THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES library Graduate School of Business Administration- Un' --T-g.Uy of California Los Angeles 24, California THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION AND THE RE-EMPLOYMENT OF THE DISABLED The Physiology of INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION AND THE Re-employment of the Disabled PROFESSOR JULES AMAR DIRECTOR OF THE LABORATORY OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE CONSERVATOIRE DES ARTS ET METIERS, PARIS TRANSLATED BY BERNARD MIALL EDITED WITH NOTES AND AN INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR A. F. STANLEY KENT, M.A., D.Sc. OXON 135 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK JWacmillan Company 1919 PRINTED BY THE LONDON AND NORWICH PRESS, LIMITED LONDON AND NORWICH, ENGLAND Bus. Admin. Library T 58 A5C: E AUTHOR'S PREFACE To assist in the work of organising labour according to rational laws ; to assign to each man his true function in the social machine ; to enable the hale man and the war-cripple to collaborate in the economic tasks of to-morrow ; to formulate concisely the doctrine of the maximum utilisation of the physical and psychical energies, without losing sight of the moral factor : these are the motives which impelled me to write this book. It is frankly addressed to the general public, and it deals, in a pedagogic sense, with the ordinary avocations. Whether in the matter of physical education and hygiene, or the organisation of apprenticeship and labour, or that technical re-education whose programme we have had to devise, while co-ordinating the efforts made to realise it, in these sorrowful times it is the duty of each one of us actively to participate. I have briefly stated why and how. Further, I have everywhere laid stress upon the intimate connection between science and economic wealth, between method and technique and national prosperity. In the same spirit I have elucidated the problems of pro- thesis, for France and England might place themselves at the head of the orthopaedic industry of the whole world, as of many another industry. The condition is that they must eschew routine, a factor which enervates the inventive spirit of the race. 720C62 VI AUTHOR S PREFACE My own doctrine has naturally led me to explain and discuss the admirable system of Taylor. I have laid stress upon its essential merits, while correcting it where it appeared to disregard the fundamental laws of fatigue and the con- servation of human energy. All our activities, indeed, should be properly conditioned physiologically, or serious mis- calculations will result. They are in effect so conditioned by the very laws of nature. But men persist in denying the fact, and seek refuge in abstractions. In connection with these fundamental problems, therefore, it was necessary to enlighten the reader by means of proofs and data ready to hand. Thanks to a profusion of original and extremely clear illustrations, the comprehension of the text is greatly facilitated. I take this opportunity of thanking my publishers for all the trouble they have taken in this respect. For the benefit of the reader, too, as much as to afford me proof of a goodwill already put to the test, M. H. Le Chatelier, whose name is eloquent of a methodical social activity, has written a Preface for the French edition of this volume, while the Introduction to the English edition has been contributed by Prot. A. F. Stanley Kent, who has also acted as editor. Whether by author or publishers, the data have been inter- preted accurately and sincerely. A book which professes to teach anything should be, as it were, an act of conscience. I trust this may be such a book. PREFACE TO FRENCH EDITION IN his " Principles of the Scientific Organisation of Labour " (p. 67) F. Taylor complains that the experiments of physiolo- gists and engineers have hitherto afforded no indications as to the endurance of the human being. " The results of these investigations," he says, " have been so negligible that it has been impossible to deduce therefrom a law of any value." The object of M. Amar's present volume is precisely to fill this hiatus, and to show how the experimental methods of the physiologists will enable us, in future, to grapple with the problem of human fatigue and human activity. This problem is of the highest importance from the standpoint of the organisation of labour in factory and workshop. Before I fully express my appreciation of this volume, I should like to make a few remarks as to the author's criticisms of Taylor's work. He insists, perhaps more than is reasonable, on the insufficiency of Taylor's methods of estimating fatigue in manual workers. This reproach ought, in all fairness, to be addressed to the physiologists. It is not the business of the engineer to invent these new methods of measurement ; he can only employ those which are already extant. Thus Taylor made use of chemical analysis, the measurement of temperatures, and the measurement of the efforts exerted upon tools and implements. He would, similarly, have employed methods of estimating human fatigue, if such Viii PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION methods had existed. He complains, with perfect justice, that he found nothing to the point in the works of his pre- decessors. Let us hope that this volume of M. Amar's will help to remove this difficulty. The reproach that Taylor neglected the part played by the will in the production of labour is, in my opinion, equally unfounded. The example of Rachel, which is cited in this connection, is completely typical. The will cannot supply the place of physical strength ; it merely enables a man to labour in excess of his strength, to over-work himself. This was certainly the case with Rachel, who died at thirty-seven. This is not an example to be imitated. The scientific organisa- tion of labour, as conceived by Taylor, aims at obtaining from the worker the maximum of work which he can normally accomplish, but it does not urge him to exceed this limit by an effort of the will. These reservations apart, I am delighted to call attention to the profit and the interest to be derived from the perusal of M. Amar's work on the physiological organisation of labour. This volume is not intended only for the specialist, the physi- cian, the physiologist, or the engineer ; any cultivated reader will take pleasure in learning something of the many con- temporary problems here considered : problems of the measure- ment and registration of muscular or nervous fatigue ; of psycho-physiological relations ; of normal alimentation ; of the art of economical labour, whether physical or intellectual ; of handicrafts and apprenticeship ; of the re-education of war-cripples ; of orthopaedy, etc. M. Amar describes in detail the methods of measurement employed in physiological laboratories for the evaluation of work done. It is to be hoped that numerous investigations PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION IX will be undertaken by the aid of these methods, which admit of extreme precision, and owe not a little to M. Amar. The problem to be solved is in reality extremely complex. It is not enough to determine the degree of fatigue occasioned by a given task in order to decide whether the task in question does or does not exceed the capacities of the worker who is the sub- ject of experiment. All serious muscular labour necessarily involves a certain amount of fatigue, but this will not be in any way harmful if the periods of repose intercalated during labour allow the human machine to re-establish itself without permanent deterioration. A steam-engine cannot work with- out consuming coal ; but there is no trouble as long as it is fed sufficiently, so that it does not come to a standstill. Similarly, in the case of man, the consumption of energy produces no bad results provided nourishment and sleep suffice to make good all losses. Fatigue, far from being injurious, is highly favourable to health. A peasant, who will frequently work sixteen hours a day, will often attain an age of eighty years, while a small shopkeeper in a big city, who does not always do an hour's work in the day, will hardly reach his sixtieth year. It is this that makes the study of overwork so difficult. The man who never fatigues himself does not live long. On the other hand, the man who experiences fatigue often enjoys a hale old age. The great manufacturer Solvay furnishes a remarkable example of this fact. About his sixtieth year he began to indulge in Alpine climbing, regulating the speed at which he climbed so as to maintain the rate of his pulse at 120 beats a minute. This undoubtedly means great fatigue, and Solvay to-day bears his sixty-seven years lightly, overtaxing himself yet further by intellectual labours which are so severe that they often result in loss of sleep. It is true that not X PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION every man could endure such a regimen ; it is no less true that the question of harmful over-exertion is an extremely complex problem, which will demand much investigation before it is completely solved. The employment of the methods of measurement recom- mended by M. Amar will assuredly produce an immediate result in such investigations as relate to the re-education of wounded men and war-cripples. The numerous examples which he gives of such investigations show us how it is possible, by methodical experiment, to secure a rapid reduction of the efforts which are necessary at the outset for the accomplish- ment of a task for which one has had no training. The systematic evaluation of these efforts makes it possible very greatly to shorten the period of re-education, and will in a great measure help to alleviate the hardships caused by the war. This particular application of the Taylorian system will therefore be productive of another very happy result : that is, it will provide employment for war-cripples. One of the most essential points of this system is to replace a large number of manual workers in workshop and factory by employees whose office it is to investigate the best methods of labour, to teach these to the workers, and finally to establish the amount of the day's task. The majority of these functions may, for the most part, very usefully be entrusted to wounded soldiers. A personal experience of manual labour is indispensable to the proper fulfilment of these functions, but these latter do not necessitate the personal execution of the particular work in hand. Ex-artisans, for instance, will be able to utilise the experience which they acquired when they still enjoyed the full use of all their limbs. This utilisation of crippled PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION XI working-men has been tried, with abundant success, by M. de Freminville, in the Penhoete workshops, at Saint- Nazaire. This is an experiment which deserves further development. It is true that such advisory work requires, in addition to a technical knowledge of the craft, an adequate amount of intelligence. But just as blind men find that their acoustic sensibility is developed by the concentration of their attention upon those senses which remain intact, so we may count upon a development of the intellectual faculties in men deprived of part of their physical activity. By the very force of circumstances they will direct their energies into fresh channels. At all events, the more intelligent will in this manner be able to find immediate employment for their faculties. M. Amar's volume touches upon a very large number of problems which possess a great significance in respect of the future of the belligerent nations. Let us hope that he will have many readers, who will not fail to realise the extreme importance of these questions. HENRY LE CHATELIER. CONTENTS PAGE AUTHOR'S PREFACE vii PREFACE by M. H. Le CHATELIER to the FRENCH EDITION ix INTRODUCTION by PROFESSOR A. F. STANLEY KENT xxi CHAPTER I HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOC- TRINES ; Physical Research ; Coulomb ; The Taylor System ; Advantages of the Taylor System ; Criticisms of the Taylor System ; Physiological Research ; Lavoisier . . . . . . 1-16 CHAPTER II THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN ; The Diges- tive Function ; The Respiratory Function ; The Circulation ; Functions of Relation Movement ; The Osseous System ; The Muscular System ; The Nervous System 17-39 CHAPTER III HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY ; Psychical or Men- tal Activity ; Old Age ; Human Aptitudes Physical ; Human Aptitudes Psychical ; The Personal Equation ; Psycho-Physiological Rela- tions Pleasure ; Pain; The Psycho-Physical Law; Conclusion 40-63 CHAPTER IV WORK AND FATIGUE; The Measurement of Mus- cular Activity ; Measurement of Speed or Pace ; The Expenditure of Energy ; Fatigue ; The Circula- tion of the Blood; Respiration; Neuro-muscular Energy ; Biochemical Indications of Fatigue . . 64-97 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER V THE FACTORS OF LABOUR ; The Laws of Chaveau ; Internal Factors of Work : Our Food ; Hunger, Inanition ; Alimentary Rations ; Observations, and Particular Cases ; What to Drink ; The Effects of Alcoholism ; Physiological Conditions ; External Factors of Labour : The Atmospheric Environ- ment ; Clothing ; Entertainments Amusements Rest ; Equipment and Labour .... 98-124 CHAPTER VI THE ART OF LABOUR; Physical Activity; The Handicrafts ; Apprentices ; The Case of those incapacitated from Labour ; Carrying burdens up- stairs ; Walking on an inclined Plane ; Professional Cycling ; Agricultural Labour ; Physical Training and Functional Re-education ; The Principles of Physical Training ; Factors of Physical Training ; Functional Re-education General Laws ; Force and Amplitude ; The Technique of Physical Train- ing and Re-education ; The Cheirograph ; The Dynamographic Bulb ; The' Arthrodynamometer ; Attitudes of the Body ; Locomotion Gymnastics ; Summary Physical Activity .... 125-167 CHAPTER VII THE ART OF LABOUR (continued); Intellectual Activity ; Complexity of Intellectual Work ; The Origin of Intellectual Energy ; The Organisation of Intellectual Work ; Applications of the Principles of Organisation ....... 168-182 CHAPTER VIII APPRENTICESHIP ; and Re-apprenticeship ; the Present Condition of Apprenticeship ; Technical Schools ; The Organisation of the Apprentice System ; The Technique of Apprenticeship ; The Education of the Movements ; Mechanical Con- siderations ; The Duration of Apprenticeship ; Social Science and Industry . . . . ... 183-202 CONTENTS CHAPTER IX LABOUR ; Italian Labour ; Wages ; French Labour ; Native Labour ; Technical and Social Considera- tionsThe Kabyles ; The Life of the Kabyles ; Anthropological Data ; Physiological Data The Energy of the Arab ; The Diet of the Arab ; Climate and Acclimatisation ; The Cost of Arab Labour xv PAGE 203-226 CHAPTER X THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLESFUNC- TIONAL RE-EDUCATION; The Necessity of employing Wounded Soldiers ; The General Principles of Re-education ; The Functional Re-education of the Wounded ; Results ; War-Cripples The Func- tional Value of the Stumps ; The Power of the Stumps ; Technical Method of Measuring the Power of the Stumps ; Data resulting from Measurements of the Power of Stumps ; Histo-Psychological Modi- fication of the Stumps ; The Re-education and the Organic Condition of the War-Cripples . 227-256 CHAPTER XI THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR - CRIPPLES SCIENTIFIC PROTHESIS; The Utilisation of Stumps ; Mechanical Factors ; Application of Pro- thetic Appliances ; Amputation of the Thigh The " Pestle " type of leg ; The " Artificial Leg " ; Expert Examination of an Artificial Leg ; Femoral Amputations; Amputations of the Lower Leg; Double Amputations ; Prothesis of the Upper Limb ; Ampu- tation of the Upper Arm ; The Worker's Arm ; Amputations near the Shoulder and Disarticulation ; Amputation of the Fore-arm ; Various Appliances ; Mechanical Arms ; Employment and Qualities ; Other Models of Articulated Arms ; Functional Prothesis 257-310 XVI CONTENTS CHAPTER XII THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLESPRO- FESSIONAL RE-EDUCATION; The Education and Evaluation of Efforts ; Education of the Move- ment ; Physiological Education ; The Adaptation of the Tools Employed ; The Advantages of Scientific Organisation The Physiological Value of the War- Cripple ; The Output of Prothesis ; Simplicity and Rapidity of Educational Methods ; Schools of Pro- fessional Re-education ; The Organisation of a centre of Re-education ; Professional Orientation ; The Time Required for Re-education Home or Cottage Industries ; Finding Employment ; An Institute for the Organisation of Labour ; Relief Work The Seriously Wounded ; The Physiological Education of the Blind ; The Work of the Blind ; General Conclusions . . . 311-358 INDEX 359 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. F. W. TAYLOR (1856-1915) 6 2. SCHEME OF THE TAYLOR SYSTEM OF ORGANISATION ... 7 3. CALORIMETRIC CHAMBER, BOSTON ...... 13 4. LAVOISIER (1743-1794) 15 5. LAVOISIER'S EXPERIMENT UPON SEGUIN ..... 16 6. PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE HUMAN BODY ..... 19 7. DIAGRAM OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ...... 20 8. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ....... 26 9. DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ..... 27 10. GENERAL PLAN OF THE HUMAN SKELETON . . 32 11. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY . 35 12. PATHS FOLLOWED BY NERVE-IMPULSES, AND NERVOUS CONNECTIONS 37 13. DIGESTIVE TYPE OF HUMANITY (THOORIS) ..... 48 14. MUSCULAR TYPE . 48 15. RESPIRATORY TYPE ......... 49 16. CEREBRAL OR NERVOUS TYPE ....... 49 17. DIAGRAM OF CEREBRAL LOCALISATIONS ..... 53 18. DEVICE FOR MEASURING THE PERSONAL EQUATION ... 54 19. DIAGRAM OF RECORDING OR GRAPHIC DYNAMOMETER . . 