. DENMARK. Copenhagen .. Lighting Purposes. Gibraltar 15 GERMANY. Berlin . . No data. Hamburg 30 .. Forced Draught. Monaco 30 .. Forced Draught. FRANCE. Paris No data. SWITZERLAND. Zurich . . Electric Power. The incinerating plant recently installed in this city contains two boilers supplying steam at high pressure. Forced draft is used. The refuse contains from 30 to 40 per cent incombustibles. 26 HKAT AND LIGHT. SOUTH AFRICA. Daily Cost City. Population Tons, per ton. Power Purposes. Durban (Natal) .. cts. No data. Bloemfontein . . No data. (Orange River Colony) East London . . No data. (Natal) Johannesburg 120 . . No data. (Transvaal) AUSTRALIA. Melbourne (South) .. No data. Melbourne . . No data. (Victoria) Toowoomba No data. (Queensland) Sydney . . No data. (New South Wales) Ammandale & Leichard . . No data. (Sidney) (New South Wales) NEW ZEALAND. Christchurch .. Electric Lighting. Wellington . . No data. INDIA. Calcutta . . No data. Bombay j . . No data. Karachi . . No data. Madras .. No data. THE FAR EAST. Singapore . . No data. (Straits Settlements.) CHINA. Shanghai No data. C/3 w 2 eaqfg ai jnanq CO CO <M ^Srl 3 2 00 CO IO CO CD <-^ ao aod ; j 'H I 0) d P4 "< c *^<. w ^ W * ^* * 2 ~ - s. * ** v >* 2 o &J w CO ^ ffl"S OH\ en O O-. it K" o o Cxi CO LO 1C GO Cs| O LO CO T-H 00 CO CO kO CO o OS O O o <M CO "* 1. ~ t/) H in O! "C'p 9 O ;_, 2 5 222 2 2 5 22- > ^ H s* P Q _0 >> M > ^ > 1 d 3 >> 3 ^ > > ^H ? 3 d _2 o a- d H q g s <u f-, fa ! ^ g ,0 ' ~ H 1^ ^ ^ ?3 _ CJ Cfl y ,O t-x* s 3 S n 5 O ^ -+J 1 8 S d B 'o I 3 oo ffi 3 ^ * S o <A "oJ cd 00 ^ ^ s CO % pq O CQ io ffl cti ^j 1 1 T 1 <M T I CVl CM r-t Cxi CN| s pq c j9d J aa.inq O iH (M CO LO CO O 1-1 CO 04 CO CO CO CO IO Tf IO IO-CO O GO CO <*" CO CO 'So c suojj ui lup J9d JJ90 J8<i LO CO COCO CO rH LO IO LO O5 t- OS <M GO CO O IO fl jaanjj esnjea OS CO TI S s jo A^HUBTIO o ; \ w JQ 02 <I> SH Q | u 2 -M ^ ! : ' og 02 *^. QO 02 *" w "JH . ^ ' a a- O3 !> O3 ^ fl 02 a "S ^ Si s JP OJ . M g c3 r^ CtS d ^ ^02 cd <^ 1 & ^ b 6 6 03 S-, III? 05 ^H >2 S o *-l f-l 1 c ^ fa w PQ ffi pq K ^ pq *c3 ,ne <,u,n N oo co <M 00 rH rH 1!!!: CO CO OO o C<l CO rfri : ; m ^5 ! ^ . . ; PQ . * ] rr> : s Compiled by Ofl t>> ^ ^ +j ^+2 PQ pO Battersea . Blackburn Hammertor Bradford Bury Dewsbury Baling Hereford . Meanwood Leeds . Needham J Leicester Leyton . . . Oldham . .. Rochdale . Southamptc Warrington 28 HEAT AND LIGHT. fc H O v- H w W Q >M HH W"l ^ 2 lol fc c W PO O en ht < F-i W Q unoq a9d pguanq 9snj -9J jo jo 'M 10 CO iH CO CO CO t- dsc<ic-ososoooso cocqTH Cvf ^f ^ "^ TH rH T-H" CO*" rf Cxi CO O <O <O O ^ O Cxi OO Cxi Cxi O OO "^f OS Cxi OO OO CD CO O "^f CD fH -rH O OO "^f O ifiU^OOr-lt-^O^t-t^ O^LO^LO VT o" u o" cxf os" os" oT r-T LO" co"~ oo" t>-OCxl I>-CxIcOCOT-lTHTHCx] CxllO-rH 2 Si sii <M s ? "2 2 o 5 'S se ge M ts QQQ ^ o 6 QP HEAT AND LIGHT. 29 CHAPTER V. AMERICAN INCINERATORS. During the last twenty years there has been installed in American cities about twenty different types of incin- erators, and it must be admitted that not one has proved a complete success. One of the first types of incinerators installed was the Engle, which was installed at Des Homes, Iowa, as an experiment in 1886, and subsequently installed in some dozen or more American cities with varying success. During the succeeding twenty years, the following are some of the types installed, with their principal installa- tion, viz. : the Brown incinerator at Wilmington, Del. Brownlee incinerator at Terre Haute, Ind. Burns incinerator at Brooklyn, N. Y. Ainderson incinerator at Chicago, 111. Dixon incinerator at Atlanta, Ga. McKey incinerator at Yonkers, N. J. McGiehan incinerator at Syracuse, N. Y. Reder incinerator at Pittsburg, Pa. Smith-Siemens incinerator at Atlantic City, N. J. Smith-Vivarttas incinerator at Scranton, Pa. The failure of these and other types was due to their improperly constructed furnaces and the lack of sufficient draft, rendering it impossible to maintain the necessaiv high temperature for the complete incineration of refuse 30 HEAT AND LIGHT. In none of these furnaces could a temperature much above 1000 degrees F. be obtained, while the complete in- cineration of refuse requires a constant temperature of 2000 degrees, owing to mixed refuse containing from 70 to 80 per cent moisture. The construction of all these incinerators was imperfect in requiring the wet refuse to be charged direct into the furnaces without first drying same, either upon a drying hearth, or in an intermediary furnace. The result was that the heated fire-brick were quickly cooled off by each successive charge, thus keeping the temperature of the furnace too low for perfect combustion, and soon causing the incinerator to be declared a nuisance. The charging of the dripping refuse on the highly heated brick further soon cracked them, requiring constant repairs and mak- ing the incinerator a most expensive and unsatisfactory method of disposing of the refuse. Natural draft was alone employed in all these incinera- tors, and, in fact, is still being exclusively used by the American incinerator constructors, they having failed to profit by their numerous failures. With natural draft it has been repeatedly demonstrated that it is impossible to maintain a sufficiently high temper- ature in any character of furnace for refuse disposal, how- ever perfect may be the construction of the furnace itself. For complete combustion a high temperature must be used, that is, a temperature of 2000 degrees F., and to maintain this high temperature a mechanical draft must be employed, either forced or induced, or both. Only when the present designor or constructor of incinerators in this country recognizes this well-known fact, will in- cineration cease to be an experiment with us. .The American engineer leads the world in whatsoever HEAT AND LIGHT. 31 he undertakes, and when the task of installing properly constructed incinerating plants is placed entirely in his hands by municipalities, then only will the health of the citizens and the interest of the taxpayers be protected, the same as is done in all other countries. Incineration in this country has now passed through those stages through which it was forced to pass in other countries before it became the only successful method of refuse disposal, and with our many past failures as a lesson the time has arrived when it can be likewise made a success in this country. A great deal of work and money has been and is now being expended with this object in view, and for a city to now consider any other method of refuse disposal is to invite further delays, and the waste of public money. The following are some of the leading American com- panies who have, or will ultimately produce a successful incinerator for the disposal of American refuse: Decarie Manufacturing Co., of Minneapolis, Minn. Dixon Garbage Crematory Company, of Toledo, Ohio. Engle Crematory Co., of Des Moines, Iowa. Lester-Vanderlip Furnace Co., of New York City. Lewis & Kitchen, of Chicago, 111. Morse-Boulger Destructor Co., New York City. National Equipment Co., St. Louis, Mo. Sanitary Engineering Co., New York City. The following official reports from leading American cities give the present method adopted by them for dis- posing of their waste, and with what success. From these reports it can be seen that the future suc- cess of waste disposal in this country depends upon the incineration of all the combustible waste, and the reduc- tion of the remainder. 32 HEAT AND LIGHT. LIST OF AMERICAN CITIES REPORTING THEIR PRESENT METHOD OF REFUSE DISPOSAL. Akron, Ohio. Alton, 111. Apalachicola, Fla. Allegheny City, Pa. Antigo, Wis. Atlanta, Ga. Atlantic City, N. J. Allentown, Pa. Buffalo, N. Y. Brunswick, Ga. Boulder, Colo. Baltimore, Md. Boston, Mass. Brownsville, Tex. Chicago, 111. Corsicana, Tex. Cincinnati, O. Champaign, 111. Cleveland, O. Covington, Ky. Concord, N. H. Danbury, Conn. Deadwood, S. D. Dallas, Tex. Detroit, Mich. Evansville, Ind. Evanston, 111. Fort Dodge, la. Fort Wayne, Ind, Houston, Tex. Hornellsville, N. Y. Indianapolis, Ind. Joliet, 111. Keokuk, la. Los Angeles, Calif. Lancaster, Pa. Louisville, Ky. McKeesport, Pa. Memphis, Tenn. Minneapolis, Minn. Norfolk, Va. New Castle, Del. New York, City of. .Oskaloosa, la. Pensacola, Fla. Prescott, Ariz. Paterson, N. J. Philadelphia, Pa. Portland, Ore. Pittsburg, Pa. Raleigh, N. C. Richmond, Va. Reading, Pa. Skowhegan, Me. Santa Rosa, Calif. South Bend, Ind. Syracuse, N. Y. San Francisco, Cal. HEAT AND LIGHT. 33 CITIES REPORTING METHOD OF REFUSE DISPOSAL,. (Continued.) Salem, O. Trenton, N. J. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Tyrone, Pa. South Framingham, Mass. Utica, N. Y. Staunton, Va. Vincennes, Ind. St. Louis, Mo. Washington, D. C. Troy, N. Y. Wilmington, Del. Tampa, Fla. Waterbury, Conn. Two Harbors, Minn. Wheeling, W. Va. AI/TON, ILL. Population, 14,210 All garbage is sewered into the Mississippi river. ALLENTOWN, PA. Population. 35,416 A Dixon garbage crematory was installed in this city in 1892, guaranteed to consume 25 tons of garbage every 24 hours. It is claimed that it will only consume about 18 tons in that length of time, and it is stated that there is a law suit pending relative to its inefficiency. ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY. Population. 27,838 All garbage is disposed of by incineration, the plant being operated by the Atlantic Products Co., which com- pany has a contract with the city both for the collection and disposal of all garbage, and it is stated is giving sat- isfaction. ALLEGHENY CITY, PA. Population, 129,896 All garbage disposed of by the reduction method, the plant being operated by the Allegheny Garbage Co. un- der contract with the city, and it is stated is giving satis- faction. 34 HEAT AND LIGHT. AKRON, OHIO. Population, 42,728 Uses neither incineration or reduction, but all garbage collected and disposed of by private company. ATLANTA, GA. Population, 115,000 This city disposes of all its refuse by incineration, hav- ing tried in the past 15 years several types of incinerators with more or less success. The first incinerator erected by the Dixon Crematory Company was erected in this city in 1896, under a con- tract with the city by which the plant was to be operated one year before payment by the city. While it is reported to have rendered excellent service during the year, the cost of its operation was considered excessive by the city. In 1905 the city installed a Decarie Incinerator, which is reported to be giving satisfaction during the short time it has been in operation. BOSTON, MASS. Population, 560,892 Under a contract with the New England Sanitary Pro- duct Co., which has a reduction plant on Spectacle Island. Boston Harbor, all garbage is collected by city teams and dumped at the water front into scows, which are towed by this company to its plant. During the year 1904 the city delivered 48,373 loads, averaging 2,500 Ibs. per load, to this company. BUFFALO, N. Y. Population, 352,219 This city disposes of its garbage proper by reduction and its waste by incineration. The garbage is collected and disposed of by the reduction process under a contract calling for the payment of $2.19 per ton. The Buffalo Sanitary Co. reduces all the garbage by the so-called HEAT AND LIGHT. 35 "Merz" system. For the fiscal year ending July 1, 1905, there was collected a total of 6,599 loads, weighing 23,- 701.7 tons, at a cost to the city of $51,905.32, or 13 cents per capita, for the collection alone. (U. S. Census, 1900.) REFUSE DESTRUCTION. On the other hand, the city collects miscellaneous refuse and has installed a refuse destroyer of the crematory type. The refuse is hauled to this destroyer, sorted, such recovery made as is possible, and then run on the belt into the furnace. The heat produced is used to operate a sewage pumping plant. The city has decided to erect two other destroyer plants. As the heat from these plants will not be taken for power, garbage will be de- stroyed in them. When these plants are in operation, the garbage will be collected and hauled to the municipal ' destroyers under contract at $1.55 per ton. During the year ending July 1, 1905, the city collected 181,000 cubic yards of refuse at a cost of $67,986.68. COST OF COLLECTING ASHES. The city collects all ashes. The cost of hauling, dur- ing the last year, was 31 cents per cubic yard. The amount collected was 184,000 cubic yards and the total cost $57,159.21. Commissioner Ward states that this item of ash collection is causing the city considerable worry because of the expense of hauling the ashes from apartment houses, office buildings, hotels, etc. The Com- mon Council has decided that, after January 1, 1906, the municipal collection shall be "a civic domestic collection and is not intended to be extended to commercial trades or manufacturing institutions." 36 HEAT AND LIGHT. The total expense for the year ending July 1st for ashes, rubbish and garbage was $177,051.21, or, ap- proximately, 44 cents per capita. CREMATION FAVORED. Commissioner Ward thinks that Buffalo will have adopted the best system when it has established its own destroyers and provided for collection under the contract system. Mr. Ward also states that in Buffalo they^ consider cremation a better system than reduction because the re- duction system creates a nuisance and requires the loca- tion of a plant in the suburbs. This, in turn, adds very greatly to the cost of the hauling. THE MODEL CITY. As I consider that the city of Buffalo has at present the best system of collection and disposal of all its refuse of any city in this country, I give the report of the Hon. Francis G. Ward, Commissioner, verbatim, viz. : "Garbage is hauled to the Baynes Garbage Crematory at Cheektowaga, and reduced under the 'Merz' system. Refuse is hauled to the City Destroyer on Main and Hamburg Canal site, and, after recovery of the valuable portion, destroyed in furnace. Cost of collection, haulage and disposal of garbage, $2.19 per ton. Three separate collections are required : Ashes, Refuse and Garbage. Total cost of collection and disposal of garbage alone, $60.000.00, equal to 15 cents per head (400,000 inhabi- tants. Census, 1906). This work is done under contract with the Buffalo San- HEAT AND LIGHT. 37 itary Company, who have a contract for a period of five years, ending July, 1908, at the following rates : 31c. cubic yard for collection and disposal of ashes, 37j^c cubic yard for collection and disposal of refuse, $2.19 per ton for collection and disposal of garbage." BRUNSWICK, GA. Population, 9,681 The city uses an incinerator for the disposal of dead animals and excrement from water closets which are out- side of the sewerage limits. The plant was installed by the Engle Sanitary & Cremating Co. in 1889. Garbage and waste is burned in the open air on low places and the ashes are used for filling in same. All destructible matter being burned, the tin cans, broken glass, etc., be- come heated red hot and so purified, before being used for filling in purposes. The incinerator is giving satis- faction for the purpose it is used. BOISE CITY, IDAHO. Population, 5,957 The city disposes of its garbage principally by dump- ing it into the river. BALTIMORE;, MD. Population, 508,957 All garbage disposed of under a contract with the Bal- timore Sanitary Contracting Co., which company employs the Arnold-Edgerton reduction process, using 28 digest- ors of 10-ton capacity each, and seven steam roller presses. The contract with this company includes the collection of ashes, miscellaneous refuse, dead animals and garbage, as well as the reduction of the latter, for which they get a lump sum of $200,000 per annum. From the sanitary point of view, it is claimed that their reduction plant has given perfect satisfaction to the mu- nicipal authorities, but when separated from the collec- 38 HEAT AND LIGHT. tion part of the contract, that it is not financially profitable, as the cost of reduction is out of proportion to the value of the tankage. Under their contract this company handles about 30,- 000 tons of garbage per annum which costs to reduce $1.15 per ton. As this cost of disposal is included in that of collection, it is therefore claimed that the contract is not profitable. CHICAGO, ILL. Population, 1,698,575 This city has not yet been able to introduce the incin- eration system of disposing of its garbage. Sometime ago a small reduction plant was built at the Chicago House of Correction, as an experiment. Only a small amount of garbage was disposed of at same. The city dumps all refuse into a drainage canal, which discharges into Des Plaines river; 1,500 tons daily. BOULDER, COLO. Population, 6,150 All garbage disposed of by dumping and then burning same. Other methods too expensive. CHAMPAIGN, ILL. Population, 9,098 All garbage conveyed by the city to a dumping ground, where it is burned. Other methods too expensive. CINCINNATI, OHIO. Population, 325,902 All garbage reduced by the Cincinnati Reduction Co.,- under a five-year contract w f ith the city. The Cincinnati Reduction Co. have the contract for the collection and disposal of all garbage, the system used being the Detroit Liquid Separation system. The com- pany claims that they are satisfied with their contract, and from reports received they are giving satisfaction to the city. HEAT AND LIGHT. 39 , OHIO. Population, 381,768 On Jan. 1, 1905, the city purchased from the Newburg Reduction Co. its entire plant and collection equipment, and since that time has been engaged in collecting and dis- posing of its own garbage. The price paid was $87,500, including fifty acres of land surrounding the plant. Collections in the down-town or business section of the city are made daily, and in the outlying districts from two to three times per week. Householders are required to put the garbage in water-tight metal cans and place the same at a convenient point in the back yards, from which the collector takes it and empties it into iron water-tight wagon boxes. It is then hauled to a central loading sta- tion on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, where by means of an electric crane the box is lifted from the wagon and placed upon a specially constructed railroad car and ship- ped to the plant located at Willow, Ohio, a distance of eight miles from the city. It is then hoisted from the car and dumped upon the receiving floor of the plant, after which it is shoveled into the digestors (of which there are 14), each holding five tons to a charge. Steam is then turned on, and when the garbage is cooked it is removed from the bottom of the digester, and by means of a belt conveyor placed upon small cars and taken to the hy- draulic presses where the liquids are squeezed out. This is then pumped to a vat and the grease skimmed off the top. The solids are conveyed to the dryer, and when dried and screened, are placed in sacks for shipment to fertilizing companies. This material brings about $7.00 per ton. The grease is sold to soap manufacturers at about 3c per pound. Prior to 1905 the city paid the contractor $69,400 per 40 HEAT AND LIGHT. year for the collection and disposal of garbage. This year the council appropriated but $60,000 for this work. The sale of by-products have netted the city about $5,000 per month. The city has spent about $10,000 for addi- tional equipment and increase of plant, and are erecting an addition to the present plant of 60 tons per day capac- ity, which addition was designed and is being erected by the Edson Reduction Machinery Co. CORSICANA, TEX. Population, 9,313 The city has had in operation for the last 10 or 12 years an incinerator with complete success. All night soil, carcasses and garbage is consumed in it without odor, and at a most moderate cost. COVINGTON, KY. Population, 42,938 All garbage is disposed of in an incinerator built by the Dixon Crematory Co. It is stated that the process is fairly satisfactory, DAU.AS, TEX. Population, 42,638 The city operates a Dixon incinerating plant for the in- cineration of dead animals and all refuse which would be objectionable on their dumping grounds. No night soil is incinerated. For the purposes used, it is stated that the plant is satisfactory. EVANSVII^E, IND. Population, 59,007 The city has operated since 1896 an incinerator built 'by the Eagle Sanitary and Crematory Co. at a cost of $9,000. The furnace is an extra No. 4, with a capacity of 45,000 cubic yards per day. It is used solely for com- bustible refuse from stores and residences, consuming about eight tons per day. The plant has proved entirely HEAT AND LIGHT. 41 satisfactory. It is stated that only when the atmosphere is heavy is there any smell from the plant, and then not to an extent to cause objection. EVANSTON, IivL. Population, 19,259 The city formerly operated an incinerating plant built by the John Pearce Co. as an experimental plant, in which only garbage and kitchen waste was destroyed. It is stated that while the above garbage was destroyed with- out any complaint as to odors, that the city found the cost of operation was too high, as the heat was not util- ized. The city has now all waste removed four miles from city limits and plowed under, using part of same as feed for swine. FORT DODGE, IOWA. Population, 12,162 The city uses a dumping ground for its waste, as the expense of any other method was found to be prohibitive. FORT WAYNE, IND. Population, 45,115 The city operates an incinerating plant which was built by the Dixon Crematory Co. in 1896 at a cost of $8,000. In 1903 the building was partially destroyed by fire and was rebuilt and its capacity increased, at a cost of $2,600. Formerly natural gas was used for fuel, but owing to the failure of same, for the past two years coal has been used, which has increased the cost of operation. Only what is strictly classed as garbage is so destroyed, and it is stated that the plant has met all the requirements guaranteed, and is giving satisfaction. The city makes a contract once a year for the collection and delivery of all garbage (except hotels, restaurants, public boarding houses and saloons) at the incinerating plant. The householder is required to provide proper re- ceptacles for the garbage. 42 HEAT AND LIGHT. No attempt has been made to utilize the waste heat. The following report shows the cost of collection and dis- posal for the year of 1904 : Total number of loads collected 2,481 Number of working days 306 Average loads per day 8.11 Number of tons hauled by city wagons 4,953 Number of tons hauled by other wagons 2,216 Total number of tons incinerated 7,169 Average tons per day 23.44 EXPENDITURES. Salaries, attendants $1,713.33 Salaries, collectors 4,300.00 Salaries, scavenger 576.00 Coal 1,584.31 Repairs to wagons and tools 194.02 Fire brick, clay, lime, etc 366.73 Castings 113.05 Grate bars 138.28 Horse for scavenger 110.00 Horse feed 25.00 Gas 11.36 Repairs to building 10.95 Hose 10.50 Chain . 4.95 Miscellaneous 17.65 Total $9,176.13 HEAT AND LIGHT. 43 INDIANAPOLJS, IND. Population, 169,164 The reduction method is used in this city. The plant was installed in 1897 by the Chamberlain Co. and is located at Seller's farm. A local company known as the Indianapolis Dessicating Co. has charge of the haul- ing of the garbage. It is stated that the reduction method has given satisfaction to the city, though both incinerator and reduction have recently been under consideration. JouET, Iiviv. Population, 29, 353 All refuse is disposed of by incineration, the plant be- ing erected by the Dixon Crematory Co. in 1900. Since that time it has been run continuously with the exception of three or four days' shut-down each year for the purpose of making repairs of fire-clay brick. For operating the plant two men are employed for the entire year at $1.75 per day each. The city appropriates $300.00 per annum for coal and a like amount for repairs for furnace. The average cost of collecting and delivering the garbage to the incinerating plant is 71 cents. It is estimated this could be reduced one-half if the plant was more centrally located, instead of outside the city limits. An average of eight tons of garbage per day, which is half the capac- ity of the furnace, is destroyed, about 100 pounds of coal being used to a ton of garbage. Report for December, 1905, shows average cost of operation of this plant as follows : Garbage hauled by city carts 173 J4 tons Rubbish hauled by merchants and pkg. house 22^ " Total amount consumed 195 J4 " Ashes hauled to near-by dumps 969 " Total amount of tons handled 1164 J4 " Amount of coal consumed. , 5 1-3 " 44 HEAT AND LIGHT. Average amount coal per ton garbage 54J4 Ibs. Loads of paper, collected and destroyed (one cart only) 148 Ids. Loads of street sweepings collected 367 Cats cremated 3 Dogs cremated 55 Horses cremated 7 Los ANGERS, CAL. Population, 102,497 This city is at present installing a Decarie incinerating plant which is expected to be in operation by Feb. 1, 1906. LANCASTER, PA. Population, 41,497 This city disposes of all its garbage by the Davis in- cinerator, which is reported to be giving satisfaction. LOUISVILLE, KY. Population, 204,731 An incinerating plant was installed by the Dixon Cre- matory Co., but was closed by injunction upon the claim that it was a nuisance before the plant was operated suf- ficiently long to determine anything as to its merits. Judgment was rendered for the plaintiff in the lower court and affirmed by the Court of Appeals. It was claimed that the contractor guaranteed to dis- pose of 80 tons per day, but actually disposed of only about 30 tons at a cost of about $35.00, or $1.16 per ton. By some it was claimed that the process itself was at fault, while others contended that the entire trouble was due to the fact that the householders would not separate the ashes, etc., from the garbage, though there was an ordinance compelling proper separation. It was stated that the contractor operated the plant for six months and then discontinued it, the city purchasing the plant for $22,000, and after ten days' trial, compelled to shut it HEAT AND LIGHT. 45 down by order of the court. It was claimed that the odors emanated from the plant were noxious and offen- sive, so that the city lost a suit for damages. It is generally believed that the process of separation \vas largely responsible for the odors and not due to any defect in the plant itself, but the plant was finally aban- doned in April, 1891, and the city since that time has been dumping its garbage in the low lands. Individuals may, if they so desire, haul away their own garbage, but gar- bage must be brought to one of the regular city "dumps." The hauling of garbage, ashes, rubbish, etc., is done by the Street Cleaning Department, the total cost for hauling being about 53 cents per load. The carcasses of dead animals are sold to a contractor, who buys same outright from the owner, the average price paid for horses being about $3.00. MILWAUKEE, Wis. Population, 285,315 This city disposes of its garbage by incineration; the plant being erected by the Engle Sanitary and Cremation Co. MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Population, 202,718 This city uses the Decarie incinerating system, and reports that it is disposing of its garbage in a sanitary manner. McKEESPORT, PA. Population, 34,227 The city operates its own incinerating plant, which is giving satisfaction. The incinerator was installed by the Clinton Foundry & Machine Co. MEMPHIS, TENN. Population, 102,320 For some time past all garbage has been incinerated, while it is reported to have been a very satisfactory 46 HEAT AND LIGHT. disposition of the garbage, the cost of keeping the incin- erators in repair has been so great that the city is now considering the question of dumping the garbage into the Mississippi river. The incinerators now in use were installed by the Dixon Crematory Co. and it is stated, except for the fact that they are so much injured by the heat that they are very satisfactory. NEW YORK, N. Y. Population, 3,437,202 There are two incinerators at work in this city for the disposal of light refuse, by which is meant waste paper, old furniture, etc., etc. At the largest plant 150 loads are disposed of daily, while at the smaller plant, there are about 100 loads. The Sanitary Utilization Company disposes of about 880 tons of garbage or food waste per day. This is done by means of digesters and compressors. The grease or fatty substance is extracted and the residue utilized for fertilizing purposes. The incinerating plant is located at Forty-seventh street, North river, furnishing light for the new Williamsburg bridge. This plant cost $31,000 and the electric lighting station $50,000. The incinerator has a capacity of 350 cart loads of 7 cubic yards every 24 hours, each load weighing about 1,000 Ibs., and the heat derived therefrom operates the 400 h. p. installation of boilers. The incinerator is housed in a one-story building 70x 150 feet with a front space where the rubbish carts dis- charge their loads on a metallic conveyor. This carries forward the rubbish between sorting boxes, where the material is trimmed or sorted by hand as it passes. The unmarketable rubbish remaining on the conveyor is car- HEAT AND LIGHT. 47 ried over the cross wall and discharged from the con- veyor upon a fire-proof platform, above the furnaces. The street sweepings carts drive up a roadway on the outside of the building at the rear to a fire-proof plat- form and there deposit their load. The material depos- ited on the platform by the conveyors and the street- sweeping carts is pushed into hoppers which empty into the furnaces. The hot gases of combustion pass through a horizontal flue into the stack, the rubbush burning with- out the aid of any other combustible. When steam is to be generated the gases are sent through the boilers, and thence to the stack. Steam from the boilers is carried through an 8-inch main steam line to the electric lighting station, a building 20 feet away, with outside dimensions of 50x60 feet, in which is installed three engines, each engine direct connected to a generator supplying 240 volts current. There is one feeder for station building lighting, one for incinerator building lighting, and five feeders for bridge service, with the probability of other feeders being added, all of the feeders carrying light to some part of Greater New York. The incinerator is constructed of red brick lined with fire brick, in which a temperature of 2,000 degrees Fahr. is maintained. Natural draft is used, the stack being 114 feet in height. From a test, it was found that one pound of refuse Would evaporate 1.5 pounds of water, producing 232.7 h. p. per hour. The city bears the entire expense of the collection of all refuse. The driver of a garbage wagon is assigned to a sped- 48 HEAT AND LIGHT. fied route, the average length of which is approximately one mile. He is required to remove all ashes, garbage and street sweepings on his route. The garbage is col- lected between certain hours in the morning, and the ashes and street sweepings are gathered during the re- mainder of the day. His hours are from 6 :30 a. m. until his route is cleaned. If he gets through before 4 p. m. his route is increased. The ashes are put outside the house in one can, and the garbage placed outside in another can. The paper cart driver collects the light rubbish along his route. Each house is supplied with a "P. and R." card, which is displayed in a place where it may be easily seen by the driver. The displaying of this card means that there is light rubbish in the house for which the driver is to call. There are 1,316 drivers in Manhattan, the Bronx and Brooklyn. The horses travel an average distance of 20 miles each day. The driver is not allowed to trot his horse. GARBAGE; CART. The ideal style of ash and garbage cart is one that will hold a proper size load; that is water-tight on sides and bottom; that is strong and light; that will tip at the dumping boards ; that will prevent the ashes from blow- ing about the streets when loading and going to the dumping place. Every wagon should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with hot water each trip. The apparatus used by the city of St. Louis, described in this work, is giving perfect satisfaction for such work. HEAT AND LIGHT. 49 THE SALABLE ARTICLES RECOVERED AT A NEW YORK REFUSE DISPOSAL STATION. Material Sold from 18th Street Yard in 1899. Manila paper, pounds 461,385 Newspaper, pounds 905,301 Mixed paper, pounds 442,866 Strawboard, pounds 587,208 Mixed wrapping paper, pounds 635,136 Books, pounds 18,620 Woolen rags, pounds 18,617 White rags, pounds 41,450 Mixed rags, pounds 116,550 Black rags, pounds 200,495 Bagging, pounds 48,055 Twine, pounds 21,070 Soft back carpet, pounds 18,795 Hard back carpet, pounds 79,820 Wool carpet, pounds 3,915 Linsey carpet, pounds 7,180 Rough cloth and old coats, pounds 20,945 Stockings, pounds 4,600 Shoes (bulk), pounds 38,160 Shoes, pairs 1,435 Siphons . . 603 Siphon heads 21 Quarts 1,995 Lagers 18,759 Sodas 7,751 Weiss 104 Iron (scrap), pounds 80,800 Mixed bottles, barrels 350 Hats 2,100 50 HEAT AND LIGHT. SALABLE ARTICLES RECOVERED. (Continued.) Curled hair, pounds 765 Copper, pounds 4-94. Zinc, pounds 2,090 Brass, pounds 1,607 Lead, pounds 303 Rubber shoes, pounds 4,712 Rubber mats, pounds 2,712 Rubber hose, pounds 1,255 Rubber (white), pounds 1,090 Hair cloth, pounds 400 Large bottles, pounds 64 Tin cans, loads 12 Excelsior, pounds 260 Bed springs 16 Mattresses 36 Brushes, dozen 1 There were 116,000 persons in this district, including the occupants of all classes of city buildings, dwellings, tenement houses, department stores, shops, factories, etc. PITTSBURG, PA. Population, 321,616 The city, lets a contract annually to the American Re- duction Co. for the removal of all garbage, the cost ap- proximating $160,000 annually. PORTLAND, OREGON. Population, 90,426 The city operates an incinerating plant for the destruc- tion of all garbage, which was installed seven years ago by the Engle Co., but it is reported not to be giving sat- isfaction, being too wasteful of fuel. The cost is checked daily by use of a pair of platform scales, and will average not less than $1.60 per ton to destroy. Between twenty and thirty tons are destroyed daily. HEAT AND LIGHT. 51 The city has now under consideration the purchase of a more economical incinerator. PHILADELPHIA, PA. Population, 1,293,697 All garbage is disposed of by reduction, under a con- tract with the American Product Co., which company employs the "Arnold system improved" process of reduc- tion. It is reported that the process is giving satisfaction. The cost for removal and disposal of garbage for the year 1905 was $560.000. For 1904 the contract price was $536,700, and 224,256 tons were handled. RICHMOND, VA. Population, 85,000 This city has in operation an incinerator installed by the Eagle Sanitary Co., guaranteed to destroy 75 cubic yards of miscellaneous garbage, refuse and dead animals each day, which capacity is 15 loads of one cubic yard each at one time, and the daily capacity is calculated to be sufficient to destroy all the present daily collection of the city, including summer, when the quantity is greater than the above amount. RALEIGH, N. C. Population, 13,643 The city owns a farm of 200 acres near the city, on which it has sanitary headquarters, as well as stables. All garbage waste is dumped on this farm, which is car- ried on as a farm on a small scale. There is sufficient grain raised on same to provide feed for the stock. READING, PA. Population, 78,961 All garbage is disposed of by reduction, which plant was installed three years ago by the Reading Sanitary Reduction Co., employing the Eddgerton system. The plant is located three miles outside the city limits, and is reported to be a profitable investment. This company both collect and reduce the garbage for $2.24 per 52 HEAT AND LIGHT. net ton, the city paying the expense of the weighmaster and furnishing the scales. This work comes directly under the supervision of the Department of Garbage and the Citv Engineer. SAN FRANCISCO, CAI^. Population, 450,000 The Sanitary Reduction Co. have been operating an incinerating plant under a contract with this city since 1896. By city ordinance all character of refuse is re- quired to be delivered at this plant, the company under their contract receiving 20 cents per cubic yard for the incineration of same, and the city and county receiving 2 per cent rebate. The ordinances under which this contract was let, and those providing for the collection and delivery of all refuse at this plant, and prohibiting the dumping of gar- bage on the streets, highways, empty lots and waterways, were the subject of litigation for several years, being tried in U. S. Circuit Court, approved by the U. S. Court of Appeals, and finally affirmed by the U. S. Supreme Court, fully sustaining the legality of the ordinances. The franchise of this company grants to it the exclusive right of cremating and disposing of all garbage produced in San Francisco, with the privilege of charging the above named price of 20 cents per cubic yard, which means a charge of 60 cents per year for every household, business house or hotel in that city, or about 15 cents per capita, allowing- four persons to a family, as can be seen from the following data : In the year 1894 there were by statistics in San Fran- cisco 99,659 houses, 17,660 of these houses being one story, the balance two, three, four, five and higher story houses, and there were 23,591 stores, saloons, factories, HEAT AND LIGHT. 53 laundries, hotels, shops, mills, etc. This would make the cost of entire refuse disposal 4J4 cents per month for each, or 57 cents per annum. For the year 1905, the num- ber of residences had increased to 198,865, making for that year 60 cents per annum, the price paid for the burn- ing of all garbage from the smallest cottage to the largest hotel. For the year 1905 the total cost of refuse disposal was as follows, viz. : For burning all refuse $46,388.26 City and county for taxes 564.21 Legal expenses defending suit in U. S. Supreme Court 1,516.20 City and county 2 per cent of gross receipts for burning garbage 1,175.76 Office expenses and directors' fee 1,780.00 Depreciation of plant 10,000.00 Total $61,424.43 Leaving net earnings 2,365.87 Total $63,700.30 At 20c per cubic yard, and allowing 3.87 cubic yards to a wagon holding \]/ 2 tons, this would make the cost of incineration about 51 cents per ton. In spite of the violent opposition, this company has disposed of all waste, irrespective of its character, with satisfaction to the citizens and the approval of the city officials. The company has never paid a dividend upon the capi- tal of $500,000 invested. For ten years, it is stated, that these stockholders have been without any interest for their 64 HEAT AND LIGHT. money, but it is generally admitted that this company has not only been the means of giving the city a good sanitary system, but also of providing work for several hundred laborers. The company is so well satisfied with the success of incineration that they have now under consideration the building of a more modern incinerating plant, in order to utilize the waste heat therefrom, for power and electric lighting. When this is done, there can be no doubt but that this company will meet with the financial success it evidently deserves. SAVANNAH, GA. Population, 54,244 The Engle system of incineration was used for quite a time. It is reported that the results were not thoroughly satisfactory, and after the plant was fairly worn out, it was abandoned. The city garbage and waste is now taken out of the city on special cars by the electric railway, to the poor farm of the county, where it is handled by convict labor. SANTA ROSA, CAT,. Population, 6,673 The city incinerates its garbage in a plant built by itself, in which only the dry garbage is burned. They do not attempt to burn the kitchen garbage, and the plant in a small way is reported to be satisfactory. SOUTH, BEND, I ND . Population, 35,999 The city disposes of its garbage by incineration in a plant built by the Dixon Crematory Co. It is reported to be satisfactory to date. STAUNTON, VA. Population, 7,289 Staunton does not dispose of its garbage by reduction or incineration. The matter as to what is the best dis- HEAT AND LIGHT. 