67 20. RECORDING CYLINDER WITH MAREY RECORDING DRUMS . . 68 21. ANALYSIS OF THE EFFORTS EXERTED IN FILING METAL . . 68 22. FILE WITH DYNAMOGRAPHIC ATTACHMENTS . . . .69 23. JOINTING-PLANE ......... 70 24. DYNAMOGRAPHIC SPADE (DETAILED SECTION) .... 71 25. GRAPHIC RECORD OF THE WORK OF A GOOD WORKMAN USING THE FILE 72 26. RESPIRATION GAUGE ......... 74 27. TAKING A GRAPHIC RECORD OF THE PULSE .... 78 28. CARDIOGRAPH AND PNEUMOGRAPH IN POSITION . . . .79 29. RHYTHM OF THE HEART DURING WORK (A CASE OF FATIGUE) . 80 30. GRAPHIC RECORD OF THE HEART OF A YOUNG GYMNAST . . 81 31. CARDIOGRAMS DURING REPOSE AND EXTREME FATIGUE . . 82 32. RESPIRATORY TRACINGS TAKEN BY MEANS OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH. 83 33. RESPIRATION GUAGE FITTED FOR MAKING TONOGRAMS . . 84 34. TONOGRAMS 85 35. TRACINGS OF DEEP RESPIRATION DURING RAPID WORK . . 86 36. TRACINGS TAKEN DURING QUICK AND HEAVY LABOUR. . . 87 37. CURVE OF PULMONARY VENTILATION ..... 88 b xvii XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 38. PNEUMOGRAMS SHOWING EXPIRATORY ARREST DURING STATIC EFFORT 89 39. TONOGRAMS TAKEN DURING STATIC EFFORT .... 90 40. CHEIROGRAPH REGISTERING THE MUSCULAR CONTRACTION OF FINGERS 91 41. CHEIROGRAMS OF FATIGUE 92 42. GENERAL FORM OF CURVES OF ENDURANCE .... 95 43. POSITION OF ARMS ON LIFTING WHEELBARROW . . . . 100 44. TONOGRAMS OF FATIGUE ........ 102 45. AN APPRENTICE USING THE FILE-MEASUREMENT OF FATIGUE . 126 46. ECONOMIC ATTITUDE OF MAN FILING METAL .... 127 47. GRAPHIC RECORDS OF THE WORK OF AN APPRENTICE FILING METAL 129 48. A SOLDIER WORKING WITH THE SELF-REGISTERING JOINTING-PLANE 131 49. RECORDS MADE BY A JOINER'S APPRENTICE .... 132 50. STUDY OF WALKING UPON AN INCLINED PLANE . . .136 51. ENERGY PRODUCED AT VARIOUS PERIODS OF LIFE . . . 142 52. DIAGRAM OF ERGOMETRIC CYCLE ...... 147 53. RE-EDUCATION OF STUMPS ....... 149 54. THE CHEIROGRAPH ......... 152 55. BULB DYNAMOMETER. . . . . ... . . 154 56. TRACINGS MADE WITH THE BULB DYNAMOMETER. . . . 155 57. ELEVATION OF ARTHRODYNAMOMETER ..... 157 58. MANNER OF ADJUSTING THE ARTHRODYNAMOMETER . . . 157 59. ERECT POSITIONS OF THE BODY. ...... 161 60. THE FLEXED WALK 163 61. GYMNASTIC EXERCISES WITH DUMB-BELLS ..... 164 62. GYMNASTIC EXERCISES FOR INCREASING STRENGTH . . . 165 63. DIAGRAMMATIC EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS .... 170 64. THE STOCKING TRADE (18TH CENTURY) 187 65. WORKSHOP OF A NORMAN PIN-MAKER ..... 187 66. CINEMATOGRAPHIC PICTURES OF AN APPRENTICE FILING METAL . 195 67. TILLING THE SOIL IN THE 18TH CENTURY ..... 208 68. TYPES OF NORTH AFRICAN NATIVES ...... 217 69. A KABYLE, AS THE SUBJECT OF AN EXPERIMENT WITH THE ERGO- METRIC CYCLE 219 70. NORMAL CHEIROGRAMS OF THE FINGERS ..... 232 71. ADJUSTABLE PHYSIOLOGICAL CRUTCH ..... 233 72. INVESTIGATION OF FATIGUE IN A SUBJECT USING CRUTCHES. . 234 73. TRACINGS MADE BY AN INFIRM SUBJECT UNDERGOING RE-EDUCATION 235 74. THE SAME AT THE END OF A MONTH ..... 236 75. THE SAME AT THE END OF FIVE WEEKS ..... 237 76. WORK WITH THE FILE DONE BY A WOUNDED SOLDIER AT THE OUTSET OF HIS RE-EDUCATION ........ 238 77. RESULT OF THE RE-EDUCATION OF COMPLETE ANCHYLOSIS OF THE SHOULDER .......... 239 78. EARLY STAGES OF THE RE-EDUCATION OF A WOUNDED SOLDIER . 240 79. MEASURING THE POWER OF A STUMP (ARM) BY MEANS OF THE DYNAMOMETRICAL SPLINT ....... 244 80. MEASURING THE POWER OF A STUMP (LEG) BY MEANS OF THE DYNAMOMETRICAL SPLINT ....... 244 81. SENSORY EDUCATION OF A BLIND MAN WHO HAS SUFFERED DOUBLE AMPUTATION ..... . 249 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX FIG. PAGE 82. EXAMINATION OF THE ORGANIC CONDITION OF A WAR-CRIPPLE . 252 83. CARDIOGRAMS OF A WAR-CRIPPLE ...... 253 84. RESPIRATIONS WHILE RESTING, WHILE WORKING, AND AFTER WORK- ING, IN AN EMPHYSEMATIC SUBJECT ..... 254 85. " PESTLE " TYPE OF LEG, WITH LOCKING-JOINT .... 266 86. LEGS OF THE " PESTLE " TYPE 271 87. WOODEN LEG FOR CASES OF DISARTICULATION OF THE HIP . . 272 88. CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHIC PHASES OF WALKING . . . . 273 89. TESTING AN ARTIFICIAL LEG ON THE DYNAMOGRAPHIC GANGWAY . 276 90. DYNAMOGRAPHIC GANGWAY ....... 277 91. TRACINGS OF FOOTSTEPS MADE WITH THE DYNAMOGRAPHIC GANGWAY 277 92. ARTIFICIAL LEGS IN LEATHER ....... 279 93. MODELS OF ARTIFICIAL LEGS IN WOOD AND LEATHER . . . 281 94. AUTOMATIC KNEE-JOINT OF ARTIFICIAL LEG .... 282 95. TIBIAL MODEL, No. 1, OF ARTIFICIAL LEG .... 283 96. TIBIAL MODELS, Nos. 2 AND 3 283 97. WORKING ARM BEING TESTED ....... 285 98. AMAR'S WORKER'S ARM WITH PARADE HAND AND UNIVERSAL HOLDER 287 99. UNIVERSAL RING 289 100. WAISTCOATS FOR AMPUTATIONS LEAVING A SHORT STUMP OR NONE 290 101. WORKER'S TYPE OF FORE-ARM (AMAR) 292 102. LEVER FORE-ARM (AMAR) 294 103. MAGNETIC HAND 297 104. ARTICULATED HAND (CAUET TYPE, AMAR'S MODEL) . . . 298 105. MECHANICAL ARM FOR AN AMPUTATION OF THE FORE-ARM . . 299 106. MECHANICAL ARM FOR AMPUTATIONS OF THE UPPER ARM . . 300 107. MECHANICAL ARM FOR CASES OF DISARTICULATION OF THE SHOULDER 301 108. CRIPPLED TYPIST USING MECHANICAL ARM .... 302 109. CRIPPLED VIOLINIST FURNISHED WITH A MECHANICAL ARM. . 303 110. OFFICER PROVIDED WITH A MECHANICAL ARM .... 304 111. THE SAME OFFICER ON HORSEBACK ...... 305 112. SPLINT FOR RADIAL PARALYSIS ...... 307 113. THE SAME SUBJECT DOING OFFICE WORK ..... 308 114. IMPROVED APPLIANCE FOR THE CURE OF RADIAL PARALYSIS . 309 115. GRAPHS PRODUCED BY FILING METAL (ABLATION OF ULNA) . . 314 116. FILING METAL RECORD OF NORMAL WORKER .... 315 116A. FILING METAL RECORD OF AN INFIRM WORKER . . . 315 117. ANALYSIS OF WORK AND FATIGUE IN THE CASE OF AN ARMLESS WORKER 316 118. GRAPHS SHOWING IMPROVEMENT IN A SUBJECT WHO HAS SUFFERED AMPUTATION OF THE HUMERUS ...... 317 119. FORMING A LEFT-HANDED WORKER ...... 318 120. EDUCATION OF THE MOVEMENTS BY MEANS OF THE DYNAMOGRAPHIC HAMMER 319 121. TRACING OBTAINED WITH DYNAMOGRAPHIC HAMMER . . . 320 122. SELF-REGISTERING DYNAMOGRAPHIC HAMMER .... 321 123. ONE-ARMED MAN USING TICKET PUNCH ..... 325 124. CASE OF ABLATION OF THE FOUR FINGERS (CARPENTER) . . 327 125. THE SAME AT WORK, THANKS TO ARTIFICIAL FINGERS . . . 330 126. MARBLE CUTTER AND SCULPTOR PRACTISING THEIR CRAFTS AT HOME 332 b* XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 127. FITTER WORKING IN HIS EMPLOYER'S WORKSHOP . . . 333 128. FAULTY PROTHESIS 335 129. WORKSHOP FOR THE RE-APPRENTICESHIP OF WAR-CRIPPLES. . 337 130. ONE-ARMED MECHANIC MAKING A FORGING .... 344 131. WOUNDED SOLDIER WORKING THE JOINTING-PLANE . . . 345 132. ONE-ARMED WORKER CUTTING WOOD BY MEANS OF A RIP-SAW . 346 133. ACCOUNTANT. BOTH HIS FORE-ARMS HAVE BEEN AMPUTATED . 353 134. EMPLOYMENT OF THE AESTHESIOGRAPHIC TABLE IN THE CASE OF A BLIND CRIPPLE ........ 355 INTRODUCTION THE past few years must ever prove a period of absorbing interest to students of industrial problems. Old forces now first showed appreciable results ; new forces made themselves felt. Fear is felt by many for the years to come, and indeed there is sufficient cause, for dangers lie ahead. But there still exists a means of averting these dangers if we can see clearly enough to recognise it and do not put off action until it is too late. For many years knowledge has been growing, and it is in the application of this knowledge to-day that hope may lie. Engineers have done their best to improve plant, method, and machinery. Invention has followed invention, and automatic machinery has become well-nigh human. One unused to factories is tempted to ask, ' Where is man required ? ' On the human side progress has been slower. Nearly a hundred years ago the principle was stated that man himself is the most important instrument of industry, but hardly ever is he studied as machinery has been studied. Masters of the old school abhorred all thought of interference with their workmen, and workmen did not welcome interference. Now both are wiser. About fifty years ago, by an accident fortunate in its results, a young American, about to join his college, was prevented from continuing his studies and went to work instead. He liked the new conditions, and soon rose to a position of authority, but to his surprise was quite unable to obtain INTRODUCTION from those below him a satisfactory tale of work. Unlike many in his position he was unwilling to accept short measure, even where short measure was so common, but spent much time, energy, and money in seeking out the cause. Finally he found it, and by his methods proved it easy not only to obtain an output sufficient to satisfy his former requisition, but far more than this. From Taylor's methods developed later a system which has been widely used. It has been modified and extended, not only in the country of its birth, and through the work of Taylor's great successor, Gilbreth, but also in other countries and in other hands. It may be asked " Why, if so useful, is not Taylor's system universal ? " The answer is, " Partly because of early pre- judice, partly because of certain inherent difficulties." Prejudice was roused by some of those with whom the fate of Taylor's system rested. They lacked discretion, and their methods, introduced unwisely, were suspected, misunderstood, and rejected by the men. Had tact been used, and the workmen encouraged to understand the system, all would have been well. Difficulties arose from the small number of those acquainted with the system, and from the time, skill, and money needed for its installation. Those times have passed. The men themselves, conscious that high wages and much leisure go with Taylorism, often support it strongly, and, when war broke out, it was advanc- ing rapidly, not only in the factories of America and of Europe, but in those of Asia also. The system introduced by Taylor and since extended has done much to help the workman. It has given him high wages, short hours, surroundings the best that money can secure. INTRODUCTION XX111 For capital it has done no less, since by its means output has been raised, and working costs decreased. From the scientific side it may perhaps be criticised because, though dealing with complex problems of physiology, it is founded on trial and error, and concerns itself with results of immediate usefulness, rather than with experimental investigation of fundamental facts. For this reason it was not possible to formulate rules of general application for the conduct of industrial pro- cesses. Each occupation needed to be studied separately and apart from others. Thus much time was necessary, and to this need for time must be attributed the tardy introduction of Taylorism and scientific management into industry after the first prejudice had died. The matter now enters upon a new phase, and experiments on stricter lines are in progress. Thanks to the patience and ingenuity of the Gilbreths in America, measurements of time and space of greatest accuracy are constantly employed, and a knowledge of their value in this connection is extending to other countries. In England inquiries have been made into the influence of fatigue on labour, and into the conditions upon which fatigue depends, as well as into a great variety of the circumstances of industrial occupations. And funda- mental data are now being sought, applicable to all employ- ments, so that time may be economised. In France the direction taken was somewhat different, an attempt being made to scrutinise the results of Taylor's methods in the light of accurate measurements of push and pull, pressure and force required in various occupations, and to introduce improve- ments where need for these was shown. Thj happy facility which the French possess of devising instruments of greatest delicacy and of employing them to useful ends made this XXIV INTRODUCTION easy, and results of value were soon obtained. Especially is this true of M. Amar, appointed by the Minister of Labour to investigate the methods of Scientific Manage- ment and to adapt it to new needs and circumstances. Few physiologists had turned their attention to the organ- isation of labour, though the whole matter rests on physiology, and therefore it was expected that the methods of the physiological laboratory would prove most fruitful. The way in which those methods were employed is described by M. Amar so clearly and with such wealth of illustration in his book that it may be followed with ease not only by the expert but also by the ordinary reader. The book indeed is written to be understood by the people, and its appeal is largely to those unfamiliar with the difficult ways of science. But like all else the book is over-shadowed by the war, and its appeal to many will rest upon the fact that its reference is not solely to the normal individual, but also and in large measure to the crippled. In this direction M. Amar is a successful pioneer, and at a time when every endeavour is being made to help those disabled in the war, it is a matter of the highest interest to be assured that eighty per cent, of the victims of amputation should be found capable of re-education to such a pitch as to enable them to re-enter their former occupation, or another sufficiently like it to make their old experience useful, whilst even for the remainder there is hope of honourable independence. So great indeed will be the interest aroused by this particular aspect of the work that there is some probability of our for- getting that industry has her victims no less than war. Yet for the former, as for the latter, the methods of M. Amar are available, and should lead to results no less admirable. INTRODUCTION XXV These aspects of the subject are of great and compelling interest. There is yet another. It is that of reconstruction not of broken men, but of broken industries. The work carried out in America, in England, and in France must be relied upon as our chief security against industrial chaos. In it we possess a means of organising industry upon new lines so as to provide an increased output and lowered costs at the same time that shorter hours are worked, and leisure greater than even before is secured to the working man. Through lowered costs and increased output high wages may be main- tained ; more leisure should give rise to higher development amongst the workers. The author then appeals to us on three distinct accounts. He shows us, first, how those crippled in the war, and second, how those crippled in industry, may be restored to usefulness, and, further, he contributes to that knowledge upon which our hope of future prosperity depends. Bristol, 1918. A. F. STANLEY KENT. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION AND THE RE-EMPLOYMENT OF THE DISABLED THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION AND THE RE-EMPLOYMENT OF THE DISABLED CHAPTER I HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES I. On the 25th of January, 1829, when opening his course of lectures upon Geometry and Applied Mechanics, of which subjects he was the professor, at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, Baron Charles Dupin delivered the following remarks : " Men have concerned themselves very largely with per- fecting the machinery, the instruments, the material imple- ments, which the worker employs in the mechanical arts. But they have hardly ever concerned themselves with per- fecting the worker himself. Yet even if he should be regarded as an instrument, a tool, a source of motive power, he ought to be placed in the front rank of all instruments and all mechanical agents, because he possesses the inestimable advantage of being an instrument which watches and corrects itself, a motor which starts or stops itself, at the bidding of its own intelligence, and which perfects itself by means of thought no less than by means of labour." x 1 Charles Dupin (1784-1873), a French geometrician and economist of great originality. B 1 2 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION Dupin, as a matter of fact, in concert with Poncelet, 1 had lately entered upon an admirable campaign in favour of the diffusion of ideas of method, and of teaching the handicrafts in labour centres. He was also anxious that the theory of fatigue should be investigated, and that the worker should be protected from over-exertion. But the movement came to nothing ; firstly, on account of the chimerical and over- generous temper of which Dupin was accused, and secondly, because 1830 was approaching. Charles X. was solicited for his patronage, but he did not respond ; he had something better to do namely, to make his departure. Lastly, the theory of the transformation of energy was yet unborn ; the majority of scientists, if not all, accepted the doctrine of vital forces, which were supposed to be immaterial, and therefore beyond the scope of our methods of measurement. As for the workers of France, they were hardly aware either of their rights or of their duties ; extremely uneducated, they swept out the factories in which workers of a different nationality chiefly Englishmen provided the labour. And a French Minister, on visiting one of these establishments, merely wondered at the sight ; the contrast was obviously enough to shock his feelings. Despite this official indifference, Dupin and Poncelet succeeded in creating teaching centres of a modest kind, Tvhich very quickly became popular, in Paris, Metz, and Rochefort. Unfortunately, for lack of resources, and in the absence of experimental work, the science of human labour remained as backward as before ; the physiologists and economists seemed even to despair of such a science. Only in our own times, and above all since 1890, has it made its way, by triumphant stages, to those heights from which it now sheds so brilliant a radiance. It owes this success to two different methods : the method of the physicists, and that of the physiologists. We will consider these separately. 2 1 Jean-Victor Poncelet, a French mechanician and general, born at Metz in 1788, died 1867. 