55 position to make of garbage and waste has given the city officials no little trouble of late. ST. Louis, Mo. Population, 700,000 At present the city is disposing of all its refuse by dumping it on Chesley Island, which is an island in the Mississippi River, 15 miles below the city, where it is fed to swine. The present cost of collection and disposal is estimated as follows : Amount of refuse collected per annum 70,000 tons. Cost of collection at $1.67 per ton $116,900.00 Cost of disposal at one dollar per ton $ 70,000.00 Total annual cost for handling refuse $186,900.00 An ordinance providing for the incineration of all refuse has been approved by the Board of Public Im- provements, and is now pending in the City Council. Until 1902 the city disposed of all its refuse under a contract with the St. Louis Sanitary Co., which company employed the Merz process of reduction. This contract was annulled by the courts. The reduction works of this company, it is stated, origi- nally cost $275,000, including the land. The daily aver- age capacity of the plant was 226 tons. It contained the following machinery: Twelve 125 horse power horizontal tubular boilers ; One 250 horse power Corliss engine; One 36 horse power engine and one 250 three c. p. light dynamo ; One 60 horse power fan engine; One 75 horse power engine for bone mill and screens ; Three duplex pumps, capacity 525,000 gallons; 56 HEAT AND LIGHT. Two small pumps, capacity 225,000 gallons; Five No. 8 Garden City fans ; Sixteen Eureka driers ; Four Preston digesters, 8^ feet diameter by 14 feet high ; Eight garbage receiving tanks ; One Otis engine and elevator; mill screens, conveyors, elevators, rectifying tanks, oil pumps, etc. The city paid this company for the disposal of all its refuse at a stipulated price per 100 Ibs. irrespective of the character of the same. It is claimed that with the best business management, and no expense spared in its operation, that the company could barely make expenses. SYRACUSE, N. Y. Population, 108,374 For almost ten years the green garbage collected in the city has been treated by a reduction process known, as the Holthaus system. The plant is operated by the Syracuse Reduction Co., a private corporation, which is under con- tract to reduce all of the garbage delivered at the plant by the city for an annual charge of $26,000,00. It is stated that the plant successfully disposes of all of the garbage produced in the city, the collection varying from 35 tons daily in the winter, to upwards of 50 tons in the summer. TAMPA, FI<A. Population, 15,839 The city has in operation an incinerating plant of 25 tons capacity, erected by the Decarie Mfg. Co. TRENTON, N. J. Population, 73,307 The city is operating at the present time an incinerating plant installed by the Davis Garbage Furnace Co., which HEAT AND LIGHT. 57 consists of two furnaces of 25 tons capacity each, which plant has been in operation five years, and it is stated giv- ing entire satisfaction. TROY, N. Y. Population, 60,651 The city has disposed of its garbage for the past twelve years, using the Brown furnace. It is still in good re- pair, and it is stated that the work is satisfactory in every way. TYRONE, PA. Population, 5,847 The city sewers all garbage into the river, and it is re- ported they will continue to do so until stopped, which is not feared for some time to come. UTICA, N. Y. Population, 56,383 The reduction system is operated by a contractor, Henry Stappenback, the Arnold system being used, and it is reported has always given good satisfaction. VINCENNES, IND. Population, 10,249 The city uses a reduction plant installed by Kellersohn & Wirth, which plant is operated by a private company. All garbage, including animal matter, is reduced. Night soil is not reduced. The plant is working satisfactorily. WHEELING, W. VA. Population, 38,878 The city owns and operates an incinerating plant, which was originally installed by the Dixon Crematory Co., but it has been remodeled on different lines several times since. WATERBURY, CONN. Population, 45,859 The city disposes of its garbage, etc., by means of an incinerating plant, which was installed by the Bridgeport Boiler Co., using the Smith furnace. 58 HEAT AND LIGHT. WILMINGTON, DEX. Population, 76,508 The city operates an incinerating plant for the disposal of its garbage, which was built at a cost of about $20,000 ; the maintainance of which is about $15,000 per annum. A Brown incinerator is used, and the evident source of this great expense is the brick lining of the furnace and the use of an auxiliary furnace. The city has now under consideration the abandonment of the incineration method, and the installation of a re- duction plant. The city is operating the incinerating plant, but has in contemplation the letting out of the reduction proposi- tion on contract. WASHINGTON, D. C. Population, 278,718 The city has tried various methods and systems for disposing of its garbage. The first incinerator installed was the Brown incinerator. This one burned down and a Smith incinerator was installed. Both of these it is stated failed to give satisfaction and w r ere discontinued. The city then dumped into the Potomac river until stopped by the City of Alexandria. For four years the garbage was then dumped on a farm and used as a fer- tilizer, until the State of Maryland prohibited same. At present all garbage is disposed of by the Chamber- lain process of reduction under a contract with the Wash- ington Fertilizer Co. Ashes and other waste are depos- ited on the public dumps described below. Paper and other saleable refuse is disposed of at the picking plant recently erected by the contractor for the collection and disposal of that class of waste, while the non-saleable waste material, other than ashes, is burned at the above picking plant. The cost and method of op- HEAT AND LIGHT. 59 eration can be seen from the following extracts taken from the annual report of the superintendent, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1905 : Statistical Summary. PUBLIC DUMPS. Number, maximum to minimum 11-8 Street sweepings received, loads 25,845 Ashes received, loads 72,680 Earth received, loads . . . '. 42,937 Total loads received 141,462 Total cost $4,876.72 Cost per load of material received 0.0345 The dumps controlled by this department decreased from 16 to 11 in 1904, and from 11 to 8 in 1905. Even with the limited number now in use there is almost con- stant opposition manifested on the part of neighboring property owners, and a recurring agitation for the re- moval of all department dumps to points distant from the city. This has heightened, and will continue to do so, the contract price for the removal of ashes, as well as, directly, our own cost of street and alley cleaning. With the marked outward spread taken by Washington's pop- ulation in the past ten years our hauls have been corre- spondingly increased, and within another five years it may be necessary to use street railway transportation to outlying parts of the District from temporary storage sta- tions within the city proper. To overcome, so far as is possible, our manifest disad- vantages over the excavation contractors who offer clean earth to owners of low lands, I am restricting the dump- ing privileges to such private carters only as bring in ashes reasonably free from paper and other rubbish. The 60 HEAT AND LIGHT. new ash-removal contract also provides, on the part of householders, for a strict separation from the ashes of tin cans, old kitchen ware, boxes, and the like, all of which in the past have constituted the chief cause of the unsightly appearance of our clumps and the unpopularity of ashes as a good filling material. In addition, an at- tempt has been made to improve the appearance of the present dumps by covering unsightly slopes so that veg- etation could secure a start, and by burying objectionable material under fresh deposits of clean ashes smoothly leveled off. CITY REFUSE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL. This estimate is made up as follows, the amounts set opposite the five different classes of refuse being the actual rates of the contracts entered into under authority of the act approved January 27, 1905 : Collection and disposal of garbage $78,400.00 Collection and disposal of dead animals 2,360.80 Collection and disposal of ashes 54,000.00 Collection and disposal of miscellaneous refuse 16,500.00 Collection and disposal of night soil 16,500.00 Incidental expenses : Livery 2 horses and buggies for inspectors. 480.00 Repairs to bicycles, stationery and printing 100.00 Total $168,340.80 The lowest bids received were much higher than the old contract prices. Compared with the expenditures in the past fiscal year they show an increase of $69,270, or about 70 per cent. Of this sum, $14,000 represents in- creasing the ash collections from once to twice weekly AND LIGHT. 61 during the winter months. A detailed comparison with the old contract prices is shown by the following table : Increase Classes. 1905. 1906. (_|_) or de- crease ( ). Miscellaneous refuse Ashes Night soil Garbage and dead animals Total $8,000.00 $16,500.00 29,979.00 17,000.00 a43,511.00 54,000.00 16,500.00 80,760.80 98,490.00 167,760.80 4_$8,500.00 _f_24,021.00 500.00 _)_37,249.80 _|_69,270.80 (a) Contract price of $51,600, less $8.089 in rebates to June 30, 1905. Over $37,000 of the total increase is for garbage and dead animals. The present contractor has unquestionably lost money, and, whether because of this or of poor man- agement, the service rendered during the five years of the contract has been notably poor. The bidders on the col- lection and disposal of ashes had to face the ever-growing scarcity of dumps and the much greater hauls necessi- tated. It is estimated that at the end of five years there will not be a piece of ground left nearer than Bennings on which ashes will be permitted by the owners or by the organized bodies of citizens in the neighborhood. It is also a fact that about 25 per cent of the householders have not availed themselves of the ash service. This in- crease is liable at any time to be thrown upon the con- tractor as prices for private collection rise and as the con- tractor's service under the new specifications is made reg- ular and efficient. Other reasons applying to all the in- creases are : The normal growth in population in the five years since the present contracts were let and a marked spreading out of this population to parts of the District of Columbia outside the old boundary ; the higher prices for labor and the greater cost of feed and supplies ; the fact that the former contracts for ashes and rubbish are the first ever entered into by the District, and that the 62 HEAT AND LIGHT. householders in general were slow in availing themselves of the public service; and, finally, that the new specifica- tions were advisedly made more rigid in the determina- tion to secure a better character of service throughout. The following is the form of notice used : NOTICE TO HOUSEKEEPERS. GARBAGE, ASH AND REFUSE COLLECTIONS. Street Cleaning Department, District of Columbia. SIR : In order to secure and maintain a satisfactory collection service, it is necessary that you comply strictly with the following synopsis of article 14 of the police regulations. Thereafter, please report promptly to this office any failure on the part of the contractor. HARRISON STIDHAM, Superintendent. Definitions. "The word 'garbage,' wherever it occurs in these regulations, shall be held to mean the refuse of animal and vegetable food stuffs, except oyster and clam shells from business places." "The term 'ashes' shall be held to mean ashes from coal and other fuels, and will include such mineral substances as fallen plastering, etc., as may accumulate in connec- tion with the ordinary conduct of dwellings, but not such as may result from building operations." "The term 'miscellaneous refuse,' under these regula- tions, means all rubbish and refuse (other than ashes, garbage, dead animals, and night soil) incident to the ordinary conduct of the household. It will be held to include discarded floral decorations, Christmas greens, and small branches from shrubs and vines, but not any cut grass ; nor does it include loam, wall paper, or other AND LIGHT. 63 substance that may accumulate as the result of repairs to yards and dwellings or of other building operations." Receptacles. Garbage shall be placed in tight metal re- ceptacles, having a cover and handle, of a capacity of not less than 3 nor more than 10 gallons. Ashes shall not be placed in receptacles other than metal, of a capacity of not less than 10 nor more than 24 gallons, nor in more than one receptacle containing less than 20 gallons. Miscellaneous refuse shall be placed in suitable recep- tacles that can be easily handled by one man. Paper and other light refuse, likely to be scattered or blown about, if bundled, tied, sacked, or otherwise properly secured, need not be placed in receptacles. Garbage, ashes, and refuse must be kept dry. Accessibility. Receptacles containing garbage, ashes, and refuse shall be made easily accessible to the collect- ors on collection days between the hours of 7 a. m. and 6 p. m. The term "easily accessible," as herein used, means that receptacles shall be placed on the premises at or near the rear or side gate, if collections are made from the rear or side, and in front areaway or other convenient place near to the front entrance, if collections are made from the front. General instructions. "Owners and occupants of premises having street and alley entrances, and from which material is to be removed, shall place and cause to be kept placed conspicuously at the side and rear alley entrance thereof, the street and number designations in letters and figures, respectively, not less than 2 inches in height, so as to be easily read." 64 HEAT AND LIGHT. "No person shall alter, deface, remove, or destroy, any name of any street or number required to be displayed J>y these regulations." "Receptacles containing garbage, dead animals, ashes, or miscellaneous refuse shall not be placed or left for col- lection upon any sidewalk, street, avenue, alley, or public place in the District of Columbia." "It shall be unlawful to place or cause to be placed to- gether in the same receptacle two or more of the above classes of material, and where such mixture results it shall be properly separated by the occupant of the prem- ises." "Any person violating any of the provisions of this ar- ticle shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not less than one nor more than forty dollars." 1905. 1904. Garbage and dead animals: Garbage collected and disposed of, tons. . Dead animals collected and disposed of, number 36,417 9 593 32,282 9 432 Contract price, collection and disposal. . . Extra services $51,600.00 $120 00 $51,600.00 $88 00 Deductions For neglect $3 692 00 $723 00 For rebate, at 50 cents per ton $8 208 68 $6 141 00 Total deduction . . $11 900 68 $6 864 00 Net cost to District $39 819 32 $44 824 00 Cost per ton, removal of dead animals included $1 09 n39 Ashes: Loads by District contractor only .... 22 794 17 257 Cubic yards ditto 91 176 69 028 Contract price, collection and disposal. . . Deduclions for neglect $29,979.00 $591 00 $29,979.00 $176 00 Net cost to District $29,388 00 $29,803.00 Cost per cubic yard, collection and dis- posal $0.32 $0.43 HEAT AND LIGHT. 65 1905 | 1904 Miscellaneous refuse: Bags of paper by District contractor. . . . Cubic yards of trash received from pri- vate haulers 155,416 14 294 139,215 (a) Contract price, collection and disposal.. Deductions for neglect $8,000.00 $89 00 $8,000.00 $17 00 Net cost to District $7 91100 $7 983 00 Cost per bag of paper collected an'd dis- posed of $0 051 $0 057 Night soil: Privies cleaned . ... 26 483 20 819 Contract price, collection and disposal. . . Deductions for neglect $17,000.00 $24 00 $17,000.00 None Net Cost to District $16,976.00 $17,000 00 Cost per privy cleaned $060 $0 82 Ashes and rubbish from District buildings : Loads removed 3 378 2 427 Cubic yards 6 756 4 854 Contract rate per cubic yard $0 38 $0 34 Total cost, distributed among the Dis- trict departments availing themselves of this service. . $2.567.00 $1.650.00 66 HEAT AND LIGHT. SOME RECENT INCINERATOR BIDS WITH ACCOMPANYING GUARANTEES. GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Bids opened Nov. 27. 1905. DECARIE MANUFACTURING COMPANY, Mil i n cap o Us, Mil i n . (1) New steel building, with one Double Decarie Patent Garbage Incinerator, of 80 tons capac- ity per day of 24 hours, together with a down- draft furnace with steam-producing appliances, guaranteed to develop 600 horse power $45,000 (2) Old building, with one Double Decarie Pat- ent Garbage Incinerator, of 80 tons capacity per day of 24 hours $40,000 Guaranteed to dispose of "kitchen garbage, combusti- ble refuse and rubbish and dead animals * * * with- out emitting from the smoke stack or incinerator any noxious odors or gases, and at a cost per ton not to ex- ceed fifty (50) cents, including labor and fuel." City must pay on contract : 50 per cent within 8 days after delivery of material. 40 per cent when plant is completed and ready to op- erate. 10 per cent when plant is accepted. THE: DIXON CREMATORY COMPANY, of Toledo. O. (1) Remodeled present crematory, installing a Dixon Direct Draft Garbage and Refuse Cre- mator, of 40 tons capacity per day of 24 hours. .$16,398 (2) Remodeled present crematory, installing a Dixon Forced Draft Steam-producing Garbage and Refuse Cremator, of capacity as above. . . . 25,100 HEAT AND LIGHT. 67 (3) A new fire-proof building, installing a Dixon Forced Draft, Steam-producing Garbage and Refuse Cremator, of capacity as above 36,480 (4) A new building, installing a Dixon Direct Draft Garbage and Refuse Cremator, of capac- ity as above 19,824 Guaranteed to dispose of "mixed miscellaneous gar- bage, kitchen offal, refuse, slops, dead animals, animal and vegetable matter, condemned fruits, combustible waste, etc., etc., in a sanitary and inoffensive manner." City must pay on contract : 50 per cent upon delivery of the material. 40 per cent upon completion of plant. 10 per cent after test and acceptance. LESTER- VANDERUP FURNACE Co v of New York City. Three Lester- Vanderlip garbage destructors, of capacity of 80 to 120 tons per day of 12 hours, with three 150 h. p. water tube boilers, with flues, blowers, fans, etc., for producing 4,000 net h. p. per day, at actual cost, plus $5,055.19, the actual cost guaranteed to be within 5 per cent of estimate, $20,217.95. Total estimate $25,273.14 New building to be constructed by city accord- ing to plans furnished, at estimate cost of. . 20,000.00 Engines, dynamos and building to be con- structed by city for generation of electric current for 250 lamps of 350 watts each for 12 hours per day, at estimated cost of 22,000.00 Total cost of plant estimated at $67,273.14 68 HEAT AND LIGHT. Guaranteed "to incinerate 80 tons of house refuse garbage, trash and dead animals in 12 hours * * * * without the use of any fuel other than the garbage and refuse, and to accomplish this without odor or smoke at a labor cost not to exceed 38 cents per ton." Every thirty days city must draw warrant for money expended, and pay the $5,055.19 final payment within thirty days after the plant is completed. LEWIS & KITCHEN, of Chicago, Illinois. New fire-proof building, with one garbage crematory of capacity of 80 to 100 tons per day : "S" type, proposal "A" $18, GOO "S" type, proposal "B" 21,000 "B" type, proposal "C" 19,533 "B" type, proposal "D" 21,933 Series burning type, proposal "E" 21,140 Series burning type, proposal "F" 23,540 Cost of incineration per ton, "A," 45 cents; "B," 35 cents; "C," 45 cents; "D," 35 cents; "E," 40 cents; "F," 30 cents. The crematories are arranged so that while one division is being operated for combustion at high temperatures, one or two others are used for drying. SANITARY ENGINEERING COMPANY, of New York City. A new building, with crematory of 80 tons capac- ity per day of 16 hours $35,000 "The cost of operation shall not exceed 50 cents a ton for garbage and swill incinerated," when crematory, or one pair of cells, is burning at full capacity. If sewer con- nection is provided, cost will be reduced by 30 cents per HEAT AND LIGHT. 69 ton of fluid drained off. "The cost of incinerating mis- cellaneous refuse shall be less than that of incinerating igarbage." City must provide for "payments of reasonable amounts" during the progress of the work, and the bal- ance within thirty days after the tests have been com- pleted. RACINE, Wis. Bids opened Jan. 13, 1906. For a 2 5 -ton incinerator. Morse-Boulger Co., New York, N. Y., $9,900. Smead & Co., Cincinnati, O., $5,650. Decarie Mfg. Co., Minneapolis, Minn. (2 bids), $14,- 128 and $13,464. Lester- Vanderlip Furnace Co., New York, N. Y., $12,000. Dixon Garbage Crematory Co., Toledo, O. (5 bids), $9,860, $9,905, $8,830, $8,758 and $6,998. Lewis & Kitchen, Chicago, 111. (4 bids), $6,450.. $7,650, $7,460 and $8,020. Sanitary Eng. Co., New York, N. Y. (3 bids), $9,127, $7,150 and $10,630. LEXINGTON, KY. Bids opened Jan. 4, 1906. For a 50-ton incinerator. Dixon Garbage Crematory Co., Toledo O. (4 bids), $12,610, $11,644, $11,999 and $11,036. Decarie Mfg. Co., Minneapolis, Minn. (4 bids), $20,- 600, $21,960, $19,640 and $20,842. Lewis & Kitchen, Chicago, 111. (4 bids), $12,870, $13,- 785, $18,750 and $19,875. Lester-Vanderlip Furnace Co., New York, N. Y., $16,000. 70 HEAT AND LIGHT. Morse-Boulger Destructor Co., New York, N. Y., $15,800. Geo. H. Pierson, New York, N. Y, $18.000. National Equipment Company, St. Louis, Mo., $22,000. Smead & Co., Cincinnati, O., $5,650. Sanitary Engineering Co., New York, N. Y., $14,217. Sanitary Reduction & Constr. Co., Boston, Mass., $35,000. Engle Crematory Co., Des Moines, la. Royalty. DETROIT, MICH. Bids opened Dec. 11, 1905. For a 200-ton incinerator. Report of the Hon. Controller to City Council on same. To the Honorable the Common Council : Gentlemen In response to advertisements from this office inviting proposals for furnishing the City of De- troit with a municipal garbage disposal plant or plants having an aggregate capacity of 200 tons per day, the following were received : Dixon Garbage Crematory Co., Toledo, Ohio Four 50-ton plants, $80,000. Detroit Sanitary Works Plant at French Landing, Mich., increased to 200-ton capacity, including 13 acres of land and seven 2-story workmen's houses, $100,000. Lewis & Kitchen, Chicago, 111. Plants of 100-ton ca- pacity : Proposal A Storage capacity 50 tons, one plant, $26,- 540; two plants, $51,600; cost of cremation, 45c per ton. Proposal B Storage capacity 60 tons, one plant, $31,- 860; two plants, $59,800; cost of cremation, 40c per ton. Proposal C Storage capacity 100 tons, one plant, $35,650; two plants, $68,400; cost of cremation, 30c per ton. HEAT AND LIGHT. 71 Proposal D Storage capacity 120 tons, one plant, $41,080; two plants, $77,800; cost of cremation, 30c per ton. Plants of 200-ton capacity : Proposal E Storage capacity 100 tons, $52,590; cost of cremation, 45c per ton. Proposal F Storage capacity, 120 tons, $61,680; cost of cremation, 35c per ton. Proposal G Storage capacity, 200 tons, $69,875 ; cost of cremation, 25c per ton. The following bids for disposal plants being more or less irregular and not in accordance with specifications, were not read : Decarie Manufacturing Co., Minneapolis, Minn. One 200-ton plant, $81,750; two 100-ton plants, $85,000. The bids were construed by me to be irregular in that they provided for the incineration of "combustible refuse and rubbish" as well as "garbage," a provision not in the advertisement. Sanitary Engineering Co., New York City One 200- ton plant, $75,000. The bid was irregular in that the proposal was accom- panied by a bond instead of a certified check as called for by the advertisement. ************** The following bid of the Engle Crematory Co., of Des Moines, la., did not in any respect comply with the terms of the advertisement. First. Offer to furnish the city the right to use the "Engle Fuel and Process for Making" for disposal of night soil, garbage and manure during life of the patent, the city to furnish and own the necessary machinery for 72 HEAT AND LIGHT. preparing the same for fuel and to pay the company as compensation therefor one-half of the net profits derived from the use of said fuel and process. Second. Offer to furnish the right to use the com- pany's crematory, patents, the city to pay as compensa- tion therefor for the services and expenses of a superin- tendent of construction to be designated by the com- pany, whose services and expenses shall not exceed $10 per day. A letter was also received from the American Exchange Co., of Providence, R. L, who recommended two 100-ton plants, and stated that the company's apparatus with license for life of the patent would not exceed $75,000 for each 100-ton plant. The machinery necessary to com- plete plant, piping, fittings, shafting, setting up of ma- chinery and the erection of a building to contain the same would add to the cost of each plant not to exceed $80,000, making the estimated cost of each plant, exclusive of site, $155,000. Neither this proposition nor that of the Engle Crematory Co. were accompanied by any certified check. In response to an advertisement inviting proposals for the disposal of garbage for terms of one, three, five and ten years, the following were received : Detroit Sanitary Works, Detroit, Mich. One year contract $24,600 per year Three year contract $14,600 per year Five year contract $13,600 per year Ten year contract $12,000 per year Detroit Reduction Co., Detroit, Mich. Ten year contract, no compensation. If this proposal is accepted the company agrees if de- sired to dispose of all household and shop waste, office and HEAT AND LIGHT. 73 street sweepings and ashes, and all other rubbish, at 25c per ton ; and if ashes is kept separate from above, for 20c per ton. Disposal of night soil, 25c per barrel. The com- pany agrees to sell its plant to the city at an appraised valuation at any time prior to the termination of the con- tract. Nearly all of the bids for disposal plants were accom- panied by more or less elaborate blue prints and plans showing the character of the plant proposed to be erected. I recommend the reference of all of the above named bids, together with the plans and specifications therefor to the Committee on Health. Respectfully, F. A. BLADES, Controller. On Jan. 20. 1906, the Council confirmed the award of the contract to the Detroit Reduction Co. for the free dis- posal of the city garbage for a period of ten years from and after July 1, 1906. It is reported that legal action will be taken to restrain further proceedings. HEAT AND LIGHT. 75 CHAPTER VI THE BRANCH GARBAGE INCINERATOR. (Patented Nov. 21, 1905.) GENERAL DESCRIPTION. (Figs, land 2.) The incinerator is composed of two separate units or furnaces, set at right angles to each other and so con- nected by a by-pass that either one or both can be fired, and the waste gases therefrom led under a battery of boilers before escaping into the stack. The first furnace, or "A," is so connected with the sec- ond furnace, or "B," that the heat and gases therefrom are fed into the second furnace at a point immediately in the rear of the bridge wall, before passing into the boiler furnaces and out through stack. This not only insures complete combustion and destruc- tion of all offensive gases, but gives an even distribution of heat throughout the entire furnace, thus insuring the complete destruction of all garbage dumped into rear end of furnace, the same as nearer the fire. The two furnaces "A" and "B" are provided each with two separate sets of grate bars, one immediately above the other. The garbage is dumped through hoppers upon hollow garbage supporting grates, which run transversely from side to side, being inclined downwardly. 76 HEAT AND LIGHT. These water grates are connected on the sides to two headers, and in the center to a single larger header. Through these headers and connecting water grates the feed water is pumped to the boilers, thereby securing a positive circulation, and preventing the grate bars from burning out. This also does away with the necessity of a feed water heater, delivering the feed water at boil- ing temperature to the boilers. The advantage of having these grates downwardly in- clined is to bring the garbage to the center of furnace, which is the hottest point, and at the same time prevent the clinkers from coming in contact with the sides of the highly heated furnace to which they will adhere. The two upper headers are connected in the rear of each furnace by a "T" from which connection is made direct to the boilers. To the lower header the pump connection is made, into which the cold water from the city main, or other source of feed, is pumped. The water grates are expanded into the upper headers, having first been threaded into the lower or middle header, thus exposing only one threaded joint of each grate to the direct heat of the gases. The fire grates are of the ordinary kind used for firing coal, all made interchangeable throughout. On the sides of the garbage furnaces are openings for stoking the garbage. In the ash pit under the lower garbage grates swill pans are inserted into which the liquid garbage thrown in the hopper above is run, and which is evap- orated by the heat of the furnace itself, passing out with the other gases. There is an offset, or break, in the rear of each furnace, thereby forcing the gases from the upper garbage grates THE BRANCH GARBAGE INCINERATOR St Z..UI Side Elevation and Vertical Section of Branch Incinerator. Fig. 2. CD SO HEAT AND LIGHT. to pass down into the lower furnace before passing out. By this means the unconsumed gases from the upper, cooler and shorter garbage furnace are forced down into the hotter and longer furnace below, where the two are mingled and entirely consumed before being discharged from the first furnace into the second, or from the second furnace into the boiler furnaces, thus insuring more per- fect combustion and greatly aiding the draft. By intro- ducing the heated gases immediately in rear of bridge walls, both the combustion and draft are greatly in- creased. Either natural or mechanical draft can be used, though the latter is preferred, using steam jets for small plants. The entire structure is enclosed in a tank steel casing, using angle irons as show r n in small sketch on cut. A platform extends over the furnaces on to which the garbage carts are driven, and the garbage dumped direct into the furnaces. This incinerator can be built in single or double units, of any capacity desired, and insures the incineration of garbage of every character, including dead animals and night soil. All parts are interchangeable and can be bought in the open market. Any type of boiler can be used, the headers and water grates being similar to those used in the ordinary down draft furnaces. The incinerator can be built with or without boiler at- tachment, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. PRINCIPAL ADVANTAGES CLAIMED. No odor or dust, but complete sanitation. No sorting or handling of garbage at plant. HEAT AND LIGHT. 81 No garbage dumped on the fire or on fire brick. No auxiliary furnace or checker work necessary. No fire brick or tile used for garbage grates, as the liquid garbage soon cracks the highly heated tiles. No uneven distribution of heat in furnace. Fewest number of threaded joints exposed to fire and heated gases. No clinkers brought in contact with the highly heated walls of the furnace, to which they will adhere. All garbage within sight and easy reach of stokers. No water jackets or stay bolts used. Complete and positive circulation through water grates, and ease of access to same at all times. WASTE HEAT UTILIZED FOR POWER OR HEATING PURPOSES. Refuse consumed per square foot grate per hour, 67 Ibs. Water evaporated per pound of refuse from and at 212 degrees Fahr., 1.8 1'bs., average temperature of feed water being 63.4 Fahr. I. H. P. per ton of garbage burnt in 24 hours, 8. Coal consumed per ton of garbage, 90 Ibs. Average temperature of furnace, 1,800 degrees Fahr. Lowest temperature, 1,500 degrees Fahr. Average steam pressure, 115 Ibs. per square inch. Forced draft pressure, 1.8 inches water. Steam consumption of jets, 12 per cent. DETAIL DESCRIPTION. (Figs. 5, 6 and 7.) The incinerating furnaces or crematories 5 and 6 are duplicate in construction and arrangement, and the fur- nace 5 is disposed in a plane at right angles to the furnace Detail Front Elevation of the Branch Garbage Incinerator. Fig. 5. Tank Steek Casing Enclosing Incinerator. Fig. 6. 84 HEAT AND LIGHT. 6, the rear extremity of the said furnace 5 being formed as a part of the side wall of the furnace 6, as at 7. Each furnace 5 and 6 has an inclosing wall 8 of suitable thick- ness and material and of sufficient strength to permit garbage and other vehicles or receptacles to be moved on or over the top thereof for clumping or deposit purposes. The top of each furnace at an intermediate point has garbage-receiving hoppers 9 adjacent to one side and at the opposite side a dead-animal-receiving hopper 10 of greater diameter, the several hoppers 9 and 10 being normally closed by tight-fitting caps or covers 11. In the front extremity of each furnace is a suitably-arched bridge wall 12, and below the plane of the same is a fire grate 13 of any preferred form and accessible by doors 14. Below the fire grate 13 the usual ash pit 15 is pro- vided, and also rendered accessible by doors 16. Imme- diately in advance of the bridge wall 12 and at an ele- vation above the plane of the fire grate 13 is a garbage or refuse-receiving grate composed of a series of down- wardly-inclined tubular members 17, connected at their outer ends to tubular headers 18, held in the side walls of the furnace, and at their inner ends to a depressed header 19, having a greater diameter than the headers 18. The tubular members or grate bars 17 and the headers 18 and 19 constitute a tubular grate, through which water circulates. The tubular garbage or refuse- receiving grate is disposed under the hoppers 9 and 10 and is accessible for cleaning purposes through the me- dium of a rear door 20. The tubular garbage or refuse- receiving grate can also be readily reached for cleaning and other purposes by a series of doors 21 in the rear end of the furnace, As clearly shown by Fig. 7, the HEAT AND LIGHT. 85 front extremities of the central and one side header are connected to a feed-water inlet 22, which may be attached to a city main or any other source of supply, and secured to the rear terminal of the remaining side header and its companion header at the opposite portion of the furnace is a feed-water outlet 23 adapted to be connected to the battery of boilers in any suitable manner to supply the said boilers with' heated water and by this means dis- pensing with the necessity of a feed-water heater for the boilers. A suitable pump may be used for forcing the water into the boilers from the outlet connection 23, Each furnace also has a series of liquid-hoppers 24 at one side, which communicate at their lower terminals with removable swill-pans 25, disposed transversely under the garbage or refuse-receiving grate or resting on the bot- tom of the furnace. The swill or liquid which is deposited in the hoppers 24 and passes into the pans 25 is evapo- rated by the heat of the furnace itself, and the gases gen- erated by such evaporation of the swill or liquid pass out with the remaining gases. It is also frequently necessary to stoke the garbage or refuse on the tubular grates, and for this purpose openings 26, having suitable covers, are formed in the sides of each furnace. The fire-grates of the furnaces are of the ordinary type used for firing coal and all made interchangeable through- out. In the construction of the tubular grates, including the members 17 and the headers 18 and 19, the said tu- bular members are first threaded into the rower or central header 19 and then expanded into the upper side headers 18, thus exposing only two threaded joints to the direct heat of the gases. The advantage of having the tubular grates for receiving the garbage and other refuse down- wardly inclined toward the center of the furnace is to 86 HEAT AND LIGHT. bring the garbage nearest to the greatest point of heat and at the same time prevent clinkers from coming in contact with the sides of the highly-heated furnace, to which under other conditions they would adhere. As before noted, either one or both incinerating fur- naces 5 and 6 may be operated, and when both furnaces are in use the gases and products of combustion pass from the rear of the furnace 5 through an opening 27 into the furnace 6 immediately in rear of the bridge-wall 12 of the latter and under the tubular garbage or refuse receiv- ing grate of the said furnace 6. By this means the gases and products of combustion from the furnace 5 are more intensely heated and taken up in the furnace 6 and pass, with the gases from the latter, through an opening 28 into the adjacent furnace 2 under the first boiler 1 of the battery of boilers and circulate under the said battery of boilers for heating the water in the latter to produce steam and power and finally escape into the main conduit or breeching 4 and then pass into the stack 4a. Be- tween the rear portion of the inner side of the fur- nace 5 and the rear extremity of the adjacent side of the furnace 6 is a by-pass conduit or flue 29, hav- ing a damper 30 near the wall of the furnace 5. The opening 27, forming communication between the rear of the furnace 5 and the furnace 6, is also provided with a suitable damper 31 at times to control the joint operation of the two incinerating furnaces. When the two incinerating furnaces are in operation, the damper 30 of the by-pass 29 is closed, thereby forcing the gas and products of combustion from the furnace 5 to pass into the furnace 6 directly in rear of the bridge-wall 12 of the latter furnace, as heretofore explained. If the furnace 5 alone is in operation, communication with the furnace 6 HEAT AND LIGHT. 87 through the medium of the opening 27 is closed and the damper 30 opened, and under such arrangement the gases and products of combustion are liberated from the rear of the furnace 5 through the by-pass 29 and pass into the rear of the furnace 6 and then escape through the open- ing 28 into the adjacent furnace of the battery of boilers. The furnace 6 can be used alone without operating the furnace 5, and under these conditions the dampers 30 and 31 will be closed. When both furnaces are in operation, it will be obvious that the incinerating capacity of the plant is materially increased and the gases and products of combustion passing into the furnaces 2 of the battery of boilers 1 have a considerable volume, with increased effectiveness as a heating means for said battery of boil- ers. At the rear of each furnace, as clearly shown by Figs. 1 and 2, an offset or break 32 is provided which forces the gases from the upper garbage or refuse-re- ceiving grates to pass down into the lower portion of the furnaces before escaping from the latter. By this means the unconsumed gases from the upper cooler and shorter furnace are forced down into the hotter and larger furnace below where all gases are mingled and entirely consumed before being discharged from the first furnace into the second or from the second furnace into the boiler-fur- naces, thus insuring more perfect combustion and aiding the draft. Furthermore, by introducing the heated gases immediately in rear of the bridge-wall of the furnace 6 both the combustion and draft are greatly increased. This same point of introduction of the gases is also carried out with respect to the furnace 2 under the first boiler 1. Either natural or mechanical draft is used in connec- tion with the furnaces, it being preferred to employ me- chanical draft established by the usual means or through 88 HAT AND LIGHT. the medium of steam- jets. It is also preferable to have a platform structure over the top of the furnaces, onto which the garbage-carts are driven to permit the garbage to be directly dumped into the incinerating furnaces. The entire incinerating structure, including both fur- naces, is inclosed by a tank steel casing 33 (see Fig. 6), having the parts thereof connected by angle-irons 34. Ash-doors 25a are also provided on both sides of the incinerating furnaces in line with the swill-pans, as clearly shown by Fig. 6. The breeching 4 at regular intervals between the connections 3 are provided with dampers 4b to permit the use of one or more of the boilers 1, as may be desired. The opening 28 in the rear wall of the fur- nace is connected by a flue or conduit 28a with the boilers, said conduit continuing under the boilers, and through the furnaces of the latter, as indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 3, to deliver the products of combustion and gases from either one or both of the incinerating furnaces to the most advantageous points within the said boiler furnaces, and to entirely cut off the incinerating furnaces from the boiler furnaces or battery of boilers and permit the latter to be used independently of the said incinerating furnaces a damper 28b is suitably arranged in the opening 28 or in the flue 28a and exteriorly operative. One of the most essential advantages in the operation just explained is complete combustion and destruction of all offensive gases with an even distribution of heat throughout the entire area of each of the furnaces 5 and 6, thus insuring the destruction of all garbage dumped into the rear end of each furnace as fully as the garbage deposited near the fire. Convenience in arrangement and economy in expense of installment are also material points in view of the fact that any type of boiler in the battery HEAT AND LIGHT. of boilers may be used. The headers and water grates or members 17 are similar to those used in the ordinary down-draft furnaces, and the remaining elements can all be bought in the open market and do not require a specific construction to adapt them for use in the furnaces. No firebrick or tile is used in connection with the garbage- receiving grates, and the inconvenience resulting from the liquid or moist garbage contacting with highly-heated brick or tile is obviated. As before described, the tubular members or grate- bars 17 are threaded into the intermediate or central en- larged header 19, and in applying the said tubular mem- bers or grate-bars they are inserted through openings 35 and 36 at diametrically opposite points in the outer head- ers 18, the upper ends of the said grate-bars being ex- panded into the lower openings 36 of said outer headers. The outer openings 35 have closing-nipples 37 and are of such diameter that the grate members 17 can be inserted therethrough and also through the openings 36, and after assemblage of the grate-bars in the manner set forth the nipples are applied to the said outer openings. The most essential feature of this apparatus is the right- angular arrangement of the incinerating furnaces 5 and 6, and the advantage gained by such disposition of the furnaces is the increased length of travel given the heated gases, permitting the incinerating furnace 6, or second unit, to not only consume the unburned gases from the first furnace 5, but also to assist the draft and permit an easy firing of all the furnaces of both units. Another im- portant advantage is the arrangement of the incinerating furnaces in operative relation to the battery of boilers and their furnaces for practical employment or utilization of HEAT AND LIGHT. 91 the waste gases for steam-raising purposes, yet have the parts so constructed that the battery of boilers is used alone at times when the incinerating furnaces are not in operation. It has been found that no incinerating plant can be successful if it does not provide for a utilization of the waste gases and of the disposition of the inciner- ating furnaces in angular relation as specified, whereby waste gases are given a greater range of travel and cumulative in the second incinerating furnace or the lat- ter nearest to the battery of boilers. Outer water jackets are also dispensed with, and the disadvantages incident to such jackets are overcome in the present incinerating furnace structure by non-use of such devices. The use. of an auxiliary furnace is not required in the present structure, and consequently the expense in this direction is further avoided, as well as the unsatisfactory operation of auxiliary furnaces. 92 HEAT AND LIGHT. BRANCH WAGON WASHER AND DISINFEC- TOR. (Patents Allowed.) The object of this apparatus is to furnish an unlimited quantity of hot water, or water having a disinfectant com- bined therewith, which may be discharged at any desired pressure and temperature into the garbage wagons, whereby the same may be quickly and thoroughly cleaned, and if desired also disinfected. In order to accomplish this two tanks are used in conjunction with a boiler so that while the hot water is being discharged from one tank, the other tank is being filled with water and heated. DETAIL DESCRIPTION. (Fig. 9.) Referring to the Fig. 9(1) indicates a vertical boiler in which the steam used in the apparatus for heating pur- poses and for supplying pressure, is generated, (2) and (3) indicate respectively, two steel tanks for contain- ing water, or water and the disinfectant to be employed, and (4) indicates a tank containing the disinfectant. This apparatus as installed by the City of St. Louis, consists of one 40 h. p. vertical boiler, 48x120 inches, constructed by the Brownell Company of Dayton, Ohio, and two high-pressure steel tanks, 3 feet in diameter by 6 feet long, each of a capacity of 318 gallons. When burning 2 1-3 bushels of coal per hour, 2,500 gallons of water at 60 degrees can be heated to 150 degrees and discharged under 90-pounds steam pressure per square inch per hour. It was put in operation April 1, 1905, and has since been in continuous service, cleaning and disin- View Showing Tanks and Connections of the Branch Garbage Wagon Washer and Disinfector. Fig. 9. HEAT AND LIGHT. 95 f acting on an average of seventy-five wagons per day, and without costing one cent for repairs. Fig. 10 shows this apparatus in operation. Fig. 11 is a type of animal wagon used by that city. The following letter from the former Street Commis- sioner sets out fully the capacity and merits of this ap- paratus. CITY OF ST. LOUIS Street Department, Commissioner's Office. May 31, 1905. MR. Jos. G. BRANCH, Chief Inspector, Boilers and Elevators, City Hall. MY DEAR SIR : The Garbage Wagon Washer and Disinfector designed by you for the use of this Department has been in opera- tion since April 1st, 1905, and giving perfect satisfaction. With the Washer we can heat 300 gallons of water to 200 degrees Fahrenheit in seven minutes, and by using the two tanks alternately we always have an abundant supply of water. It cleanses and disinfects the wagons perfectly, requiring about 30 seconds to a wagon. Respectfully, (Signed) CHAS. VARREXMANN, Street Commissioner. HEAT AND LIGHT. 97 SPECIFICATIONS (Figs. 3 and 4.) Covering the Construction of the Branch Garbage Incin- erator of 50 Tons Daily Capacity, of 24 Hours. Same to be built in accordance with the accompanying plan and following specifications : The' drawings and explanations herewith submitted are to be considered as illustrations and parts of these specifi- cations. General plans drawn to a scale of 1J4 inches to the foot, and detailed drawings to a scale of 1 inch, y 2 inch and 1-3 inch to the foot shall be furnished if de- sired. GENERAL, CONSTRUCTION. The incinerator as shown upon drawings shall be of brick and steel construction, outside dimensions 8 feet by 7 feet 2 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, the outer shell of the incinerator being %-inch steel plates, securely held in place by angle-iron supports at the four corners, with angle-iron stifreners around top and bottom of the shell, of the size and dimensions shown upon drawings. Longi- tudinal and traverse tie rods shall be used for the pur- pose of tieing brick walls and steel shell firmly to- gether. The upper garbage furnaces shall contain one central drum in each, which drum shall be 10 inches outside diameter, made of special lap-welded steel tubing with walls Y-2 inch thick, and tested to 150 Ibs. per square inch hydrostatic pressure. The two lateral drums in each furnace shall be made of 8-inch extra heavy pipe, and also tested to 150 Ibs. per square inch hydrostatic pres- 98 HEAT AND LIGHT. sure. The central drums shall be each equipped with one complete hand hole, with cover arch, bolt and gas- ket; the lateral drums shall each be fitted with one o 1 /? by 5^ -inch hand hole, complete, with cover arch, bolt and gasket. The incinerator shall be provided with one steel drum 7 feet by 30 inches, tested to 150 Ibs. hydrostatic pres- sure, and fitted with one hand hole, complete. Each drum shall be further provided with proper water glass and gauge cocks. The garbage water tube grates shall be made of 2-inch special cold drawn seamless steel tubing, spaced as shown on the drawings from which these specifications are made. In the 8-inch drums, directly opposite each of the water tube grates, there shall be located an opening of sufficient size to allow the tube to pass through same, and be threaded into central drum and expanded into lateral drums. These openings shall be provided with brass plugs of the proper dimensions. All drums and water grates shall be provided with all necessary connections, same to be of extra heavy pipe. The water inlet and outlet pipes shall be 2J4 inches, and the connections between the 8-inch drums shall be 2 inches. All fittings through- out shall be extra heavy, and all valves used be of the best standard make. The incinerator shall be provided with double firing furnaces, each furnace 5 feet wide by 6 feet long, and provided with standard double grate bars, 6 feet long, with the necessary front and back bear- ing bars for supporting same. The firing furnaces shall be provided with tw r o cast iron fire doors, fitted with draught shutters and perforated liners. The firing doors HEAT AND LIGHT. 99 shall be attached to furnaces by means of cast iron frames, and each firing door shall be provided with a liner box 9 inches deep. The ash doors shall be made of 14-inch tank steel, properly hinged to furnace. The sides of the incinerator shall be provided with the proper number of cleaning-out doors, as shown in plans. On top of the incinerator, directly over the water tube grates, shall be located two garbage chutes 18 inches inside diameter, made of cast iron, and one animal chute 30 inches inside diameter, all made of cast iron, and all of which chutes shall be fitted with heavy cast iron covers provided with rings for lifting same. On either side of the incinerator, and in line with the circular openings for garbage and dead animals, shall be located one side hopper for liquid garbage, fitted with sliding valves held in place with angle-iron guides, and fitted with counter-weights and wire cables for opening and closing same. In the bottom of the side hoppers shall be placed 3-16- inch steel perforated drain plates ; these drain plates to allow the discharge of all liquids from the garbage to be conducted directly to the evaporating pan through vertical drain pipes, which connect with flanges on the bottom of the hoppers as shown. These drain pipes pass through the shell of the furnace at points indicated on drawings, and shall discharge all liquids as before men- tioned, directly into the evaporating pan. This evaporating pan, which is located beneath the lower garbage furnace, shall be constructed of 5-16-inch steel plates with a 4-inch live steam space properly stayed to withstand a steam pressure of 150 Ibs. to the square inch. Outside dimensions being 24 inches by IT inches. A live steam connection from the steam and water space to the evaporating pan shall be made of 1^-inch piping, fitted 225-foot Stack, Iron Lined with Brick. 200-ton Incinerator. Fig. 12. 125-foot Stack Dimensions for 50-100-ton Incinerator. Fig. 13. 102 HEAT AND LIGHT. with necessary valves for opening same. This evaporat- ing pan shall also answer the purpose, and shall be used, as an ashpan, receiving the ashes which pass through the cast iron lower grates. At the under side of the evaporating pan a connection shall be taken from the live steam space, and by suitable piping the condensa- tion from the evaporating pan shall be led to a steam trap, and from there discharged into a hot well. At the front end of the firing furnace, and securely fastened to the shell of same, shall be a combustion chute for waste paper, boxes, etc., fitted with suitable cast iron valve. The valve shall be constructed and operated in the same manner as those in the side hoppers. This combustion chute shall be constructed of j4~ mcn steel plates, firmly riveted to corner angles, as shown, and ex- tending from the front end of the furnace to the line of unloading floor, \vhere it shall be fitted with heavy angle- iron stiffeners, and also provided with wrought iron handles for opening and closing same. There shall be NO WATER JACKETS OR STAY BOLTS USED THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION, EXCEPT FOR THE EVAPORATING PANS AS ABOVE SET OUT. NO THREADED JOINTS SHALL BE EXPOSED TO THE FIRE, OR HEAT- ED GASES, OTHER THAN ABOVE SET OUT. FIRE DOORS AND STOKING DOORS. At the sides of the incinerating furnaces shall be lo- cated suitable firing and stoking doors. The upper, or stoking doors, shall give free access to the "V"-shaped grates, and admit of the free stoking of the material. The lower, or fire doors, open directly to the lower grates. These garbage fire doors and stoking doors shall be fitted HEAT AND LIGHT. 103 with wrought iron latches, so arranged as to guard against any possibility of doors being opened other than when necessary for stoking, and other purposes. Proper ash doors shall permit of easy access to the evaporating pan located as above set out. INTERIOR FIRE BRICK AND FIRE TILE LINING. The interior walls of the incinerator shall be of the best quality of fire brick and tile. Suitable steel or wrought iron anchors shall be used for securely holding the brick and tile in place. No part of the walls shall be less than 13 inches in thickness, and same shall be built in strict accordance with plans and drawings attached. SMOKE STACK. (Fig. 13.) The smoke stack shall be of brick construction, 125 feet in height and 4 feet in diameter, and constructed as shown in detailed blue print herewith submitted. There shall be a steel ladder constructed and attached to the stack, running the full length from roof to top of stack. DUST CATCHER. There shall be a dust catcher chamber, constructed ac- cording to the plans accompanying these specifications. MECHANICAL DRAFT. The incinerator shall be equipped with steam jets under each firing furnace, which jets shall not consume more than 12% of all steam generated at a boiler pressure of 110 Ibs. to the square inch, and which jets shall give an ashpit pressure of at least 1^ inches. 104 HEAT AND LIGHT. POWER OR HEAT. The incinerator shall be provided with proper by-pass connections, fire-brick lined, of the dimensions shown on the drawings, so as to permit of the utilization of all the waste heat therefrom for boiler power or heating, should it at any time be desired to so utilize such heat. The average temperature of the garbage furnaces shall be at least 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit, when the same are charged to their full capacity, and the waste heat there- from shall show an evaporation of at least one pound of water from and at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, for each pound of refuse burned. For larger size incinerators steel stacks lined with fire brick are much less costly than brick stacks and give good service. Fig. 12 shows a steel stack for a 200-ton incinerator, for which the following are proper specifications, viz. : The smoke stack shall be of steel construction 225 feet in height, the first 50 feet to be 7 feet in diameter, and the balance to be 6 feet in diameter, and of the weight and con- struction as shown in detailed drawings of stack, and fully described in separate stack specifications. Stack shall be properly held in place by suitable bands and guy wires fastened to anchors as shown upon drawings. There shall be also a steel ladder constructed and attached to the stack, running the full length from the roof to the top of the stack. Stack shall also be lined with circular fire brick for the first 50 feet from the base. HEAT AND LIGHT. 105 HEIGHT OF CHIMNEYS. Area Square Feet. Diameter, Inches. 75 Heights in Feet. 80| 85| 90| 95|100|110| 120| 130| 140| 150| 175| 200 Commercial Horse Power. 3.14 3.69 4.28 4.91 5.59 6.31 7.07 8 . 73 10. 5G 12.57 15.90 19 . 63 23.76 28.27 38.48 50.27 63.62 78.54 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 40 44 48 54 60 66 72 84 96 108 120 75 | 90 78 92 106 122 81 95 127 144 162 1 98 130 149 168 188 ...... ... i 133 152 171 192 237 287 120 137 156 176 198 244 296 352 445 164 185 208 257 310 370 468 577 697 1 ' ' ' i . . 215 267 322 384 484 600 725 862 1173 1 279 337 400 507 627 758 902 1229 1584 2058 i 413 526 650 784 932 1270 1660 2102 2596 1 1 " " 672 815 969 1319 1725 2181 2693 I 1044| 1422J 18591983 2352|2511 290413100 i The following heights are recommended for chimneys, with the coals mentioned : 75 feet for free burning bituminous coal, 100 feet for slow-burning bituminous slack, 115 feet for slow-burning bituminous coal, 125 feet for anthracite pea coal, 150 feet for anthracite buckwheat coal. With such coal as Mt. Olive, a 150-foot stack is recommended. With plants operating 600 or more horse-power of boilers, 180 feet is the minimum height, irrespective of the kind of coal that is to be burned. For large plants a 200-foot stack is not excessive. 106 HEAT AND LIGHT. co O I I ^ Q CO O O K I-H CO CO O CO H ffi O oooooooooooooooooooo oooooooc>oooooooooooo OOCOCOCOOLOCOOOOU5OCOOO<MlOOiLOOOCOOO i IT It OiCOi IOOO ooooe>o>oooooooooooo>oo OO 0-3 CO CO O LO (TO O OO IO O CO OO CM IO Oi IO OO CO OO CO OO t CO CO t -<ti i I OO **< OO i?i C^I CO l^ ooooooooo-oooooooo OOooOOOiOOOoO LO LO LOLOIO^LO LOLOK3 HEAT AND LIGHT. 107 The gauge and price are determined by the diameter of the stack. For a stack 10 inches, to 18 inches in diameter, use a No. 18 gauge iron, which will cosf about 5 cents per Ib. From 18 inches to 40 inches diameter, use 18-inch, 16-inch and 14-inch gauge; which will cost 5 cents per Ib., and for larger diameters, use 10-inch and 12-inch gauge, costing for No. 12 gauge 3^ cents and No. 10 gauge cents per Ib. 108 HSAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER VII. STEAM AND HOT-WATER HEATING. No branch of engineering has made as rapid strides in the last few years as sanitary engineering. The steam and hot-air furnace, with their expense, dirt and inconveniences, have given way to steam and hot- water systems of heating, affording a luxury to the rich and poor alike which was formerly unknown. The various systems of heating by steam may be classed : ( 1 ) high-pressure systems ; ( 2 ) low-pressure systems; (3) vacuum or exhaust systems. Under the class of high-pressure systems are all systems that require for heating a greater boiler pressure than 15 pounds per square inch; in the second class are those that operate between 15 pounds boiler pressure and the atmospheric pressure, while in the third class are all sys- tems that work at a lower pressure than the atmosphere; that is, require a partial vacuum for their successful opera- tion. Each of these systems in turn may be subdivided into: (1) the one-pipe system; (2) the two-pipe system; (3) the two-pipe system, with separate return risers; (4) the overhead main, or drop-supply system. These subdivisions are further subdivided into gravity return systems and forced return systems. In the gravity return system the condensation flows back to the boiler by gravity. To operate this system it is therefore necessary that the full boiler pressure be HEAT AND LIGHT. 109 carried on the entire heating system, which is unsafe and impractical, and it therefore is not much in use. In the forced return system the condensation is forced back into the boiler from the return mains of the system by the use of a pump, steam trap or steam loop. To operate this system a reducing valve is necessary, which valve is placed on the steam supply pipe to the system. This system is most generally used, having the avdantage of both safety and economy. The main difference therefore between steam-heating systems, is the method of returning the condensation to the boiler. ONE-PIPE SYSTEM. This system, as shown in Fig. 14, is the simplest form of heating systems, and the system now universally used, when the building or the space to be heated is not too large. The steam from the boiler is carried to the risers through one pipe, the condensation flowing back through the same pipes, thereby causing the steam and condensa- tion to move in opposite directions, which is a disad- vantage, as the steam becoming wet, may cause a water "hammer." With proper installation, and by keeping all valves wide open, this can be avoided. TWO-PIPE SYSTEM. This system, as shown in Fig. 14, has two connections for each radiator, one serving as an inlet for the steam and the other as an outlet for the water of condensation, the steam passing through one pipe and the water flowing back to the boiler through the return pipes. In this sys- tem the steam and water are carefully separated, and the Q. D. c O 112 HEAT AND LIGHT. circulation is therefore much better in this system than in the one-pipe system. The principal objection to it i? its first cost. THE SEPARATE-RETURN SYSTEM. The only difference in this system from the ordinary two-pipe system is that each radiator is provided with its own separate return pipe. THE DROP-PIPE SYSTEM. In this system the steam supply passes through a riser direct from the boiler to the highest point of the system. The radiators are connected to the steam supply pipe with single pipes, the same as in the one-pipe system, but in this system the steam and condensation move in the same direction. EXHAUST OR BACK-PRESSURE SYSTEM. This system, as shown in Fig. 15, is a low-pressure system, having the great economical advantage of per- mitting of the utilization of the exhaust steam from engines and pumps, which would otherwise go to waste. The steam-heating main is connected to the exhaust pipe from the engine or pump, also to a live steam pipe from the boiler. This live steam when used is made to pass through a pressure reducing valve, which reduces the pressure to the amount required for the heating sys- tem. Should the supply of exhaust steam become ex- cessive, the excess will escape by the opening of the back pressure valve and its discharge into the atmosphere. When the engines or pumps are stopped the steam in the heating system is prevented from passing backwards and HEAT AND LIGHT. 113 filling the same with water by the use of a check valve. The relief valve is set to blow off at a pressure of about one or two pounds higher than that maintained by the reducing valve. The safety of the system depends on the proper working of this relief valve. As exhaust steam at five pounds gauge pressure con- tains 971 B. T. U., the merit of this system can at once be seen. This system is in universal use for heating large office buildings and entire business districts where access can be had to steam power plants. THE VACUUM SYSTEM. This system differs from the exhaust system just described in that its operation causes no additional back pressure on the engine or pump, but removes at least a part of the back pressure from same, as a vacuum is constantly maintained on the returns. This farther permits this system to be operated either as a high or low pressure system, and to secure its steam supply from any source, either as exhaust or live steam. Generally the system is operated with exhaust steam, a two-pipe system being used. The returns are connected to a receiver, which collects the air and water in the system. To this receiver is connected a vacuum pump, which removes all the air and water in the system, and maintains a vacuum at any desired degree. This pump only removes the air and water from the system, which are discharged into an open tank, permitting the air to escape, and the water remaining is pumped back into the boiler, using an ordinary feed pump for this pur- pose. 114 HEAT AND LIGHT. The thermostatic valves which are placed on the return end of each radiator to open automatically when water or air passes, are made to close when steam begins to pass. With this system steam can be used at a temperature as low as 140 deg. F., and at the same time the capacity of the engine to do work is increased. As the tempera- ture of the steam used in this system is lower than in other systems, the radiators must be proportionately larger. The Webster vacuum system, which is shown in Fig. 1C), is one of the best vacuum systems on the market. HOT-W r ATER HEATING. Hot-water systems are very similar to the steam sys- tems described, except that hot water flows through the pipes and radiators, instead of steam. The hot-water system has the great advantage, though, of the ease of regulation of the temperature. With a steam system, it is necessary to regulate the temperature by turning on or off the steam entirely, which causes either too high or too low a temperature, unless operated carefully. With a hot-water system the radiators can be kept turned on at all times, the regulation of temperature being secured by varying the temperature of the water flowing through them. There are two distinct hot-water systems of circulation employed, one depending on the difference in temperature of the water in the outlet and return pipes, called gravity circulation, and the other called the forced circulation system, in which a pump is employed to force the water through the mains. The first, or "gravity circu- lation" system, is used for dwellings and buildings, and the latter system for large buildings, and wherever there HEAT AND LIGHT. are a long run of mains. For the first system usually a sectional cast iron boiler is employed, although any type of boiler may be employed. In the second or "forced circula- tion" system, a heater to warm the water, and a centrifu- gal or rotary pump is used. Fig. 17 is type of a sectional cast iron boiler. A system for hot-water heating costs more to install than a steam-heating system, owing to the difference in the expense of the radiators, and the larger piping that is required but is more economical. INDIRECT HOT-WATER SYSTEM. In this system the air to be heated is taken from a cold air box in connection with the space beneath the heater. This air in passing through the spaces between the sec- tions of the heater, and becoming warmer, rises to the rooms above through registers placed in the floors or \valls, as most convenient. FORCED-BLAST HEATING. This system of heating is used for the warming of factories, schools, churches, or any large building where good ventilation is also desired. The air to be used for warming is either drawn or forced through a heater of special design by a fan or blower and discharged into ducts which lead to registers placed in the halls to be heated. By means of a by-pass damper, so placed that only part of the air will pass through the heater and part around and over it, the proportions of cold and heated air may be so adjusted as to give the desired temperature to the air entering the halls. Sectional Boiler for Steam Heating. Fig. 17. 118 HEAT AND LIGHT. COST OF OPERATION OF THE COLONIAL SECURITY PLANT. An Office Building in St. Louis. -^ William Toevs, Engineer. Coal 260 tons at $1.84 per ton $478.40 Wages for engine room 315.00. Washing boilers on Sunday 10.00 Packing, oils and waste. . . 25.00 Repairs 25.00 Hauling ashes 35.00 Total $888.40 Cr. Heat and steam sold $471.00 Electric lights, 13,795 K. W. at 3c per Killo hour. 413.85 HEAT FOR BUILDING. 734,400 cu, ft. of air, for which is required 12,240 sq. ft. radiation, at lOc per sq. ft $204.00 ELEVATORS FOR BUILDING. 30 h. p. per day of 10 hours, 80 Ibs. water per h. p. hour 2,400 Ibs 10 h. p. for G hours at night, 80 Ibs, water per h. p. hour 4,800 " Total Ibs. water used per day 28,800 " Per month of 26 days 748,800 " 10 h. p. for 48 hours on Sundays 38,400 " Total water used for elevators 787,200 Ibs. HEAT AND LIGHT. U9 COAL CONSUMED. Evaporation 1 Ib. of coal to 5 Ibs. of water, 787,200 Ibs. water divided by 5, equals 157,440 Ibs of coal burned, or 73 tons at $1.84 per ton equals $134.32. Adding 35% loss from friction pumping 12,000 to 14,000 gals, of water for building daily, $40.90. Total, $181.20. 6 h. p. for 12 hours at 100 Ibs. per hour, or 7,200 Ibs. per day, or 21,600 per month; 21,600 Ibs. water requires 43,200 Ibs. of coal, costing. . . $28.64 Cost for heating 6,000 gals, daily, raising tem- perature from 60 to 140 degrees, requiring 1 Ib. of coal for each 2 gals, of water, or 3,000 Ibs. coal daily, or 90,000 Ibs. monthly, cost. . $82.80 Income $1,380.40 Expense 888.40 Cr. to building $492.00 The wages for one of the engine room employes should be charged to house expense, being $60.00 per month,, for electric work, plumbing and care of radiators. 120 HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER VIII. INCINERATORS COMBINED WITH CENTRAL HEATING PLANTS. The success of incineration depends upon the utiliza- tion of the waste heat from the furnaces, and the success of central heating plants depend upon their ability to ob- tain heat for their requirements at a much less cost than now paid for coal, or the exhaust steam from neighboring power plants. Therefore the two are to a great extent mutually de- pendent upon each other, and especially is this true as to the heating plant, for the waste heat from incineration can be utilized for electric lighting, water works, sewer- age, or other power purposes. Of the 190 central heating plants at present in operation in this country, there is not a half-dozen of such plants making a dividend, which is due alone to the necessity of supplementing the exhaust steam with coal, and this ap- plies alike to both hot-water and steam-heating systems. With coal at $2.00 per ton and exhaust steam at 3^ cents per 1000 pounds, no heating plant can be operated at a profit when charging the usual price of 18 cents per square foot for radiation, unless the plant can obtain a sufficient supply of exhaust steam to do their entire work, with the system well loaded. As it is usually impossible to get such a supply of ex- haust steam from neighboring power plants, except when HEAT A^D LIGHT. 121 the system is very small, it becomes necessary to use a good grade of coal for the additional heat required, which makes it only a question of time before the plant will go into the hands of a receiver. While central heating plants have proved almost without exception financial failures, they have given universal satisfaction to their patrons, and the extent of their business has been limited only by the heating company's refusal to make further extensions, or accept more business. In many cities the service has been so satisfactory that the patrons have volunteered to assist in increasing the rates permitted by the ordinance under which the company obtained its franchise, while others seeking to obtain its service, have advanced to the company the necessary amount to have it installed in their residences. There can be no question as to the popularity and the general demand for central heating at reasonable rates. The present difficulty is to so reduce the expense of operation of the plant so as to permit of such rates. This can be done only by obtaining waste heat in large quantities at a small cost. The heat from coal is too expensive, for there is just so many heat units in coal, varying with the grade of the coal, and the num- ber of these heat units can neither be increased nor diminished by any means in our power, and the price, therefore, necessary to charge for same in order to operate the plant with a profit, makes its service in most instances prohibitive to the general public. The heat units in ex- haust steam can be obtained at a must less cost, as they have assisted in performing work before being allowed to escape as waste from the exhaust of an engine or pump. These heat units are not again available for power, but retain their value for heating purposes, and it is on them the present heating plants must rely for their success. 122 HEAT AND LIGHT. But such supply is necessarily limited. The waste heat from an incinerator is ample and the cost low enough to make it almost priceless in value to heating companies. As the heat from one ton of refuse in incineration will develop 8 H. P., at a cost of 19 cents, or 2.4 cents per H. P., and as one H. P. will supply from 150 to 200 square feet of radiation, which can be sold at least for 18 cents per square foot, the profit which therefore can be derived from the combination of an incinerator with a central heating plant, is amply sufficient to enable heating companies to give satisfaction not only to their patrons, but also to their stockholders. In order for heating plants to utilize this waste heat, it is only necessary that they install their boilers between the incinerator and the chimney, and the waste heat to be properly conducted under same before being allowed to escape. This, of course, means that the heating plant, with its pumps, and necessary machinery, must be installed within close proximity to the incinerating plant, but this is no objection ; on the contrary, it is an advantage, for the same labor can then operate both plants at a con- siderable saving. Should the city operate the incinerat- ing plant, then the waste heat can be purchased outright by a company paying an agreed price per boiler H. P. developed ; or, for the steam generated per 1000 Ibs., using a steam or condensation meter for measuring same. As incinerating plants must be operated continuously night and day the entire year, for at least seven months in the year it makes this heat especially adaptable for heating purposes. During those months when no heat is required by the heating company, the heating system can be thoroughly overhauled and made ready for the next season's work. During this period the waste heat HEAT AND LIGHT. in part can be utilized for the works purposes and the balance either sold for other purposes, or allowed to go to waste, for there certainly should be sufficient profit made during the heating season alone to satisfy any company. RADIATORS. Fig. 19 shows the general form of a radiator for direct heating which is similar for steam and hot water, the one difference being that the sections are connected at the top, as well as the bottom, for hot water, but con- nected only at the bottom for steam. A cap is used to close the ends of the top connection, and by this the dif- ference in the two radiators can be seen at a glance. Radiators for indirect heating differ in construction so as to permit the cold air to be heated, to be freely drawn or forced around or through them. RADIATION SURFACE. The following will show the proportionate radiation surface to the cubical contents of the room to be warmed, where direct radiation is used : Bathrooms and living-rooms with three exposed walls and a large amount of glass surface require an allowance of 1 square foot for each 40 cubic feet. Bathrooms and living-rooms with two exposed walls and a large amount of glass surface require an allowance of 1 square foot for each 50 cubic feet. Bathrooms and living-rooms with one exposed wall and an ordinary amount of glass surface require an allowance of 1 square foot for each 60 cubic feet. Sleeping rooms require an allowance of I square foot for each 60 to 70 cubic feet. 124 HEAT AND LIGHT. Halls require an allowance of 1 square foot for each 50 to TO cubic feet. School rooms require an allowance of 1 square foot for each 60 to 80 cubic feet. Churches and auditoriums having large cubical contents and high ceilings require an allowance of 1 square foot for each 65 to 100 cubic feet. L,ofts, workshops arid factories require an allowance, of 1 square foot for each 75 to 150 cubic feet. SIZES AND CAPACITY OF THE BRANCH STEAM TRAPS. No. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Height over all 48 in. 38 in. 27 in. 18 in. 12 in. Size of pipe connection 2% in. l 1 ^ in. 1*4 in. 1 in. % in. Weight 800 Ibs. 300 Ibs,. 130 Ibs. 90 Ibs. 30 Ibs. Kineal ft. 1-inch pipe trap will drain 60,000 27,COO 13,500 G,000 2,300 Capacity in sq. ft. of radiation 22,000 8,500 4,800 2,000 850 Capacity in Ibs. water per hour 7,100 3,000 1,800 725 225 The Branch Steam Trap. Fig. 18. HEAT AND LIGHT. 125 For indirect radiators allow at least 50 per cent more surface. As no heating system can be successfully operated with- out steam traps of sufficient capacity to remove all the condensation, opposite is given the proper sizes and capac- ities of traps for this class of work. CENTRAL STATION HEATING. \Yhere large districts are to be heated, a central heating station becomes necessary, the steam or hot-water mains from same being laid underground through the streets. Both steam and hot water are used for this character of heating, but it is generally admitted that where the district is large that the hot-water systems are the best, as there is much less loss from condensation in the mains, and the temperature can be much better regulated. A's the exhaust steam from some large plants is generally used in connec- tion with either of these systems, the central heating plant should be located as near as possible to it, and the exhaust steam conveyed through an underground duct in as direct a path as possible. The equipment of the station depends largely upon the extent of the district to be heated, it being usual to allow for steam heating 1 square foot of boiler heating surface for supplying 10 square feet of radiating surface, or one boiler horse power to each 120 to 200 square feet of radiating surface, depending upon whether steam or hot water is used. Radiator for Steam Heating. Fig. 19. coaoiniicr 11600 Ft. Contract Station Heating Plant. Fig. 20. 128 HEAT AND LIGHT. COMMERCIAL CENTRAL HEATING STATIONS IN PLACES OF 3,000 POPULATION AND UPWARDS, WITH REPORTS ON OPERATION OF SAME. (The Municipal Year Book.) I!ity or Town. Population. Owner. Ind. or Comb. ^aconia, N. H, ... 8,042 Belknap El. Power Co Independent. springfield, Mass. 62,059 Springfield Gas Lt Co Gas Wks. ?awtucket, R. I.. . 39,231 Pawtucket El. Co El. Lts. & Ry. ^ew Haven, Conn. 108,027 New Haven Ht. Sup. Co Independent. Auburn, N. Y 30,345 Auburn El. Co El. Lts. Dunkirk, N. Y 11,616 A. W. Cummings Independent. ^redonia, N. Y.... 4,127 Dunkirk & Fredonia R. R. Co.. El. Lt. & Rys. lornellsville, N. Y. 11,918 American 111. Co El. Lts. Geneva, N. Y 10,433 Geneva Steam Heating Co. .. .Independent. .ockport, N. Y 16,581 Economy Lt, Ht. & Pr. Co Lt. & Pr. Newark, N. Y 4,578 Newark Lt., Ht. & Pr. Co El. Lts. STewburgh, N. Y.. 24,943 Newburgh Lt, Ht. & Pr. Co.. El. Lts. ^ew York City. . .3,437,202 New York Steam Co Independent SJ.Tonawanda,N.Y. 9,069 The Fidelity Co Independent Penn Yan, N. Y.. . 4,650 Penn Yan Heating Co Independent. Ulentown, Pa.... 35,416 Allentown Ht. & Pr. Co Independent. Bellefonte, Pa 4,216 Bellefonte Gas Wks Gas Wks. 31oomsburg, Pa... 6,170 Bloomsburg St., Ht. & El.Lt.Co.El. Lts. 31earfield, Pa 5,081 Clearfield Steam Heating Co. .Independent. rie, Pa 52,733 Home Htg. Co Independent. Greenville, Pa 4,814 Peoples El. Lt, Ht & Pr. Co. El. Lt. Gas Wks. larrisburg, Pa... 50,167 Harrisburg St., Ht. & Pr. Co. Independent. rlazelton, Pa 14,230 Hazelton Steam Co Independent. Fohnstown, Pa.... 35,936 Citizen Lt, Ht & Pr. Co El. Lts. ^ebanon, Pa 17,628 Lebanon Steam Htg. Co Independent. Lock Haven, Pa.. 7,210 111. Power & Heat Co Independent. Vtahoney City, Pa. 13,504 Charles D. Kaier Co Independent. Mt. Pleasant, Pa.. 4,745 Peoples' Htg. Co Independent. Phillipsburg, Pa... 3,266 Phillipsburg Steam Htg. Co. . .Independent. 3 hiladelphia, Pa. .1,293,697 Independent Pottsville, Pa 15,710 Pottsville St., Ht & Pr. Co. . .Independent. Reading, Pa 78,961 Reading St. Ht. & Pr. Co Independent. Scranton, Pa 102,260 Economy Ht., Lt. & Pr. Co. . . .Independent. Shenandoah, Pa... 20,321 Shenandoah Ht & Pr. Co Independent AND LIGHT. 129 COMMERCIAL CENTRAL HEATING STATIONS (Continued). City or Town. Population. Owner. Ind. or Comb. Towanda, Pa 4,663 Towanda El. 111. Co El. Lts. Washington, Pa... 7,670 Washington El. Lt. & Pr. Co.. El. Lts. Wilkes Barre, Pa. 51,721 Wilkes Barre Ht, Lt. & Pr. Co.Independent, Wilkinsburg, Pa.. 11,866 Pennsylvania Ht & Pr. Co. .. .Independent. York, Pa 33,708 York Haven Traction Co El. Ry. Cumberland, Md. . 17,128 Edison El. 111. Co El. Lts. Atlanta, Ga 89,872 Atlanta Ry. & Pr. Co El. Ry. Columbus, 125,560 Indianola Land & Pr. Co Independent. Cochocton, O 6,473 Merchants El. Lt. & Pr. Co... Gas Wks. El. Lts. Delaware, 7,940 Delaware El. Lt. & Pr. Co.... El. Lts. Tiffin, 10,989 Edison El. Lt. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Toledo, 131,822 Yaryan Htg. & Ltg Co El. Lts. Van Wert, O 6,422 Washington, C. H. 5,751 Washmgt'n-Smea'd Ht. Watr Colndependent. Youngstown, O... 44,885 Youngstown St. Heating Co. . .Independent. Bedford, Ind 6,115 Heat, Lt. & Pr. Co El. Lt. El. Ry. Bloomington, Ind.. 6,460 Peoples Lt. Ht. & Pr. Co El. Lt. Gas Wks. Indianapolis, Ind.. 169,164 Home Htg. & Ltg. Co Independent. La Porte, Ind 7,113 La Porte El. Co El. Lts. Marion, Ind 17,337 Muncie, Ind 20,942 Muncie El. Lt. Co El. Lts. Princeton, Ind.... 3,118 Sullivan, Ind 6,041 Terre Haute, In'd. 36,6 Y3 Terre Haute El. Co El. Lts., El. Ry. Vincennes, Ind. . . 