2 See, in La Technique Moderne, 1 May, 1914, an interesting historical sketch from the pen of Henri Verne. HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES 3 II. A. PHYSICAL RESEARCH. Familiar, from all times, with the arts and crafts, and almost the sole overseers of labour, the engineers were the first to investigate the subject of human labour. But even the ablest confined themselves to determining the maximum of effort or of pace ; more rarely they turned their attention to continuous and protracted action. These experiments, which were very incomplete, were, however, witnessed by the princes of the Court, especially during the reign of the Great Monarch. De La Hire (1640- 1718) and Amontons (1633-1703) made tentative experi- ments ; the Bernoulli! brothers, and at a later date Euler, endeavoured to determine the mathematical formula of the maximum of work. 1 In 1722 the Chevalier De Camus, a native of Lorraine, gave proof of a genuinely practical mind by writing his Treatise on Moving Forces, in plain and simple language, " for the use of working men." He defined the centre of gravity, demonstrating its importance in all our movements and attitudes, and in connection with fatigue. " When two men are carrying a burden," he explains, " the taller man is less heavily laden than the shorter, and the higher the tall man raises the load, the less heavily is he burdened, and the more heavily he burdens the short man " (p. 34). And so forth, in connection with various circumstances of manual labour. No book could have been better adapted to inculcate the husbanding of human energies, or to instruct the working- man, than the work of this worthy gentleman. Vauban, 2 in a little work entitled Le Directeur-general des fortifications, which was apparently published in the year 1680, gave information which had more experience behind it and was of wider range. It referred to earthworks, embank- ments, etc. (terrassements). I select from it this observation : I am confident," says Vauban, " that no one who has had 1 Jules Amar, Le Moteur Humain, p. 235. 2 Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707), Marshal of France, and an eminent engineer ; disgraced on account of his book, La Dime royale, in which he put forward a plea for equality of taxation. 4 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION a little experience in the control of labour can fail to agree that four men who are well supervised do more work than six men who are left to their own discretion." . . . And in 1729 Belidor, who was also a military engineer, declared : " Supervision costs less than the diminution of labour to which its absence gives rise." And elsewhere he says : " It is certain that ten hours' work from a man who has his own interest for foreman is worth at least fifteen hours from another whose daily wage is fixed. 1 To drive men further than this is to overstrain them, to risk their falling ill, or failing to hold out for any length of time." We hear the first lispings of the Contrat social when Belidor protests in favour of easier con- ditions of life for the workers, in view of " the dearness of victuals "- or the generous echoes of the great voice which fell silent after the Dime royale. This scientific courage struck the hour of awakening conscience. III. Coulomb We must go to Coulomb 2 for a really interesting description of fatigue, and of the estimation and comparison of the various forms of human labour. This physicist, the greatest of the eighteenth century, was sent to Martinique as an officer in the engineers. There he made the evaluations in question, dealing with workers paid by the piece. Thanks to skilful measurements in respect of the carrying of burdens, the working of cranks, winches, and pile-drivers, and the operations of husbandry, he was able to collect material for an admirable study of human energies his Memoire sur la force des hommes. Written in 1785, this memoir did not see the light until 1798, when M. de Coulomb had made way for " Citizen Coulomb, of the Institute." Let us select a few remarks of a general character : "It appears," says Coulomb, " that the method of dividing the labour of men who carry heavy burdens into brief intervals of action and repose is that which is best adapted to the animal economy, and that men prefer to walk quickly for a few moments, and then to rest completely for a few moments, 1 This proportion of 2 to 3 had already been given by Vauban. 2 Charles-Auguste de Coulomb (1736-1806), born at Angouleme. HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES O to covering the same distance in a time equal to these two intervals, at a slower but more continuous pace." And the amount of labour thus performed " varies according to ability, the selection of workers, food . . . and climate." These two last factors of the human output, food and climate, are here stated for the first time. They are essential physiological factors, and Coulomb adds a hint of a psychological order as to the method of investigation. " It is necessary," he says, " to observe a good workman, who is paid by the piece ; at the same time, he must not be aware that he is under observa- tion, lest this should affect his work for the time being." Up to the close of the nineteenth century no more important work than Coulomb's had appeared. His ideas were expressed in different forms ; men borrowed from his observations, and, above all, exaggerated their value, since they were, for the most part, based upon a single direct determination ; while in other instances Coulomb borrowed from his predecessors, with unfortunate results. But of late years the method of these old engineers has been elucidated by the brilliant research work, both practical and theoretical, of an American engineer, Frederic Taylor. IV. The Taylor System. -Taylor's principles of the organ- isation of labour assuredly constitute the most comprehensive system known to industry. They teach the sovereign power of mathematical certainties, of method, and of order, of which they are the pure expression. 1 Frederic Winslow Taylor (Fig. 1) was born in 1856, in German town, Pennsylvania, and died in Philadelphia on the 21st of March, 1915. From the position of a common porter, he gradually rose to the dignity of engineer, and then to that of factory manager. His persistent industry and his great technical and practical intelligence quickly caused him to be appreciated ; while his original work in the economic domain made him famous all the world over, and brought 1 See Le Moteur Humain, pp. 343, 496, et seq., and H. Le Chatelier in the Bsvue de Metallurgie, p. 185, April, 1915. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION him legitimate wealth. He was the first to succeed in organ- ising human labour in a rational and scientific manner. To attain this object, he entered upon two simultaneous undertakings : 1. Organisation of plant. First of all, it was necessary to constitute a highly per- ^^r fected plant or equipment, which should realise the form, the dimensions, the weight, and the quality cal- culated to result in speedy work. It was necessary to undertake the scientific investigation of this par- ticular point; but such investigations are almost always refused by the manufacturer, because they cost him money, and he does not perceive their immediate utility. Taylor managed to triumph over this reluct- ance, and was able to spend more than 40,000 in laboratory research, during a period of nearly twenty-five years (1880 to 1903) ; and assuredly time and money could not have been better employed. 2. Organisation of labour. It was then necessary to form a staff adapted to this technique and these conditions of speed ; a staff, consequently, of which each member was really in his right place, whether he gave orders or obeyed them ; and it was necessary to train this staff. This was a most difficult task, but Taylor's tenacity was victorious. As for instructions relating to the preparation and execu- tion of work, these were given in writing, on instruction cards, and the workers were taught to interpret them without hesitation. Above all, they were shown what movements. FIG. 1. F. W. Taylor (1856-1915). HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES 7 are required in the use of a given tool 01 a given process, and what movements should be dispensed with, as they are usually made without reflection, and are consequently without profit. Those movements which are useful should be performed in a minimum time, and other movements should be avoided. To satisfy this law of economy Taylor had to time the different actions and movements of the worker, retaining only those whose efficacy was not doubtful. And as all those enlisted by industry could not break themselves in to this mode of activity, Preparation Execution FIG. 2. Scheme of the Taylor System of Organisation. he retained only the more capable. So that timing and selec- tion are the two characteristics of the Taylor method. For example, the handling of a casting is in question. The time required for this operation will be analysed as follows : removing the casting from the ground or stack ; carrying the said burden ; placing the burden on the ground or depositing it upon a stack ; returning empty-handed. The analysis is made, as Coulomb advised (p. 111.), as a result of the examination of a capable and healthy worker, paid by the piece, who is taken as a model, and, to a certain extent, as a standard. 8 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The workers are then trained by instructors with a view to attaining the output of the model worker ; both the move- ments to be made and the safeguards against delay being recorded on the cards which are given to them. Apprentice- ship becomes rapid and methodical, and there is, in every workshop, an intense functional life, in which time is literally money. The connection of the various functions is pretty well symbolised by the chart here given (Fig. 2). It leaves no room for any cause of waste or delay. It reflects order and measurement. V. Advantages of the Taylor System. In foundries especi- ally these principles yielded surprising results. In a matter as simple as the removal of pigs of cast iron, the load trans- ported was increased to 47 tons per man per day, as against the usual 12 or 13 tons. That is, the useful effort of the worker was multiplied fourfold. But Taylorism has a character of universality; it can be applied to all branches of industry ; to industrial, agricultural, and commercial work ; a point upon which especial stress has been laid. Here is an illustrative anecdote : A disciple of Taylor, the engineer Frank Gilbreth, having visited the Anglo- Japanese Exhibition in London, saw there a young girl who was placing circulars in blacking-boxes with a wonderful and instinctive dexterity. He had no sooner considered her task than he began to note her movements and to time them. Forty seconds were needed to prepare twenty-four boxes. Gilbreth then informed the young woman that she was not going the quickest way to work. Very sure of her dexterity, she scoffed at him, but finally consented to omit the movements which he considered useless. As she was on piecework, she was tempted by the idea of increased wages. In a few days she succeeded in handling the twenty-four boxes, not in forty seconds, but in twenty-six. She admitted, moreover, that the work seemed less fatiguing. Little things teach important lessons. The American method, then, possesses an educative virtue ; HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES 9 it comprises incontestable scientific truths. It is, in a word, method ; that is to say, order and harmony. The worker who moves to the right and the left in search of his tools, who is forever coming and going, repeating the same process day by day, while his work awaits his con- venience; the manufacturer who refuses to introduce those changes in his staff and his plant which his works require : and the man who, in his office, is constantly mislaying his pen, or his notes, or a letter received ; are they not living examples of the rule-of-thumb and the lack of order which Taylor condemned ? Henceforth the uneconomical results of the ordinary clumsi- ness of human beings are plainly evident. Great and small may, in the light of this doctrine, follow a scientific discipline and enter upon the true apprenticeship, the apprenticeship to order. Beginners will not fatigue themselves in vain ; they will quickly become adroit and skilful in their craft. Any man engaged upon piecework, and anxious to increase his earnings, is thus won over to the method. To be sure, selec- tion can only be effected by means of elimination ; and manv workers who would like to adopt this or that calling find themselves ousted by men more capable than themselves. However, they are not necessarily reduced to poverty. As Taylor remarks and his words are even truer to-day " There is at present such a demand for labour that no work- ing-man is forced to be idle for more than a day or two; so that the less capable workers are not more unfortunate than before. Instead of pitying them we ought, on the contrary, to congratulate ourselves, and rejoice that a great number of valuable workers have at least the chance of earning high wages, and of progressing towards prosperity." VI. Criticisms of the Taylor System. Taylor's system of organisation, admirable as it is, lies open to certain criticisms which apply not to it alone, but to all the mechanical theories of human labour, whose elucidation we have postponed to the present moment. 1. The Taylor system lacks elasticity. An extremely strict 10 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION adaptation of the man to his task, and a differentiation of the various departments of labour, which is carried to great lengths, and is at the same time extremely definite, are justified in theory, but in practice they are impossible, if we reflect, on the one hand, that a more urgent demand is made of labour, and, on the other hand, that the latter tends to become less plentiful. We are therefore obliged, to some extent, to exercise less severity in selecting workers, and to compromise in the matter of quality which we require to be of a superior degree in order to obtain the desired quantity. We are not only obliged to do so ; we ought to relax the principles of the system, unless we wish to deny the fact of adaptability and the influence of the will. A given worker, who, during a first test, does not seem suitable as a Taylorian model or standard, will become so by force of application. In the province of art we might instance the case of the great Rachel, whose vocation would have been destroyed by the application of Taylorism. Vocation is precisely the word : the American principles discourage the fulfilment of a vocation, for the latter comprises a non-mechanical element which escapes calculation and prevision. In other words, a civilised man, even though imperfectly educated, possesses reserves of moral energy which may enable him to overcome many difficulties, and accelerate the process of shaping him as a worker. We cannot entirely disregard these reserves. The Taylor system, therefore, is wanting in elasticity; at all events, it should not be too rigidly framed. 2. The Taylor system is incomplete. Even if one were to form model workers in conformity with the rules of the Taylor system, a serious problem would still remain to be solved. The selection of workers and implements enables us only to improve technique and to increase production. But we are not told how the human organism is to be protected from overstrain, and what are actually the physiological conditions under which the best work is performed. Like La Hire, Amontons, and Coulomb, Taylor considered only a part of the human machine that which performs work ; in other HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES 11 words, the instrument. He neglected the other portion of the whole, from which the implement receives its motive force, and which, on this account, we will call the motor. The receiving instrument and the motor must not be separated when the productive value of the machine is under consideration ; and in the human worker especially they are inseparable. In him, above all, the output of the motor is considerably modified, if it is nourished with good fuel and punctually relieved of the waste products which clog it ; if it is worked at a given speed, and under a given load, rather than at other speeds and under other loads ; and if it is placed in an environment which, so far from impeding its functioning, tends, on the contrary, to favour it. The Taylor system is admirably devised for training the human implement to work rapidly, and at its best ; but it gives us no information relating to the motor, properly so called. The American engineer admits, for example, that he has observed signs of " very great fatigue," in the women who sort the balls for bicycle bearings. Forced to perform work very quickly, and with very great attention, these women are unable to adapt themselves to this kind of labour in a greater proportion than 35 out of 120. The rest have to relinquish it, or they are threatened with nervous exhaustion. The increasing part played in modern labour by this close attention, and by skill and dexterity, increases the exhaustion of the nervous centres, of cerebral energy, concerning which and it is the same, with muscular energy Taylor gives us no exact information. But his great experience of men enabled him to avoid many dangers. The result was certainly admirable, and it would inspire confidence if every engineer had an instinct equally sure. Observations as to the degree of fatigue produced, made at a glance, cannot replace objective tests and measurements, nor supply the place of the physio- logical conditions which ought to govern human activity. And of what value would such observations be to-day, in the case of the work performed by war-cripples ? The physio- logical limitation of great numbers of persons of this class, the necessity of utilising them in good earnest, and the social 12 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION problem created by their employment in industry, demand a completer system of scientific control, a system capable of analysing all the factors of human energy. For these reasons the American doctrine, despite its exact technique, illuminated by the radiance of mathematical research, is nevertheless incomplete, because, like the experi- ments of the older physicists, it does not take the physiological data into account, nor does it define the normal output of the human motor. VII. B. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. With better judgment than the mechanists, the physiologists turned their attention to the exchanges of energy of which the living organism is the theatre, whether during work or repose. In all forms of human activity there is a consumption, an expense of energy, which draws upon the reserves of our body-cells, at the expense of alimentation. This energy, the " vital forces " of the older writers, the physiologists are able to measure. A simple comparison will make this clear. The steam-engine, for example, develops power and heat by burning a combustible, oxydising it by means of the active gas of the atmosphere, oxygen. It is obvious that the expenditure of energy, instead of being estimated in terms of carbon, might just as well be expressed in litres of oxygen, the quantity of this gas being strictly proportional to the quantity of fuel which it transforms, with the evolution of heat and work. Similarly, we observe in the body of the animal a trans- formation of the food absorbed, by the action of the oxygen respired, together with the production of muscular and nervous work and heat. Skilful experimenters, such as Chaveau, in France, educed the positive proof that the animal is the theatre of the same operations as those which are effected in heat engines, although we then knew nothing of the nature of vital combustion. Energy, in its manifold aspects, originates in these extensive phenomena of oxidation : the energy of our muscles, visible HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES 13 and measurable ; the energy of thought, mysterious in its essence, and infinitely varied in its manifestations. This was verified in the magnificent laboratories which were established in Boston by the generosity of Mr. Carnegie. A calorimetric chamber, about 15ft. square, and of about the same height, is arranged for the reception of the human subject. The air supply is so devised that it can be analysed as it enters and as it leaves. FIG. 3. Calorimetric Chamber, Boston. It is even possible to measure, with great exactitude, the heat radiated by the body of the subject. The whole installa- tion, which was described in our volume, The Human Motor (Le Moteur humain, p. 199), cost more than 40,000 (Fig. 3). Experiments which were ably directed by Messrs. Atwater and Benedict proved that the quantity of oxygen consumed is strictly regulated by the amount of energy produced, the latter being measured in calories. 1 1 The large calorie is in this case the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 litre of pure water from to 1 Centigrade. To estimate the kilogram-metres of work in the same unit, divide the former by 426, there being an equivalence between 426 kilogram-metres of work and 1 calorie. 14 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION One litre of oxygen is equivalent to 4-9 calories : that is to say, the various foodstuffs burned by that amount of oxygen in the cells of the body develop as much heat as about two- thirds of a gramme of coal. Fats, sugars, and albumins are concentrated in the micro- scopic furnaces of the human machine, under the continual insufflation of oxygen, and liberate energy. Hence the heat which maintains the constant temperature of the body, a temperature of 98-4 Fahr. (almost exactly 37 Cent.), and muscular labour. We shall explain further on how it is possible to measure at any moment, every minute if desired, the consumption of respired oxygen, and to follow the varia- tions of energy which the organism displays under any different set of circumstances. Nothing could be more reliable or more practical than the method employed. On the other hand, physiology turns its attention to analys- ing the phenomena of fatigue, and the manner in which they affect the output of nervous and muscular energy, the functions of circulation and respiration, and the production of organic poisons, or auto-intoxication ; and it aims at defining the normal limits of this fatigue, in order that over-exertion may be avoided with certainty. We have here, therefore, a profounder and more exact science than the purely mechanical method. This explains why it was recommended in the dawn of energetics by the founders of that doctrine : Him, de Colmar, and Helmholtz (1848, 1854). VIII. Lavoisier. But it must be remembered that the most ingenious chemist of modern times, Lavoisier, 1 initiated the era of the measurements and investigations of which we are speaking (Fig. 4). He established the relation between the oxidation of the body and the production of " energies." With his collaborator Seguin as subject, he determined the quantities of oxygen respired, during repose and during labour. With his face covered by a " respirator mask," 1 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, born in Paris in 1743; died under the guillotine in 1794. HUMAN LABOUR ITS HISTORY AND ITS DOCTRINES 15 Seguin at first remained motionless ; then, for a quarter of an hour, he raised a weight attached to his feet (Fig. 5). FIG. 4. Lavoisier (1743-1794). From these observations Lavoisier drew the following important conclusions, which cannot too often be quoted : 10 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION " Observations of this class lead to the comparison of the action of forces between which there would seem to be no relation. One can discover, for example, the weight in pounds corresponding to the efforts of a man delivering a speech, or a musician playing an instrument. " One might even estimate the mechanical component (ce quil y a de mecanique) in the effort of the philosopher meditating, the man of letters writing, or the musician com- posing. These efforts, which are regarded as being purely FIG. 5. Lavoisier's experiment upon Seguin. mental, have in them something physical and material, which enables us, in this respect, to compare them with those of the labourer. So it is with a certain justice that the French language has confused, under the common denomination of travail (work, labour), the efforts of the mind with those of the body, the work of the office and the study with the work of the hired labourer." 1 These lines, written in 1789, contain the whole physiolog- ical doctrine, in its remotest applications. It will be seen how fertile it is ; it does not exclude mechanical measure- ment ; on the contrary, it includes it, as an element of a higher and completer truth : the evaluation of vital energy. Lavoisier, (Euvres completes, II., p. 688 (authorised edition). CHAPTER II THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN IX. The question of money is not the only matter in dispute between capital and labour. Human life must be safeguarded. In order to organise movement, bodily and mental, and to avoid, with certainty, irregularity and waste, it is there- fore essential to possess a knowledge of the laws of active life. These laws have acquired an even greater importance since the events of the war have extended the domain to which they are applicable. For humanity has been crushed and bruised ; its wounds are barely cicatrised ; mutilation has reduced the social value of millions of workers ; organic defects, which we must learn to detect, have been produced, and moral sufferings exist whose profound repercussions we must learn to understand. Let us get closer to the heart of the problem. The coming generations must be healthy and vigorous ; the activity of youth must be organised. The generations about to pass away must counsel youth, must guide it by the light of their experience and their virtues. The duty of science is therefore to investigate the best conditions of life and work. It is unhappily very true that the majority of our ills are caused by ignorance, and often by our weakness of will. The capital of our energies ought not to become exhausted until the remotest period of old age, if only we understood how to live in a temperate and orderly fashion. We shall do otherwise at our own cost. This is why a knowledge of the functions of the human organism is the preface to all physical culture, and to all discipline in labour. It is not a question of describing in detail the innumerable mechanisms of which 17 18 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION the organism is composed. The physician, like the engineer, has merely to understand the inter-relation of the physio- logical functions, and their co-ordination in that finer harmony which constitutes health. The normal state and the patho- logical condition ; the predispositions which exercise favours or aggravates ; the favourable and unfavourable indica- tions, and the conditions, of a rational activity these are the elements which I shall endeavour to assemble in this book. The principal functions include digestion, respiration, and circulation, which collaborate together in order to form reserves of energy ; movement, which expends and employs this energy ; and thought, which is a mode of movement, but invisible, and as yet unexplained. The solidarity or synergy of the whole finds its outlet in the production of energy. X. The Digestive Function. The digestive apparatus is represented by a group of organs (Fig. 6), which are repre- sented in diagrammatic form in Fig. 7. We see that apart from the duct known as the oesophagus, by means of which nutriment passes from the mouth to the stomach, through an average distance of some eight inches, the whole of the digestive organs occupy the lower portion of the trunk. They are divided from the upper portion, in which lie the heart and the lungs, by a thick, wide, muscular membrane, a sort of ceiling, called the diaphragm. The different portions of the digestive canal, apart from the oesophagus or gullet, are : the stomach, whose greater curvature rests upon the diaphragm on the left side, almost vertically beneath the heart, and which, when greatly dilated, may incommode the left lung, and react perceptibly on the central organ of the circulation ; the long canal of the small intestine, about 25 feet in length and 1-2 inches in diameter, divided into a short, narrow passage, the duodenum (about 5 inches in length), the jejunum, and the ileum; which Jatter portion opens into the large intestine by the ileocaecal valve. The large intestine encircles the smaller ; it is closed at its right-hand extremity by a small, slender appendix (the seat ce.s FIG. 6. Principal Organs of the Human Body. e, eye ; n, nose ; in, mouth ; ea, ear ; s.g., sub-maxillary gland ; I, larynx ; /.., jugular vein ; c.a.r., c.a.L, right and left hand carotid arteries ; s.c.a.r., s.c.n.L, right and left sub-clayian arteries; tr., tfacheal artery; br.c.t.. brachio-oephalic trunk; a, aorta; Th.c., thoracic cavity ; R 1., L.I., right and left lung ; H, heart ; L, liver ; 5, stomach ; Sp., spleen; D, diaphragm ; oes., oesophagus ; r, rib ; g.b., gall-bladder ; Co., colon; s.i., small intestine ; cae., caecum; app., appendix; bl., bladder; L.I., large intestine. 20 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION .Respiratory Tract Uvula - -~ Spinal Column Oesophagus of the well-known appendicitis) supposed by Metchnikofl * to be a useless organ, which will continue to atrophy until no trace of it remains, Nature suppressing everything that has not a deter- mined function, for she aims at economy of material. To the left the intestinal canal becomes al- most vertical and rectilinear, whence the name of rectum .Spleen given to this des- jL- Greater CurtU/na ceiicling portion, which finds its out- let in the anus. A wade mem- brane, consisting of two leaves or folds, one of which slides over the other, envelopes the whole digestive system ; this is the peritoneum. The movement of the stomach and the intestines occurs, therefore, without friction; it is free, but, except in cases of serious falls or violent efforts, it is controlled, and is safeguarded against shocks. The aliments absorbed make their way through a canal with muscular walls, tough and elastic, which are animated by progressive con- tractions which travel toward the anus. This peristalsis is very rapid during the act of swallowing ; it is slow in the stomach, where the food is allowed to remain for the necessary length of time ; it is more rapid in the small intestine, but occurs less frequently and with greater violence 1 The great Russian scientist, assistant-director of the Pasteur Institute, Paris (1845-1916). Pancreas lleum '- Rectum FIG. 7. Diagram of the Digestive System. THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 21 in the large intestine. By adding to the food a little sub- nitrate of bismuth the digestive canal may be rendered visible by means of the X-rays, when its movements may be studied by means of radio-chrono-photography l ; it is then seen that the passage of food through the oesophagus alone occupies six seconds, 2 but it remains in the gastro-intestinal organs for from one to several hours. During these different stages are effected the chemical operations of digestion, under the action of the juices secreted by the internal mucous membrane of the walls of the stomach and intestines, aided by the oscillatory movements of the organs themselves, and still more by the fluid secretions poured into them, in the region of the duodenum, by the special glands attached to the digestive canal : the liver, situated to the right of the stomach, furnishes the biliary secretion, a potent factor in the transformation of fats and in antitoxic processes ; while into the duodenum also, and at almost the same point, flows the pancreatic juice, whose chemical action upon alimentary substances is varied and energetic. It is enough to mention these products of the abdominal factory, together with the secretion of the salivary glands, to give an idea of the various stages and the total duration of the phenomenon of digestion. Nothing should disturb or impede the digestive process, either in its internal conditions, which are dependent upon the choice and the quantity of the foodstuffs taken, or in its external conditions, which are normally realised by protection against cold and fatigue. But an interesting discovery, due to the Bussian scientist Pavloff, throws upon this collection of facts the light of a doctrine which might almost be called philosophical. Pavloff states that the nature of the gastric juice is always adapted to the nature of the food to be digested. The mere sight of this food, or the imaginary conception of it, produces the same result, and 1 J. Carvallo, Archivio du Fisiologia (Compte rendu du Congres de Heidelberg 1907, Vol. V., p. 97, 1908). 2 Meltzer, Centralb f. Med. WissenscL, pp. 1-4, 1883. 22 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION the psychic secretion is more active and abundant than the secretion produced by the direct contact of the substance. The old saying as to food " making one's mouth water " is therefore not a nonsensical adage ; the entire culinary art, of sauces, and seasonings, and the preparation of food in general, tends to provoke these psychical interventions, which stimulate the appetite and facilitate the work of digestion. To eat one's food " too quickly to get the taste of it," is a fault which is known as tachyphagia. Our manifold occupa- tions have created it, to the detriment of our health. One should take one's time to masticate one's food and enjoy its flavour. It is time usefully employed. When the whole series of . phenomena which commence with the work of the teeth (mastication) and are terminated by the work of the intestines is completed, when all the useful and essential portion of the food taken has been extracted and the residue evacuated, a complex product is formed : the chyle, which has a milky appearance and contains most of the fatty material derived from the meal. Numbers of little suckers or filters, the villi and lacteals, pump it through the intestinal wall. They conduct it, through the thoracic duct, to the blood, which carries the fatty material to all parts of the body. The excess is stored up eventually in the cells of adi- pose tissue. Meanwhile, the saccharine and albuminous materials have been absorbed more directly into the blood in the intestinal wall, by which they are carried to the liver, the sugars being there deposited in the form of glycogen as a reserve of carbohydrate material. The albuminous materials now in the form of amino-acids are taken to the various cells of the body, and used in rebuilding their substance. The blood will carry off the products of combustion : urea, water, carbonic acid gas, and various more or less toxic bodies. These are carried in the blood to the kidneys, which separate some of them, and to the lungs, which expel the carbonic acid gas. The urine then fills the bladder, and is finally eliminated. We must avoid retarding the renal purification of the blood, for this cleanses the organism ; the use of fresh, THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 23 wholesome water as a beverage admirably fulfils this service. Neither must we embarrass the stomach by substances which it could not easily digest, or which irritate it. Let us beware of abusing the refined cookery to which our palates are accus- tomed ; let us protect the stomach against alcohol and spirit- uous liquors. Thus the normal cycle of the phenomena of digestion will be rendered possible. 