10,249 John Hartigan Co Independent. Grand Rapids, Mich. 87,565 Edison El. Lt. Co El. Lts. Houghton, Mich.. 3,259 Peninsula El. Lt. & Pr. Co... El. Lts. Lansing, Mich 16,485 A. A. & F. B. Piatt El. Lts. Alton, Ills 14,210 Alton Ry. El. Lt. Co. & Gas. . .Gas Wks. El. Lts. Belvidere, Ills 6,937 Belvidere Heating Co El. Lts. Bloomington, 111. . 23,286 City Dist. Heating Co Independent. Champaign, 111 9,098 Champaign & Urbana Gas & El. Ry. Co Gas Wks. El. Lts. Charleston, 111 5,488 Charleston Lt., Ht & Pr. Co..Jtil. Lts. Danville, 111 16,354 Danville Gas, El. Lt. & St. Ry.Gas Wks.E.L.,Ry. Decatur, 111 20,754 DeKalb, 111.. 5,904 DeKalk El. Co. . . .El. Lts. 130 HEAT AND LIGHT. COMMERCIAL CENTRAL HEATING STATIONS (Continued). City or Town. Population. Evanston, 111 19,259 Jerseyville, 111 3,517 LaSalle, 111 10,446 Mattoon, 111 9,622 Paris, 111 6,105 Paxton, 111 3,036 Pontiac, 111 4,266 Quincy, 111 36,252 Springfield, 111 34,159 Sycamore, 111 3,653 Taylorville, 111 4,248 Urbana, 111 5,728 Janesville, Wis. . . 13,185 Kenosha, Wis 11,606 La Crosse, Wis .... 28,895 Marinette, Wis... 16,195 Boone, la 8,860 Burlington, la 23,201 Cedar Rapids, la. . 25,656 Davenport, la 35,254 Des Moines, la. . . 62,139 Grinnell, la. 3,860 Marion, la 4,102 Mason City, la.... 6,746 Missouri Valley, la 4,010 Muscatine, la 14,073 Ottumwa, la 18,197 Perry, la 3,986 Red Oak, la 4,355 Webster City, la. . 4,613 Albert Lea, Minn. 4,500 Crookston, Minn . . 5,359 Owatonna, Minn.. 5,561 St. Cloud, Minn. . 8,663 St. Paul, Minn.. 163,065 Fort Scott, Kan.. 10,332 Topeka, Kan 33,608 Owner. Ind. or Comb. Evanston Yaryan Co El. Lts. Jerseyville Lt., Ht. & Pr. Co.. El. Lts. Marquette Ht. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Mattoon Lt., Ht. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Paris Gas., Lt. & Coke Co Gas Wks. El. Lts. Electric Lt. Plant El. Lts. Pontiac El. Co El. Lts. J. C. Hubinger Independent. Utilities Co. El. Lt. & Pr. Co.. El. Lts. E. Hall El. Lts. Taylorville El. Co El. Lts. Urbana Lt., Ht. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Janesville El. Co El. Lts. Kenosha Gas. & El. Co Gas Wks. El. Lts. La Crosse Gas & El. Co El. Lts. Marinette Gas, El. Lt. & St. Ry.Gas, El. Lts. S. R. John Reynolds Co Burlington Ry. & Lt. Co El. Lts. Ry. Gas. Cedar Rapids El. Lt. & Pr. Co. El. Lts. Davenport Gas & El. Co Gas Wks. El. Lts. Des Moines St. Htg. Co Independent. Carney & Hammond El. Lts. Marion Lt., Ht. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Brice Gas & El. Co Gas Wks. El. Lls. Muscatine El. Ry. Co Gas El. Lts. Ry. Ottumwa E. & St. Co El. Lts. Ry. Perry El. Lt. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Ry. Red Oak El. Co El. Lts. Municipal Plant El. Lts., W. Wks. Albert Lea Lt. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Crookston W. Wks., Pr.& Lt.Co.W. Wks., El. Lts. Owatonna Gas, El. & Htg. Co. El. Lts. St. Cloud W., Lt. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Manhattan Lt., Ht. & Pr. Co. .El. Lts, Fort Scott Consol. Sup. Co El. Lts., Ry. Edison Ilium, Co......... El, Lts, HEAT AND LIGHT. 131 COMMERCIAL CENTRAL HEATING STATIONS (Continued). City or Town. Population. Owner. Ind. or Comb. Bismarck, N. Dak. 3,319 Hughes El. Co El. Lts. Grd Forks, N.Dak. 7,G52 Grand Forks Gas & El. Co Gas Wks., El. Lts. Butte, Mont 30,470 Phoenix El. Co El. Lts. Kansas City, Mo. . 163,752 Kansas City El. Lt. Co El. Lts. St. Joseph, Mo. . . 102,979 St. Joseph Ry. Lt., Ht. & Pr.Co.El. Lts., Ry. Sedalia, Mo 15,231 Economy St. Htg. & El. Co Independent (?) Waxahachie, Tex. 4,215 Waxahachie El. Lt. Co El. Lts. Colorado Spgs. Colo 21,085 Colo. El. Co El. Lts. Denver, Colo 133,859 Denver St. Htg. Co In-dependent. Seattle, Wash 80,671 Seattle Pr. & Ht. Co Independent. Salt Lake City,Utah 53,531 Utah Lt. & Pr. Co El. Lts. Boise, Idaho 5,957 Artesian Hot & Cold Water Co.Water Works. ALBERT LEA, MINN. Population, 4,500 The Albert Lea Light & Power Co. are operating a central heating system in connection with their central station. They use the Evans, Almirall Co/s hot water system, and it is giving practically no trouble, being operated nine months out of the twelve. They charge iT^c per square foot of radiation. They are giving satisfaction to their patrons. Single pipe system. ALTON, ILL. Population, 14,210 The Electric Street Railway Co. operate a central heat- ing system which furnishes heat for certain portions of the city. The service is reported to be only fairly satisfactory, owing to the mains being in need of constant repairs. ALLENTOWN, PA. Population, 35,416 The central heating plant in this city is reported to have never been a success, due it is claimed to its original 132 HEAT AND LIGHT. faulty construction, and the defective installation of the mains. The pipes were merely encased in wood, without other insulation. The failure of this heating system is one of the many due to such defective insulation, and demon- strates the necessity of proper insulation of all mains, both for economy and satisfactory service. Without such insulation, the system necessarily must be a failure. AUBURN, N. Y. Population, 30,345 Auburn Lt. Ht. & Pr. Co. operate a central heating plant, under a franchise granted by the city. They use live steam from 10 to 20 Ibs. pressure, using steam traps which discharge into the sewers. They have about 200 customers and furnish heat only in business portions of the city. This company has been in existence a number of years, but is reported never to have been a financial success, not making over expenses and repairs. ATLANTA, GA. Population, 89,872 The Georgia Railway & Elec. Co. operate a central heating plant, which furnishes heat to the office buildings and main business districts of the city. This plant is op- erated in connection with their street railway and electric lighting plant. The service is entirely satisfactory. BURLINGTON, IOWA. Population, 23,201 The Peoples Gas & Elec. Co. are operating a central heating plant in this city. HEAT AND LIGHT. 133 BISMARCK, N. D. Population, 4,500 The Hughes Elec. Co. furnish heat for the N. Pacific Depot and Northwest Hotel. BLOOMINGTON, IND. Population, 6,460 The Peoples' Gas, Electric & Heating Co. have been operating for the past five years a central heating hot- water system installed by the Schott Specialty Co., having a capacity of 125,000 square feet of radiation. The plant is fully loaded, and the company is preparing to extend the street mains during this year. A rate of 1 5 cents per square foot radiation is charged, which is admitted to be too low, although the company has been enabled by the operation of their heating plant, in connection with their gas and electric plants, to earn a small dividend. The service given their patrons is entirely satisfactory. BOISE CITY, IDAHO. Population, 5,957 A private corporation operates a natural artesian hot water system, heating a number of the residences and business houses of this city. BuTTE, MONT. Population, 30,470 The Phoenix Electric Co. are operating a small heat- ing system in conjunction with their electric lighting- plant. They heat about twenty buildings, with 45,000 square feet of radiation, for which they receive 60c per square foot for the entire year, 24 hours to the day, and every day in the year when temperature is below 65 de- grees. They carry from five to ten pounds pressure, 134 HEAT AND LIGHT. using slack coal at $4.50 per ton in bins. The engineers work in three shifts of eight hours each, two receiving $4 per clay, and fireman $3.50. They furnish some steam at 25-lbs. pressure, for cooking and heating water, for which they receive 60c per 1,000 Ibs., measuring the con- densation with meter. BOONK, IOWA. Population, 8,800 The L,. W. Reynolds Estate operate a heating plant in this city. For the first year or two the plant did not give satisfaction, but for the last two years the service has been entirely satisfactory. CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA. Population, 25,650 The C. R. & Iowa City Ry. and Lt. Co. operate a cen- tral heating station in this city, which is a success, both in its service and financial operation. BOROUGH OF CI.EARFIEXD, PA. Population, 5,081 The Clearfield Steam Heating Co. operate a central heating station in this city, w r hich is giving excellent sat- isfaction both in the public building and in private resi- dences. COLORADO SPRINGS, Coi.o. Population, 21,085 The Colorado Springs Electric Co. operate a heating plant in a limited way, supplying steam heat to buildings, being approximately 5,000,000 cubic feet. They have used both live steam and exhaust, and are at present using the latter. HEAT AND LIGHT. * 35 The system is entirely satisfactory. They base their rates at 50c per 1,000 Ibs. of steam condensed, and use condensation meters. CHAMPAIGN, ILL. Population, 9,098 The U. & C. Ry., Gas & Electric Co. have been operat- ing a central heating plant in this city since 1901, and furnishing heat to most all business houses in the city. The system does not extend out of the business district, except in a few instances. The service has been entirely satisfactory. DAVENPORT, IOWA. Population, 35,254 The American District Co. have been operating a cen- tral heating system for about five years, with entire sat- isfaction to its patrons and is reported to be also a financial success. DE>KALB, ILLS. Population, 5,904 The DeKalb-Sycamore Electric Co. operate a central heating system which was installed. by the Consolidated Engineering Company. The company has 30,000 square feet of radiation in successful opration, for which they receive 35 cents per square foot. DANVILLE ILL. Population, 16,354 The Danville Street Railway & Light Co. operate a central heating system, using steam heat, which is re- ported to have been fairly successful. They charge the following rates for the heating season : 136 HEAT AND LIGHT. Residence rates Per 1,000 cubic feet Frame houses, less than 20,000 cubic feet contents. $6. 00 Frame houses, more than 20,000 cubic feet contents. 5.75 Brick houses, less than 20,000 cubic feet contents. 5.50 Brick houses, more than 20,000 cubic feet contents. 5.25 Business house rates Front rooms only, on upper floors 5.00 Any room, side, back and front exposure, less than 70 feet deep 4.00 Any room, side, back and front exposure, more than 70 feet deep 3.75 Rooms, back and front exposure, less than 70 feet deep 3.50 Rooms, back and front exposure, more than 70 feet deep 3.00 Any building, more than 150,000 cubic feet contents 2.50 The above rates are about the average rates charged throughout the country for steam heating. Where ex- haust steam can be used entirely, with these rates a heat- ing system can be made a profitable investment, but if it becomes necessary to supplement same with live steam, it then becomes a question of proper insulation. DUNKIRK, N. Y. Population, 11,016 A. W. Cummings is operating a central heating plant in this city, furnishing steam heat to the public buildings, post office, business houses and schools. It is satisfactory in every respect. Rates for service, 40c per 1,000 Ibs. DENVER, Coux Population, 133,859 The Denver City Steam Heating Co. are operating :i central heating plant in this city, which is entirely satis- factory. HEAT AND LIGHT. 137 ERIE, PA. Population, 52,733 The Erie Co. have been operating a central heating plant in this city for the past six years, and its operation is entirely satisfactory. EVANSTON, Ii.iv. Population, 19,259 The Yaryan Co. installed a central heating plant in this city, but it is now owned and operated by the North Shore Electric Co. The service is liked very much, the only objection reported being the price charged. FORT SCOTT, KAN. Population, 10,322 Mr. Grant Hornaday is president of the Gas & Electric Co., which company operates the only heating plant in this city. BOROUGH OF GREENVIIJ^E, PA. Population, 2,800 A private corporation has been operating a central heating plant in this city several years, and its service is very satisfactory. The live steam from the Electric Light Plant is used to operate the same. Mains are not more than J/ mile in length. HoRNEiJ,sviUvE, N. Y. Population, 11,918 The American Illuminating Co. are running a central steam heating plant in connection with their electric light plant. It has been in operation seven years and heats more than 100 of the largest buildings, using exhaust steam, to- gether with live steam. The company has about two 138 HEAT AND LIGHT. miles of line, consisting of 10-inch, 8-inch, 6-inch, 5-inch and 4-inch mains. The loss in the lines is slight. The service is very satisfactory to all. HARRISBURG, PA. Population, 50,167 The Harrisburg Steam Heat & Power Co. operate a central heating station, which is very successful, and covers quite an extent of territory. JANESVIU.E, Wis. Population, 13,185 The Janesville Electric Co. heat several buildings in this city, near and adjoining their own, and are giving good satisfaction. JERSEYVIU.E, Iix. Population, 3,800 Plant was installed last year by a private corporation and is operated in connection with the electric lighting plant and water works. Is financially successful, and giv- ing. satisfaction to its patrons. JOHNSTOWN, PA. ' Population, 35,936 The Citizens' Light, Heat & Power Co. operate a cen- tral heating system known as the Holly system, which was installed by the American District Steam Co. Ex- haust steam is used, which is supplemented with live steam. They carry five pounds on their mains at the plant, and two pounds at their most distant point, which is one-half of a mile from the plant. The system is giv- ing satisfaction to its patrons. This company considers the central heating system a financial success, provided the rates charged are in propor- HEAT AND LIGHT. 139 tion to the cost and when most of the business can be taken care of by exhaust steam. KANSAS CITY, Mo. Population, 163,752 The Metropolitan Street Railway Co. are now install- ing a central heating system. There is a general desire for its service, as it will supply a great need. KENOSHA, Wis. Population, 11,606 The Kenosha Gas & Electric Co. are operating a cen- tral heating station. It was one of the first plants in- stalled in that part of the country. It is giving satisfac- tion to patrons, and is financially successful. LEBANON, PA. Population, 17,628 The Lebanon Steam Co. have been operating a steam heating plant in this place since 1888. Is very satisfac- tory as to heat, but is reported not a success financially, owing to the rate charged being too low, and the patrons being much scattered over the city. LITTLE ROCK, ARK. Population 60,000 The Litle Rock Heating Company operate a central heating plant, using the Schott hot-water system. This plant was installed in 1904 at a cost of $206,864, and while it has not proved a financial success, it has given entire satisfaction to its patrons. The company is now being operated by a Receiver. The net cost of the plant was as follows : Site $ 3,000.00 Materials 110,006.30 140 HEAT AND LIGHT. Pay Rolls 38,771.20 Interest and Discount , 7,822.52 Management 9, 274.30 Supervision -1,125.00 Engineer's Fees 12 ; COO.OO Expenses of Engineer and Assistants 1,750.00 Freight 4,385.51 Drayage 3,504,57 Office and Ground Rents 480.00 Miscellaneous Expenses 945.10 Cash, Little Rock Heating Co 10,000.00 Total $206,864.50 The company has 175,000 feet of radiation in opera- tion, and contracts offered for about 100,000 feet more, had it been in a position to suply the demand. The prices charged are 17c per square foot for radiation, and for hot water, $1.00 per thousand gallons. The company uses the exhaust steam from the Little Rock Railway and Electric Company, paying 3.85 cents per 1,000 pounds of steam received, which is supple- mented by coal. The estimated income for the heating year 1905 -U is as follows : 175,000 feet of radiation, at 18c. $31,500.00 1,500,000 gals, hot water, at $1 . . 1,500.00 Profit on installing 50,000 feet of radiation 6,250.00 $39,250.00 HEAT AND LIGHT. 141 Estimated cost of operating plant during season of 1905-06: Exhaust steam $ 2,100.00 5,000 tons slack, at $2 10,000.00 Superintendence, 7 months 875.00 2 Engineers, 7 months 945.00 4 Firemen, 5 months 1,000.00 Oil and waste 200.00 Water ' 350.00 Electric lights 175.00 Office rent 300.00 Office man 720.00 Printing, stamps and stationery. 300.00 Trouble man, 7 months at $75 . . . 525.00 Taxes and insurance 800.00 Maintenance 750.00 Interest on bonds . 12,500.00 $31,540.00 Income $39,250.00 Operating expenses 31,540.00 Net income $7,710.00 LANSING, MICH. Population, 16,485 The Piatt Heating & Power Co. own and control the central heating .plant and also furnish electric power for the Street Railway Co. This company has only lately been granted a franchise for general heating purposes, though it has been heating the state capitol and several large buildings near their plant for some time, with en- tire satisfaction. The company is now extending its mains so as to include residence heating throughout the city. 142 HEAT AND LIGHT. LOCKPORT, N. Y. Population, 16,581 The Economy Light & Fuel Co. are operating about six miles of mains from a central heating plant and giv- ing perfect satisfaction to their patrons, which include several hundred residences, business houses and public buildings. Price is based upon meter rates. The oper- ation of this plant has reduced to a great extent the smoke nuisance, also the fire risk. MARINETTE, Wis. Population, 16,195 The Watson Heating Co. own and operate the central heating plant in this city. While it is giving satisfaction to its patrons, it is reported not a financial success. MUSCATINE, IOWA. Population, 14,07:3 The central heating station at this place is not now being operated, nor has it been in operation for some time. It is reported not to have been a financial success, but the service was satisfactory. NEW HAVEN, CONN. Population, 108,027 The New Haven Heat Supply Co. operate a central heating system, more or less limited to the central busi- ness section of the city. They do a successful business, and there is general satisfaction among their patrons. NEW YORK CITY. Population, 3,437,202 New York has no central heating station in the main sections, but there are several in the outlying districts, owned and operated by private corporations. HEAT AND LIGHT. 143 NEWBURGH, N. Y. Population, 24,943 Newburgh Light, Heat & Power Co. operate a cen- tral heating system in connection with the lighting busi- ness of the company, and supply a considerable portion of the city with steam heat. The system is very popular and gives entire satisfaction. It is contemplated extend- ing the system so as to take in several streets not now piped. OTTUMWA, IOWA. Population, 18,197 The Ottumwa Traction & Light Co. operate a central heating system in this city, using their exhaust steam for this purpose, which plant it is stated is not giving com- plete satisfaction to its patrons, but is a financial success. OSKALOOSA, IOWA. Population, 9,212 The Oskaloosa Traction & Light Co. operate a central heating system in this city.' It is a two-pipe hot water system, and giving satisfaction to its patrons, and is re- ported also financially successful. PHILADELPHIA, PA. Population, 1,293,697 There are one or two heating stations in the suburbs of the city. None in the central districts. PAXTON, ILL. Population, 4,200 The electric light plant put in central hot water heat- ing plant five years ago, which system is being used by most of the business houses, private residences, some schools and churches. A great number of the residences desire the service, but owing to lack of capacity they cannot be supplied. An extension of the system is contemplated. 144 HEAT AND LIGHT. PAWTUCKET, R. I. Population, 39,231 There is a central heating plant at this place. PENN YAN, N. Y. Population, 39,231 The Penn Yan Steam Heating Co. are operating a heating system at this place. PITTSBURG, PA. Population, 321,610 The Penn Heat & Power Co. operate a central heat- ing plant, supplying both business and residence houses. Its patrons are well satisfied. POTTSVIIXE, PA. Population, 15,710 The Pottsville Steam Heat & Power Co. operate a cen- tral heating system in this city, using steam from a central generating plant. The season extends eight months, being from October 1st to June 1st. The plant was installed in 1888, and consists of six horizontal re- turn flue boilers, each 72 inches in diameter and 18 feet in length, developing about 800 horse-power. The fuel used is small-sized anthracite coal, known as "rice" and "buckwheat," which averages about $1.25 per ton delivered. Natural draft is used. A steam pressure of 60 Ibs. square inch is carried, which is reduced to 15 Ibs. minimum and 30 Ibs. maximum pressure, according to weather temperature. The obstacles to overcome are leaks at expansion joints, about every 50 feet; loss by radiation from mains and laterals ; also destruction of same by corrosion and the waste electrical current from trolley rails. The price made to their patrons is not any higher than would be the cost of the operation of in- HEAT AND LIGHT. 145 dividual house plants, considering the constant and abundant supply of heat, as well as the convenience and avoidance of dust from ashes and coal and the ease of regulation of temperature. The service has been en- tirely satisfactory to their patrons, and the plant is re- ported also a financial success. READING, PA. Population, 78,961 The Reading Steam Heat & Power Co. have been operating a central station heating plant eighteen years. The service furnished is very satisfactory to its patrons, but is reported financially not to be a success. ST. CLOUD, MINN. Population, 8,603 It is reported that the central heating plant was not a success financially, and it is not now 7 in operation. SCRANTON, PA. Population, 102,026 The Economy Light, Heat & Power Co. operate a central heating plant, furnishing heat to the city insti- tutions, fire engine houses, etc., and also to public build- ings, residences, etc. The rate is $4.50 per 1,000 cubic feet direct radiation, and $6 per 1,000 cubic feet indirect radiation. They have been in business a number of years, and giving general satisfaction. SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Population, 62,059 The Springfield Gas Light Co. formerly operated the "Holly system" of steam heating, but discontinued it some years ago. It is reported that the plant \vas not profitable. 10 146 HEAT AND LIGHT. ST. PAUL, MINN. Population, 163,065 The American District Steam Heating Co. are install- ing a central heating plant at this place, but it is not yet in operation. ST. JOSEPH, Mo. Population, 102,979 St. Joseph Railway, Light, Heat & Power Co. operate a central heating system, furnishing heat to the business houses, public buildings, etc., in the business sections. They use the exhaust system from the light plant for heating, and it is giving satisfaction to its patrons. SYCAMORE, ILLS. Population, 4,500 The DeKalb-Sycamore Electric Co. operate a central heating system which was installed by the Consolidated Engineering Company. The company has 30,000 square feet of radiation in successful operation for which they receive 35 cents per square foot. SPRINGFIELD, OHIO. Population, 38,253 The Home Lighting, Power and Heating Co. are oper- ating a central heating system installed by the American District Steam Co. This plant was installed in the sum- mer of 1905, heating the central part of the city with the exhaust steam from their power plant which is located in central part of the city. Their power plant furnishes 75 per cent of the commercial lighting of the city and their income from heating the forty buildings to which they furnish heat, pays their coal bill for the entire plant, leav- ing a margin of 25 per cent. The company is preparing to extend their system to about thirty more buildings. It HEAT AND LIGHT. 147 is stated that the system is an entire success and that in zero weather they have never received a complaint. SPRINGFIELD, Iix. Population, 34,159 The Utilities Co. are operating both hot water and steam heat service from their central plant, which also furnishes power for street railway and commercial light- ing. The service is reported to be both satisfactory and profitable. The Springfield Light, Heat and Power Company, of Springfield, Illinois, has recently built a new power sta- tion, for lighting, steam and hot water heating and rail- way purposes. This power station is notable on account of the size of the exhaust steam heating system supplied from it. In the majority of cities where exhaust steam or hot water heating is being done, the power stations are of much smaller capacity. The heating system of the company at Springfield is one of the largest operated by any electric central station company in the country. About 200,000 square feet of hot water radiators and 150,000 square feet of steam radiators are connected to this sta- tion. On account of the exhaust steam heating load, the station is, of course, equipped with simple non-condens- ing engines. STATION PIPING FOR HEATING SYSTEM. The apparatus for hot \vater and exhaust steam heating occupies considerable space in the power house, and is of much more importance than usual in a power house doing this kind of work. There are two sets of condensers for use in heating water for the heating system which are supplemented by a bank of fuel economizers for utilizing 148 HEAT AND LIGHT. the heat in the fuel gases. These three means of heating are not sufficient in the coldest weather, and two of the boilers in the station have been fitted up so that they can be completely filled with water and used as hot water heaters. The present arrangement of piping for hot water heating in this station is of interest because it repre- sents the result of the company's experiments and experi- ence along this line. See Fig. 20. The return water as it enters from the street, first goes through the circulatingpumps, from which a 12-inch main takes it to a header to which are connected the six Stahl condensers in multiple. In multiple with these condensers there are also three fuel economizers. After leaving the economizers and first bank of condensers the water passes to the two 3,000-foot Schott condensers. These latter condensers are also connected in multiple. After leaving the vSchott condensers, all the water must pass through the water-tube boilers, which are connected in series, un- less the by-pass on the boilers is open, in which case, of course, the boilers would be out of use. After leaving the boilers the water flows to the outgoing street main. The important thing to notice in this piping arrange- ment, is that the boilers are connected in series with the rest of the heating apparatus. Attempts to operate the boilers in multiple with the o<ther heating apparatus have not resulted satisfactorily. So far only the connections of the hot water circulating system have been considered. The connections of the condensers to the exhaust steam main which runs the length of the engine room are very simple. These con- densers are simply "dead-ended" onto the exhaust main. That is, one end is connected to the exhaust main and the other is closed. The condenser, therefore, takes ex- HEAT AND LIGHT. 149 haust steam as fast as it can be condensed by water cir- culating in the condenser. Precautions are taken to let out whatever air that may accumulate in the condenser, just as in a one-pipe steam radiator. The exhaust steam main in the engine room basement is divided by valves into two parts. STATION PERFORMANCE. The station was designed with simple non-condensing Corliss engines, for the obvious reasons that the exhaust steam was needed for heating purposes. There is also a further reason that coal is so exceedingly cheap. The economical performance at this station as regards coal consumption is very interesting, because of the light it throws on the question which always comes up in station design where coal is very cheap, viz. : is the saving by compounding and condensing sufficient to pay interest and maintenance on the cost of the compounding and condensing? The coal consumption of this station, during those portions of the year when exhaust steam is not used for heating is about 10 Ib. per kw-hour. The maximum load on the station is now about 2,300 kw. The hot water heating system is carried as far as one mile from the station. The exhaust steam heating, of course, does not cover so great a distance. The Powers automatic temperature regulators are used on all hot water services to prevent waste of heat. The company find it economical to do this rather than to depend on cus- tomers to shut off radiators; when the room gets above a certain temperature the customers' regular method is to open the windows wider. 150 HEAT AND LIGHT. Steam Rates Direct radiation, 25c. per square foot per annum; indirect radiation, 30c. per square foot per annum; economizing coil, 15c. per square foot per annum; meter rate, 50c. per thousand pounds water, with dis- counts for quantity. Hot Water Rates Per square foot radiation, 15c. The payments are made in eight installments as follows : Oc- tober 1, 5 per cent; November 1, 10 per cent; December 1, 15 per cent; January 1, 20 per cent; February 1, 20 per cent; March 1, 15 per cent; April 1, 10 per cent; May 1, 5 per cent. Electric World. TAYLORVIU.E, ILL. Population, 3,800 Plant in operation for about nine years in connection with electric light plant. It is giving perfect satisfaction to both patrons and the company, the plant being a paying investment. The owners of this plant advocate a steam system in preference to hot water, a plant of ample size and the mains not run too great a distance. TERRE HAUTE, IND. Population, 30,073 The Citizens Mutual Heating Co. have been operating two seasons. The capacity of this plant as now com- pleted is 250,000 square feet of radiation. It is probable than an additional 100,000 square feet will be installed for the winter of 190G-Y. The company has at present 132 patrons. In its pres- ent condition, after paying operating expenses, the com- pany states that they will have an excess of $10,000, which will leave a surplus after paying interest on the bonds and per cent on the stock, and if fully loaded, that they could pay 10 per cent or 12 per cent dividend. HEAT AND LIGHT. 151 The rate charged is 17 cents per square foot of radia- tion. The Schott two-pipe hot water system is used. From reports the company is giving entire satisfac- tion to all its patrons. The Terre Haute Traction & Light Co. and the Citi- zens' Mutual Heating Co. both operate central heating systems. The former company only operate a small steam heating system from the exhaust steam from one of its engines. This small plant was one of the first of its kind installed by the American District Steam Co. For the last six years this heating plant has been operated with more success than prior to its purchase by this com- pany, 'and it is expected by them in the near future to make it at least pay expenses. The rates charged are as follows : Business buildings, per season For direct radiation ............. 22j/4c per square foot For indirect radiation ........... 27j/^c per square foot For cooling coils ............... ITj^c per square foot Residences, dwellings, flats, stables, etc. For direct radiation ............. 25c per square foot For indirect radiation ........... 30c per square foot For cooling coils ............... I7^>c per square foot TOI^DO, OHIO. Population, 131,822 The Yaryan central heating station has been operating in this city a number of years, and is reported to be giving general satisfaction. OHIO. Population, 10,989 The TifHn Edison Electric Illuminating Co; operate a central heating plant in connection with their light plant, 152 HEAT AND LIGHT. and it is considered a good investment, and giving general satisfaction. TOPEKA, KAN. Population, 33,608 The Topeka Edison Co. have been operating a central heating system for about nine years. This company has approximately $00,000 invested in their system, and operate same in conjunction with their lighting and power plant, utilizing the exhaust steam as far as possi- ble, supplemented by live steam. They find it necessary to carry from three to six pounds of back pressure on their engines, which are cross-compound. While this increases the steam consumption per horse- power, this excess load on the engines is better than a cor- responding electric road. In other words, with the same boiler horse-power they cannot earn the same net money. Their system is an underground system and was in- stalled by the American District Steam Co. They sell the steam by the meter system only, the rates charged being as follows : First 100,000 Ibs. water 60c per 1,000 Ibs. Second 100,000 Ibs. water 50c per 1,000 Ibs. Excess Ibs. water 45c per 1,000 Ibs. The company insist on having supervision over the consumers' piping and on the use of economy or cooling coils, the water of condensation being discharged into the sewer. They have 120,000 square feet of radiation, which heats approximately 10,000,000 cubic feet of space. The average temperature of their locality from October 1st to May 1st is 43.9 degrees. The service is giving entire satisfaction. HEAT AND LIGHT. YORK, PA. Population, 38,708 The Edison Electric Light Co. are operating a central heating plant in connection with their power plant, using live steam from the New Haven Power Co. The plant is giving satisfaction to their patrons, and doing a pros- perous business. SUMMARY. Under ordinary conditions for steam heating one horse power will heat in brick buildings 15,000 to 20,000 cubic feet ; in brick stores, 10,000 to 15,000 cubic feet ; in brick dwellings, 10,000 to 15,000 cubic feet; in brick churches, brick shops, etc., 8,000 to 12,000 cubic feet; wooden dwellings, 8,000 to 10,000 cubic feet The water of condensation in a steam-heating system is led into a steam trap and thence allowed to flow through a "cooling coil," before being discharged into the drain- age system. Where the exhaust steam is used in connection with a hot-water system, the water to be warmed is heated by the steam in large heaters, similar to feed-water heaters, and circulated through the mains by means of centrifugal pumps. INSULATION AND COST. The underground distributing system mains in either system must be properly insulated or the loss by condensa- tion will be very great. Fig. 21 shows a form of insulation which has proved quite satisfactory. Using this insulation, the hot water has been sent out through a two-pipe balanced system six and one-half miles or thirteen miles out, and returning at a loss of only 30 degrees, the water being sent out at a temperature of 170 degrees, and returning at 140 degrees. 154 HEAT AND LIGHT. This insulation as shown in the above figure, consists of all mains and laterals being enclosed in two 2-inch cypress boxes y* inch between each box, which space is filled with hair felt and spaced for air. The inner space around the two pipes is packed with pine shavings. All mains are laid with a cover of at least 2 feet of earth, the mains and laterals being standard full weight wrought iron pipe. When compressed air is used for the closer regulation of the thermostatic valves, the small air pipe should be laid on top of the outer box, as shown in Fig. 21. The following is the cost per foot for this insulation for a 12-inch main : Insulation $ 1.40 12-inch pipe double main 7.20 Air line 25 Shavings to fill main 15 Tar-paper and tar 15 Labor for excavating 50 Labor for filling in 50 Drayage and labor for laying . .75 Tees, expansion joints 2.00 Valves and tapping mains 1.50 Extra insulation for tees and manholes for valves and expansion joints 1.50 Total $14.40 The cost of a 10-inch, 8-inch, 6-inch and 4-inch main is smaller, but the difference in the cost of the pipe is the main difference in the total cost of insulation. CENTRAL STATION HEATING. Two Pipe Insulation. Fig. 21. 156 HEAT AND LIGHT. PHYSICAL VALUE OF A TWO-PIPE HOT WATER SYSTEM. 12 inch line 2,350 ft $3,238.30 10 " " 580 " 653.23 8 " " 5,550 " 4,1.47.52 6 " " 6,340 " 2,582.63 5 . " " 1,720 " 536.21 4 " " 6,280 " 1,458.21 3 " " 4,730 " 722.15 %y 2 " " 1,750 " 216.30 2 " " 1,670 " 129.26 l*2 " " 550 " 31.96 Total 31,520 ft. single main $13,695.77 2 2 63,040 ft. double main $27,391.54 INSULATING AND LAYING PIPE PER FOOT. Insulation, 20c per foot, 63,040 feet $12,608.00 Laying pipe, per foot $1.30, 31,520 feet 40,976.00 Valves and tapping mains, $1.00 per foot, 31,- 520 feet 31,520.00 Extra insulation for T's and manholes, for valves and expansion joints, 50c per foot, 31,520 feet 15,760.00 Air line, 25c per foot, 31,520 feet 7,880.00 Freight and hauling pipe 7,890.08 Boilers, tools and equipments 12,750.00 Building and site 6,000.00 $162,775.62 HEAT AND LIGHT. 157 RATES CHARGED BY CENTRAL HEATING PLANTS. In systems using STEAM for heating, the rates charged are based (1) Upon the number of pounds of steam con- densed per season; (2) Upon the cubical contents of space to be heated, usually per 1000 cubic feet; (3) Upon the square feet of heating surface installed. In those systems using HOT WATER for heating, the rates charged are based (1) Upon the number of square feet of radiation installed; (2) Upon the cubic contents of the space to be heated for the season, usually per 1000 cubic feet. In estimating the amount of heat required to maintain the constant temperature desired, the amount of air to be heated per hour must first be determined, and the heat loss due to glass and wall exposures per hour also deter- mined. With this known, the total heat required can be calculated, also, taking into consideration the average velocity of the wind and the changes of the air each hour, as the average building will have from two to six changes per hour. Among the leading companies installing central heating- plants, is the American District Co., Evans, Almirall & Co., Schott Specialty Co., and the Stahl Heaing Co. 158 HEAT AND LIGHT. SPECIFICATIONS FOR A COMPLETE HEATING PLANT. GENERAL. These specifications are intended to cover a complete heating plant in all details, and if, in these specifications, anything is needed to make the plant complete in accord- ance with the intent hereof, then in that case it shall be furnished by the contractor without any further charge to the purchaser. DEFINITION : Whenever the word "purchaser" is hereinafter referred to, it shall be understood to mean the Heating Company, of Whenever a "contractor" is hereinafter referred to, it shall be under- stood to mean the of Whenever a. classifica- tion hereinunder is specified and no mention is made of either the purchaser or contractor, it shall be understood that the contractor is to do the described work. REAL ESTATE. A piece or parcel of land shall be furnished by the con- tractor to the purchaser, the same to be located POWER HOUSE. Upon the above-described piece of real estate there shall be installed a substantial brick power house by the contractor, the same to be of neat design and suitable for the purpose of building therein the necessary appurte- nances for a complete central station heating plant, HEAT AND LIGHT. 159 BOILERS. There shall be installed a sufficient amount of heating- surface, the same to be divided into the number of units adapted for the work, sufficient heating surface, together with exhaust steam which is to be furnished to the plant by the company from the power house of the railway and electric company, sufficient capacity to handle at 10 de- grees above zero square feet of radiation, the same being operated with a hot water circulation. The above-described boilers shall be of the or some other water tube type equally as good. They shall be equipped with shaking grates and the necessary tools for the firing of the same. SMOKE STACK. A smoke stack of the proper diameter and height shall be installed for each battery of two boilers. Same shall be carried from the top of the boiler settings and main- tained by a guy stub set in the proper position. BOILER FEED PUMPS. There shall be furnished two bronze-fitted boiler feed pumps; each pump should have sufficient capacity to handle the entire plant with a piston speed not to exceed 100 feet per minute. FEED WATER HEATER. There shall be furnished a feed water heater and puri- fier of sufficient capacity to furnish boiler feed water for the number of boilers that will be necessary for the opera- tion of the plant in question. It shall also be of sufficient size to purify the water used in the heating system. 