1 XI. The Respiratory Function. We must now consider another cycle ; one which is almost invisible, but no less indispensable to life. This is the cycle of the atmospheric oxygen, a gas whose function it is to burn all combustible matters, and whose consumption in the heart of the body- cells is regulated by the supply of aliment. Oxygen exists in the air which we breathe in the proportion of 21 parts to 79 of nitrogen ; that is, it forms about one-fifth part of the volume of the air inbreathed. It enters the lungs by passing through the nasal cavity, the mouth, the pharynx, the larynx, the windpipe, and the bronchial tubes (Fig. 6) ; it is dis- tributed among an enormous number (about two thousand millions) of pulmonary vesicles, like so many microscopic pockets ; and in these it finds the fine ramifications of the blood-vessels. The membrane interposed between the blood and the air is no more than a hundredth part of a millimetre in thickness (1-2500 inch). The oxygen, by virtue of its proper tension, passes through the membrane and fixes itself in the blood, which thus becomes its universal vehicle, or, in the words of Claude Bernard, " its internal environment." Respiration effects the gaseous exchange by which the blood saturates itself with oxygen and rejects the carbonic acid gas derived from cellular combustion. It comprises the two phases of inspiration and expiration, which are manifested by the dilatation of the lungs and the whole thorax during a first period of time, and the cessation of this dilatation during the second period, which is usually longer than the first. 1 J. P. Pavloff, Le Travail des glandes digestives, passim ; Paris, 1901 ; A. F. Hornborg, Skand. Arch. f. physiol., Vol. XV., p. 209, 1904; this writer verifies Pavloff's laws relating to the digestive system of man. For details as to earth- eating tribes, see Le Moteur Humain, p. 180. 24 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION In order that the thoracic cavity may thus increase its volume, the diaphragm sinks downward, pressing on the stomach, and the ribs, rotating upon their articulations, are raised and expanded. The result is an increase of the vertical, lateral, and antero-posterior diameters of the thorax, due to the combined and regulated action of the respiratory muscles. The amplification due to the movements of the ribs is greater than that caused by the diaphragm, .the ratio being about two to one. This is particularly marked in women, partly on account of the organs of generation, and partly on account of the whims of fashion that is, corsets. In the female savage the movements of the diaphragm are much more extensive. At each inspiration the adult man draws half a litre of air (-88 of a pint) into his lungs, and he renews it, while at rest, some 15 or 16 times per minute. Thus at least ten cubic metres (more than two thousand gallons) of air are daily brought into contact with the blood in circula- tion. When continuous work is being done, whether in the performance of manual labour or in playing games, the consumption of oxygen and the activity of the entire respira- tory apparatus is increased, and the ventilation of the lungs attains the rate of 30 to 50 respirations per minute, displacing a volume of air two or three times as great as before. There is an excitation of the nervous centres of the spinal cord in the region of the medulla oblongata, due to the arrival of blood rich in carbon dioxide and oxygen intermixed. 1 Under these conditions of activity the thoracic movements and the pulmonary passages must be thoroughly free. Certain pathological conditions affect the muscles entrusted with these movements, or limit the capacity of the lungs (paralysis, pleurisy, pneumonia) ; they give rise to early or immediate fatigue. Tight clothing must be avoided, as well as faulty attitudes of the body. Such conditions as these produce a very irregular ventila- tion of the lungs during the performance of work ; the rhythm of respiration will be rapid, and the respiration itself will be superficial. In such a case the gaseous exchanges are in- 1 C. Foa, Archivio di Fisiologia, Vol. VI., p. 536, 1908-9. THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 25 sufficient : a condition known as dyspnoea. It occurs during violent exercise (bicycling, mountain-climbing), as the result of anaemia, or in an atmosphere poor in oxygen or rich in carbon dioxide. This last factor is one which should par- ticularly be avoided ; the dyspnoea due to carbonic acid gas is certain to occur if the proportion of gas rises to one-tenth of the volume of the air inbreathed. But its toxic effects are perceptible to the nerve-centres when the ratio is much smaller ; they are attributed, 1 but. I believe, without reliable proof, to the presence of traces of ammonia in the air expired, or even to certain alkaloid products. Biown-Sequard and d'Arsonval reported the presence of these products, which Weichardt and Strcede describe as kenotoxins. 2 Despite the investigations of these authorities, however, it must be admitted that in a confined environment, in which healthv persons remain for any length of time, the only factors to be regarded as dangerous are heat and humidity. This is proved by the fact that if, in such an environment, one breathes through a tube communicating with a dry, cool air-supply, one is none the less incommoded; while, on the other hand, if the imprisoned air be breathed through a tube by a person outside the chamber, he feels no inconvenience. 3 Hence it is an indispensable precaution to ventilate workshops, dwelling- houses, barracks, etc., and to ensure the passage of a current of fresh air through them. Respiration will then replenish the supply of oxygen to the circulation of the lungs and diminish the depressing effect of moist heat. XII. The Circulation. The blood is renewed in every part of the body, thanks to the movement impressed upon it by the heart, and its renewal maintains the vitality of the tissues. Every cubic millimetre of blood contains about 'Formanek, Arch. /. Hygiene, Vol. XXXVIII., p. 1, 1900; Gardenghi, Giornale d. R. Soc. Hal. d' Igiene, Vol. XXVI., 1904. 2 Brown-Sequard and d'Arsonva), Ccmptes rendus Acad. Sciences, Vol. CVL, pp. 106, 165; Vol. CVIIL, p. 267, 1888-9 ; Weichardt, Ueber Ermudungstcfte, 2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1912 ; Stroede, Zeitsch /. Schulgcs-und-heitspfle^e, Vol. XXVL, p. 735, 1913. 3 L. Hill and Flack, Bull. mens. office intern. Hyg. Pull. Vol. VII., p. 776, 1915. 26 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION FIG. 8. The Circulatory System. H, heart ; D, diaphragm ; a.r., a.L, right and left auricles ; V.r., right ventricle ; A, aorta : ('.a., carotid arteries ; ~s.c.a.r., right subclavian artery : r a., renal artery ; I. a., iliac arteries ; P.a., pulmonary artery ; s.v.c., in.v.c., superior and inferior venae cavae ; i.v., iliac veins; i./.r., e.j.v., internal and external jugular veins ; th.d., thoracic duct. THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 27 five millions of red corpuscles, albuminous and ferruginous elements, of which the base is haemoglobin, and we know that oxygen readily combines with this substance, which thus becomes a reserve of energy. From the lungs, where it is freed from its carbonic acid gas, and enriched with oxygen, the blood flows toward the left-hand side of the heart through the- pulmonary veins (Fig. 9), Pulmonary- Artery Pulmonary , l/eins Body FIG. 9. Diagram of the Circulatory System. where it fills the left auricle. But this contracts, driving it into the left ventricle, while the communicating valve, the mitral valve, closes. A powerful contraction of this left ventricle drives the blood into the great artery known as the aorta, with its numerous branches : carotids, jugulars, renal and iliac arteries, etc. (Fig. 8). This is the irrigating system by which all our organs, whether their output be physical force or thought, are replenished. The blood diffuses its nutritive principles through them, and carries off the waste 28 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION products of vital combustion. Being then vitiated, with its haemoglobin partially de-oxidised, the blood returns to the heart by the venae cauae. It is received by the right auricle, which immediately urges it into the right ventricle, and from this it proceeds to the lungs, for a fresh purification. There is therefore a third cycle, that of the blood, to add to the cycles of respiration and digestion. They ensure an incessant move- ment of material through the body, and parallel to this, a movement of energy. The normal condition requires that this stream of material shall be as pure and regular as possible ; that it shall make up for losses and re-establish the pitch or level. If this be so neither the mass nor the power of the human machine varies ; the man is in a state of equilibrium. The function of the heart is all-important in this process. By its contraction 01 systole it acts as a force-pump, and, between its contractions, it expands its cavities and sucks in the blood returning by way of the lungs or the venae cavae ; and this dilatation is known as the diastole. In one of its cycles it accomplishes a good portion of the profound scaveng- ing which the organism undergoes. The systole of the two auricles take place simultaneously, and so with the systole of the two ventricles, the latter being more marked and more protracted than the former. The phases of the cardiac cycle, as regards their duration, are much as follows : Auriculai systole .. .. 18 per cent. Ventriculai systole . . . . 45 per cent. General diastole . . . . 37 per cent. Complete cycle . . . . . . 100 [The ventricle is the more important partner in this associa- tion. When beating at seventy-two per minute, its rhythm may be expressed thus : Ventricular svstole . . 0-3 second ) ^ , T . . i- ; i n - j 0-8 second. Ventricular diastole . . O-o second ) Thus, in twenty-four hours the ventricle works for nine hours and rests for fifteen. If we remember that " work " in human occupations is not confined to the hours of labour, THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 29 but that energy must necessarily be expended also outside the factory gates, we see that Nature has arranged matters very much upon the principle of an eight hours working day. (Ed.)] It is the contraction of the ventricles which may be per- ceived by the touch, about the fifth intercostal space on the left-hand side ; this contraction constitutes the heart-impulse; it may even be seen, in thin subjects, raising the wall of the chest in the region indicated, usually beneath the nipple. The clinician, who observes the subject from the outside, simply notes that the duration of the heart-beat represents a third or a fourth of the total period ; so that the ratio of the general diastole to the systole is 1 : 2 or 1:3. Or we may write the formula = 2-50 approx. o This ratio is modified by fatigue ; it tends to diminish. The weight of an adult heart is about 250 grammes (-55 Ib. avoirdupois), and its rate of pulsation, during repose, is 65 to 70 per minute, a rate which increases progressively under the influence of muscular activity. The figure is 78 to 80 in women, and 80 to 90 in children. The movement which the contractions of the heart impart to the mass of the blood is propagated along the arteries, where it is revealed by a pulsation of the walls of these vessels. It thus produces the pulse. If an artery be slightly compressed against an adjacent bone the beats of the pulse become plainly perceptible. The pulse is particularly well defined in the radial, temporal, and femoral arteries ; it may be felt best of all in the first of these. The sounds produced by the heart are louder if the organ is hypertrophied, and weaker if it is the seat of degeneration. Auscultation also enables us, in cases of imperfect functioning of the valves, or valvular insufficiency (notably mitral in- sufficiency) to detect a murmur or souffle. The function of the blood is essentially vital. Anything that arrests or impedes its flow, any compression of the channels of circulation, diminishes the nervous and muscular 30 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION forces, and may, in a relatively short period of time, endanger life itself. An old experiment performed by Bishop Stenon l demon- strates this most important fact. He ligatured the great artery which supplies the hind legs of the dog. Hardly had a few minutes elapsed, when all power of locomotion dis- appeared ; the legs were rigid. The ligature was then removed, and the power of movement returned to the limbs. The nervous centres are even more sensitive to variations of the blood-supply. While compression of the fore-arm will leave the fingers active even after the lapse of half an hour, it is enough to press for 15 to 20 seconds on the carotid arteries which lead to the brain, and consciousness disappears. The state of the circulation should always be made the object of a serious examination, particularly with reference to violent exercise in youth, or work performed by men who have been mutilated, by accident, or war-wounds, or operation. XIII. Functions of Relation. Movement. But the highest function of man is movement. To be sure, the lower animals are similarly endowed with the power of movement ; indeed their movements display an incomparable agility and certainty. Still, their actions are purely instinctive ; I mean that the precision of these actions is complete or definitive. They are automatic, by virtue of heredity ; and as a rule they are not subject to improvement. Man, on the contrary, calculates his results ; he trains and disciplines his movements, harmonising them in view of an end which he understands ; he is conscious of it. In him consciousness is never completely absent, even in the case of movements which are apparently automatic, such as walking ; consciousness corrects these movements as required. The organs' of movement comprise the bones, which make up the skeleton, and the muscles, which are as a whole assembled in articulated systems, levers which accomplish all the motor actions of animal life. The energy which animates them is released by excitations 1 Nicolas Stenon, Danish anatomist, promoted to a bishopric (1631-1687). THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 31 of the nervous system, which, assisted by the senses, above all by the senses of sight and touch, co-ordinate and direct the muscular contractions. It must immediately be noted that the active organs are subject to a physiological law of the greatest importance, which I will call the law of functional hegemony. This ensures that every organ which is capable of contraction or of per- forming work may be the seat of nutritive and respiratory exchanges which are more intense than those occurring in any other part of the body. To the gland producing its secretion, the muscle contracting, the nerve-cell vibrating in response to sensation, an abundant flow sets in of the fluids of the organism, the blood and lymph ; the irrigation of contracted muscles, for example, increases to four or five times its normal volume ; through these organs, in the space of one minute, passes a weight of blood equal to about 85 per cent, of their own weight. 1 The nervous elements are stimu- lated, and produce the condition of tonicity. A silent labour is accomplished in the living cell or fibre, which makes possible, and develops, the function itself. This excess of life at one point leads to an abatement else- where ; it is, above all, between the digestive organs and the organs of movement that the law of functional hegemony establishes that inequality so necessary to the performance of physiological work. 9 XIV. The Osseous System . The skeleton constitutes the solid framework of the body ; the resistance of the bones is at least double that of pine-wood ; it increases until the threshold of old age is reached, but to a greater extent in man than in woman, for the bony tissue of the man is denser and his skeleton more massive. However, this resistance is modified by the mode of life and the kind of nutriment absorbed. Thus the bones of race-horses are denser than those of grass-fed horses. On the other hand, we encounter cases of a wholly peculiar and inherited fragility of the 1 Chauveau and Kaufmann, Comptes rendus Acad. Sciences, Vol. CIV., p. 1352. 1887. 32 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION ^ Frontal Malar Upper Maxillary Acromion -- Scapula--- . Parietal Temporal _ . Lower Maxillary ---Cervical Vertebra . . . Clavicle Sternum Humerus Olecranon -Ulna Radius Carpus -- Metacarpus Phalanges Femur Phalanges^ --- Tarsus Metatarsus FIG. 10. General PlarTof the Human Skeleton. skeleton ; this is known as osteopsathyrosis ; it is often betrayed by fractures of the femur and the humerus. 1 1 Davenport and Conard, Proceed. Nat. Acad. Sciences, Vol. I., p. 537, 1915; Washington, Hereditary Fragility of Bone (En}]. No. 14 of the Eugenics Record Office, 1915). THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 33 Lastly, certain affections have their seat in the bony sub- stance, whose solidity is thereby diminished. It is from the food, conveyed by the blood, that the skeleton derives its formative elements, of which by far the most important are phosphate and carbonate of lime. The absence of mineral salts from the food, or mineral inanition, results in the softening and malformation of the bones, modifies their structure, and, in early youth, retards the progress of ossifica- tion. 1 The proportion of phosphate is diminished by 25 to 30 per cent, in infantile osteomalacia, and even further in rickets. 2 Mineral inanition, if prolonged, is followed by serious nervous symptoms (Forster). The natural arrangement of the various component portions of the skeleton is represented in Fig. 10. The different portions of the skeleton are all articulated, or jointed ; the surfaces which come into contact in the articulations are covered with cartilage, a smooth, elastic substance which reduces friction ; the heads of the articulations are in many cases enclosed in a capsule which contains synovia, a viscous and alkaline fluid which lubricates the surfaces of the articula- tions (example, the knee). The system of articulations is so devised throughout as to lend itself to all the requirements of movement. XV. The Muscular System. It is the muscles, however, which finally determine the positions of the osseous elements, while their fleshy masses give the human body its true plastic form. Before all, the muscles are the agents of movement, the motive elements of the body. A muscle is a collection of elastic fibres, tightly enclosed within a thin, transparent envelope, and capable of pro- gressive contraction. To the two ends of the muscle adhere two strong, coherent laminae or thongs : the tendons. A iKonig. Landw. Jahrb., p. 421, 1874 ; H. Weiske, Zeit. /. Biol., Vol. VII., pp. 179 and 333; Vol. X.,p. 410, 1873-4 ;^T. Forster, ibid., Vol. XII., p. 464, 1875. 2 H. Brubacher, Zeit. f. Biol, Vol. XXVIIL, p. 517, 1890 ; Gallinard and Konig, C.B. Acad. Sc., Vol. CXL., p. 1,332, 1905. D 34 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION familiar example of these terminal attachments is the Achilles tendon ; it lies in the lower portion of the calf, and is affixed to the bone of the heel, or calcaneum. According to the portion of the body to be moved, and its organic adaptation, the muscles and tendons follow the same law of development as the skeleton, 1 and the osso- tendinous insertions acquire a remarkable strength, which renders possible the exertion of great muscular force. The varying forms and arrangements displayed by the muscles in the different parts of the body are shown in Fig. 11. Their action, which is always conjoined, results in the produc- tion either of sustained efforts, which do not involve movement, but may be called static, or, on the other hand, of more or less rapid movements, and the speedy performance of work. This will be more fully explained later on. The muscular system represents about 40 per cent, of the mass of the body, and it is in it that nutrition operates actively, with an intensity which is increased by work, and by external cold. One might almost say that it absorbs all the energy of the aliments consumed, and that the quantity of the latter should accordingly be regulated by the importance of the muscular system. Persons whose muscles are small, and persons suffering from obesity, have less occasion than others to consume large quantities of nutriment. XVI. The Nervous System. The co-ordination, which is almost invariably perfect, of the muscular contractions, is the work of the nervous system, the higher centres of which are the spinal cord, the bulb or medulla oblongata, the cerebellum and, most important of all, the brain proper. It fulfils its delicate functions in a wonderful manner, being at the same time a sensory system and a motor system, receiving sensations and sending forth orders relating to movement. The entire surface of the body, the skin, which is the seat of the sense of touch, the retina, which receives impressions of luminosity, the olfactory mucous membrane, which is the 1 See Le Moteur Humain for details of the very interesting influence of adapta- tion upon the organs of force and movement. THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 35 seat of the sense of smell, the mucous membrane of the tongue, in which the sense of taste is localised, and finally the Temporal - Massetei SpleniuS Sterno-deido mastoid Trapezius JnFraspinatus Rhomboideus - - | Latissimus dorsi Obliquus externus Abductor longus & Extensor brevis Extensor digiti Radial Extensors Ulnar Extensors Anconeus Su pin a tor Radii x Triceps brachih 'Pectoralis major ajor Intercostals *" Rectus Abdom inis -Tensor fasciae latae Rectus Femoris l/astus externus 1/astuS internu.$ Gracilis Semitendinosus ' Tibialis anticus Soleus Achilles tendon Extensor longt digitorum Malleolus- Calcaneum FIG. 11. General Arrangement of the Muscles of the Human Body. membrane of the inner ear, the cochlea, which vibrates under the impact of sound-waves, all receive from the nervous centres a number of sensitive fibres, which collect the multi- 36 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION tudinous impressions to which they are subject. These sensitive fibres exist even in the depth of the viscera (heart, stomach) and the muscles, and in the joints and tendons, and it is by their means that the brain receives uninterrupted messages as to the condition of the organism. Similarly, there are also motor fibres, which, in the mixed nerves, are associated with the first kind. These mixed nerves are in a great majority. The nervous element is known as a neuron : it is a cell with numerous prolongations, so constituted as to conduct a sensory impression or a motor impulse. Hence there are sensory neurons and motor neurons, consisting, probably, of fine granules bathed in a viscous matter, and set in motion by all manner of influences. 1 The neurons, whose termina- tions are in a relation of contiguity, form a chain known as a reflex arc, from that which receives the impression to that which reacts to a motor impulse. Let us consider the case of a person who unexpectedly touches a heated body ; the sensory filaments (Fig. 12), irritated by the scorching of the skin, transmit a special vibration to the motor neuron, which causes the muscle to contract. Thus, by an actual reflexion of the sensation produced in one nerve-cell, this sensation is followed by movement, the more swiftly as the sensation is keener and the reflex arc shorter. Generally speaking, nervous impulses are con- veyed at the rate of about 120 metres per second. We know, moreover, that these impulses display a preference for accus- tomed paths, as these offer them a minimum of resistance. Let us follow the progress of the nervous impulse set up by a burn, so that we may at the same time obtain some idea of the diversity of the mechanisms affected, and the marvellous manner in which their action is controlled. From the irritated skin the sensitive neuron conveys a special dolorific disturbance to the posterior horn of the spinal cord, and there the filaments of this neuron and those of the motor neuron in the anterior or ventral horn enter into a relation which results in a release of energy. In the diagram the spinal cord is supposed to 1 Marinesco, Comptes rendus Biologic, 8 January, 1915. THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 37 be bisected horizontally, in order to show the grey cellular region in which sensation, we know not how, is converted into an order to this or that muscle to contract. It seems admissible to us that all the neurons may vibrate in the same manner, having all the same histological and chemical character, and that their functions are sensory or motor according to the organs in which they terminate. Brain XVII. But what Thalam \ Corpora ' Striata Bulb or Medulla Qblongata .Spinal cord we particularly wish- ed to remark was that this spinal reflex arc is the shortest possible. It is not the only arc ; for the disturbance follows a fibre of the spinal cord ascending to- ward the brain, which, when it reaches the bulb or medulla oblongata, finds a number of further relations available. Here it may act upon a second neuron which proceeds directly to the brain, after an important relay in the optic thalami. The surface of the brain, or the cortex, as it is called, contains motor cells of a pyramidal form. One of these receives the vibration and communicates it to its fellows. After a series of trans- missions the disturbance attains a terminal centre in one of the striated bodies (corpora striatd), whence it returns to the bulb and the spinal column. The reflexion of the sensation therefore occurs in the Skin FIG. 12. Paths followed by Nerve-Impulses, and nervous Connections. 38 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION cerebral cortex, which is a sensory and motor zone, the seat of the general government of all the territories of the organism. The length of the reflex arc increases the time occupied by the reflexion. The voluntary, conscious action is therefore necessarily later in time than the involuntary, unconscious action of the withdrawal of the hand the moment it is burned. This latter movement is made, and the danger is averted : the act of will follows it ; but there is no need to repeat the movement of the hand ; the motor impulse is therefore checked, or inhibited, by an inhibitory cerebral neuron which intercepts it before it has passed the bulb or medulla oblongata (see dotted lines). The phenomenon of consciousness and will appears therefore to be a process of sensory synthesis, which rectifies, orders, and adapts. It is bound up with the very life of the nervous tissues, which are fed with a regular supply of blood, which brings with it the indispensable oxygen. The manifestations of the intellect are rudimentary at birth, owing to a lack of sensations. In the child there is little skill of movement, because the cerebral cortex has not as yet assembled and combined, by means of its associative neurons, a sufficiency of the elements of synthesis by means of which education progresses. We must also mention the cerebellum, which co-ordinates the attitudes of the body and ensures equilibrium. The cortical cells of the cerebellum (Purkinje's cells) are as important as the pyramidal cells of the brain ; they receive the tactile, auditive, and visual sensations, and react on the muscular system by bulbo-spinal and even cerebral messages. Thus the nervous system unites the surface of the body with a central axis which terminates in the mass of the brain. The connections of the neurons have often been compared to those of telegraph wires, which, starting from various points, report events, by successive relays, to a central office. The comparison is good, if we add that the messages received in this central office leave almost indelible records, for nervous tissue, more than any other living substance, retains a disposi- tion to reproduce its past life, to react in an identical manner under the same stimulus, and to prolong its vibratory conditions THE ORGANIC FUNCTIONS OF MAN 39 in time. This organic memory is the condition of the intellec- tual memory of which Shakespeare said that it was " the sentinel of the brain." Does it matter, .after this, whether we are or are not exactly informed as to the exact manner in which sensations are transmitted, or the nature of nervous energy, or the part played by this or that nerve in the sensory- motor cycle ? It is enough to know that this inner world of so-called psychical forces reproduces the outer world, with which it communicates by means of the senses, and that its manifold echoes resound to the appeal of this outer world. This correspondence will explain some of the facts of human psycho-physiology. 1 1 Concerning the relations of the brain and the psychic self, see E. Becher, Gehirn und Seek, Heidelberg, 1911. CHAPTER III HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY XVIII. The Development and the Endurance of the Body. The whole of the functions which we have been con- sidering develop fairly rapidly with age, and the endurance of the human body is at its maximum between 25 and 40 years. We find, in fact, that the skeleton completes the process of ossification and consolidation about the 20th year ; not before. Muscular energy increases along the lines of a curve which rises rapidly from the 16th year, attaining its highest point between the 20th and 21st years. We may then conclude that the architecture of the body is sufficiently robust to resist the ordinary efforts of life as it manifests itself in young people of that age. The height, together with the weight, has followed the same development, and, if the activities of the organism do not exceed the normal, the organs, internal and external, function without showing signs of overwork, so that a sort of physio- logical fitness, familiar to all, protects them from accidents and infectious germs. Under these conditions the develop- ment of the organism proceeds with moderate rapidity and in full security. From the 50th year the process is reversed ; there is a comparatively slow descent until the 60th year ; sometimes the process is hardly perceptible. Thus from the 20th to the 60th year man displays his maximum capacity for work and exercises all his faculties most fully, provided he is able to avoid excesses, and does not suffer from any predisposing taint (tuberculosis, syphilis, hereditary alcoholism). But 40 HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 41 about the fiftieth year "something like an ageing of the whole being occurs. . . . This crisis, which gives the observer the impression of a crisis of age, commences, most frequently, by digestive disturbances." x It also reveals itself by a general lassitude, a weakening of the will, and a retardation of the processes of nutrition. This critical age corresponds to a period of a few months at most, and leaves no lasting disturbance. Childhood also has its critical period : that of the anaemia of growth, which occurs between the 5th and 7th years ; 2 the body grows taller and thinner ; the blood is less rich ; the energies dim- inish. The child must be guarded against all excessive effort, in order that the organs may develop in a normal manner. Adolescence, which commences about the 16th year, and youth, which continues to the 40th year, form the age of power, bodily and mental ; they create the works which the virile age ripens and reinforces. Woman completes her develop- ment at an earlier age ; according to the climate, she attains the age of puberty between 13 and 15 years, while her height and her strength are fully developed by her 19th year. Her strength is half that of man, and it is not exerted so rapidly. At 50 years old age sets in with the menopause, the cessation of the menstrual function. One may therefore estimate the period of full physical activity to be 40 years in the case of the man, and 30 years in that of the woman. XIX. Psychical or Mental Activity. Psychical activity follows almost the same lines of development, except that it survives physical activity, and sometimes resists the effects of a very advanced age. Nervous excitability is greater in the child than in the adult ; childhood is the period of keen sensations and excess of movement ; the nervous system betrays its predominance over the other systems ; one sees its filaments under the skin ; the senses reach out for education ; experience is in process of formation, and the moment is propitious to impose selection and direction upon it. Intel- 1 M. de Fleury, Tribune medicale, p. 69 ; 1910. 2 L. Furst, Das Kind und seine Pflege, Leipzig, 1877 (2nd ed.). 42 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION lectual labour is for many years a work of absorption. At the age of 25 years in man, and 21 in woman, it is transformed into a work of restitution, which may reveal itself, between the ages of 40 and 50, by the loftiest creations of the mind. The creative faculty, which combines and co-ordinates sensations, is chiefly the appanage of man ; the other sex is characterised by the survival and reinforcement of those sensations which predispose it to create works of imagination or sentiment, rather than works which call for hard thinking and determined application. The same remarks apply to attention, which requires that certain sensations among all the sensations of our life shall by preference occupy the field of consciousness, and is therefore, by this fact alone, an attribute of the male organisation, which is characterised by motor impulses and will-power. The cerebral cortex, on which the entire muscula- ture is, so to speak, projected, and which, in man, fulfils the motor functions more fully, should provide the explanation of these sexual differences, in which some have wrongly per- ceived a difference of intellectual level. Mobius 1 has vigorously maintained this theory of feminine inferiority, which is, in his opinion, caused by the small mass of the brain, the keen sensibility of woman, and the close approxi- mation of her instincts to those of the animal. It is true that the cerebral mass of the male brain is larger than that of the female brain. Its weight is estimated at birth as 400 grammes, as against 380 grammes. 2 The schoolboy has a larger head than the schoolgirl, even at or about the age of 11, when girls are, generally, speaking, further developed than boys. 3 In the adult, the man's brain attains the average weight of 1,370 grammes, and the woman's brain the average weight of 1,223 grammes, and this difference of 147 grammes is observed in persons of the same weight but of opposite sex. 4 ' 1 Mobius, t)ber den physiol. Schwachsinn des Weibes; Halle, 1912. *E. Handmann, Arch. f. Anal. u. PJiys., Anat. Abt., p. 1, 1906. 