160 HEAT AND LIGHT. CIRCULATING PUMP. There shall be furnished two bronze-fitted special de-- signed hot water circulating pumps, to be used for the purpose of circulating the water in the heating system. They shall have a capacity of not less than fifteen gal- lons of water each per minute. They shall be erected upon the proper foundations by the contractor and equipped with automatic governors. PLACING, REGULATING AND RECEIVING PUMPS. There shall be furnished the necessary pumps, the same erected upon foundations and equipped with an automatic governor to relieve the apparatus from con- densation, maintain the necessary vacuum on the system, and to make the plant complete in all its details. VACUUM PUMPS. There shall be installed a vacuum pump of sufficient capacity, the same to be bronze-fitted throughout, to handle the exhaust steam which is to be received from the plant. Same shall be erected complete upon foundation to be furnished by the con- tractor. CONDENSERS. There shall be furnished two condensers, one of feet size, one of feet size. The same shall be de- livered and erected complete upon foundations furnished by the contractor. PIPE CONNECTIONS. The contractor shall furnish all necessary valves, fit- tings, pipe, labor, etc., so as to connect up all the above HEAT AND LIGHT. 161 described apparatus so as to be complete in all its details and in a good and workmanlike manner. PIPE COVERING. After all of the appartus has been installed and con- nected, all pipe and fitting shall be covered with an ap- proved pipe covering. AIR COMPRESSOR. There shall be furnished one air compressor, same hav- ing a capacity of ... feet of free air per minute. The same shall be equipped with the necessary regulators, storage tanks, etc. GAUGE BOARDS. There shall be furnished one marble gauge board, the same having mounted thereon all the necessary gauges, thermometer, etc., for the indicating of the proper work- ings of the system. PIPE LINE. The pipe line to be laid in the various streets in the city of shall be laid by the contractor and shall consist of the following pipe lines: feet of 14-inch main. feet of 12-inch main. feet of 10-inch main. feet of 8 inch main. feet of main which shall be of such average sizes so as to equal the cost of 6-inch main. LOCATION OF MAINS. The mains shall be located in such parts of the streets as found convenient on account of construction condi- tions. The mains shall be so laid as to have a cover of earth of at least two feet, excepting in such places as XI 162 HEAT AND LIGHT. obstructions are encountered ; then, in that case, the mini- mum depth from surface of street of top of insulation shall be at least twelve inches. MATERIALS. The materials to be used in the construction of the pipe lines in question, shall consist of gum lumber of the proper thickness and lengths, the same to be of a first- class quality. The pipe shall be of standard wrought full-weight pipe, of the Crane or National Tube Company's manu- facture, or something equally as good. All fittings shall be of standard grey iron and true as to weights, etc. The pipe lines shall be protected throughout with a system of valves and expansion joints. Wherever valves or ex- pansion joints are put into the system, they shall be sur- rounded with a brick manhole with a cast iron top, so as to permit of free access to the same. The expansion joints shall be so arranged that there will not be any undue strain on any of the fittings in the system. SERVICE OPENINGS. Service openings shall be made in the system as needed to provide for the taking off of service connections. They shall average at least one to every 100 feet of main. TEST. As the street work is installed, it shall be tested, so as to be tight under a pressure of not less than 60 pounds. RE-PAVING. Whenever any of the lines are laid in streets which have been paved, the pavement shall be replaced in as good a condition as found, HEAT AND LIGHT. 163 TIME OF COMPLETION. The work herein contemplated shall be completed and in full running order by , in accordance with the minimum terms of the franchise. FINALLY. During the construction of the plant the contractor shall furnish all the engineers and superintendents neces- sary for the complete building of the plant, together with the measuring of the buildings and making of contracts for the heating of the buildings. As soon as the plant is ready for operation the purchaser shall measure all buildings and make all heating contracts and shall pro- vide the necessary attendants for the operation of the plant, together with all the necessary fuels and materials for the proper operation of the same. The contractors shall furnish for a period of thirty (30) days, if neces- sary, an expert to instruct the superintendent of the heat- ing company in the proper management and operation of the plant. GUARANTEES. ' The contractor guarantees the plant shall be complete in all details and operate successfully as a central station heating plant, and any defects developing in one year shall be replaced by contractor without expense to pur- chaser. SYSTEM. The system shall be what is known as , and shall be built under the direction of . 164 HKAT AND LIGHT. CONTRACT FOR SUPPLYING EXHAUST STEAM FOR HEATING. This contract and agreement between the Company, the party of the first part, and hereinafter designated the "Vendor," and the ................. . ............... Heating Company, the party of the second part, hereinafter desig- nated the "Purchaser," witnesseth : That the vendor does agree to sell to the purchaser the use of the exhaust steam from its main engines for the purpose only of heating water distributed by the pur- chaser to buildings in and around the city of ........ . ................ on the following conditions, each of which is a part of the consideration in this agreement : First That vendor shall supply an outlet from the exhaust of each main engine in its power house on ......................... , and from this point pur- chaser shall install and maintain at its own expense all pipe, valves, fittings and accessories, necessary to con- duct the exhaust steam from the engines of the vendor to the plant of the purchaser, and the condensed steam from the plant of the purchaser to the hot well in the power house of the vendor, according to plans approved by the vendor and in a manner satisfactory to the ven- dor, and in such a manner and at such times as, in the opinion of the vendor, will not interfere with the oper- ation of the vendor's plant, provided that the vendor shall not impose conditions on the prosecution of the w r ork such as to prevent the completion by the purchaser of its work inside the power house in sixty (GO) working days. Second That purchaser shall pass through its heaters part, or all, of the exhaust steam delivered by the majn HEAT AND LIGHT. engines of the vendor between November 1, 1906, and May 1, 1907, and for the last three and first four months of each succeeding year during the life of this contract, and shall pay for the use of this steam three and eighty- five one-hundredths (3.85) cents for each one thousand (1,000) pounds of steam received. It is further agreed by the purchaser that the total payment between November 1, 1906, and May 10, 1907, shall be not less than ; that the total payment between October 1, 1907, and May 10, . . . . , shall be not less than ; that the total payment between October 1, . . . . , and May 10, . . . . , shall be not less than ; that the total payment between October 1, . . . . , and May 10, . . . . , shall be not less than : and between October 1, . . . . , and May 10, . . . . , not less than If the purchaser shall fail to use between October 1 of each year and May 10 of the following year, seventy-five per cent (75%) or more of the exhaust steam output of the main engines of the vendor, then the vendor may terminate and cancel this contract on thirty (30) days' notice to the purchaser, unless the purchaser shall, upon receipt of said notice, pay the vendor such an amount as, together with the previous payments for steam furnished since the 1st of October preceding, will make up the full value of seventy-five per cent (75%) of the exhaust of the vendor's main engines at the above mentioned price. In case of dispute as to the amount of the output of exhaust steam, this amount in pounds shall be considered to be the number of kilowatt hours output of the vendor's station during the time under dispute, multiplied by thirty (30). 166 HEAT AND LIGHT. The amount of steam furnished by the vendor shall be measured by passing it, after condensation, through two (2) water meters, one furnished by the vendor and one by the purchaser. These meters shall each be read jointly by a representative of the vendor and a repre- sentative of the purchaser, on the first of each month dur- ing the heating season, and payment at the above rate shall be made by the purchaser to the vendor not later than the tenth of each month or the number of pounds of steam furnished the purchaser during the preceding month, as shown by the average of the readings of the two (2) meters. Either the purchaser or the vendor may at any time cause either meter to be removed and tested, provided that the expense of such removal and test shall be borne by the party requesting it. In the ab- sence of the second meter the reading of the remaining meter alone shall be considered as the correct measure of steam furnished. The accredited representative of the vendor shall have the right at all .times to enter the plant of the purchaser and to inspect same to insure the return to the vendor of all steam delivered to the purchaser. The representative of the purchaser shall have access to the plant of the vendor at all times to inspect and re- pair the pipes and accessories belonging to the purchaser, provided, however, that no repairs on the premises of the vendor shall be made except at such time and in such manner as the engineer in charge of the vendor's station shall specifically permit, and provided that no representa- tive of the purchaser shall open, close, or tamper with any valve or apparatus on the premises of the vendor without the specific permission of said engineer in charge of the v-endor's station. . AND LIGHT. 167 Third The exhaust from pumps, exciter, engines and other auxiliaries connected with the power house of the vendor shall not be considered as part of the above-men- tioned exhaust steam from main engines. Fourth The purchaser shall use all the exhaust from the engine or engines at any given time connected to its main, before demanding the connection of an additional engine. Fifth The purchaser shall give the engineer in charge of the vendor's power house not less than thirty (30) minutes' notice of its desire to have cut in or out each engine to be connected to or disconnected from its main. Sixth Nothing in this agreement shall require the vendor to run more engines than it deems necessary for its own purposes, and the vendor shall at all times be free to run such engine or engines as in its own opinion are most suited to its own purposes. Seventh The purchaser shall return, condensed, to the hot well of the vendor above mentioned, all of the steam received from the vendor at a temperature not less than 110 Fahrenheit, without having contaminated it with oil or otherwise. Eighth The purchaser shall maintain on the exhaust of each and every engine connected to their main vacuums not less than the following : At no time less than 10 inches When the tempera- ture of the exter- nal air is not less than 10 F. vacuum not less than 11 inches Same 20 F. vacuum not less than 12 inches 30 F. vacuum not less than 15 inches 40 F. vacuum not less than 16 inches 168 HEAT AND LIGHT. Same 50 F. vacuum not less than 18 inches " 00 F. vacuum not less than 20 inches " 05 F. vacuum not less than 24 inches It is understood and agreed between the vendor and purchaser that the above external temperature shall be that reported by the U. S. weather bureau for the city of Ninth It shall be optional with the vendor to supply at any time live steam at the pressures above enumerated in place of part or all of the exhaust steam of its main en- gines and in case the vendor elects to furnish live steam the amount in pounds to be considered equivalent to the exhaust steam produced during the time live steam is sub- stituted, shall be the number of kilowatt hours produced by the purchaser during the same hours of the same day or days of the preceding year, plus fifteen per cent (15%) and multiplied by thirty (30). Tenth In case of break down or accident in the power house or any part of the plant of the vendor, which break down or accident shall partly or wholly prevent the ven- dor from furnishing exhaust steam as herein agreed, the vendor shall not be liable for any claim or claims for damages arising from said failure to furnish steam. Eleventh The purchaser hereby agrees not to gener- ate electricity for any purpose whatever, and further not to buy or use exhaust steam or waste heat in any form from any plant, party partnership or corporation gener- ating electricity, manufacturing gas, or using gas or other hydro-carbon for power generation, or in any way competing with the vendor. The purchaser further agrees not to pass through its works, pipes, or mains any water or other fluid heated by any plant other than its own, and further to purchase no steam or heat in any form except AND LIGHT. 169 coal, oil, wood, or garbage for consumption in its own plant until it shall have utilized all the exhaust steam from the vendor's plant. Twelfth It is understood and agreed, by and between the vendor and purchaser that no charge other than those above mentioned shall be made for the location of the pur- vendor require the alteration of the location of said pipe chaser's pipe lines on the property of the vendor or for the attachment of the purchaser's water supply line to the intake of the vendor, but that should the plans of the lines of. the purchaser, the purchaser shall make such alterations as may be specified by the vendor within thirty (30) days from receipt of written notice to do so, provided that the purchaser shall not be required to make during the last three or first four months of any year any alteration which will necessitate the total or partial shut down of the plant. Thirteenth The duration of this contract shall be years from date of signature unless cancelled on account of non-fulfillment of one or more of the above conditions. 170 HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER IX. ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICITY. As no incinerating plant can be made a financial suc- cess unless the waste heat is utilized either for power or heat, no city official or engineer can pass intelligently upon the merits of any incinerator plant or system who is not familiar with at least the elements of electricity, which is the chief product from the utilization of such heat. From electricity is produced light and power, light for the streets and buildings, and power to operate the motor mills, rock crushers, and the other municipal works. What is electricity is not known. It is invisible and impalpable. Our knowledge of it is confined to its gen- eration and application, but this alone is of moment to the official or engineer. Without this knowledge, all plans and specifications for incinerating plants become unintel- ligible, and place municipalities at the mercy of the con- tractor. The subject of electricity is divided into (1) Static electricity, or electricity at rest. (2) Current electricity, or electricity in motion. (3) Magnetism, or electricity in rotation. (4) Electricity in vibration or radiation. But only current or dynamic electricity will be consid- ered in this work, as it covers most of the field of the uses of electricity in the utilization of waste heat. HKAT AND LIGHT. 171 The production of electricity is the transforming of one form of energy into another, usually by mechanical means, and a dynamo or generator is simply a device for effecting such transformation. An electric motor, on the contrary, is a device for changing electrical into mechanical energy. An electric current manifests itself by the heating of the wire or the conductor through which it passes, or by causing a magnetic field around the wire or conductor, or lastly, by causing chemical changes in a liquid through which it is made to pass. All these manifestations indicate the character of use- ful work capable of being performed by an electric cur- rent. First, the heat caused by the resistence of the con- ductor through which the current passes, is made to gen- erate light and heat. Second, the magnetic field around the wire or conductor is used to operate all character of electrical machines and motors and also make high volt- age currents safe and practical by the use of transformers. Third, the chemical changes brought about in the liquid by the passage through it of the current is used for the storage of electricity to be later used, as needed. STORAGE; RATTSRISS. Storage and secondary batteries, also called accumu- lators, consist of cells which are filled with the liquid in which the chemical change is to be produced by the passage of an electric current through it. The current decomposes the liquid, or electrolyte, as it is called, so that when the passage of the current ceases there are two chemical elements separated, and with a tendency to reunite, and during the process of again com- 172 HEAT AND LIGHT. bining the energy evolved appears as an electric current, but flowing in an opposite direction to that of the charg- ing current. This flow of current continues until the ele- ments are restored to their original condition, when it ceases, and the cell is said to be discharged. An electrolyte is a chemical compound which is capable of acting as an electric conductor, and while so acting undergoes chemical decomposition. This action is called electrolysis. A primary cell is one in which the electric energy is produced by the chemical action on the plates of the cell, and which, when the solutions or plates are exhausted, are not restored to their original condition by the passage of an electric current. Almost all primary cells will act more or less perfectly as secondary or storage cells. CIRCUIT. A circuit is a path composed of a conductor, which is usually copper wire, through which an electric current flows from a given point around through the conductor back again to the starting point. There is no actual flow of the current, for there is no transfer of matter or parti- cles. A conductor carrying a current presents the same appearance as one not, the only manifestation being the heating of the conductor, should the capacity of the wire be too small for the current carried. The flow of the cur-- rent is caused by the difference of potential, and the great- er the amount of potential difference, the greater is said to be the pressure or electromotive force, usually written E. M. P., or voltage which causes the flow. The strength of the current flowing through the conductor depends directly upon the amount of this electromotive force and HEAT AND LIGHT. I 73 also upon. the amount of the resistance to the flow. If the circuit is short and composed of good conductors, the current will be much stronger than if it were long and composed of poor conductors. The three principal units used in the measurement of a current of electricity are : The Ampere, or the unit denoting the rate of flow of the current, or its strength. The Volt, or the unit of electrical potential, or pressure. The Ohm, or the unit of resistance. The Watt, or the unit of power, and is obtained by multiplying the current by the voltage, or by multiplying the square of the current by the resistance. For large units the term kilowatt is used, which is equal to 1,000 watts, the abbreviation being K. W. The kilo- watt hour is the energy expended in one hour when the power is one kilowatt. The relation of the first three units can be better under- stood by the analogy often used of the flow of water through a pipe. The force which causes the water to flow through the pipe is called the head, or pressure; that which resists the flow is the friction of the water against the pipe, while the rate of flow, or current, may be expressed in gallons per minute. Now as the pressure or head increases, the rate of flow or current increases in proportion, but as the resistance increases the current diminishes. In the case of electricity, the electromotive force, or potential, corresponds to the head of water, or pressure ; and the resistence of the conductor, to the friction of the water against the pipe ; while the strength of the cur- rent is the ratio of the electromotive force to the resist- ance of the conductor. This ratio was discovered by Dr. HEAT AND LIGHT. Ohm, and is therefore called Ohm's law, and is the foun- dation of applied electricity, for there is hardly a problem in electrical work that it does not enter. This law is usually expressed algebraically, thus : ELECTRO MOTIVE FORCE Strength of current ~ or Amperes = RESISTANCE. voi/rs OHMS. or C = E, as it is commonly expressed, RT in which C equals current, E equals the electromotive force expressed in volts, and R equals resistance, ex- pressed in Ohms. From this formula is derived E = CxR, orR^ E, C these terms all being dependent upon each other. For watts we have the formula W = E x C. With any two of these terms given, it can be seen that the third term can readily be found. As seen, the current varies directly as the voltage varies and indirectly as the resistance varies. That is, the current increases when the voltage increases and decreases when the resistance increases. With the above four formulas any calculation in electricity becomes most simple. For instance, suppose you wish to find what current will flow through a resist- ance of 3 Ohms, at a pressure of 6 volts. Substituting in formula (1), we have C (amperes) equals 6 equals 2 amperes. 3 Again, we have a lamp the resistance of which we know to be 12 Ohms, and we are using 2 amperes of cur- rent; what E, M, F, (volts) is necessary? HEAT AND LIGHT. 175 Using formula (2) we have E (volts) equal 2x12 equal 24 volts. Suppose we wish to know the resistance of a wire coil through which a current of 6 amperes will pass with 20 volts pressure? Substituting in formula (3), we have R (Ohms) equal 20 6 equals 3 1-3 Ohms. Lastly, we have a small motor taking 2 amperes at 5 volt pressure to run it, how many watts of current does it consume? Substituting in formula (4), we have W (watts) equals 2x5 equals 10 watts. ' ALTERNATING AND CONTINUOUS CURRENTS. Two kinds of electricity are generated by a dynamo or generator, distinguished by the direction of their flow. The continuous or direct current flows continuously in one direction, while the alternating current alternates the direction of its flow back and forward the entire length of the circuit. These alternations may be ten thousand times a second or only a hundred a second, this being called the frequency of the alternations. For lighting it is necessary to have at least forty complete alterations per second. The direct current is a constant and unvarying- current, and the machines used for its generation are divided in two types : (1) Constant Potential Dynamos, in which machine, although the pressure, or voltage may vary, the amount of the current does not. (2) Constant Current Dynamos, in which machine, al- though the strength of the current may vary, the pressure, or voltage, remains constant. Each of these currents have their advantages and adap- tability for their particular classes of work, as will be HEAT AND LIGHT. 177 shown later. All current when first produced by a dy- namo or generator is alternating, and to send it out as a direct current, it is necessary that it be changed upon the machine before transmission, and the addition of the commutator to make this change practically constitutes .the only difference between a direct and an alternating current dynamo or generator. THE DYNAMO. (Fig. 22.) The dynamo is a machine driven by power, usually steam or water, and producing the necessary pressure for the production of an electric current. A dynamo when in action is like a cistern at a high level, or a pump, for it urges or forces the current through the conductor. Without such force or pressure as pro- duced by the dynamo, there would be no more flow of an electrical current, than there would be of water from one receptacle to another, when they are on the same level. Dynamos are classified into (1) Uni-polar, (2) Bi- polar, (3) Multi-polar machines, according to the number of pole pieces upon them, and they are used for three principal purposes : 1. Incandescent lighting. 2. Arc lighting. 3. For distribution of power. When used for power purposes, the machine is called a generator, that is, when it generates electricity to be used through motors. This machine in its simplest form consists of two main parts: (1) an armature, which in revolving induces electromotive forces in the conductor wound upon it; (2) a field magnet, whose function is to 12 1~ 8 HKAT AND LIGHT. provide a field of magnetic lines to be cut by the armature conductors as they revolve. In all dynamos, whether for direct or alternating currents, these two parts are the same. Usually the field magnet remains stationary while the ar- mature rotates, but in recent patterns of alternators, the armature remains stationary, and the field magnets rotate. It is always the field magnet which maintains its mag- netism steady during the revolution, while the magnetism of the armature alone regularly changes and this variation of the magnetism determines the type of machine. It has been found most convenient to supply incandescent light- ing systems by the constant potential system, and arc lighting systems by the constant current system. The essential difference between a direct current ma- chine and an alternator, as an alternating current machine is called, is the use of a commutator upon the former machine for rectifying the current, that is, to change it from an alternating to a direct current. The commuta- tor is attached to the armature and revolves with it. In the case of an alternator there is no need of a com- mutator, but metallic rings, known as collecting rings, takes its place, the collecting brushes pressing against them. The dynamo, therefore, is seen to consist of five essen- tial parts, viz. : (1) The armature, or revolving part. (2) The field magnets which produce the magnetic field in which the armature rotates. (3) The pole pieces. (4) The commutator or collector. (5) The collecting brushes. 180 HEAT AND LIGHT. TYPES OF DYNAMOS. There are two principal types of dynamos : ( 1 ) Direct current, and the (2) Alternating current machine. The direct current machines are divided into three classes: (1) Series wound ; (2) Shunt wound; (3) Com- pound wound, depending upon the manner the field mag- nets are connected to the armature. SERIES DYNAMO. The manner in which the connections are made on this type of machine can be seen from Fig. 23. In this type, the whole of the current generated in the armature, passes direct through the coils of the field magnet, which is wound with several turns of heavy wire, and thence out to the external circuit. The current in passing through the coils of the field magnet energizes same, creating a magnetic field between the N. & S. poles, in which magnetic field the armature revolves as shown clearly in the cut. SHUNT WOUND DYNAMOS. This type which is shown in Fig. 23, differs from the series wound machine in that the whole of the current does not pass through the field coils, but an independent circuit is used for exciting its field magnet. This inde- pendent circuit is composed of a large number of turns of fine wire, which are wound around the field magnet and connected direct to the brushes, so as to form a by- pass or shunt to the brushes and external circuit, in addi- tion to the main current, which is taken off direct from the brushes. There are two paths presented to the current as it leaves the armature, viz. : The external circuit and WINDING FOR SEPARATELY EXCITED DYNAMO Fig. 24. 182 HEAT AND LIGHT. the path through the field coils. Most of the current flows through the external path, as it offers much less resistance than the shunt path through the field coils, it being of much larger wire. The resistance of the shunt circuit is always made very great, as compared to the resistence of the armature and external circuit, as this circuit is used alone to secure a closer regulation of the machine than afforded by the series type. The strength of the current through the field coils rarely exceed 1 5 amperes, even in the largest size machines. COMPOUND WOUND DYNAMOS. This type, as shown in Fig. 23, is a combination of the series and shunt wound machines, the field magnet being wound with two sets of coils, one set being con- nected in series, and the other set in parallel with the armature and external circuit. This affords a much closer regulation than the shunt type, and automatically maintaining a constant pressure, and is therefore used almost exclusively for incandescent lighting. The above three types are what is known as self-excit- ing machines, as they require no independent battery or dynamo for exciting their field magnets, but excite their fields themselves, as above described. ALTERNATORS. Ill order to operate this type of machine, which is shown in Fig. 24, an independent direct current dynamo or battery is necessary for exciting its field magnets, called an exciter. It is therefore not in general use for small in- stallations, being principally used where an alternating current is required, as with an alternating current a self- HEAT AND LIGHT. 183 exciting machine is impossible, owing to the fact that the fields can not be magnetized with such a current. The E. M. F. and current of this type of dynamo is regulated by varying the strength of the magnetizing current produced by the independent dynamo or battery which is connected direct to the field coils. The strength of this independent current is regulated by the regu- lator R. CONNECTING OF DYNAMOS. In large installations, such as central generating sta- tions, it is neither economical or desirable that the entire current should be furnished from a single dynamo or generator. As it is economy to always work a dynamo at full load, or as near a full load as possible, it is mani- fest that this would be impossible with only one machine, o\ving to the fluctuation of the load. In order to secure a maximum efficiency it is usual to divide up the plant into a number of units, so that the load can be taken care of at all times, irrespective of its fluctuations. At the "peak" of the load all the units can be worked, and as the load decreases the units can be cut out, so as to always keep a full load on the machines kept running. The output of a dynamo is composed of two factors, the pressure, or voltage, and the current, or amperage. Either or both of these can be increased by the addition of more machines, the same as the boiler horse power of a plant can be increased by the installing of more boilers. The uses of electricity at the present time require the maintenance of either a constant current, or a constant pressure in a circuit, and to comply with these require- ments it becomes necessary to connect the dynamos or generators together in several different ways. 184 HEAT AND LIGHT. In coupling two or more machines in parallel the pressure or voltage of all the machines are kept constant, and the current or amperage alone varies. In the series connection the pressure or voltage of the machines is increased, while the current, or amperage, remains the same. Fig. 25 shows the cells when completed in series and also when connected in parallel. Also connection of lights in series and parallel. Fig. 26 shows the principal systems of connected lights. When the machines are connected in parallel all the positive terminals are connected together, and all the negative terminals the same way; or the positive and negative terminals of each machine can be connected respectively to two insulated copper bars, called omnibus or "bus" bars. When in series, the negative and positive terminals are connected to each other. SHUNT DYNAMOS IN SERIES. This is the usual method of connecting up dynamos so as to run either in parallel or series. To connect in series the positive terminal of one machine is connected to the negative terminal of the other. The ammeter, fuses and switch are connected through the outer terminals, as shown in Fig. 27. SHUNT MACHINES IN PARALLEL. To connect shunt machines in parallel, it is only nec- essary to connect the positive and negative terminals of each machine respectively to the positive and negative "bus" bars, as shown in Fig. 28. V A 0) CO = ~ re 5 TJ C re 43 to ^ (^ 03 . HEAT AND LIGHT. 187 SERIES DYNAMOS IN SERIES. Series wound machines will run satisfactorily when connected in series, as shown in Fig. 29. SERIES DYNAMOS IN PARALLEL. Series wound machines are not adapted to run in par- allel, as machines of this type are not constructed for the purpose of maintaining a constant pressure. In order to operate such machines in parallel, an "equalizer" is nec- essary, as shown in Fig. 30. This is a third connection between the ends of all the series coils, where they join the armature circuit. This causes the whole of the cur-- rent generated by all the machines to be divided among the series coils of the several machines. This maintains constant the fields of the several machines, and maintains an equality of pressure, thereby preventing reversal of polarity, and keeping the machines together under all con- ditions of load. COMPOUND DYNAMOS IN SERIES. It is only necessary to connect the series coil of each together, as shown in Fig. 29. The shunt windings must be connected as a single shunt. COMPOUND DYNAMOS IN PARALLEL. Such machines will not run together satisfactorily unless the series coils are connected together by an equal- izing connection, as shown in Fig. 32. The connection is the same as when series dynamos are connected in par- allel. UJ u CO z CO I HEAT AND LIGHT. 189 COUPLING OF AIvTERATORS. In order that the output of one alternator may be added to another it is necessary that the E. M. F. of each ma- chine shall be in exact agreement, so that they will have equal frequencies, or be in phase, or in step with each other. METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS. To ascertain the amount of current flowing in a circuit an ammeter, which is designated in Fig. 33 as A, is inserted in scries in one of the mains. The whole of the current passing to the lamps L, therefore must pass through it and be measured. A voltmeter, designated as V, is connected across the two main leads, or in shunt with the dynamo, and there- fore measures the difference of potential between the two mains in volts. USE OF DIFFERENT TYPES. The series wound machines are used almost exclusively for street car motors, such a type being totally unfit for constant potential work. The shunt and compound wound machines are practically used for all power and incandes- cent lighting circuits. The constant current type is devoted mostly to arc lighting. Of the three types described above, the compound wound machine is by far the most used, owing to its close and automatic regula- tion. CO cr < CD CO + I TJ 3 O a o O 13 9MUMT COILS vWVWAA- 1 COMPOUND DYNAMOS IN PARALLEL, Fig. 32. 1 ,$ . I < 196 HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER X. INCINERATORS COMBINED WITH ELECTRIC- ITY AND WATER WORKS. Incineration can never become a success in this country until the waste heat from a properly constructed furnace is utilized for some useful power or heating purpose. Not to so utilize this waste heat, is to lose the principal ad- vantage of incineration over all other systems of garbage disposal and to reduce it to as primitive a method of garbage disposal as dumping and as costly as reduction. In a properly constructed incinerating furnace, a tempera- ture of 2000 degrees F. can be constantly maintained, the gases leaving the furnace at a temperature not less than 1500 degrees, which is the average temperature maintained in a boiler furnace, and to waste this heat up the chimney is to burn up money. In the modern incin- erating plant, steam boilers are installed between the in- cinerator and the chimney, and this waste heat made to pass under them before being allowed to escape into the atmosphere, thereby not only making this heat do useful work, but removing from the gases in their long travel all dust and noxious odors before being allowed to escape. This heat is as constant as that obtained from coal-fired furnaces under boilers, and just as high a steam pressure can therefore be maintained in the boilers. As incinerat- ing plants are operated continuously throughout the twenty- four hours, their heavier work being at night when the garbage can be delivered with less objection than HEAT AND LIGHT. 197 during the day, it makes their combination with electric lighting plants especially advantageous. The great econ- omy of such a combination can be seen at a glance, as the waste heat which would be otherwise wasted is made to operate the electric plant without one cent additional cost. Such a combination as above described is no longer an experiment, for there are now successfully operating in England alone, over sixty such plants, while there has been recently installed in New York City, an electric plant in combination with their incinerating plant, which is furnishing lights for the new Williamsburg Bridge and the surrounding district. In Liverpool, where there are four incinerator installations located in different sections of the city, the waste heat from 300 tons of refuse is utilized for traction purposes, while in London the re- sultant power from 800 tons of refuse is used for electric lighting. From this can be seen the enormous waste of power in our larger cities. In the City of St. Louis alone it can be safely said that 3200 h. p. is thus daily wasted. Comparative statement showing the number of elec- trical units generated per ton of refuse destroyed at twenty combined electricity and destructor works in England : !& !-s . H- 1 <U -T3 V) >" "* xj v a-; M i s mi *js O o>o <3 .* Q Accrington ...... Lancashire .... 25 60 Bangor ......... Hornsby ...... 20 9 Cleckheaton ..... Lancashire .... 35 12 !98 HEAT AND LIGHT. g ^S. OT> 5 111,; ill 1 * 1 85 1 525 o 3 s v j>v s & H* E- < < Colne Babcock 20 18 Darwen . .Lancashire .... 33 35 Fulham Babcock 26-62 100 Gloucester Babcock 35 25 Grays Lancashire .... 33 8 Liverpool Babcock 29-5 97 Llandudno Babcock 32 15 Nelson Lancashire .... 40 30 Patrick Babcock 27 42 Rhyl Babcock 15 16 St. Helens Babcock 37.3 32 Shipley Lancashire 37.8 25 Shoreditch Babcock 20 80 Stepney Bal^cock 32 165 Warrington Babcock 80 50 Wimbledon Babcock 45 54 Wrexham Lancashire .... 38 35 ESTIMATE OF LIGHT AND POWER FROM A 150-TON INCINERATOR. With a properly constructed incinerator using" mechan- ical draft, 8 I. H. P. can be developed per ton of refuse burned, or 1200 I. H. P. in 24 hours from a 150-ton in- cinerator. This is equal to 895.2 K. W. Allowing 92 per cent efficiency and 11 per cent loss, this is equal to 603.55 K. W., or 150,889 candle power; which would HEAT AND LIGHT. 199 permit of 9430 lamps of 16 C. P. each, or 4716 lamps of 32 C. P. each, or 336 lamps of 2000 C. P. each. With coal at $2.00 per ton and allowing 10 cents per ton for labor, the cost of incineration per ton of refuse should not exceed 19 cents, making a daily cost (24 hours) of a 150-ton incinerator $28.50, i. e., $1.19 per hour. Burning 6.25 tons of refuse per hour, would generate 50 H. P. per hour, or 37.3 K. W., costing $1.19 or 3.2 cents per K. W., requiring nothing for the cost of the in- cineration, or $28.50 per day for the incineration, which would give the above output of electric current at not one cent cost. With three such incinerating plants in a city of six hundred thousand inhabitants, all public build- ings and the principal business streets could be lighted at no expense whatever. Should the city have a term con- tract for its lighting with some company, then these lights could be distributed through the parks and other public places to beautify the city. Light is the best protection that can be given the public, better even than the most efficient police force, then, why not collect and utilize all refuse for this purpose. While it is true that the calorific value of different re- fuse will vary greatly, this is no serious objection, as that of coal also varies greatly. No city should be misled by statements that the garbage can be burned by itself alone. During the summer months when the garbage will run 80 per cent moisture, at least 90 Ibs. of coal to every ton of garbage must be burned; in fact, it would be safe to estimate that an average of this amount of coal per ton of refuse burned will be required throughout the entire year. 200 HEAT AND LIGHT. Refuse at its best is a very poor fuel, but it has its value, and this value is sufficient to make a plant operated from its waste heat at least self-supporting-, which would mean a saving of thousands of dollars to every American city, besides affording a sanitary and economical method of garbage disposal. What has been said as to combining electrical works with an incinerator, applies with equal advantages to such a combination with water works, especially in the smaller towns. There is only one exception and that is when operated in connection with water works, a greater pre- caution must be taken, in order to prevent any contamina- tion from the refuse. This can be secured by a little care, and using closing doors where the refuse is dis- charged. LABOR. As over 50 per cent of the total cost of disposing of refuse is for labor, it is evidently a most important factor, but one which in this country has been given but slight attention, owing to the mistaken belief that any class of labor could do this character of work. No greater mistake can be made than to employ unskilled labor for refuse destruction. Should the incinerator be operated as such alone, without a power or heat combination, there still remains the most difficult work connected with proper incineration, viz. : the clinkering of the furnace. Upon this being properly done depends the character of the clinker and its sale. With proper clinkering in a high temperature furnace, the clinker is removed hard and vitreous, and finds at all times a ready sale for mortar, street or paving work. If improperly clinkered, it is removed soft and full of foul odors, making it not only a nuisance, but its removal HEAT AND LIGHT. 201 a source of expense, as it being worthless it then must be hauled away. When one considers how few good firemen can be had for coal-fired furnaces, and how easily coal is stoked in comparison with the clinker formed in an incinerating furnace, there can be no question but that only skilled firemen can be used successfully for this work. When the incinerator is operated in combination with a heating, electrical or water works plant, the necessity of skilled labor is still more obvious. In such an incinerat- ing plant not only should skilled engineers and firemen alone be employed, but the chief engineer should be a man capable not only of successfully operating the steam plant, but also the incinerating furnaces under him, and seeing that the entire plant is maintained at its highest efficiency. Irrespective of the make of the incinerator used, or whether operated alone or in combination, only skilled and well paid labor can be employed with profit. COST OF INSTALLATION AND ESTIMATED OPERATING EXPENSE OF A 300-ARC LIGHT PLANT, 150 K. W. Lamps 500 watts, on every night, all night. Efficiency of dynamo and engine, 87%. Efficiency of transformer, 95%. 1 Ib. coal evaporates 7^ Ibs. water. 26 Ibs. steam develops 1 h. p. Requires 242 h. p. 4410 hrs. per year. Cost of plant, $80.000. 202 HEAT AND LIGHT. ESTIMATE OPERATING EXPENSES. 1,856 tons coal at $2.00 $3,712.00 Removal of ashes 175.00 Water 300.00 Carbons and globes 1,000.00 Oil, etc 600.00 2 engineers at $100 per mo 2,400.00 2 firemen at $60 per month 1,440.00 1 lineman . 720.00 1 lineman, cash 300.00 Interest 4% on $80,000 3,200.00 Depreciation and replacement 5% on $55,000. . 2,750.00 Depreciation and replacement 10% on $25,000. 2,500.00 Insurance 1% on $55,000.. 550.00 $19,647.00 COST LAMP, $65.50. If 1 Ib. coal evaporates only 5 Ibs water. Total cost $21,581.00 COST LAMP, $72.00. By combining this plant with an incinerating plant, the sum of $6,112.00 can be annually saved in the ex- pense of coal and labor alone, which is about 33 per cent of the total operating expenses of the plant. HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER XL INCINERATOR SITE AND BUILDINGS. Next in importance to the selection of the proper method of disposing of the refuse, is the question of the location of the plant to be used for that purpose. This is not only a question affecting the health of a community, but one of special interest to the taxpayer who must pay the cost of long and useless hauls to such a plant, should it be improperly located. Should incineration be adopted as the method of disposal, a long haul to a plant located at or near the city limits is not only an unnecessary ex- pense, but a positive menace to health of the residents of the streets through which it is hauled. . With a properly constructed incinerating furnace, there is no possibility of the escape of noxious odors or objec- tionable smoke, for there must be complete combustion. The plant itself would be less objectionable than a steam power plant similarly located, for not only is there an absence of all smoke, but also of the- noises which usually accompany a manufacturing plant. By locating the incinerating plant in the central section of the city, not only is the great expense of the long hauls avoided, but the unsanitary feature of hauling the drip- ping garbage for a long distance through the streets re- moved. No time should be lost in the rapid disposal of the garbage after its collection, for it is during this period of time that it becomes most objectionable, both to the senses and to health. Its value for reduction purposes also depends on dispatch in its handling. 204 HSAT AND LIGHT. It costs the city of St. Louis $70,000 annually to dis- pose of its 70,000 tons of garbage and $116,900 to collect same, this being about the average cost for the collection and disposal of garbage in the different cities of this country. This cost of $1.67 per ton for the collection of the gar- bage is due to the long hauls necessary under the present system. Should there be three incinerators located in central sections of the city, this cost of collection could be reduced at least 75 per cent. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that a well con- structed incinerator is entirely unobjectionable. No less than 94 per cent of all the incinerators in Great Britian are located in or near the central sections of its cities, and in the city of Sheerness, the combined incinerator and water works plant is located only 8 feet from their prin- cipal school. By locating the incinerator in a central section of the city its waste heat can be utilized for useful work, such as for electric lighting, and thereby make it a self-supporting method of garbage disposal, instead of the enormously expensive methods now adopted by all American cities. While a properly constructed incinerating plant can never become objectionable, on the contrary, it is impossi- ble to operate a reduction plant without it being a nui- sance. I have seen garbage cooked for days under a steam pressure of 175 pounds to the square inch in the latest and most improved form of digesters and at the end of this time the odors were as foul, or worse, than at first. These odors can only be destroyed by subjecting them to a furnace temperature of at least 1500 degrees F. and to do this would require an incinerator operated in conjunc- HEAT AND LIGHT. 205 tion with every reduction plant. The prompt collection and delivery of garbage would decrease this nuisance to a great extent. While admitting the value of the reduction process for that portion of the refuse which can be utilized at a profit, which is about 23 per cent, there can be no denying the fact that the best location for any reduction plant is just as far from the residence of any citizen as it is pos- sible to get it. As dead animals and kitchen garbage constitutes this 23 per cent of refuse for reduction, the necessary accumulation of this refuse at the plant w r hile being sorted and made ready for the digesters, etc., is most offensive and unsanitary. For a city of six to seven hundred thousand inhabitants, there should at least be three incinerating plants, located in different sections of the city and easy of access, and one reduction plant located at or near the city limits, which can be reached without requiring the refuse to be hauled through the principal streets of the city. INCINERATOR BUILDINGS. The building should be two stories in height, and con- structed of the best building brick throughout, with either a slate or steel roof, properly supported by steel I beams and cinder fire-proof throughout. The walls of the first floor should be 18 inches in thickness, and of the second floor 13 inches in thickness. All partitions should be of brick and 13 inches in thickness. All of the lower floor should be of the best concrete, and the second floor laid with 3-inch plank. The height of the first and second floors should be 16 feet. e. BOIL CR5. INCINERATOR. ENGINE AND CeiMERATOR CLINKERS. .APPROACH ROAD. MEN-J ROOM'S BELOW. -^r,Tn TIPPING FLOOR. SECOND FLOOR LINQTHB WIDTHHB WALLS IST. FLOOR 18" " ftw>. " 13" PARTITIONS 13" HEIQHT (ST. FLOOR |fa HEIGHT a>to.FLOOR lfc LOWER FLOOR L CONCRETE. SECOND FLOOR 3" PLANK. GROUND PLAN. Cjratfe m BRANCH GARBAGE INCINERATOR BRICK ENCLOSURE TOR SAME. Fig. 34. HEAT AND LIGHT. 207 APPROACH ROADWAY TO BUILDING. The approach roadway to second floor should be not more than 20 per cent grade, and 12 feet in width, with the retaining walls of the best hard brick, laid on solid rock foundation and supported by steel I beams, with the best fire-proofing to be used between the beams. The roadway to be laid with vitrified paving brick, or granite blocks. The building should be of ample dimensions to permit of future power installations. For a 50 or 80-ton incin- erator, the building should be at least 56 feet in length and 40 feet in width. Figs. 34, 35 and 36 show plans of building suitable for the Branch and other Incinerators. 210 HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER XII. NATURAL AND MECHANICAL DRAFT. The maintenance of proper draft at all times, irre- spective of the nature or quantity of the furnace charge, or the atmospheric conditions, is the first and most essential requirement for the successful incineration of garbage. Without sufficient draft, under positive and flexible control, the high furnace temperature necessary for the complete incineration of garbage, cannot be obtained, and if obtained could not be maintained. Combustion in all furnaces, is simply the combination of the elements carbon and hydrogen in the garbage or fuel used, with the oxygen in the air. The supply of air is furnished by the draft, and the draft is produced either by natural or mechanical means. A NATURAL DRAFT is produced by a stack or chimney, while a mechanical draft is produced by mechanical means, such as a blower, a fan, or a steam jet. The draft pro- duced by a blower or steam jet is called a FORCED OR PLENUM draft, while that produced by a fan is an IN- DUCED OR VACUUM DRAFT. The natural draft is the oldest and the most primitive method of producing a draft, but for a garbage incin- erator it is insufficient and unsuitable. The constructors of American incinerators alone have employed this method for obtaining a draft, and it is partially due to this fact that there has been such a great number of fail- ures in this country. HEAT AND LIGHT. 211 Of the 200 incinerators in successful operation in other countries, not one uses other than a mechanical draft, either forced or induced. The reason for this is apparent when you consider that 1,700 pounds of every ton of garbage consumed is water, and of such character that unless the furnace temperature is maintained at a minimum of 1,500 degrees the garbage cakes, and will choke any draft obtained by natural means. Again, unless almost perfect combustion is maintained the temperature of the furnace quickly falls to a point where perfect incineration will no longer take place, thus permitting noxious odors to escape unconsumed. In order to obtain sufficient draft to maintain the de- sired temperature of 2,000 degrees, it becomes necessary to increase the height of the chimney, and in so doing from 20 to 40 per cent of the heat of the fuel is dissipated in the atmosphere without useful effect. Any attempt to utilize a portion of this waste heat nec- essarily reduces the temperature, and lessens the draft, for draft is produced by the difference of heated air in the chimney and cooler air outside, that is the unbalanced pressure between the two. A chimney of excessive height would afford no relief, for a draft so produced is neither positive nor flexible, as is necessary for the consuming of fuel the nature of the ordinary garbage. A high chimney also entails considerable expense for its erection, in addition to this continual waste of useful heat. As compared with this insufficient and wasteful process of air movement, an induction fan calls for an expendi- ture of only about one-fourth of the heat required for the chimney in order to produce the same results. 212 HEAT AND LIGHT. With a mechanical draft the temperature of the fur- nace is always under control, and without waste of heat. Such a draft is both positive and flexible, and with it can be obtained and maintained almost perfect combustion, which means that all useful heat is utilized, and the com- plete absence of all smoke and smell. The standard test for determining- the efficiency of combustion is the test for CO2 (Carbonic oxide). The more perfect the combustion, the higher being the percent- age of this gas. With 2 per cent only of CO2 in the gases of combustion, the loss of heat would be as high as 60 per cent, due to the heat being absorbed by the excessive amount of the cold air admitted to the furnace. With 10 per cent of CO2, the loss of heat is reduced to 15 per cent, while with 15 per cent of CO2, the loss becomes only about 10 per cent. On the contrary, the greater the per cent of CO (Car- bon Monoxide), the more imperfect the combustion, due to the lack of sufficient air. The following tests show how perfect is the combustion with a mechanical draft : STEAM JET BLOWER DRAUGHT. Table showing percentage of CO2 in the gases of com- bustion : Town. Oldham Rochdale Rate of Combustion. ..29 Ibs. 50 Ibs. Ashpit Pressure. 1 1-G in. IVs in. Average c , CO2. Average c , Oxygen. 5 samples 8. CO 10.90 15.50 3.90 18.10 1.40 8.50 10.70 13.30 6'. 30 18.90 .96 17.36 1.90 HEAT AND LIGHT. 213 Town. Lancaster Rate of Combustion. . .59% Ibs. Ashpit Pressure. 1.75 in. Average % CO2. 15.5 Average % Oxygen. Nelson ...29 Ibs. 1.50 in. 13.16 68% Ibs. 2% in. 14.40 57 Ibs. 1.85 in. (30 readings) 12.21 Hereford . . .54. 88 Ibs. 51.52 Ibs. 54.75 Ibs. 1.45 in. 1.37 in. 1.82 in. 15.56 14.92 16.84 16.83 16.27 16.38 (20 readings) 5.40 (16 readings) 3.54 (14 readings) 3.74 FAN DRAUGHT. Table showing percentage of CO2 in the gases of com- bustion : Average Rate of Ashpit Combustion Pressure Average % Average % Town. per sq.ft. of Water. of CO2. of Oxygen. St. Helens 103 Ibs. 3.1 in. (21 readings) (20 readings) 10.4 9.16 Blackburn ... 34.66 Ibs. 11.87 Warrington .. 59 Ibs. 2 in. 7.2 11.8 Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth 68.4 Ibs. 2.55 in. 7.93 12.25 One of the requirements of constructors of incinerators should be 'that an analysis of the chimney gases should show at least 15 per cent CO2 and not a trace of CO, for it is only with such a high state of combustion can incin- eration be made either financially satisfactory to the city, or unobjectionable to the citizens. All incinerators should be equipped both with steam jets or blower, for a forced draft, and duplex fans for an induced draft, but of the two, the induced draft is by far the most essential and effective. With the forced draft Blower, Forced Draft System. Fig. 37. Induced Draft System. Fig. 38. 216 HEAT AND LIGHT. the air is forced through the fires from the closed ash pit, while with an induced draft, it is drawn through the fires by creating a vacuum over the fires. In the induced system the exhaust fan is used in place of the chimney, or supplementary to it, the products of combustion being drawn into the fan and exhausted into the chimney, which needs to be merely high enough to carry the smoke and gases clear of the roof of the building. The fan itself maintains the partial vacuum that would exist with a chimney of suitable height. Figs. 37 and 38 show these two systems in operation. With this system the maximum intensity 01 me draft obtainable is greater and permits a much wider range regulation than with the forced-draft system. The leak- age of air is also inward, thus avoiding the constant out- ward leakage, as in the forced-draft system. The induced-draft system offers the additional advan- tage that the supply of air above the fire can be nicely adjusted to secure more perfect combustion. While the maximum intensity of the draft of the chimney is largely dependent upon atmospheric conditions, as well as height, the intensity of the draft when produced mechanically is limited only by the speed of the fan, which can be made to cover a wide range of conditions. When regenerators for heating the air for combina- tion, or economizers, are used in connection with the in- cinerator or boilers, mechanical draft then becomes almost a necessity to provide some means of furnishing sufficient air for combustion, in order that the gases may reach the chimney, at a sufficiently high temperature to produce a draft.* When a forced draft alone is used with a chim- ney, the forced draft and the chimney pull should be so regulated that a perfect balance of the gases is main- HEAT AND LIGHT. 217 tained. When such a condition exists no cold air can be drawn into the furnace, even when the fire doors are left open. The principal advantages claimed for mechanical draft are as follows : (1) The ability to control the rate of combustion. (2) A close regulation of the air required for com bustion, thus avoiding improper combustion. (3) Reduction of the first cost for producing the draft required. . (4) Permits the installation of regenerators and econo- mizers without the necessity of providing additional means for maintaining the draft. (5) Permits an absolutely uniform draft, regardless of atmospheric conditions. (6) For increasing the draft, where insufficient chim- ney capacity exists. (7) Permits the use of highly-heated air for combus- tion without increasing the waste heat. (8) With mechanical draft the draft is independent of the condition of the fire, and consequently a banked fire can be started up quickly. With a natural draft, the intensity of the draft depends on the intensity of the fire, and is therefore least when the fire is low and draft is most needed. DRAFT WATER GAUGE. The intensity of the draft is measured by means of a water gauge, as shown in Fig. 39. The gauge consists of a glass tube open at both ends, bent to the shape of the letter U. To use the gauge, the left leg is connected with the chimney and the right leg left open to the outside air. The air outside of the chimney being heavier, it presses on OjL- P EE~ 05~ lEE 6 fO s-..<a> g.- Draft Gages. Fig. 39. HEAT AND LIGHT. 219 the surface of the water in this leg and forces some of it up higher in the left leg. The difference in the two water levels in the legs, represents the intensity of the draft, which is expressed not in ounces, but in inches. Wood requires about one-half inch of draft; bituminous coal requires less draft than anthracite. To burn ant lira- cite or slack coal requires about one and one-fourth inches of draft. Two inches is about as much draft as can be ob- tained with a natural draft, but with a mechanical draft, five inches, if necessary, can be easily obtained, the rate at which it is necessary to run the fan depending upon the temperature of the heated gases. HOT AIR FOR COMBUSTION. Owing to the moist nature of garbage, 70 to 80 per cent being water, and the great absorbent properties of heated air, no incinerator fills the modern requirements unless all air which is forced into the furnace for combustion is first heated by some economical means. This is usually done in English destructors by utilizing the heated gases for this purpose, after they have left the boiler and before entering the stack. These heated gases are passed through a nest of iron pipes, and the cold air which is used for combustion is made to circulate around these pipes as it passes to the furnace. This is done by the use of an induced draft, using steam jets to draw the heated air through a conduit, which connects direct with the ash pit, from which the air is forced through the fires with a blower. RETENTION OF DUST. As the weight of the dust produced forms about 5 per cent, of the total weight of the garbage consumed, all 220 HEAT AND LIGHT. constructors should be required to specify the method adopted by them to prevent the escape of this dust from the stack. Should no method be provided, in addition to the nuisance which will result, the heating surface of the boiler will be reduced, and the draft materially suffer. The flues of the boiler should be large, never less than 6 inches, which will assist in causing a low velocity of travel in the flues, and a dust-catcher or collecting cham- ber be provided between the incinerator and boiler, so as to prevent as much as possible this dust entering the boiler. The earlier this dust is deposited the better, and any form of combustion chamber, dust-catcher or collecting chamber which secures this result should be satisfactory. Such chambers can be very simple of construction, one of the most successful forms being in use at the Taunton plant in England. It consists simply of two annular chambers, one smaller and enclosed in the larger. The gases enter the outer chamber and circulate around it, thereby throwing the dust against the outer wall and thence enter the inner chamber through an opening in the top of same and flowing downward to escape into the chimney. Cleaning doors are provided for removing the dust which accumulates. I have taken the Rochdale destructor as a model plant of efficiency and economy. As can be seen from the following analyses of the chimney gases, the percentage of CO2 is extremely high, while not a trace of CO is shown. HEAT AND LIGHT. 221 ROCHDALE DESTRUCTOR. ROCHDALE, ENGLAND. Population, 83,114 Tests Made at the Corporation Sanitary Works. CO NIL. (W. F. Goodrich's "Refuse Disposal.") Date of test Mar. 1/95. Nov. 14/95. Nov. 15/95 Duration of test 6 hours 6 ^ hours 6 % hours Total refuse destroyed 11.4 tons 13.75 tons 14.3 tons Refuse burnt per hour 4,256 Ibs. 4,738 Ibs. 4.945 Ibs. Refuse burnt per hour, per sq. ft. of grate 47.3 Ibs 52.6 Ibs. 54.9 Ibs. Water evaporated per Ib. of refuse 1.64 Ibs. 1.39 Ibs. 1.47 Ibs. Equivalent evaporation, from and at 212 degrees 1.97 Ibs. 1.68 Ibs. 1.78 Ibs. Number of boilers used Two One One Temperature of feed water 53 F. 52 F. 52 F. Total water evaporated 42,072 Ibs. 42,900 Ibs. 47,400 Ibs. Water evaporated per hour 7,012 Ibs. 6,600 Ibs. 7,290 Ibs. Equivalent evap. from and at 212 degrees F 8,431 Ibs. 7,980 Ibs. 8,820 Ibs. Average steam pressure per sq. inch 113 Ibs. 113 Ibs. 114 Ibs. Percentage of (CO2) in products of combustion 15.9 Ibs. Percentage of free oxygen 2.2 Ibs. Labor cost per ton of refuse destroyed l l / 2 d. COMPARISON OF COSTS FIXED CHARGES FOR CHIMNEY AND INDUCED DRAFT. (Walter B. Snow.) First Cost Ratio Method of Draft Production Amount Chimney $10,000 1.00 Induced Draft Plant (2 fans) 4,200 .42 Induced Draft Plant (1 fan) 2,670 .267 Forced Draft Plant (1 fan) 1,870 .187 Annual Fixed Charges Amount Ratio $800 462 294 206 1.00 .58 .37 .26 222 HEAT AND LIGHT. RELATIVE COSTS OF BOILER PLANT, WITH CHIMNEY AND MECHANICAL DRAFT. 12 Boilers $37,000 2 Economizers 10,500 Boiler and economizer settings and by-passes 9,000 Automatic damper regulators and 'dampers 400 Chimney, including foundations 10,700 Boiler house 11,500 Total $79,100 RELATIVE COSTS. Chimney Draft. Mechanical Draft. Cost of chimney $10,700 Cost of mechanical draft Cost of damper regu- plant, complete $4,700 lators and dampers . . . 400 Saving by using mechan- ical draft 6,400 Total $11,100 Total $11,100 The costs of the chimney and the mechanical-draft apparatus, which are also indicated, show a saving in first cost of $6,400, as the result of using the mechanical- draft method. INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR ESTIMATE UPON MECHAN- ICAL DRAFT APPARATUS. Total number of boilers .... Type of boilers Total square feet of grate surface Total square feet of heating surface Dimensions of Boilers: No. of each size Diameter Length of tubes No. of tubes Diameter of tubes Rated horse-power of plan .... H. P. present output . . . H. P. desired output. . . .H. P. steam pressure Ibs. Rate of combustion per sq. ft. of grate per hour Ibs, Kind of fuel to be burned Total amount to be burned per hour Ibs. Size of present chimney. HEAT AND LIGHT. 223 Height .... ft. Internal dimensions inches. Type of grate Percentage of free area through grate Kind of stoker, if any is used. , Kind and size of economizer, if any is used Intensity of draft at base of chimney. . . .inches of water. Temp, of escaping gases .... degs. F. Is this estimate for a proposed or an existing plant? If for any interval the above conditions are exceeded, state for how long and how much. HKAT AND LIGHT. 225 CHAPTER XIII. THE COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF VARI- OUS TYPES OF STEAM BOILERS FOR IN- CINERATING AND CENTRAL HEATING PLANTS. Owing to the dust which is unavoidable in all incinerat- ing plants, a water tube boiler is preferable to the ordinary shell boiler, unless the flues of latter are at least 6 inches in diameter. With flues of this size, either style of boiler can be used to advantage. For central heating plants water tube boilers are prefer- able, owing to their quick steaming qualities. As the question of the proper selection of boilers will enter into all contracts for installing incinerating or heat- ing plants, a few of the leading types of American boilers, with proper specifications for same, are here given with illustrations. Fig. 40 illustrates a common type of a water-tube boiler. In such a boiler the water circulates through a series of tubes of comparatively small diameter, which communi- cate with each other and with a common steam chamber. The flames and hot gases are made to circulate between them and are usually forced by baffle plates to be made to act equally on all parts of the tubes before being allowed to escape up the chimney. While there are many varieties of this type of boiler, the above description constitutes the essential principles of them all. 15 226 HEAT AND LIGHT. In the best forms of these boilers, they are suspended entirely independent of the brick-work from wrought- iron girders resting on iron columns. The chief advantages claimed for this type of boiler are: (1) Safety from explosions, owing to the contents of the boiler being divided up into small portions through- out the water tubes, water legs and steam drums. Should there be a rupture in the tubes, or any part of the boiler, only the immediate contents w r ill be liberated, instead of the entire mass of water and steam. (2) The tubes being of much smaller diameter than would be necessary if there were only a few in number, they can be made much stronger, and therefore less likely to rupture. (3) Owing to their contents being held in small por- tions, instead of in a large mass of water, they possess quick steaming qualities. The disadvantages of these boilers are as follows: (1) They require more masonry for their setting, and occupy more space than shell boilers. (2) Owing to the water being held in small quanti- ties, irregular firing is apt to cause a violent generation of steam, producing sudden fluctuations of pressure, which may result in priming and thereby overheating the tubes. (3) While this type of boiler is very susceptible for cleaning, the scale which forms in the tubes at times be- comes very difficult to remove. The Sterling Water Tube Boiler. Fig. 41. The Babcock & Wilcox Boiler. 228 HEAT AND LIGHT. Among the principal manufacturers of this type of boiler in this country, are : The Heine Safety Boiler Co., The John O'Brien Boiler Works Co., The Erie City Iron Works Co., The Sterling Consolidated Boiler Co., The Babcock & Wilcox Boiler Co. SHELL, OR HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILERS. This is the most popular form of boiler in use, possess- ing many advantages over all other types, the first or which is its cheapness. Its principal advantages are its steady steaming quali- ties, its durability and adaptability to any class of work. In this type of boiler, as shown in Fig. 42, the shell is filled with small tubes or flues varying in diameter from 2 inches to 6 inches, determined by the size of the boiler and the work required, the products of combustion being made to pass through the tubes or flues, instead of around them as in the water-tube type of boiler. The principal disadvantages of this type of boiler are : (1) Its lack of safety. (2) Its slow steaming qualities, owing to the large body of water to be heated. (3) The liability of the tubes or flues to rupture, ow- ing to the large diameter necessary for same. (4) The amount of space necessary for boiler setting. In both of the above types of boilers the chief consid- erations are, proper circulation, and a sufficient length of travel of the gases before escaping up the chimney. Ow- ing to these two types possessing these two requirements above all other types of boilers, they are recognized as the standard boilers throughout the world. 230 HEAT AND LIGHT. Among the principal manufacturers of this type of boiler, are: The Joseph F. Wangler Boiler and Sheet Iron Works, The Kewanee Boiler Co., The John O'Brien Boiler Works Co., John Rohan & Sons Boiler Works Co. VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILERS. This is one of the first types of boilers used, owing to its extreme simplicity. As shown in Fig. 43 this boiler consists of a casing or shell, cylindrical in shape, composed of steel plates riveted together. The top is made dome shape, in the center of which is placed the chimney, which is formed of the usual wrought-iron plates. The furnace, which is placed at the bottom of this shell, is entirely surrounded by water, ex- cept the bottom, in which is placed the grates. The tubes pass through the boiler, connecting the furnace with the top of the boiler. The connection of these tubes deter- mines whether the boiler is (1) a through-tube boiler, or (2) a submerged-tube boiler. The latter type is prefer- able, but more expensive. These boilers are used where floor space is valuable and there is sufficient height. While in general they are not as economical as other types of boilers, they are becoming more universally used owing to their many other good qualities. Among their principal advantages are: (1) Entirely self-contained. (2) The small amount of floor space required. (3) Ease of installation. (4) Portable character, permitting them to be removed from one place to another with ease and dispatch. Upright Submerged Tubular Boiler. Fig. 43. 232 HKAT AND LIGHT. (5) Their extreme simplicity. (6) Their low cost, and durability. Their principal disadvantages are: (1) Their lack of safety. (2) Waste of fuel owing to short travel of gases, and lack of proper circulation. While this boiler is largely manufactured throughout the country, the Brown ell Engine Co. is one of the best known manufacturers. The above three types of boilers are the standard types generally used, though there are many other types which for their particular work are equally as good, or possibly better. The character of the work required must largely determine the nature of the boiler to be used. While the safety of the boiler itself is naturally the first considera- tion in all types of boilers, with the modern requirements and the high class of men who are engaged in the con- struction of boilers, it might be said that less attention can be paid by the purchaser to this than to the many requirements which are seemingly less important. The American boiler leads all boilers in safety of construction and efficiency, and the municipality or citizen who finds it necessary to purchase a boiler, can do so with the assur- ance that no advantage will be taken of him by any of the leading boiler makers of this country. The safety of the public depends to a large extent upon the honor of the plate manufacturer and that of the boiler maker, for how- ever strict inspections may be made, it is impossible to dis- cover all hidden defects. I have never known it to be abused by them. Figure 46 represents a type of an English boiler, which though one of the first types used, is still popular in that country, and especially so for incinerating plants. 234 HEAT AND LIGHT. L^OOOOOOt-Ot-OOOO r- o o 10 i 10 o o us <D o o o o co co o o co co co , 00 tH Oi -^ O O O5 OS W t- 00 O rH CO r-l C<I T-l ^* N O OS OO CO CQ IO CiT-lr-!COCOlOOC5OSC5Cli-lT-lT-ICOCOCOeOCOHeOi-ltHCOeOeOCO O<M<MU5LOt~t-O}OlOiC5 r-f^^^T^^r-l^rHiHr^r^rt*^ Sectional View. Type of Internal Furnace Boiler. Fig. 44. HEAT AND LIGHT. INTERNAL FURNACE BOILERS. Figs. 44 and 45. The types of the boilers heretofore described have all been external furnace boilers, that is, the furnace is outside of the boiler shell and distinct from same. The internal furnace type of boiler, on the contrary, has its furnace within the boiler shell. The chief advantage of this type of boiler for ordinary work is the economy of first cost, they being "self-con- tained," that is, they are independent of any masonry setting, cast iron fronts, buckstays, tie rods, etc., there- fore they require but little foundation, and are suscepti- ble of being easily removed from one location to another. They are also capable of carrying an extremely high steam pressure and are steady steamers. Owing to the furnaces being entirely surrounded by water, the heat of combustion is utilized to a greater ex- tent than is practical with external furnace boilers. These boilers are extremely economical in the consumption of coal, not only for the above reasons, but owing to the absence of all brick setting, which settings usually crack and allow the heat to escape. The principal disadvantages of this type of boiler is the short travel of the gases, thereby permitting them to escape at too high a temperature up the stack. The circulation is also defective owing to faulty con- struction, and the distribution of the heating surface. The leading manufacturers of these boilers are : The Continental Iron Works, Springfield Boiler and Manufacturing Co., Freeman & Sons Manufacturing Co., Rhemmeli-Dawley Manufacturing Co. IO 15 E bJQ c <u I 'tl a CO 238 HEAT AND LIGHT. SPECIFICATIONS FOR A SAFETY WATER TUBE BOILER. NUMBER, TYPE AND SIZE. There shall be boiler. . of the horizontal in- clined water tube type, rated at horse power; the term horse power being understood to mean 30 pounds of water evaporated per hour from feed water having a temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit into steam at 70 Ibs. gauge pressure. GENERAL, DESCRIPTION. The boiler in all its main parts is to be composed of plate steel. It is to consist of two water legs of equal size, approximately rectangular in shape, joined together by means of a series of vertical and horizontal staggered rows of tubes, and overhead circulating steam and water drum . . . The drum . . and tubes are to be, made parallel to each other, and the water legs made perpendicular to both. When boiler is erected, same must incline towards the rear a distance of 1 inch per lineal foot. PLATES. All plates used in the construction of boilers . . are to be of the best open hearth homogeneous flange steel, having a tensile strength of 60,000 pounds per, square inch of section. These plates are to be plainly stamped with the name of the manufacturer, the tensile strength and the quality; said stamps to be so located as to be easily visible after the boiler . . has been completed. The thicknesses required for these plates are given under the various paragraphs relating to the specific parts of the boiler herein described. HEAT AND LIGHT. 239 TUBES. boiler is to contain tubes, each having an outside diameter of 3J^ inches, and a length of feet. Each tube is to be of the best lap-welded quality standard gauge in thickness, and made of The ends of all tubes are to be thor- oughly expanded into the tube plates of the water legs. The distance from center to center horizontally of the tubes is to be T*4 inches, and the distance vertically is to be 5 inches, except that between the bottom row and the" next row above, which is to be 8^/2 inches, so as to permit the introduction of a course of tile on top of the lower row. WATER LEGS. boiler is to be furnished with two water legs, each consisting of a tube plate, and a hand hole plate joined together by means of a strap riveted around the outside. These plates are to be so arranged as to leave a clear space of 10 inches between them on the inside. The hand hole plate of each water leg is to be furnished with a series of oval hand holes, each measuring 3^ inches by 4% inches in size, and furnished with a heavy cast iron cover plate, one four-prong arch, one bolt and a lead gasket. A hand hole is located directly in front of each end of each tube so as to permit easy access for cleaning. The water leg plates are to be thoroughly stay-bolted together by means of hollow stays, each having a mini- mum outside diameter of 1 9-16 inches, spaced a distance of 7J4 inches center to center horizontally, 5 inches center to center vertically. 240 HEAT AND LIGHT. CASTINGS. boiler is to be furnished with one standard type water tube boiler front, a sufficient number of cast iron grate bars for covering a width of inches, and a length of inches, one back grate bearing bar, two (2) soot doors and frames, one set of back wall support- ing plates, and one set of saddles for locating underneath the rear water leg. BOILER SUPPORTS. The front water leg is intended to be supported by means of cast iron columns located in the lower section of the boiler front, and the rear water leg by means of a low supporting wall. TUBE TILE. A full set of special fire clay tube tile is to be furnished for covering the top and the bottom rows of tubes. TILE BARS. Two tile bars made of l}4-inch square iron are to be furnished for circulating drum. These bars are to be held in place by means of wrought iron hangers located at intervals of four feet, and securely bolted to the shell; the purpose of the bars being to support the ends of the tiling, closing in around the drum. drum is to be furnished with a flange having an internal diameter of .... inches, and riveted to the top of the shell, a distance of .... inches between the center of the same and the front edge of the shell plate. A inch feed pipe connection is to enter the front head of drum as near the bottom as possible. HEAT AND LIGHT. 241 extending towards the rear, and arranged to discharge directly over the opening leading to the rear water leg. All seams around the perimeters of the water legs are to be furnished with single riveted lap joints with rivets spaced a distance of 2 inches center to center, and having a diameter, after being driven, of 13-16 inch. At the throats, where the legs are attached to the circulating drums, double riveted lap joints are used. CIRCULATING DRUM. boiler to be furnished with drum. . for permitting the circulation of the water from the front water leg to the rear water leg, and also affording a steam space in the upper half drum is to have an in- ternal diameter of inches, and a length of shell of feet inches. The heads of drum . . are to be dished to a radius equal to the diameter of the shell, and the rear head is to be furnished with a manholq of the Hercules pattern approximately 10x16 inches in size. At the forward end of .... drum is to be located a baffle plate extending towards the rear a distance of about 6 feet and located directly underneath the steam opening, so as to prevent any entrainment in the steam. A sufficient opening is to be left between the top edge of the baffle plate and the top of the shell to give an area equal to at least one and one-half times the area of the steam opening. TRIMMINGS. boiler is to be furnished with inch pop safety valve set to blow at Ibs. per square inch, one feed valve, one check valve, 1% inch asbestos-packed blow-off cocks, 16 242 HEAT AND LIGHT. one water column fitted with 1^-inch pipe connections to boiler, three 24 -inch gauge cocks, one 24 -inch glass water gauge with brass valves and guard rods, and one steam gauge with syphon. The shell plate of circulating drum is to be culj away at the points where it joins to the water legs; this opening to be reinforced by means of plate steel throat stays made of ^2 -inch flange steel thoroughly riveted to the same. All shell plates are to have a thickness of ...... inch, and the heads a thickness of inch. The circumferential seams are to be furnished with single riveted lap joints, and the longitudinal seams with riveted joints. BUCK STAYS. ( ) buck stays are to be furnished with boiler . . . Each buck stay is to consist of two rolled steel angles, 3J^ inches by 3^ inches by ^ inch in size, bolted together back to back at intervals of about three feet and separated by means of thimbles placed on the outsides of the bolts, a distance of 1 J4 inches through- out the entire length tie rods made of round iron, provided with all the necessary nuts ancj washers, and of sufficient length to extend entirely across the width of the setting, are to be furnished with the buck stays. FIRB TOOLS. boiler to be furnished with a set of fire tools, consisting of a scoop, hoe, rake and slice bar. There is also to be furnished one 3^ -inch tube scraper with handle. HEAT AND LIGHT. 