3 Beyerthal, Jahrb. u. die Schiilarztliche Tdtigkeit an den Hilfsklassen Stadt. Volkschule in Worms, Schuljahr, 1904-5. Rose, Arch. /. Rassen u. Gesel. Biol, Vol. II., p. 689 ; Vol. III., p. 42, 1905-6. Felix Marchand, Biol. Centralblatt, Vol. XXII., p. 12, 1902. HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 43 But this is of no significance, for greater differences often occur between individuals of the same sex, which bear no rela- tion to the intellectual capacities. Precious ideas may exist in a small head, and the heaviest brain will not always prevent imbecility. Thus, despite the proofs which he strives to furnish of the inferiority of woman, and the ridicule which he throws upon " the unnatural effort of feminism," Mobius appears to me to be the victim of a confusion of ideas. There is not, between man and woman, a difference of degree in respect of cerebral power, or intellect, or the quantity of psychical energy pro- duced ; there is only a question of quality ; the modes of intellectual labour are not identical. In the case of the woman sensibility holds the first place ; it is imposed upon her by habit and by heredity. In man, on the contrary, abstract thought and reason come first ; and by virtue of this very quality of abstractness a comparative independence of the motor functions is established in respect of external actions ; and it is this independence which is expressed by the word will. Accordingly, the development of the mind takes place upon two frequently distinct planes. I readily admit that the feminists confuse the two planes, at all events physio- logically speaking. But " feminism " finds its profoundest justification in its social applications ; I mean, in life such as it has been made by the usages of the modern world, and its economic laws and conditions. To return to the human brain : it seems difficult to derive any information from its weight, its convolutions, and its archi- tecture. Neither does the examination of this organ enable us to form any conclusions as to race ; its average weight is the same in the Australians, the Hindus, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Malays as in the European. The brain of the negro, however, is less massive and less dense. 1 But there is no real relation between quantity and quality, between mechanical and psychical factors. Races, like individuals, 1 Kohlbrugge, Zeit. f. Morphol. u. Anthrop., Vol. XI., p. 596 ; Verhandl. d. konike Ak. v. Wetensch le Amsterdam, Vol. XV., p. 1, 1909. 44 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION and like the two sexes, do not reveal any visible cerebral index of intellectual inequality. XX. Old Age. The development of the functions modifies its pace during age, that is, from the fiftieth or sixtieth year, according to sex. All the organs tend to become atrophied ; the strength, weight, and height diminish ; the body, little by little, becomes emaciated and anaemic (senile anaemia). From the seventieth year these phenomena undergo acceleration ; the skeleton becomes fragile, and less dense, above all in the bones of the lower limbs (fragilitas vitred), which lose a portion of their calcareous constituents. These gradually calcify the vascular organs, rendering them less elastic ; arterio- sclerosis makes its appearance, with its formidable sequelae ; the circulation of the blood encounters an increased resistance, which causes a hypertrophy of the heart, and retards the nutritive exchanges. According to the dictum of Cazalis, " a man is as old as his arteries." l The action of the lungs is impeded, and becomes less elastic, while emphysema is often observed. Respiration is neither frequent nor profound ; there is a retardation of the vital processes. Those portions of the lung which lie between the heart and the wall of the chest lose their elasticity, so that the heart becomes united to this wall. " Without the existence of adhesions," says Pierre Delbet, " this cardio-thoracic soli- darity causes, in a certain sense, a functional symphysis." z Hence the shortness of breath which accompanies physical effort in the majority of men who have passed their fiftieth year. As for the locomotive organs, the muscles become pale and -emaciated ; the contractile tissue is less abundant, and its structure is impaired ; it no longer responds to its function, especially as the articulations themselves are stiff and painful. The entire nervous system, moreover, suffers depreciation ; the cell, the centre of energy, and the controller of action, 1 Consult Demange, Etude sur laveillesse ; Alcan, 1886 ; S. Minot, The Problem of Age, Growth, and Death, London, 1908 ; H. Ribbert, Der Tod aus alter schwiiche, Bonn, 1908 ; E. Metschnikoff, Essais optimistes, Paris, 1907. 2 Pierre Delbet, C.R., Vol. CLX., p. 402; 29 March, 1915. HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 45 is invaded by waste tissue which has no energetic properties. The brain is atrophied, notably in the frontal lobe ; this atrophy was observed by Hansemann * in the historian Momm- sen (86 years), the chemist Bunsen (88), and the painter Menzel (89) ; but it is barely perceptible in the cerebellum. 2 From this it results that the equilibrium of the body is main- tained, although the movements are more deliberate. The nervous energy is unequal to voluntary stimulation ; hence a sort of vacillation, the tremulousness of age, and the inability to sustain a great and prolonged physical effort. As for the cause, sole or multiple, natural or accidental, of age, it has formed the subject of a whole series of studies, the consideration of which would lie outside our programme.* But in a word we may say that old age is a phase not the termination of cellular transformation ; a phase which continues for a longer or shorter period, according to the quantity of toxic products resulting from organic life. Every- thing which diminishes this poisoning process, temperance in the matter of diet above all, must be regarded as a factor of longevity. XXI. Human Aptitudes. 1. Physical aptitudes. The general form of the body is, geometrically speaking, as little cumbersome as possible in the case of so complicated a machine. The trunk encloses the organs capable of maintaining move- ment, and of providing the muscles with energy. It is interest- ing to observe, in this connection, that persons of moderate stature are the most robust. If we compare the height when seated with the total stature, we obtain a thoracic coefficient of 0-54. This ratio is slightly lower 0-53 in tall persons, and in most women. A lower coefficient than 0-52 is the mark of a rather feeble constitution. The importance of the seated height is connected with the physiological function of the thorax, and the semi-fixity of its dimensions. It includes the 1 Hansemann, Bibliot. Med., Abhai-dl. II., Anat, part 5. . 2 A. Leri, Le Cerveau senile, Lille, 1906 ; Anglade and Calmettes, Nouv. Iconogr. de la Salpetriere, p. 357, 1907. 3 See A. Dastre, La Vie et la Mort, p. 314, Paris, 1907 ; Muhlmann, Das Alt. u. d. Physiol Tod, Jena, 1910 ; Metchnikoff, loc. cit. 46 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION axis of the body, the vertical column, from which the heart and the lungs are to a certain extent suspended. It is more fully developed in man than in woman ; for man, by reason of his greater muscular power, has need of an intense respira- tory activity, a great absorption of air ; while in woman there is a marked predominance of the vegetative functions. The average man weighs about 65 kilogrammes (10 stones 3 Ibs.) for a height of 165 centimetres (5ft. 5in.). I will give the name of morphological coefficient to the ratio between these two quantities, which is ^ = 0-394 ; it should not fall below 0-360, or the resistance of the organism may be com- promised. These two coefficients, the thoracic and the morphological, complete one another, and their indications are almost invariably in concordance. The human body spreads outward as do the columns observed in ancient monu- ments ; it is strongly reinforced in the region of the pelvis. According to the wisdom of the ancients, the strength of a man resided in his loins ; but an exaggerated development of the iliac bones hampers movement, giving rise to a rotatory gait. Thus nomadic, drifting peoples possess a comparatively narrow pelvis, while in the case of heavy-weight athletes the hips are wide and well provided with muscles. XXII. Dynamic activities (manual and other physical labour, sports, games, etc.) favour the growth or the refine- ment of the body ; market porters, waggoners, draymen, dock labourers, are often massively built ; dancers, runners, and fencers are slender, almost thin. The bearing of burdens, or, in cripples, the wearing of artificial limbs, in the long run modifies the form and the strength of the limbs ; walking eventually causes the foot to become permanently flatter and longer, while the hand is equally affected by the hand- ling of heavy tools (hammers, pick-axes, spades, etc.) ; the spinal column becomes curved by the bearing of burdens (as in peasants, porters, and occasionally infantrymen) ; under continuous pressure it undergoes a thickening which slightly reduces its length that is, the stature. Physical education, above all in childhood, should aim at a harmonious develop- HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 47 ment of the framework of the body, and at making it straight again should it become at all misshapen. The orthopaedic surgeon will take care that artificial appliances are perfectly adjusted, and that no friction occurs. Physically speaking, the proportions of the limbs are not without effect upon professional aptitudes ; long limbs are adapted to ample but deliberate movements, while short limbs denote rapidity of movement. Thus the woodcutter, the blacksmith, and the sawyer develop more power, and produce a greater effect, if the implement they wield has a long arm behind it. The formation of the body is often, in this con- nection, a guide to the choice of workers fitted for this or that form of labour ; but these indications are far from absolute in character, for adaptation is a factor of the greatest importance ; the fencer Kirschoffer did wonders in spite of his small stature, which placed him at a disadvantage and exhausted his strength. In general, however, men are organised and adapted to work in a certain fashion., for in this case their labour is more economical. They might be divided into types, according to the physiological function which they display most prom- inently, and which appears to control all the rest. One of these types is the digestive type ; men of this type eat very largely, and work slowly, but they can labour for long periods ; if they have well-proportioned limbs they may become good runners. The runners of the East, the rekkas, cover very great distances, with a long, rapid stride. Such men are capable of a great output when carrying small burdens for long periods (Fig. 13). A second type is the muscular type. Men of this category are capable of exerting great energy, though never for a very long time ; but the musculature of this type may be har- moniously developed upon a perfectly symmetrical body, constituting a perfect morphological expression. In such cases the man is powerful and supple, capable of continued activity : he represents the maximum of energy in the mini- mum of mass. The accomplished athlete provides an example of this type (Fig. 14). 48 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION A third type, described as respiratory, possesses the advan- tage of being capable of sustaining a comparatively great effort FIG. 13. Digestive Type (Thooris). FIG. 14. Muscular Type. for a long period ; the thoracic cage is preponderant, and the shoulders are largely developed (Fig. 15). Lastly, we must certainly distinguish a nervous type, which, owing to the celerity with which its muscles contract, works HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 49 with economy, is, by reason of this very speed, capable of exert- ing great effort, and, owing to its temperament, is able to resist the onslaughts of fatigue (Fig. 16). FIG. 15. Respiratory Type. FIG. 16. Cerebral or nervous Type. Sigaud, who has defined various types of humanity, espe- cially from the standpoint of morbid development, 1 has paid 1 C. Sigaud, Traite de la digestion, Vol. II., Paris, 1908; La Forme humaine, Vol. L, p. 32, 1914. 50 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION particular attention to the development of the nervous and cerebral systems, and calls our attention to the cerebral type (Fig. 16), which we should rather regard as the nervous type with psychical predominance. In Figs. 13 to 16 Thooris has collected representations of the four types which we have just described. These photographs are highly expressive ; but it should be added that they are selected ; that in reality the average man approximates to one of these types, without displaying very definite characteristics ; and, in a word, that we should not disregard the marvellous resources of equilibrium and training, which the organism is able to draw upon. " Practice can do anything," taught the Greek philosopher Periander, twenty-five centuries ago. It is none the less true that the distinctions between the four types are physiologically of the greatest interest, for they indicate the predominant organic function, and what the latter demands for its normal exercise. For example, to give a nervous type the same regimen as to labour and alimentation as the digestive type would be absurd ; the man would not put forth his maximum of useful effort, and his health might suffer from the experi- ment. The methods to be observed, in the matter of physical culture, will be different and appropriate lor each of these functional and energetic types. XXIII. 2. Psychical Aptitudes. Let us, on the other hand, consider the psychological qualities of the individual. These are the reflection of his physiological condition ; the problem has even been simplified to the extent of attributing them to a special structure of the brain. But very little survives of the speculations which substituted the cerebral cortex - for the cranial protuberances of the famous phrenologist Gall (1758-1828). To-day the sensori-motor surface of the brain has been sufficiently analysed by physiological experiment to enable us to deduce certain doctrines therefrom. To begin with, we may refer to that already formulated ( XVII.) : namely, that the cells of the grey cortical layer belong to sensory or motor neurons, or to the neurons of association ; certain among them are said to fulfil a function of inhibition, HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 51 and there are some which, being stimulated from without and under special conditions by a sound, a shock, or a light reinforce the motor reaction, and the exercise of muscular force. 1 Then it has been noted that the stimulation of the cortex produces movements exhibiting a character of order and co-ordination ; while the suppression of a portion of this cortex renders certain of these movements, and certain sensations, impossible. For example, a dog upon which this operation has been performed is able to walk and to leap, but he can no longer hold a bone and gnaw it. 2 This method of investigation has enabled the physiologists to distinguish cortical territories, and to determine actual ''cerebral localisations" 3 : that of the tactile sense, the most extensive, covering the Rolandic convolutions, with the ascending frontal and parietal convolutions ; that of the acoustic sense, situated in the temporal region ; that of the visual sense, situated in the occipital lobe ; and that of articu- late language, known as Broca's centre (1861), whose existence was too positively contested by Marie, 4 but was accepted by Marinesco, and which is supposed to occupy the third left- hand frontal convolution. The ablation of the parietal cortex of the dog deprives it of the ability to ascend or descend a staircase, or to " give its paw." Here we have the localisation of a function of association and co-ordination of the elementary mental processes. However, the frontal lobe, which by itself repre- sents a third part of the cerebral surface, and is bounded by the fissures of Rolando and Sylvius, is of greater import- ance. A lesion of this lobe, in the monkey 5 or in man, renders the character impulsive and violent. Its moderating action 1 This is the phenomenon of Bahnung, or the nervous acceleration of the German writers. (See Le Moteur Humain, p. 343.) 2 Ferrier, Les Fonctions du cerveau, Paris, 1878; Rosenfeld, Die Physiologic des Grosshirns, Leipzig, 1913. 3 J. Demoor, Les Centres sensitivo-moteurs, Brussells, 1899 ; Von Monakow, Neue Gesichtsp. in d. Frage nach d. LoTcal in Grossgehirn, Wiesbaden, 1911. * Marie, Semaine med., May, 1906 ; Marinesco, Rei: Gen. Sc., p. 826, 1910. 6 Bianchi, The Brain, Vol. XVIII., p. 497, 1895. 52 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION is obvious ; with it disappears the mechanism of the direction and control of the reflexes ; fewer neurons are brought into play, the conscience becomes enfeebled, and the duration of the reflexes is diminished by about one-fourth, owing to the lack of the internal activity which harmonises them. 1 Brod- mann, moreover, has noted, in the human brain, an exag- gerated development of the lower portion of the frontal lobe. Physiologists are therefore strongly inclined to see in this tract the localisation of psychical activity. 2 " Beat, friend, upon thy brow ; 'tis there that genius dwells," says the poet. But as a matter of fact, we cannot admit that the neurons of the frontal region possess more than a superior function of control and moderation, a function which is devel- oped by habit, which creates strength of will, coolness, and apparent moral insensibility. Certain writers attach no less importance to the parietal convolutions, because they are highly developed in the case of men of superior capacities (notably in Kant and Gauss), 3 and because they are greatly reduced in the case of uneducated and backward persons, and in negroes. Now this is not very decisive, for whereas Gauss's brain, for example, displayed a predominant frontal lobe, it was also discovered that it contained a profusion of fine con- volutions, which some regarded as indications of mathematical genius. So far we must admit that no certain information of the localisation of the psychical faculties has resulted from the study of the brain, still less from that of the skull. In Fig. 17 we give a diagram of cerebral localisations, in accordance with recent ideas. If the reader will remember that the nervous fibres of the spinal cord cross from side to side in the region of the bulb, he will understand the reason of the 1 Fano and Libertini, Arch. ital. Biol, Vol. XXIV., p. 438 ; Oddi, OK?,, Vol. XXIV, p. 360, 1895. 