243 SMOKESTACK. smokestack is to be furnished with boiler . . having a diameter of inches, and a height of . . feet . TESTING AND INSPECTION. A hydrostatic pressure of pounds per square inch is to be applied to boiler before it leaves the works, and a certificate of said test, together with a policy of insurance for $ for one year, issued by any reliable boiler insurance company, is to be furnished. SPECIFICATIONS FOR A HORIZONTAL TUBU- LAR BOILER. NUMBER, TYPE AND SIZE. There shall be boiler. ... of the Horizontal Tubular Type, each having a diameter of inches and a length, as measured from out to out of heads, of feet inches. TUBES, ARRANGEMENTS, ETC.. boiler is to contain tubes, each having an outside diameter of inches and a length of feet. Each tube is to be of the best lap-welded quality, standard gauge in thickness and made of All tubes are to be thor- oughly expanded into the tube holes of the heads, and after this is done the ends are to be neatly beaded over by means of round-nosed tools, driven by pneumatic pressure. The tubes are to be arranged in vertical and horizontal 244 HEAT AND LIGHT. rows, with a clear space of one inch between them, ver- tically and horizontally, except the central vertical space, where a distance of two inches shall be allowed. PLATES, QUALITY, THICKNESS, ETC. All plates used in the shell of boiler . . . are to be made of the best steel, having a tensile strength of not less than 60,000 pounds per square inch, and a thickness of The heads are to be made of the best open hearth homogeneous flange steel, of the same tensile strength as that mentioned for the shell plates and having a thickness of All plates are to be plainly stamped with the name of the manufacturer, the tensile strength and the quality, said stamps to be so located as to be easily visible after the boiler been completed. RIVETING. The longitudinal seams are to be furnished with riveted joints, with all rivets so arranged as to come well above the fire line. BRACING. The boiler heads are to be braced by means of weldless steel crow-foot braces, having a diameter of inches, so as to be of equal strength as the boiler shell. DRY PIPE. A dry pipe is to be located on the inside of boiler shell and is to be connected to the steam opening by means of a special tee, located in the center. This dry HEAT AND LIGHT. 245 pipe is to be closed at both ends and is to be furnished with a sufficient number of J^-inch diameter holes located on the upper side to give an area equal to twice that of the steam opening. Both ends are to be closed and a l /4 -inch diameter drip hole is to be located on the bottom of the dry pipe near each end. MANHOLES. A manhole of the Hercules pattern is to be located in the front head beneath the tubes, and another CASTINGS. .... boiler. . to be furnished with a fire front of the pattern boiler is to be fur- nished with a sufficient number of standard cast iron grate bars to cover a width of inches and a length of inches ; one back grate bearing bar ; one soot door and frame ; skeleton arch plates boiler . . to be furnished with buck staves, pro- vided with tie rods, nuts and washers. TRIMMINGS. boiler is to be furnished with one safety valve ; one blow-off valve ; one feed valve; one check valve; one combination steam and water column, with pipe connections to boiler; three gauge cocks; one glass water gauge, with brass valves and guard rods ; and one steam gauge, with syphon. BREECHING. 246 HEAT AND LIGHT. SMOKESTACK. One smokestack is to be furnished for boiler, having a diameter of inches and a height of . . . , feet, made of sheet steel, and furnished with feet of galvanized strand for guys. BOILER SUPPORTS. TESTING AND INSPECTION. A hydrostatic pressure of pounds per square inch is to be applied to boiler before it leaves our works, and a certificate of said test, together with a policy of insurance for for one year, issued by any re- liable boiler insurance company, is to be furnished. SMOKE CONSUMERS. There should be no trouble from any objectionable amount of smoke in the proper incineration of refuse, as there can only be complete incineration with perfect combustion, and a furnace constructed so as to secure such combustion, cannot smoke. The use of an auxiliary furnace as a smoke or a stench consumer, is therefore not only most expensive, but entirely unnecessary. With boiler furnaces it is different, as perfect combus- tion is not essential, and therefore smoke can only be avoided in such classes of furnace by a good fireman. As a rule, all mechanical smoke consumers are only a waste of time and money, for while it is possible to cut out as much as 80 per cent or 90 per cent of the smoke, the amount of steam necessary to do this is exceedingly AND LIGHT. 247 large, and all such steam jets are a nuisance in themselves from their most objectionable noise. The principles upon which all these steam jets depend for their operation are the same, being as follows : (1) By passing the steam over the fire so as to strike low on the bridge wall the hydrocarbons are not allowed to pass higher than the steam, for the reason that as soon as they come in contact with the moisture of the steam, they are precipitated back into the fire and are consumed. (2) In forcing a jet of steam into the furnace a greater circulation of gases is produced, thereby securing greater combustion and efficiency from the fuel. (3) In passing steam over the fire a large amount of oxygen is drawn into the furnace, both above and below it, thereby burning all hydrocarbons before they strike the boiler tubes, and consequently there is nothing to pass off as smoke. But at times it is necessary to use such mechanical de- vices, and one of the best on the market is what is known as the Hydrocarbon System. In this system for smoke prevention a specially designed patented door apparatus is substituted for the ordinary fire door, so arranged that the air is heated first, and passed into the fire chamber over the fire, and by a peculiar arrangement distributed in proper proportions (suited to varying conditions of fuel used or requirements), to form an induced draft, supplying to the carbon from the coal the needed amount of free oxygen to change the conditions of the combusti- ble gases from carbonic oxide to dioxide and mon-oxide gases. In addition to this another element of heat is added to the coal, by superheating a small amount of steam in a heavy metal retort, and dis-associating the steam, there- 248 HEAT AND LIGHT. by forming hydrogen gas which is ejected into the fire chamber, in combination with the induced draft, thus forming a valued adjunct and increasing the ratio of evaporation, owing to less frequent firing and the use of slicing bars, less deposit of soot in or on tubes and shell, and less ash to remove. 250 HEAT AND LIGHT. CHAPTER XIV. CLASSES OF ENGINES AND PUMPS. ENGINES. Engines are classified according to the work for which they are built, as: (1) stationary, portable, etc.; (2) from arrangement of the cylinders as, simple, compound, triple expansion, etc. ; ( 3 ) according to the kind of valves to control the distribution of the steam as, plain slide valve, automatic cut-off, Corliss, etc. ; (4) according to thq motion of the piston, as reciprocating and rotary. The principal subdivisions of these types are: (1) con- densing, (2) noncondensing. In most engines the steam distributing valves receive their motion from one or more eccentrics, and to have a perfect understanding of any character of engine, the first essential is to have a thorough understanding of its valve gear, by which is meant the eccentric, eccentric strap, eccentric rod, rocker, valve stem, and distributing valve. (Figs. 49 and 50.) The simplest valve gear is that of the slide valve type, which is usually operated with only one eccentric, which is fastened to the shaft of the engine. (Fig. 48.) The principles involved in this type of engine are the same as in the more complicated types, and its use and operation are too well known to be described in a work of this character. 252 HEAT AND LIGHT. CORLISS ENGINE. (Fig. 47.) This type of engine is generally used in large plants, being the most economical, owing to the close regulation of the steam supply by the automatic changing of the point in the stroke of the piston at which the steam supply is cut off. This is accompanied by using some form of trip gear similar to the one first introduced by its inventor, Geo. Corliss. In the Corliss gear there is a separate admission valve and a separate exhaust valve for each end of the cylinder, entirely independent of each other. The admission valves are operated by either one or more eccentrics, but they are automatically closed by dash-pots or springs, when the piston reaches a designated point of its stroke. This point will vary with the position of the governor, which position will vary with the speed of the engine, which is controlled by the load on the engine. The exhaust valves are opened and closed by the mo- tion of a wrist plate to which these valves are directly connected by rods or cranks. Both the admission and exhaust valves are cylindrical in shape, turning in cylin- drical seats which extend across the ends of the cylinder. The \vrist plate which operates the exhaust valves alone receiving its oscillating motion from the eccentric which is fastened to the shaft of the engine. When the piston reaches the point where the steam should be shut off, the trip gear is held in such a position by the governor that it releases the admission valve, which is snapped shut by the action of the dash-pot, or spring. The exhaust valve is made to open by the in- HEAT AND LIGHT. dependent action of the wrist plate which is operated by its eccentric. The advantage of the Corliss valve gear is the long range of the stroke through which the cut-off can be varied, depending only on whether one or more eccentrics are used. With one eccentric, the cut-off ranges from the begin- ning of the stroke to one-half, at which point the eccem trie starts on its return travel. With the use of two eccentrics this range can be extended almost the entire stroke, as the exhaust valves are operated entirely inde- pendent. The Corliss engine is not a high speed engine, owing to the time it requires for the trip gear to act. CONDENSING AND NONCONDENSING ENGINES. All engines are run either (1) condensing, in which the exhaust steam is condensed and used over again, or, (2) noncondensing, in which the exhaust steam is dis- charged into the atmosphere. Unless this exhaust steam is used for heating or for other purposes, it is manifestly a most extravagant way to operate a plant of any size, for not only is there a waste of valuable water of condensation or heat, but it forces the engine to work against the back pressure of the at- mosphere, which means more fuel necessary for steam to overcome this useless work. For the purpose of removing this pressure on the engine by means of a partial vacuum, two principal methods of condensing the steam are employed, viz: (1) by conden- sers, either surface or jet, and (2) by the use of cooling towers or tables. 256 HEAT AND LIGHT. A surface condenser is one in which the steam passes through pipes surrounded by cold water, or, the water flows through the pipes, which are surrounded by the steam. In the jet condenser, the steam is condensed by coming in contact with cold water, which is introduced into the steam chamber as a spray. Where it is impossible to get a sufficient supply of water at an economical cost, then a cooling tower or water table is used for the purpose of condensation. This is done by locating same upon the roof, and allowing the atmosphere to cool the condensation, by using a system of mats or slats over the surface of which the water flows in a thin film to a reservoir which is located at the bottom of the cooling tower. In this way the water from the condenser is used over and over again. The loss of water by evaporation when this method is used, is only from 5 per cent to 10 per cent, which loss must be supplied with fresh water from some outside source. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CORLISS ENGINE. Gentlemen : We propose to furnish you in accordance with the following specifica- tions : Type of Engine Engine to be of our type; and to run at revolutions per minute with pounds steam pressure hand. Cylinder Dimensions Diameter of H. P. cylinder. . . . inches. Diameter of L. P. cylinder inches. Length of stroke . . inches. en HI TJ <u <u Q. CO .2' US 1 * 8 S ^ 258 HEAT AND LIGHT. Power I. H. P Ibs. steam pressure cut-off I. H. P Ibs. steam pres- sure cut-off I. H. P Ibs. steam pressure cut-off I. H. P Ibs. steam pressure cut-off. Material The cylinders to be made of clean hard close^ grained iron. Will be covered with sheet steel lagging with polished corner irons. Space between jacket and cylinder to be filled with asbestos or best quality mineral wool. Steam pipe inch in diameter. Exhaust pipe inches. Frame The frame to be used for this engine to be our and guaranteed to stand the severest strains without showing any form of weakness. The guides to be of the type, insuring perfect alignment with the cylinder. Wheel wheel ft. diameter, inch face, and to weigh pounds. Made in and accurately turned and bored. Wheel to be grooved for inch ropes systems of grooves. Shaft Shaft to be in diameter at bearing between bearing. Bearings diameter long. The main bearings to be provided with removable top, bottom and quarter boxes, lined with best quality bab- bitt metal, hammered in and accurately bored and scrapecl to a true bearing surface. Quarter boxes are adjustable with wedges fitted with adjusting screws, and of such design that the wedges and boxes may be removed with- out moving shaft. Cap to have a feel hole for examining journal without disturbing adjustment of bearing. Crank and Crank Pin The crank will be of our stand- ard type, polished on the face, pressed on shaft and keyed 260 HEAT AND LIGHT. in place. The crank pin will be inches diameter, inches long, pressed in crank and riveted over. Valve Gear Cylinder to be equipped with improved valve gear of the hook releasing type, which is so designed as to subject all parts to a minimum amount of strains. Steam valve hooks and levers to be fitted with reversible hardened steel catch plates. Piston Crosshead The crosshead is of the solid box form, having shoes adjustable with wedges, having bearings the entire length, which can be removed without disengaging connecting or piston rods. The shoes are lined with best quality antifriction metal scraped to fit guides. Piston rod will be of open hearth steel, finished and polished and secured to crosshead by a thread and jamb nut, so the clearance space in cylinder can be equalized at any time. Connecting Rod The connecting rod is made from a single forging with solid ends. The brasses have large wearing surfaces lined with best quality of babbitt metal, and are adjustable with wedges. Governor The governor will be of our standard type and will control the variations in speed to the least possi- ble range. An automatic stop will be provided, so in case governor belt should break it would shut the engine down. Fixtures and Fittings The following fixtures and fit- tings will be furnished : Nickel-plated sight feed oilers for main journals, eccentrics and guides, stationary centrifu- gal sight feed oilers for crank pins ; throttle valve, full set of wrenches for the parts of engine that require adjust- ment, automatic cylinder lubricators, foundation bolts and washers and foundation plans. HEAT AND LIGHT. 261 Material and Finish Shaft and connecting rods to be of best quality hammered wrought iron, free from flaws or other imperfections, and to be nicely finished. Pistons and eccentric rods, crank and crosshead pins, also wrists of valve gear to be of best quality forged steel. Great care will be exercised in making the castings of best qual- ity as regards strength, wearing qualities and smoothness. All castings subject to wear will be poured from special heats of charcoal iron mixture. All parts will be made to gauge and interchangeable. Workmanship and finish will be first-class in every particular. Engine to be primed, rubbed down, painted and varnished. Guarantee We guarantee the workmanship and mate-- rial in the engine to be first-class, and we will furnish without charge a duplicate of any part that may prove defective in material or workmanship, provided an in- spection proves the claim, within one year after engine is started. We guarantee the engine to run smoothly and in a proper manner, without undue heating or vibration, Conditions of Operation (300 I. H. P. Noncondensing) -The engine is to run noncondensing at 200 revolutions per minute. Steam pressure 125 Ibs. above the atmos- phere. Back pressure 15 Ibs. absolute. The maximum load for which engine is intended equals 400 I. H. P. The engine is to operate at highest efficiency with load equal 300 I. H. P. The average load will equal 175-200 I. H. P. Speed Regulations The speed regulation shall be within 1.5 per cent above or below normal. Piston Speed The piston speed regulation shall be not less than 560 feet per minute, nor more than 600 feet. Clearance The clearance shall not exceed 8 per cent. 262 HEAT AND LIGHT. Erection We will furnish the time of one man days to superintend the erection and start engine, his trav- eling expense and board to be paid by you. We con- sider as legitimate traveling expenses, railroad fare and transfer charges, sleeping cars (when traveling at night), meals enroute, excess baggage or other transportation charges on tools or materials. You are also to prepare the foundations in accordance with our plans, do all pip- ing, packing, belting, mason and carpenter work, and fur- nish all laboring help and requirements to facilitate erec- tion. When delays are caused to our man by material or labor not furnished by us, you agree to pay his time at $5.00 per clay and expenses while so delayed; our re- sponsibility being limited to the engine proper and the accuracy of our plans. Price We propose to furnish the foregoing machinery as specified for the sum of dollars ($...). Terms of Payment Payment to be made as follows: when engine is ready for shipment ; balance ( days after shipment. PUMPS. Pumps vary greatly in design, depending on the char- acter of work for which they are constructed. They are now made to handle water, beer, molasses, acids, oils, melted lead, and such gases as air, ammonia and oxygen. The different types used to cover this large field of work are defined as chain, diaphragm, jet, centrifugal, ro- tary and cylinder pumps. It is only the last three types, viz. : rotary, centrifugal and cylinder pumps that are used in the field covered by this work. HEAT AND LIGHT. ROTARY PUMPS. The action of these pumps depend upon the force given to the water, or other liquid, by the action upon it of two tooth wheels, which are made to revolve in an enclosed chamber, each tooth of these wheels acting as a small piston, and pushing the water or liquid ahead of it. The Hat faces of these wheels should be made a snug fit be- txveen them and the casing, and the edges of the teeth also a good fit against the sides of the casing. These pumps occupy but little space, and are light and inex- pensive, but are of low efficiency. They are chiefly used to pump heavy liquids, or \vater holding in suspension large masses of soft material. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. Pumps of this type depend for their action upon the pressure produced by the centrifugal force of the water rotated rapidly by the vanes of the pump. As it is the centrifugal force upon which these pumps must rely for moving the water or other liquid, they are designated by that name. These pumps are only efficient when working under low lifts, being limited to a lift not exceeding forty feet. They are well adapted for pumping large volumes of dirty water or sewerage, and are therefore much used foil sewerage pumping and dredging. CYLINDER PUMPS. These are power pumps used principally for boiler feed, compressed air, or vacuum purposes. re s X Q) a 3 a HEAT AND LIGHT. 265 Pumps of this class consist of the combination of a steam engine forming one end of the pump, the other end being for the pumping and discharge of the water or air. The two ends are operated by a single piston rod which extends through the pump from one end to the other, thereby making their action direct, hence they are called direct acting steam pumps. DUPI^X PUMPS. Such pumps consist of two steam pumps, as above de- scribed, placed side by side, so that the slide valve of each cylinder gets its motion from the opposite piston rod acting upon a lever and a rocker arm. The effect of this arrangement is to produce a steady flow of the water, or liquid, without the usual strains pro- duced vvhen the flow of the same is suddenly arrested, and then started again, as is the case in single direct acting pumps. In duplex pumps the two pistons move in opposite di- rection, making the action of the pump continuous. The valve has neither outside nor inside lap and hence the steam cannot be used expansively. The steam valve ia carried along by coming in contact with check or lock nuts placed on the valve stem. In order to arrest the steam piston when it completes its stroke, and allow the other pump to pick up the motion, thereby preventing the pump stopping altogether, a certain amount of lost mo- tion between these check or lock nuts must be allowed. Should there not be sufficient lost motion, the pump will short stroke, if too much lost motion, then it will stop. The lost motion allowed or the auxiliary valve simply take the place of a fly-wheel, to carry the pump over its The Cameron Pump. Fig. 54. HEAT AND LIGHT. 267 centers. The rule is to allow as much as one-half of the width of the steam ports, for lost motion. Pumps of this type are divided into two classes, viz. : (1) those having their valve gear outside, and (2) those having the valve gear on the inside, and hence having no moving parts visible, except the piston rod. The leading make of the first class of pumps is the duplex pump, shown in Fig. 53, which pump is especially adapted for central heating plants. Of the second class is the Cameron pump, shown in Fig. 54, and which is largely used for boiler feed pur- poses. HOT WATER PUMPING. The pumping of hot water is much more difficult than that of cold water, as the vapor from the hot water de- stroys the vacuum as fast as it is formed. In actual prac- tice it is not possible to lift water whose temperature ex- ceeds 180 degrees. Above this temperature the pump must be placed below the water supply, so that the water can flow into the pump. Such an arrangement is not necessary in central heatingplants, as the hot water which is pumped through the mains rarely exceeds 170 degrees. Pumps for handling hot water must be provided with special valves of hard vulcanized rubber or be entirely of metal. Soft rubber valves are entirely unsuitable for handling hot water. The cylinder should also be brass lined throughout. w HEAT AND LIGHT. 269 CHAPTER XV. GAS AND OIL INSTALLATIONS AND COMPAR- ATIVE VALUE OF FUELS. It can no longer be contended that the refuse of a city has no calorific value. While it is true that this value is very small, varying from one to three thousand B. T. U. per lb., it nevertheless is proportionately more valuable as a fuel than those fuels of a higher calorific value which are much more costly to obtain. While coal is the ordinary fuel used for the incineration of refuse, both gas and oil are frequently used for this purpose, and in view of the rapidly increasing use of same for fuel purposes, the fol- lowing table showing their comparative value will be of interest : Both gas and oil are ideal fuels for all character of furnace work when properly installed. Fig. 55 shows the proper installation of a Branch Oil Burner in a boiler furnace, which installation is entirely similar to its in- stallation in an incinerating furnace. The grate bars of both firing furnaces must be covered over with fire-brick or ashes to exclude the excess of air, the same as is done when there is only one furnace. While either steam or air can be used to atomize the oil, the use of steam is preferable as it gives a much softer and more diffused heat. The installation of gas burners differ only from that of oil burners in the requirement of a much less air or steam pressure for their operation. 270 HEAT AND LIGHT. Both wood and shavings can also be used as a fuel; in fact, the requirements of a successful incinerating fur- nace are similar in every respect to those of a boiler fur- nace, for a furnace which will develop the entire efficiency of a boiler, will satisfactorily incinerate any class of refuse, the requirements being in both cases, complete combustion. OJ c/i ^ . P | fe 5 fe i o ^ en = ^ o > - bo ^ O o C P < O I 001 - aB, punod .s^iua aeii?A\ jo spunod ui uj i[sy jo }ueo jod OtOTHOC^L COOO < ^OSlOOOr-IC-<MOOCOO'*OU3THe; LO CO CXI O Oi L O -^ CO T-H O Oi t~- SO -^ CO r-j O OO t-^ CD Tjn CO r * * * *& CO CO CO' CO CO* CO CO* C^ <K1 C<i CXJ CJ C^ CXI II r-5 T-H r-i r- 1 r Ot~-OOOOlOL--t-OOI>-OOO-^-iLOT-HCOOLOO>OOCO * T^ CO Co' CO -*" ^' CA] Tjn tO CO Ci CO CO* CO* ^' -^' CO' Cxi Oi rjn TJH 10 co o co co c\ co <* co cx o co co T-H Ol O LO L- .O O IO t O OO IO LO O CD O5 O M LO ujc^icj^o co' 10 oi ^' .& <D <D O O 5-H ^ = 5 O o o 00 ^ a u o of 272 HKAT AND LIGHT. PETROLEUM. Crude oil, fuel oil, or any distillate : Per cent of ash, .0. Heat units per pound, .20.746. Pounds of water evaporation, 21.47. Per cent incombustible matter, 25. Heat units available for steam-making, 10.920. Horse power per pound, 4.238. Evaporation per pound from and at 212 deg. F., 11.25. REFUSE. This includes increased output refuse, garbage and all character of municipal w r aste. Below is given the results of official tests made in twenty-two English cities of the fuel value of refuse, the evaporation being taken from and at 212 deg. F. : Accrington, 1.39 pounds. Beckenhowe, 1.512 pounds. Blackburn, 1.297 pounds. Bolton, 0.8 pounds.. Bradford, 0.882 pounds. Bury, 1.58 pounds. Colme, 1.00 pound. Dorwen, 1.71 pounds. Fleetwood, 1.191 pounds. Grays, 1.22 pounds. Hackney, 1.415 pounds. Hereford, 1.65 pounds. Lancaster, 1.63 pounds. Liverpool, 1.173 pounds. Nelson, 1.516 pounds. Pembroke, 1.21 pounds. HEAT AND LIGHT. 273 Rochdale, 1.72 pounds. St. Helens, 1.54 pounds. Salisbury, 1.10 pounds. Wakefield, 1.4 pounds. Wendsworth, 1.20 pounds. West Hartlepool, 1.25 pounds. 18 The Branch Oil Burner Sectional View. Fig. 56. HEAT AND LIGHT. 275 CHAPTER XVI. FORMS OF FRANCHISE AND ORDINANCES. Owing to the character of this work and the various requirements of modern business methods, some forms are here given to assist those who are engaged either in work for public corporations, or endeavoring to secure franchises or contracts from municipalities. FORMS FOR FRANCHISES AND CITY ORDI- NANCES. Chapter 907, Section 6, Page 801, of the Revised Stat- utes of the United States: SEC. 6. That it shall not be lawful to cast, throw, empty or unload, or cause, suffer or procure to be cast, thrown, emptied or unloaded, either from or out of any ship, vessel, lighter, barge, boat or other craft, or from the shore, pier, wharf, furnace, manufacturing establish- ments or mills of any kind whatever, any ballast, stone, slate, gravel, earth, rubbish, wreck, filth, slabs, edgings, sawdust, slag, cinders, ashes, refuse or other waste of any kind, into any part, road, roadstead, harbor, haven, navi- gable river or navigable water of the United States which shall tend to impede or obstruct navigation, or to deposit or place, or cause, suffer or procure to be deposited or placed, any ballast, stone, slate, gravel earth, rubbish, wreck, filth, slabs, edgings, sawdust, or other waste in any place or situation on the bank of any navigable waters where the same shall be liable to be washed into such navigable waters, either by ordinary or high tides, or by storms or floods, or otherwise, whereby navigation shall or may be impeded or obstructed. 276 HEAT AND LIGHT. AN ORDINANCE GRANTING A FRANCHISE FOR A CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM. An ordinance granting the right of way in and under the streets and alleys and public grounds of the city of , and the privilege of constructing, maintaining and operating a plane for the distribution of steam or heated water, or both, for domestic, heating or power purposes. Be it ordained by the City Council of the city of .... SECTION 1. That there is hereby granted to .... , of , their successors and assigns (who are hereafter in this ordi- nance called the grantees), upon the terms and condi- tions hereinafter set out, and for the period of fifty years from the taking effect and acceptance of this ordinance, the right of way for laying, constructing and maintain- ing, in and under the streets, alleys and public grounds of said city, the pipes and mains and all branches, cut- offs and manholes, necessary for the distribution to public and private consumers, of steam or heated water, or both, for domestic heating or power purposes, and the privilege of constructing, maintaining and operating in said city the necessary power plant and machinery to operate the same, and to make all necessary excavations therefor. SEC. 2. All pipes, pipe lines and appliances construct- ed hereunder shall be, as far as possible, constructed, laid and maintained in the alleys of said city, and only in streets where no alley exists in the block adjacent, run- ning in the direction the main is to be laid. During the laying of the pipes and mains, or in repairs and exten- HEAT AND LIGHT. 277 sions thereof, the grantees shall not unnecessarily obstruct the streets, alleys and public grounds, and shall complete each part of the work therein without unnecessary delay, and shall restore such street, alley or public ground to as good a condition as before the grantees entered thereon, and to the satisfaction of the street and alley committee of said council; and upon failure to make such repairs the city may cause the same to be done ; and the grantees hereby agree to reimburse the city for the cost thereof. SEC. 3. The rights and privileges herein granted shall be subject to such sanitary and police regulations as the city council in its judgment may deem just and proper, in the present construction of said plant or future operation thereof ; and the right is hereby granted to said grantees to make all needful rules and regulations for operating and protecting said plant, tapping mains, size of service orifices and all other appliances, supplying customers, shutting off service for non-payment of rates by private consumers, and preventing the waste or wrongful use of heat. SEC. 4. The grantees shall hold the city of harmless from any injury to any per- son, or the property of any person or corporation, which may result from the negligence of the grantees while per- forming the work of laying the pipes and mains, or other- wise exercising the rights and privileges herein granted; and should the city be sued therefor, the grantees shall, upon notice from said city, appear and defend or settle the same, and should judgment go against the city in such case, the city shall recover the amount, with all costs, from the grantees, and the record of such judgment against said city shall be conclusive evidence in the cause to entitle the city to recover from the grantees. 278 HEAT AND LIGHT. And for the purpose of indemnifying the city against any loss or damage by reason of the construction or operation of said plant, and for the purpose of indemni- fying the city for any loss growing out of the exercise of any of the rights and privileges herein granted, and for the prompt restoration of all streets, sidewalks and alleys to the same condition they were in before the ex- cavations provided for were made, the grantees shall, within thirty days from the date fixed in this ordinance for the beginning construction of the plant provided for herein, file with the city clerk, a bond in the penal sum of five thousand dollars, with good and sufficient sureties thereon, subject to the approval of the mayor of said city; and said bond shall be renewed whenever the council shall deem the sureties thereon insufficient. SEC. 5. Said grantees are authorized and empowered to charge consumers for steam or hot water for heating purposes, at all times when the outdoor temperature is at or below 65 degrees Fahrenheit, not exceeding the fol- lowing annual rates : For steam, per square foot of radiating surface; for hot water, per square foot of radiating surface; and for hot water for bath or other purposes, where the water is removed from the pipes, not exceeding one dollar and fifty cents per thousand gallons, to be measured to the consumer by a meter to be furnished by the grantees without additional charge. The grantees shall build and maintain, free of charge to consumers, all service pipes from any main of the plant to the outside curb of the sidewalk of the street in which said main may be laid, or if the main be laid in an alley without sidewalks, then to the property line adja- HEAT AND LIGHT. 279 cent to said alley; all other service and inside radiation pipe to be built and maintained by the consumer. And in consideration of the grants herein made, the grantees hereby agree to furnish the city, free of charge, all heat required for the present or any future city hall, calaboose, or hospital buildings; provided that the amount of heat to be furnished to said city free of charge for said buildings shall not exceed in value, according to the maximum rates to consumers permitted herein, the following amounts : $ per annum during the first fifteen years of the life of this franchise, and $ there- after, and for any excess of heat furnished for said build- ings over said amounts during said periods respectively, the city shall pay not exceeding two-thirds of the maxi- mum rates permitted to be charged consumers herein; the city in all cases to build and maintain all service and inside radiation pipes necessary to heat said buildings as hereinbefore provided to be done by consumers. SEC. 6. None of the rights and privileges granted herein shall vest or take effect until the filing and ap- proval of the bond provided for herein, etc. ORDINANCE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF BRANCH INCINERATOR. An ordinance authorizing and directing the .... to pro- vide by contract for the construction and erection of one Branch Garbage Incinerating Plant for the de- struction by fire of garbage, dead animals and other refuse, and the utilization of all waste heat therefrom, completely equipped and installed, including building to enclose the same, and appropriating money therefor, and designating the location of the site for same. \ 280 HEAT AND LIGHT. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of , as follows : SECTION 1. The is hereby au- thorized and directed to provide by contract for the con- struction and erection of one Branch Incinerating Plant for the destruction by fire of garbage, dead animals and other refuse, and the utilization of all waste heat there- from, completely equipped and installed, including build- ing to enclose same, and all necessary platforms, ap- proaches, and appliances for cleansing carts and other receptacles, in accordance with specifications now on file in the office of SEC. 2. The said incinerating plant shall have a capac- ity of incinerating tons in twenty-four hours, and developing the boiler power set out in said specifica- tions, and said incinerator shall be of sufficient size to hold at one time not less than two-thirds of the total amount of garbage it is to destroy each day, and be capa- ble of converting the same into a clean ash or clinker and light smoke, within the time limit as above specified. SEC. 3. It shall be the duty of the to advertise for bids for the construction and erection of said incinerating plant, completely equipped and installed, of the capacity named in Sec. 2 of this ordinance, in- cluding the building to enclose same, which shall be of brick construction, with a slate or steel roof, concrete fir- ing floors, and steel tank plate flooring directly over the incinerator, with hoppers so arranged that in operation all garbage, or dead animals may be dumped directly into said incinerator from carts or wagons. The chimney for said plant shall be of hard burned brick laid in cement mortar lined with fire brick, and HEAT AND LIGHT. 281 shall not be less than feet high. (If iron stack desired insert specifications for such stack.) SEC. 4. The terms of said contract shall provide for a guaranteed efficiency of complete incineration and power developed from the waste heat and gases, i. e., that the successful bidder shall furnish a competent person to direct the operation of said plant without cost to the city for a period of thirty days after completion, and demon- strate the results as specified in Sec. 2 of this ordinance, and in said specifications. SEC. 5. A bond in the penal sum of thousand dollars, with two or more good and sufficient sureties shall be given by the contractor, conditioned for the faith- ful performance of each and all the terms and require- ments of this ordinance, and the contract entered into by authority hereof, and the said specifications which are made a part of same. SEC. 6. Payments under said contract shall be made as provided in said specifications. SEC. 7. The location of said garbage incinerating plant shall be as follows : ********* SEC. 9. There is hereby appropriated and set apart from Municipal Revenue the sum of dollars for the construction and erection of said incinerating plant completely equipped and installed, as herein provided for. FRANCHISE FOR GAS WORKS. An ordinance granting , their successors and assigns, the right to construct, maintain, extend and operate a system of works in the City of . . for the purpose of generating gas with which to furnish light, heat and power to the said city and its inhabitants. 282 HEAT AND LIGHT. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of SECTION 1. The , their successors and assigns, be and is hereby granted a franchise for the period of years from and after the date of the passage and publication of this ordinance, with the full right, power and authority to construct, maintain, ex- tend and operate a gas plant, machinery, mines, pipes and other apparatus and appliances within the corporate lim- its of said City of , as they now exist, or if the corporate limits of said city are hereafter extended, then within the corporate limits as extended, for the purpose of generating and furnishing to the said city and its inhabi- tants, gas for light, heat and power, and for such pur- poses to enter under, upon and use the streets, alleys, 'bridges and public places of the said city and lay and maintain, therein and thereon such mains, pipes, con- duits, apparatus and appliances as may be necessary and proper, subject to the terms and conditions hereinafter provided. SEC. 2. That no mains, pipes, conduits or other appa- ratus and appliances hereafter laid or constructed shall be so laid or constructed so as to interfere with or in- jure any of the water pipes or sewer pipes laid in the streets, alleys or public places of the said City of ; and that the same shall be placed and laid under the direc- tion of the City Council or City Engineer. SEC. 3. The said , their successors or assigns, may charge a maximum rate of per one thousand cubic feet of gas to be measured by a gas meter and may make all needed rules and regulations for the collection of such charges and the operation of said system. HEAT AND LIGHT. 283 SEC. 4. Nothing in this ordinance shall be so con- strued as to prevent the said city from granting to other persons, companies or corporation the right of using the streets, avenues, alleys or other public places in said city for any purposes like the grantee. SEC. 5. Said , their successors or assigns, shall have full right and power to assign to any person or company all the rights conferred upon it by the terms of this ordinance; provided that the assigns of such rights by the acceptance of such assignment shall thereby become subject to the terms and provisions of this ordi- nance; and in the event of any assignment by said gran- tee of the rights hereby conferred upon it such assign- ment shall be in writing and a duly authenticated copy thereof shall be filed in the office of the of said City of SEC. 6. The word "grantee" as used in this ordinance shall denote the , their successors and assigns. SEC. 7. This ordinance shall be effective and in force from and after its passage and publication as provided by law. AN ORDINANCE TO AUTHORIZE CITY TO EN- TER INTO CONTRACT FOR DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE BY BRANCH PROCESS. An ordinance to authorize the of the City of to enter into a contract for the sanitary disposal of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter of the City of by the Branch process. 284 HEAT AND LIGHT. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of .... as follows : SECTION 1. The of the City of is hereby authorized and directed to enter into a contract for the sanitary disposal of all slops, offal, garbage and animal matter of the City of by the Branch process. Said contract shall be let within thirty days from the date of the approval of this ordinance and shall provide that the contractor shall commence work under said contract not less than three months from the date of said contract. And said contract shall further pro- vide that the works of said contractors shall be located at suitable and convenient points within the city limits, to be approved by the Mayor, and that said works shall at all times be subject to the inspection of the Health Commissioner, and other city officials, as may be desig- nated by the Mayor. Said contract shall be made and entered into for a period of not less than .... years, and the said contractor shall enter into bond with the city of in the sum of .thousand dollars, conditioned with proper sureties, that said contractor shall dispose of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter of the City of , in a sanitary manner, and the said City of shall be obligated by said contract to collect and deliver, or cause to be collected and delivered, at the works of said contractor all the slop, offal, garbage and animal matter of every description within the limits of the City of And said bond shall cover the further condition that said contractor shall at all times fully comply with all the terms and conditions of this ordinance, and that said contract and bond shall be subject to approval by the Mayor and Council. HEAT AND LIGHT. 285 SEC. 2. At the expiration of ten years from the date of said contract, or at any time prior to said date of ex- piration, the City of shall have the privilege of purchasing the entire plant of said contractors at a valuation to be fixed by arbitrators, one of said arbitrators to be appointed by the Mayor of the City of and one of said arbitrators to -be appointed by said con- tractors, and if said two arbitrators cannot agree as to the value of said plant then they shall, within ten days after their appointment, agree on a third arbitrator whose decision shall be final and binding to all parties. A strict compliance with the terms of this section shall be the essence of said contract. SEC. 3. The contract for the disposal of said slops, offal, garbage and animal matter shall be let at a fixed price for each year of the term of ten years, not exceed- ing thousand dollars for any one year, and upon vouchers properly certified to by the , said contractors shall be paid monthly by the City Treasurer from a fund to be appropriated and set aside for the purpose. SEC. 4. The contractors for the disposal of the slops, offal, garbage and animal matter are prohibited from dumping or causing to be dumped any of said slops, offal, garbage and animal matter into any public or private sewer, or any sink hole, vacant lot, public or private property, street or alley of the City of , and said contractors or any person or persons acting for them or at their instigation, or any other firm, person or corporation shall not dispose of any of said slops, offal, garbage or animal matter other than by the Branch method from and after the date said contract goes into effect, and the contract hereafter let for the collection 286 HEAT AND LIGHT. and removal of said substance, shall provide for the de- livery of all said garbage at the above works, at times when the same are in operation. Any person, firm or corporation convicted of a viola- tion of this section shall be deemed guilty of a misde- meanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than dollars nor more than dollars for each offense. SEC. 5. That all ordinances, or parts of ordinances in conflict with this ordinance, be and the same are hereby repealed. SEC. 6. This ordinance shall take effect, and be in force from and after its passage and publication. FRANCHISE FOR ELECTRIC STREET RAIL- WAY. An ordinance granting to the , its successors and assigns, the right to construct, maintain, extend and operate an electric street railway in the City of , and for that purpose to occupy and use certain streets and alleys in the said city. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of .... SECTION 1. That the , its successors and assigns, be and they are hereby granted a franchise and right of way for a period of years from and after the date of the passage and publication of this ordinance to maintain, construct and operate a single or double-track, electric street railway of standard gauge with all necessary turn-outs, sidings, switches, wires and poles upon and along the following streets, alleys, ave- nues and' boulevards in the City of to their present and future corporate limits, to-wit : HEAT AND LIGHT. 287 SEC. 2. Said , it suc- cessors and assigns, are hereby granted the right to use upon the whole or any portion of its tracks, as the same are now or may hereafter be constructed, electricity as a motive power supplied to the cars by means of a single overhead trolley wire; the electric circuit being com- pleted by the rails of the road, and for this purpose the said , its successors and assigns, are hereby expressly authorized and empowered to erect and maintain in and along any and all public streets, high- ways, avenues, alleys and boulevards upon which the tracks of said company are now laid or which may here- after be constructed, such posts, brackets, wires and fix- tures as may be required to support and maintain the overhead trolley wire. For such support and mainte- nance either horizontal cross wires extending across the street or bracket arms projecting over the track or by poles in the center of the street between the tracks with bracket arms thereon projecting over the tracks as said company may deem more suitable may be employed. All such posts, brackets, wires and fixtures shall be main- tained by said company at all times in good order and condition and in such manner as not unreasonably to impede public travel. Excepting when it is deemed ad- visable to place the poles for holding the wires in the center of the street, the poles shall be erected on the side- walk close to the curbing and said poles shall not be less than 100 feet apart. SEC. 3. The said street railway, with all cars thereon and aH appurtenances belonging to the said Company, shall be kept in good order and repair, and shall be oper- ated at all reasonable hours for the use of the public. SEC. 4. The said Company shall have the right to carry mail, express and baggage. HEAT AND LIGHT. SEC. 5. The said Company shall at all times have the right to charge and collect a fare not to exceed five cents from any passenger riding on said railway for one con- tinuous ride from any point on the line to any other point within the corporate limits in the City of , providing that pupils in actual transit to and from school shall only be required to pay one-half fare. SEC. 6. The City shall have the power and reserves the right to regulate by ordinance the rate of speed of the cars to be run by such railway ; also to make any regu- lation the City Council may deem necessary for the safety of persons traveling on said railway. SEC. 7. Said , its successors and assigns, shall have full right and power to assign to any person or company all the rights conferred upon it by the terms of this ordinance, providing that the assignee of such rights, by the acceptance of such assignment, shall thereby become subject to the terms and provisions of this ordinance, and in the event of any assignment by the , its suc- cessors or assigns, of the rights hereby conferred upon it, such assignment shall be in writing, and the duly au- thenticated copy thereof shall be filed in the office of the SEC. 8. This ordinance shall be accepted in writing by the Company within four months after the approval and passage hereof. SEC. 9. This ordinance shall take effect and be in full force from and after its passage and publication. SEC. 10. That all ordinances or parts of ordinances in conflict with this ordinance be, and the same are hereby repealed. HEAT AND LIGHT. 289 FORM OF ORDINANCE GRANTING AN ELEC- TRIC LIGHTING CONTRACT AND FRANCHISE. An ordinance authorizing the Board of Public Affairs of the City of to enter into a contract with , their successors and assigns, for the furnishing of elec- tric lights to the city, and for other purposes. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of .... SECTION 1. That the Board of Public Affairs of the City of be and it is hereby directed and authorized to enter into a contract with , their successors and assigns, for the furnishing of electric street lights to the City of , and for other purposes, for the period of years, upon the said , their successors and assigns entering into substantially the fol- lowing agreement, to-wit: This agreement, made and entered into this day of , 19 . . . , by and between , their successors and assigns, party of the first part, and the City of , in the State of , party of the second part, witnesseth : That for and in consideration of the reduced price to be paid for each arc light, now and hereafter installed, and the installing of a modern and up-to-date plant, and electric lamps, and the giving of an all-night service, and the furnishing, without cost to the city, all electric lights required for the lighting of the Mayor's office, the City 19 290 HEAT AND LIGHT. Clerk's office, the reception room and council chamber, and for and in consideration of the sums hereinafter set out to be paid by the City of to the said , their successors and assigns, and of the mutual covenants, agreements and stipulations hereinafter set forth, the parties hereto have contracted and agreed, and do, by these presents, con- tract and agree with each other as follows : FIRST. The party of the first part promises and agrees to fur- nish, erect, maintain and keep lighted arc lights in said City of , for street lighting purposes, of the kind and quality herein- after mentioned, and supply all the lamps, materials, ma- chinery, attachments, appliances, fixtures, current, car- bons, attendance and all things necessary for operating and maintaining said lights for a period commencing on the day of 19 . . . , and ending on the day of , 19 SECOND. All arc lamps to be furnished under this contract shall be what is known as the alternating current enclosed arc lamp, having a nominal rating of 2,000 eandle-power, with an electrical energy of not less than 521 apparent watts, 6.6 amperes and from 75 to 80 volts. The lamps are to be provided with opal inner globes and clear out- side globes, or both inner and outside globes to be of clear glass, as the party of the first part may elect at the time the said lamps are installed. Said lights are to burn with a steady light and to be operated and burn all night upon an every-night schedule. The lights shall begin to burn HEAT AND LIGHT. 291 every night one-half hour after sunset, and to burn one- half hour before sunrise throughout the year during this contract. The party of the first part agrees to furnish said party of the second part such other and additional lights, of like kind and quality, at the same rate and prices mentioned hereinafter, as the party of the second part may need and desire. THIRD. Said lamps shall be maintained and located where the present street arc lights are now located, and said lamps shall not be discontinued until the expiration of this con- tract; that any one or all of them may be moved or re- located to such places as the City Council may desig- nate, provided always that same are located within the city limits of the City of No lamps shall be relocated and placed so as to require an extension of the circuits of the said , of more than six hundred feet to reach it, and the cost of removal of such lamp or lamps to the new location shall be paid by the City of FOURTH. In consideration of the undertakings and agreements as herein set forth, to be performed by the party of the first part, the party of the second part agrees to take from the said party of the first part two hundred arc lights, and to pay to the party of the first part as follows : The sum of $ .... per lamp per year for each and every lamp installed, payable in twelve monthly installments on the 15th day of the next succeeding month in which said lights are furnished. 292 HEAT AND LIGHT. FIFTH. It is further agreed that, in case of any accident or temporary stoppage of the burning of said lights, not involving the failure of the whole system of said lights, a deduction of two cents per hour, where it exceeds one- half hour, for the time each of said lights shall fail to burn, it being understood and agreed that the city shall notify the light company of the failure of any of its lamps to burn, and the penalty shall accrue from one-half hour after such notification. But this shall not apply where the causes that occasion the said failures of said lights to burn are unavoidable accidents to machinery, lights or appliances whereby the same are disabled or pre- vented from burning, on account of riots, strikes, fires and other causes as are known by the term, "acts of God," but in all such last-mentioned cases said lights, shall be placed in repair and operated without unneces- sary delay, and during the time the lights are out from any of the causes herein last specified there shall be no deductions made or penalties inflicted upon the party of the first part by reason thereof, except that the City of shall deduct from the total amount which the city would have to pay the party of the first part for such light or lights the pro rata amount for the time during which said lights are out, owing and arising from any of the causes herein last specified. SIXTH. It is understood and agreed that the said parties of the first part shall furnish said lights within six months from the date of this contract, but if the party of the first part is prevented from commencing the installation and erec- HEAT AND LIGHT. 293 tion of the lamps and machinery on the dates aforesaid by an unavoidable act not within its power to prevent, or by riots, strikes, fires, and any other such causes as are known by the term "acts of God," then the time for commencing said work, or the completion thereof and furnishing light with the new lamps, shall be extended for the time the party of the first part is delayed in commencing such in- stallation and completing the same. SEVENTH. It is further agreed, that the party of the first part shall forever keep and save harmless the party of the second part from any and all damages, judgments, cost and expenses of same, including attorney's fees, which it may suffer or which may be recovered against the party of the second part, by reason of the carrying out of the performance of this contract by the party of the first part. EIGHTH. It is understood and agreed, that this contract shall inure to the use and benefit of the successors and assigns of the party of the first part. NINTH. In testimony whereof, the parties hereto have set their hands and seals, acting by and through their officers and agents, duly authorized, on the day and year first above written. Attest : City of Attest : By... , Members of Board of Public Affairs. 294 HEAT AND LIGHT. SEC. 2. That all ordinances or parts of ordinances in conflict with this ordinance be and the same are hereby repealed. SEC. 3. This ordinance shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and publication. FORM OF ORDINANCE GRANTING A FRAN- CHISE FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING, HEAT- ING, POWER AND OTHER PURPOSES. An ordinance to grant a franchise to and , their successors and assigns, for electric lighting, heating, power and other purposes. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of. ... , State of SECTION 1. That and , their successors and assigns, be and are hereby granted permission and a franchise for the erection, maintenance and placing of poles, wires and cables, laying of pipes, conduits and the necessary con- nections and appliances in, along, upon and over all the streets, avenues, alleys, their present and future corporate limits, bridges and other public places, in the City of , State of , for the purpose of transmitting and furnishing electricity for light, heat and power, or either of these, for public, commercial or domestic purposes and uses, together with the right at any time to enter upon and use said streets, avenues, alleys, their present and future corporate limits, bridges and other public places, for the purpose of making the necessary excavations and the placing, moving, re- placing and maintaining their poles, wires, pipes, con- HEAT AND LIGHT. 295 duits, cables, appliances, and making the necessary con- nections with private property, for a period of years from the passage and approval of this ordinance. SEC. 2. That the said and , their successors and assigns, shall be permitted to charge for commercial lighting at a rate not exceeding cents per kilowatt hour, meas- used by meter. The rate to be charged for power service shall not exceed cents per kilowatt hour, measured by meter, but the said and , their successors and assigns shall have the right to charge such flat rates for power service as may be agreed upon by the said and . . . . , their successors and assigns, and the consumer. SEC. 3. That all sections of ordinances heretofore passed, and all ordinances or parts thereof inconsistent or in conflict herewith, be and the same are hereby re- pealed. SEC. 4. That this ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after its passage and publication. FORM OF AN ORDINANCE FOR A CONTRACT FOR THE COLLECTION, REMOVAL AND DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE AND FIX- ING THE AMOUNT TO BE PAID BY THE CITY. An ordinance authorizing the Board of Public Affairs of the City of to enter into a contract with and , their successors and 296 HEAT AND LIGHT. assigns, for the collection, removal and disposal of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter, and fixing a maximum amount to be paid by the city for same. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of .... SECTION 1. That the Board of Public Affairs of the City of be and it is hereby directed and authorized to enter into a contract with and their successors and assigns, for the collection, removal and disposal of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter for a period of years, upon the said and , their successors and assigns, entering into substantially the following agreement, to-wit : This agreement made and entered into this .... day of , 19 . . , by and between and , their successors and as- signs, party of the first part, and the City of , in the State of , party of the second part, witnesseth : That for and in consideration of the sanitary collec- tion, removal and disposal of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter, and the providing of a Branch garbage incinerator, and all necessary modern equipments for the sanitary collection and removal of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter, and for and in consideration of the sums hereinafter set out to be paid by the City of .... to the said and , their successors and assigns, and of the mutual covenants, agreements and stipulations herein- after set forth, the parties hereto have contracted and do by these presents contract and agree with each other as follows : HEAT AND LIGHT. 297 * FIRST. The party of the first part promises and agrees to fur- nish, erect, maintain and provide a Branch garbage in- cinerator and all necessary carts, horses, mules and wash- ing and disinfecting apparatus for the complete sanitary collection, removal and disposal of all slop, offal, garbage and animal matter for a term of years, without cost to the party of the second part during said term, other than hereinafter provided, and in con- sideration of said agreement as above set forth to be per- formed by the party of the first part, the party of the second part agrees to pay the said party of the first part a sum not to exceed dollars for any one year of said term, said sum to be paid the party of the first part in twelve monthly installments by the said party of the second part on the 15th day of the next succeeding month in which said work was done. SEC. 2. The word garbage, wherever used herein, shall be taken to mean all organic household waste, offal, animal and vegetable matter, such as has been prepared or intended to be used as food, or shall have arisen in the preparation of food, and in addition shall be construed to mean other organic industrial refuse, such as paper, cans, bottles, discarded tinware and iron, and other simi- lar material. The contract shall also be construed to mean that the said parties shall collect, remove and dis- pose of all garbage from commission houses, wholesale and retail groceries, public markets, hotels, sanatoriums, hospitals, fish stores, restaurants, eating houses and apartment houses. SEC. 3. Garbage shall be collected at all places in the city from May 1st to November 1st, during each year of the existence of this contract, three times a week ; from 298 HEAT AND LIGHT. November 1st to May 1st, during each year of the exist- ence of this contract, twice each week; provided, how- ever, that collections from commission houses, hotels, hospitals, fish stores, restaurants and eating houses shall be made each day, and from public markets each market day, immediately after market hours. For the purpose of these ordinances, an apartment house shall be understood to mean a building designed for occupancy for, or occupied by, three (3) or more fami- lies. It is further understood that collection of garbage shall not be obligatory on the said parties unless the owner shall provide and maintain garbage receptacles, one for organic garbage, and another for inorganic garb- age, which receptacles shall be water-tight and air-tight, easy of access to the collector, and easy to empty, and which shall be at all times kept free from all offense to sight and smell, and from unsanitary conditions. SEC. 4. The said parties, in the collection and re- moval of the garbage under this ordinance, shall, for said purpose, provide themselves \vith water-tight ves- sels, tanks or boxes, mounted on two or four wheels, which shall, when containing garbage or matter giving off noxious odors, be securely and tightly covered on top in a manner to be approved by the chief sanitary officer, so as to prevent the contents or any odor escaping there- from, and when unloaded, after the delivery of each load to the city incinerating plant, each vessel, wagon or tank shall be thoroughly washed with hot water and disin- fected by the Branch Disinfector to the satisfaction of the chief sanitary officer, and the vehicles drawing each ves- sel, box or tank shall be at all times so loaded and driven that none of the material shall fall upon the ground, run out or spill therefrom. HEAT AND LIGHT. 299 All vehicles drawing or carrying such vessels, tanks or boxes shall have on both sides thereof a sign with the words "City Garbage Cart" or, "City Garbage Wagon" painted thereon, together with the number of the vehicle, to be at all times plain and unobscured, in black letters not less than four inches in height, on white background ; the number of the wagon to be registered in the office of the City Clerk. SEC. 5. The said parties, before beginning collection under this ordinance, shall divide the city into districts, and shall deliver to the chief sanitary officer a list of the boundaries of each district and the day of the week on which they plan to make collections. The chief sanitary officer may, within thirty (30) days after the beginning of such collections according to such districts, make such charges, alterations and additions thereto as may, in the judgment of said officer, be necessary to insure the ef- ficiency and thoroughness of collections. Thereafter, on November 1st and May 1st in each year of this contract, such contractor shall revise such districts and deliver such revised list to the chief sanitary officer, who may, for thirty (30) days, make such changes, alterations and ad- ditions to such districts as, in the judgment of said offi- cer, may be necessary to insure the efficiency and thor- oughness of such collections. Nothing in this provision shall be construed to mean that the said parties shall not at all times furnish a sufficient equipment to collect and remove all garbage and dead animals as herein provided for. The said parties shall not be permitted to depart from the time fixed for collection, except by obtaining the writ- ten consent of the chief sanitary officer, the object being that all collections from houses in each district shall be 300 HEAT AND LIGHT. made on certain days, and as nearly at the same hour of the day as possible. SEC. 6. The said parties shall furnish each house- holder, on May 6th and November 6th of each year of this contract, with a printed list of the days on which they will make collections, stating in such list the time of day, as nearly as possible, when such collections will be made. The printed list shall be on cardboard not less than eight inches by ten inches in dimensions, and shall contain such extracts of the city ordinance governing the responsibility of the producer of garbage, the responsi- bility of the collector for removal, etc., and such recom- mendations and rules as the Mayor and chief sanitary officer may desire to place on said card. SEC. 7. It will be the duty of every resident, house- holder, tenant, hotel keeper, boarding house keeper, re- tail dealer, and all parties of persons occupying dwellings within the City of to pro- vide, or cause to be provided, portable vessels, tanks or receptacles for holding garbage, said vessels, tanks or re- ceptacles to be perfectly water-tight, and so kept, with a handle or handles on the outside, and provided with a tightly fitting cover, which cover shall not be removed except when absolutely necessary, or such other design of vessel, tank or receptacle can be used as shall be ap- proved by the chief sanitary officer. Said vessels, tanks or receptacles shall be kept or placed in the rear of the house, or in the basement areas or passageways most ac- cessible to be collected, and never upon the street, alleys, sidewalk or other public place, and shall be of a capacity of not less than one bushel, or five gallons, and as much larger as shall be deemed necessary. All such vessels, tanks or receptacles shall be accessible to the said parties HEAT AND LIGHT. when called for, and if removed by them shall be returned by them to said place or places without unnecessary de- lay, and no person, except for such purposes authorized, shall in any manner interfere with said vessels, tanks or receptacles or contents thereof. In case of dispute, the chief sanitary officer shall decide as to the location to be selected for the placing of vessels, tanks or receptacles by the owner or tenant. Should any of the above persons or parties fail to pro- vide such described vessels, tanks or receptacles within five (5) days after receiving written notice from said parties, then the said parties are authorized to supply same, and charge a price not exceeding the regular price charged others for same. SEC. 8. The said parties will be required to furnish to the chief sanitary officer immediate notice of the fail- ure of any householder to have garbage ready for col- lection on the day set for such collection, or to provide the required receptacle for same, or make any payment due said parties. SEC. 9. Upon complant or complaints having been macle of a failure on the part of the said parties to prop- erly collect and remove all garbage, it will be the duty of the chief sanitary officer to investigate such complaint, or complaints, and if, in his judgment, such failure to collect was the fault of said parties, he shall report such violation or violations of the ordinance to the Mayor. SEC. 10. It shall be the duty of the chief sanitary of- ficer to investigate all complaints made of failure on the part of the householders, tenants, hotel keepers, boarding house keepers and all parties or persons occupying dwell- ings within the City of . . , com- mission houses, wholesale and retail dealers, sanatoriums hospitals, fish stores, restaurants, eating houses and own- 302 HEAT AND LIGHT. ers of apartment houses to comply with the provisions of the ordinances requiring the placing of vessels, tanks or receptacles for emptying by the said parties, and to prose- cute offenders under the provisions of this ordinance; or, he failing to do so, the said parties themselves can at once proceed to prosecute all violaters under this ordi- nance. SEC. 11. The said parties shall provide themselves with an office, conveniently located, and furnished with a telephone. A clerk shall be regularly employed to an- swer all complaints and to promptly dispose of the same. SEC. 12. Said parties shall file with the City Clerk, within thirty days from the date of the approval of this ordinance, their acceptance of its provisions, and shall at the time enter into bond with the City of , the sum of ten thousand dollars, with suf- ficient security, to be approved by the Mayor or City Council, conditioned that the said parties, or their suc- cessors, shall faithfully comply with all the provisions of this ordinance. SEC. 13. The said parties shall pay any judgment which may be taken against said city, either alone or jointly with said parties, on account of any injury or damage to persons or property by reason of the carrying- out of this ordinance, caused by the fault of said parties ; provided, that if the city is sued alone for such injury or damages, due notice to the said parties to appear and de- fend said action shall be given. SEC. 14. The said parties shall give to the residents of said city and county preference in the employment of all labor necessary in performing the contract, and, failing to do so, forfeit to said city the sum of five dollars for each failure to observe this stipulation. HEAT AND LIGHT. 303 SEC. 15. The said parties shall be required to haul, so far as possible, all garbage collected, through the al- leys in the city, not making use of the prominent busi- ness or residence streets. In all cases of dispute regard- ing the using of an alley or street as an avenue for the hauling of garbage, or the place in any street or alley at which the garbage wagon is stopped while garbage is being collected from the neighborhood, the chief sanitary officer shall decide which route to haul upon and at which point the wagon shall be stopped to make collections. Said officer shall notify the said parties in writing of his decision, and said officer shall investigate and report to the Mayor each case wherein the said parties, after the above due notice in writing, repeat the offense ; and said parties shall thereupon be liable for a fine of not less than one dollar or more than five dollars for each and every offense. SEC. 16. Whenever there shall be annexed to the City of any additional ter- ritory, the Mayor or Council may order and direct the said parties to begin and continue collections and re- moval of garbage within such annexed territory, ac- cording to the terms and conditions of the ordinance above provided. SEC. 17. The said parties shall deliver all slops, offal, garbage and animal matter collected as provided in this ordinance, to the city garbage incinerator works, or some other place within the city limits as may be desig- nated by the Mayor and Council. SEC. 18. The said parties shall be required to observe all city ordinances in relation to obstructing streets, keep- ing open passageways and protecting the same where ex- posed, maintaining signals, and generally to obey all laws 304 HEAT AND LIGHT. and ordinances ; and said parties shall agree to indemnify and save harmless the City of from all suits and actions of every kind and description brought againts the city for or on account of any injury or damage received or sustained by any party or parties or by or from the said parties, their servants or agents, in the carrying out of this ordinance. SEC. 19. The said parties shall agree to complete all equipments, vehicles and other equipments contemplated in this ordinance, and begin the collection and removal of all garbage as prescribed, within three months after passage and publication of this ordinance. SEC. 20. Should the said parties not be incorporated at the time of the approval of this ordinance, they may thereafter incorporate under the laws of for the purposes herein contemplated. SEC. 21. Any person, firm or corporation convicted of a violation of this ordinance shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars for each offense. SEC. 22. This ordinance shall be and remain in force and effect for a period of years from and after its passage and publication. In testimony whereof, the parties hereto have set their hands and seals, acting by and through their officers and agents, duly authorized, on the day and year first above written. Attest : City of Attest : By , Members of Board of Public Affairs. HEAT AND LIGHT. 305 SEC. 23. That all ordinances or parts of ordinances in conflict with this ordinance be and the same are hereby repealed. SEC. 24. This ordinance shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and publication. 20 Olagncr eiectric IWg, Co, , U. $. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS - - Bulletin 75-K POLYPHASE MOTORS - - - Bulletin 74-K TRANSFORMERS - Bulletin 72-K SWITCHBOARD INSTRUMENTS - - Bulletin 67-K PORTABLE INSTRUMENTS - - Bulletin 71-K MOTOR GENERATOR SETS - - Bulletin 69-K A Set of our bulletins should be in the hands of every Engineer. If you do not have our printed matter on file write us :: :: :: :: Your name should be on our mailing list :: :: :: :: :: :: :: We solicit work requiring a high degree of Engineering skill. We have offices in all the principal cities :: :: :: :: :: :: :: LARD, OIL, MALT AMD CHEMICAL TANKS John O'Brien Boiler Works Company MANUFACTURERS ...OF... STEAM BOILERS SHEET IRON WORK BUILDERS OF STAND PIPES FOR WATER WORKS Boiler Heads flanged to order on the O'Brien Patent Flanging Machine and the Weaver Flue Hole Machine. Repair Work executed by com- petent workmen on short notice and at reasonable rates. VVVVV^V**-^ Eleventh, Twelfth, Mullanphy and Howard Sts, SAINT LOUIS Heine Water Tube Boilers Are as well adapted for the utili- zation of the heat of waste gases as for other purposes & & & & Economical in the use of any fuel. Built entirely of flange steel & & MANUFACTURED ONLY = BY == Heine Safety Boiler Co ST. LOUIS, MO. ..THE.. Brownell Company MANUFACTURERS OF High Grade Boilers and Engines Slide Valve and|Automatic Engines Standard and High Pressure Boilers Plain and Submerged'Vertical Boilers Portable and Scotch Boilers Feed Water Heaters Catalogues and Estimates Furnished on Application 811 NORTH SECOND STREET ST. LOUIS, MO Manufactured Only JOS. F. WANGLER Boiler and Sheet Iron Works Co. ESTABLISHED 1864 1535-47 NORTH 9th STREET :: ST. LOUIS, MO, moor Iron Co. EDGE MOOR, DELAWARE Manufacturers of mater Cube Boilers SEND FOR CATALOGUE Carge Units a Specialty See Installations 20000 H. P. Union Electric Light & Power Co., ST. LOUIS, MO. IN ONE PLANT 22000 H. P. Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Co., MILWAUKEE, WIS. IN FOUR PLANTS ENGINES BOILERS CHAS. W. McHOSE CHEMICAL BUILDING ST. LOUIS Representing Erie City Iron Works Ma Bates Machine Works HEATERS SPECIALTIES E. H. ABADIE & COMPANY ..ENGINEERS.. STEAM GAS ELECTRIC HYDRAULIC CONTRACTORS FOR GENERAL SERVICE PLANTS DESIGNERS AND CONSTRUCTORS OF ELECTRIC LIGHT PLANTS VENTILATING SYSTEMS ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS SEWERAGE SYSTKMS ELECTRIC RAILWAY PLANTS IRRIGATION SYSTEMS DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEMS WATERWORKS SYSTEMS ISOLATED HEATING SYSTEMS UNDERGROUND CONDUIT SYSTEMS INDUSTRIAL PLANTS ELECTRICALLY EQUIPPED EXAMINATIONS AND REPORTS DISTRICT DISTRIBUTERS FLEMING ENGINES WILLIAMS STEAM SPECIALTIES NATIONAL BANK OF COMMERCE BUILDING ST. LOUIS FLEMING (HARRISBURG) ENGINES BUILT IN J6 DIFFERENT STYLES and 900 SIZES SEND FOR LATEST CATALOGUE HflRRISBURG FOUNDRY & MflGfllNE WORKS HARRISBURG, PA., U. S. A. BRANCH OFFICES IN ALL PRINCIPAL CITIES ST. LOUIS OFFICE - NATIONAL BANK OF COMMERCE BUILDING Cbe, fioovcn, Owens, Rentschlcr Company Hamilton, Ohio / Hamilton Corliss Engines BUILDERS OF) High Speed Four Valve Engines \ Hamilton Holzwarth Steam Turbines SALES OFFICES: ALAINTA, BOSTON, - CHICAGO, CHARLOTTE, NEW YORK, - PITTSBURG, ST. LOUIS, - SAN FRANCISCO, HONOLULU, S. I. JAPAN, > KOREA, i YUCATAN, Equitable Bldg. Rundlett, H. E. Marquette Bldg. Washburn, A. H. - 39 CortlandtSt. Empire Bldg. Chemical Bldg. Chas. Moore & Co. Honolulu Iron Works Mitsui & Co. American Trading Co. The Hydro-Carbon System This is the only device yet invented :::: that can be guaranteed to :::: Prevent Smoke, Increase Power and Save Fuel All of these things we guarantee and we accomplish more. Our system keeps the tubes clean, reduces the labor of firing, permits the use of inferior fuels and dispenses with forced drafts, mechanical stokers, the complicated "Down Draft" apparatus and all other costly and troublesome appliances. It requires no special setting or equipment of the boiler and can be applied to existing boiler plants usually without interruption of their regular duty :: :: :: We do not use a steam jet nor a forced draft. We do not disturb furnace walls, nor change grate bars, nor interfere with steam pipes, nor build any fire walls or ducts. We do not interfere with exist- ing system In anyway. We do not require special firing. We do not produce so much ash or cinder, nor need to clean tubes or fire so often. We reduce repairs to the furnace. We have no incidentals nor charges for "extras" WE STOP THE SMOKE It is Sold Under an Absolute Guarantee both as to its performance and as to the cost of maintenance We refer to many of the largest Steam Plants in the U. S. and to steamship lines who have used our system with remarkable results. ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: Address HYDRO -CARBON FURNACE COMPANY Of Mo. E. H. HQVEY, Superintendent. G. A. WELLS, Sales Manager 1012 CHEMICAL BUILDING ::::: SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI D. J. PINK .... PRESIDENT W.J.KENNEDY . VICE-PRESIDENT J. C. KNIGHT, SECRETARY AND TREASURER Southwestern Electric Company 24 and 26 S. Tenth St. SaintlLouis Electric Machines and Supplies Contractors and Electrical = Engineers = Complete Plans, Specifications and Bids made for Electrical Work in any section of the country. Write us for information .-. /. .-. .-. Kupferle Bros. Mfg. Co. MISSOURI BRASS FOUNDRY STEAM AND GAS PIPE WORKS 600-2-4 North Second Street CORNER WASHINGTON AVENUE, AND ::: 119 Washington Avenue ::: =ST. LOUI! CAST AND MALLEABLE IRON FITTINGS Jobbers of Wrought Iron Welded Tubes for Steam, Gas and Water :::: Leather and Rubber Belting, Packing and Hose SOLE AGENTS FOR CAMERON'S SPECIAL STEAM PUMP, Most Efficient, Durable and Economical Steam Pump in Use The National Equipment Company CONTRACTORS AND EXPERT ENGINEERS Complete Steam, Electric and Fuel =Oil Equipments EXPERT SANITARY ENGINEERS Sole Manufacturers of the Branch Steam Trap and the Branch Oil Burners THE BRANCH GARBAGE INCINERATORS Colonial Security Building ::: ST. LOUIS, MO. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of soccer volume after the third day overdue, increasing ?o $1 00 perTolume after the sixth day.. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. REC'D LD JAN 10 1 (SEC 15 19^ 15m-4,'24