2 K. Brodmann, Vergl. Lokalizationslehred.Grossh., Leipzig, 1909; Verhandl. d. Anat. Gesellsch., April, 1912. 3 A German philosopher and a German mathematician. HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 53 correspondence between the left cerebral hemisphere and the right side of the body, and vice versa. XXIV. The Personal Equation. After all, the brain should be studied in connection with its physiological properties, and the nervous processes themselves. In this connection we know that reflexes do not occur with uniform rapidity in the case of every individual. The most rapid reflexes occupy four Head snd. Eyes 's Hands -. Hips Trunk Elbow -Face ' Tongue Larynx fissure Sylvius FIG. 17. Diagram of Cerebral Localisations. to five hundredths of a second ; but their duration is modified by age ; long in the new-born child, it is greatly diminished in the adult and as a result of practice. On the other hand, it is increased by certain lesions of the nervous centres, princi- pally those of the cortex. The name of personal equation has been given to the period of time which divides the moment at which we perceive a tactile, visual, or auditive sensation, and the moment when we react by a movement. Many phenomena occur between these two moments, which cannot IDC analysed in this brief survey of the dynamics of the nervous 54 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION system. We will simply remark that the normal adult possesses a personal equation, the values of which are as follows : Tactile reaction 0-14 of a second. Auditive reaction . . . . 0-15 Visual reaction . . . . 0-19 To measure it, we may conveniently employ the stimulation of light. An electric current illuminates an incandescent lamp, now red, now blue, and at the same time releases a Electric Bulbs '" Electric Tuning Fork S,S, Pneumatic Styles ^ j ( ' j am bours FIG. 18. Device for Measuring the Personal Equation. Desprez signal (Fig. 18). The subject perceives the sensation of colour, and reacts by pressing one finger on the red or the blue key, which actuates the diaphragm of a simple trans- mitting device. The time is recorded in hundredths of a second. The distance between the records traced by the Desprez signal and the styles of the transmitting tambours gives the duration of the reaction, which in this particular instance comprises an additional element, that of choice between the two finger-plates. 1 Observation has definitely demonstrated that there are persons whose equation is long, and others whose equation is 1 For other types of apparatus see Toulouse and Pieron, Technique de Psychologic cxpe'rimentale, Vol. II., 2nd ed. Paris, 1911. HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 55 short ; that is, they may be divided into quick and slow sub- jects. We have here an important qualificative classification, intrinsic in the individual, based upon his proper reactional condition, into which enter the effects of heredity and educa- tion. A man whose reactions are slow and whose sensations are not acute is not fitted to perform work demanding dexterity and attention. We shall see later on that the personal equation may be very simply determined (see LXVL). The voluntary movements, which are ordained directly by the brain, without external stimulation, are evidently more rapidly produced ; the equation may fall as low as -07 of a second. As for the purely intellectual qualities, they are the result of disciplined and methodical cerebral training, by instruction, superimposed upon hereditary influences. They are revealed more particularly by integrity of mind, judgement, and attention, which depend far more upon the will than upon sensitive- ness. An experience of men enables one to estimate, without any serious error, the degree of intelligence possessed by a man, or the balance of his mental powers. But it is highly desirable that these should be estimated on entering the school or the workshop ; that a sort of psychometric record should be kept, of a faithful and accurate character. Later on this would provide useful information, which could be supplemented by means of discreet and skilful inquiries made of friends and relatives. For to rely, when making a selection of persons, on the impression received upon seeing them, and hearing them speak, is to run the risk of serious errors. Very often the appearance of a man tells nothing, and the subject of conversation, and the circumstances, are unfavourable to any display of his qualities. In matters of knowledge and behaviour, and of physical and intellectual capacity, long and methodical experience must be the only guide. 1 Neither must it be forgotten that the psychical qualities are for the most part hereditary, and are transmitted, as are physiological defects and mental weaknesses, through several generations. It is the same with the intellectual habits 1 In this connection see Mrs. Gilbreth, The Psycholcgy of Management, New York, 1914 (Sturgis and Walton). 56 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION acquired by exercise. Humphrey Davy observed that this was the reason why Moses forbade the Hebrews to wed with idolaters. 1 It is a reason which loses none of its force when applied to the conditions of civilisation and culture. And all these elements, physiological and psychological, which we have considered in isolated groups, must in reality be grouped in the light of their mutual relations, which are not merely parallel, but intimate and profound. These psycho- physiological relations are of interest to the employer, the factory manager, the physician, and the legislator. XXV. Psycho -physiological Relations. Pleasure. We have stated that every external impression is the origin of a sensation. This sensation may remain latent, being neutralised by others, and may later on release a reflex ; it is none the less true that there is a diminution or augmentation of nervous energy at the point which Jias been affected. Sensation may, and frequently does, give rise to manifest emotional activities, to pain or pleasure. 2 We are all familiar with instances of repressed emotion ; and men have been known to fall dead of a " broken heart," although there was nothing to betray their increasing grief. The neutralisa- tion of the emotions is a function of the cerebral cortex, acting through the optic thalami or the bulb (see Fig. 12) ; but it is dependent upon the sound condition of the digestive organs and the heart, which are innervated by these centres. 3 Above all, we must not lose sight of the fact that repressed emotions may in a greater or less degree modify the neuro-muscular energy. In any case they reveal a trained will. But the absence of visible indications of reflexes is sometimes connected with a condition of intellectual decay. In such cases it is necessary to make sure, by means of a cautious analysis, whether the emotive system is intact. In this connection excess is preferable to deficiency, for it must be 1 Humphrey Davy, The Last Days of a Philosopher. 2 See Bechterev, Psychologic objective, Paris, Alcan, 1914. "Brhsaud, Lecons a la Salpetriere, Vol. I., .Paris, 1895 ; Bechterev and Mislavsky, Soc. neurol et Psych., Kazan, 1893. HUMAN PSYCHO PHYSIOLOGY 57 remembered that the intelligence is directly dependent upon sensibility. The man who is experiencing an emotion behaves differently, accordingly as it is a cheerful or a depressing emotion. The emotions of pleasure and joy increase the tonicity of the voluntary muscles, and incline them to effort ; they exert an inhibitive effect upon painful sensations, and, to a certain extent, cause fatigue to be overlooked. These facts have been known from antiquity : Molliter austerum studio fallente laborem (Horace). The respiration becomes accelerated, and maintains the energies ; the heart increases the amplitude of its beats, and the circulation of the blood is stimulated on the surface ; there is a cutaneous vaso-dilatation. Everything which may contribute to these phenomena of nervous and cardiac tonicity should be regarded as desirable : rewards, prizes, com- petitions, decorations, and moral advantages ; they are not unwelcome at any age; it is a matter of receiving one's deserts, which we are naturally inclined to make manifest. Sports and amusements act as veritable tonics when they are employed without excess ; they are as necessary to the workshop as to the school ; a recreation-room or a playground is a factor of good work, the cost of which is negligible in view of its utility. Not only does the degree of pleasure merit attention, but also its selection and its appropriation, having regard to age, sex, habits, and degrees of intelligence. Sensations of a joyful nature do more than stimulate activity, they favour the vital processes ; they facilitate the digestion of food, and add to the abundance and efficacy of the digestive secretions. Moreover, in the cycle of organic repair we find that cellular renovation is more rapidly effected. Soldiers who have performed some distinguished action recover quickly from their wounds. " Joyous men," said old Pare, 1 " always recover." XXVI. Pain. The phenomena due to grief and pain are absolutely the reverse of those we have been considering. 1 Ambroise Pare, the great French surgeon, born at Laval (1517-1590). 58 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION They are characterised by a disturbance of the muscular inner- vation, an inhibition which makes one feel " as if one's arms and legs were broken." The respiration is embarrassed, dyspnoeic ; the movements of the heart are of reduced amplitude ; the cutaneous circulation is scanty ; there is a peripheral vaso- constriction. The cardiac manifestations are strongly marked, and often serious ; notably in cases of fear and anger. The surgeon Desault, during the Revolution, observed that affections of the heart and aneurisms were far more common during that terrible period. The number of aged persons who have died during the present war is very great. This may in part be explained by the narration of the atrocities committed, and the unheard-of employment of new weapons of warfare : aero- planes, dirigibles, incendiary bombs, submarines, asphyxiating gases, etc. Violent emotions cause a powerful excitation of the bulb, and give rise either to palpitations or to syncope, with all its consequences. For in the bulb originates one of the most important nerves of the organism : the vagus or pneumogastric nerve, whose branches are distributed over the head and neck, and through the thorax and the abdomen. It arrests the heart, which is completely filled with blood, in the diastolic phase. By this a blow is immediately struck at the vitality of the brain ; the consciousness disappears ; the organs become insensible, and the muscles relax. Cardiac syncope is thus complicated by cerebral anaemia and physical depres- sion. Having regard to the importance of the circulation of blood through the tissues it will be understood that any cause which impedes it compromises human life and energy. The relation between the heart and the brain is clearly established, and it is the most active and essential relation of the organism. It plays its part in anger, as in discouragement and fear, engender- ing disorders of locomotion, lack of co-ordination in the movements, and, in some cases, an actual paralysis of the limbs ; it exerts an inhibitory effect upon the glandular and digestive secretions, but favours the secretion of tears, and HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 59 also increases the peristaltic movements of the intestines and the contractions of the bladder. Experiment has demon- strated that such emotions excite the Rolandic area of the cerebral cortex. 1 Boredom, ennui, mental discontent, should also be included in the category of painful sensations. It diminishes the tonicity of the muscles, which contract less swiftly and with less amplitude, and develop less power. 2 It causes a slight anaemia of the brain, which renders the latter incapable of good and regular work ; finally, it dilates the blood-vessels, producing a condition of stasis in the latter, which is revealed by a tendency to yawn. An agreeable emotion will immedi- ately abolish these disagreeable phenomena. As for pain, it has no effect upon the brain excepting through the relation between the brain and the heart, for the organ of thought is in itself not subject to pain ; one may touch the brain or press the heart when these organs are uncovered, but there will be no perception of pain. Once again, poetry is in the wrong. But the enveloping membranes of the brain, above all the dura mater, may become painful ; it is only these tissues which are affected by disagreeable sensations, the result being headache. 3 But pure mental pain is the work of the imagination ; it draws its sustenance from the seat of the memory, and arouses all the echoes of the past. One might almost say, with Richet, that it is " a function of the intelli- gence," 4 for it is less keen in simple-minded persons, and does not persist, does not " keep vigil " ; it is almost unknown in idiots, lunatics, and the feeble-minded. Physical or psychical pain is in proportion to our sensibility, to the delicacy of our senses, to the intensity of excitation ; 1 Bechterev and Mislavsky, Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol, Suppl. p. 243, 1889 ; ]>. 380, 1891. Bochefontaine, .4rc/L de Physiol, pp. 140-172, 1876. Bechterev,. Die functionen d. Nerrencenlra, Jena, 1908-11. 2 W. C. Lombard, Journ. of Physiol., Vol. XIII., p. 1, 1892 ; Jules Amar, Le Moteur Humain, p. 294 . 3 Lennander, Mitteilungen aus d. Grcnzgeb. d. Med. u. Chir., Vol. X., pp. 38-104 and 164-202; Vol. XIII., pp. 303-372; 1902 and 1904. *Ch. Richet, article on Douleur, in the Dictionn. de Physiol., Vol. V.,p. 173. 60 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION habit lessens its effects. The child who is accustomed to having blows rained upon him, the pupil or apprentice who is constantly subjected to abuse and insult, no longer feels more than an indifferent amount of pain. The nervous element whose energy has been exhausted by pain finds it difficult to recover its power of reaction, its irritability, especially if it has been overcharged by very powerful and painful excitation. The domain of pain is the most extensive of all because it embraces the entire tactile area. And it is no less extensive in time, for pain survives in the consciousness by means of a sort of vibration which becomes damped but slowly, and on the first opportunity its amplitude is again increased. This survival makes pain a vigilant guide, enabling us to avoid evil in all its aspects ; it makes it a factor of teaching and discipline. " Painful emotions," writes Ch. Richet (loc. cit., p. 191), " move us profoundly, remaining fixed in the memory, when they direct our conduct. The whole intellectual, moral, and social develop- ment of humanity is the result of painful emotion which has to be avoided. The knowledge of things interests us only because it constitutes a means of fighting pain more effectually. Bloodless science does not stir us ; it is not a guide ; it is not a motive of action ; while pain is the great motive force of the life of sentient beings." It is plain, however, that in order to be salutary, " in order to be the mainspring of our actions " (Voltaire), pain must respect the order and integrity of the economy ; it must not give rise to any profound disturbance ; it must threaten, without irremediably injuring. Only then does it become a factor of energy. XXVII. The Psycho -physical Law. But that which in any sensation dominates our faculty of perception, whether the sensation be tactile, sonorous, or visual, is the degree of that sensation ; in other words, it is the relation which our consciousness has to establish between the sensation and the excitation which has given rise to it. Everyday experience teaches us that one person will appre- ciate a minimum difference of weight better than another ; but HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 61 that the same difference may be unperceived when the weight itself is increased. F. Weber noted that in order to be definitely perceptible the difference between the two weights should represent a constant fraction, equal to l-17th of either of them. 1 But this is not correct ; the difference need not be increased as rapidly as the weights ; in other words, the intensity of sensa- tion progresses less rapidly than the intensity of stimulation, the curve of sensation lying always beneath the curve of stimula- tion. This mode of progression is known as logarithmic ; it was recognised by Jacques Bernouilli, and more clearly defined by Laplace, 2 in connection with the mental good experienced when there has been an increase of material good. Various writers have observed that this is, in general, the relation which exists between sensations and stimulations. For example, according to Nicati 3 sensations of luminosity are in a logarithmic relation to the intensity of the visible sources of light. But as a matter of fact the psycho-physical law is correct only within very narrow limits as regards the intensity of excitation, and Fechner was wrong doubly wrong in calling it a " formula of psychological measurement," and in allowing it to be described as " Fechner' s Law," 4 for it is devoid of real theoretical or practical value. " It will remain," in the words of James, " like a fossil in the history of psychology." 5 Yet there is, there must be, a law of this kind ; but it must be more complex, and time should figure in it, for sensation depends at once upon the intensity and the duration of the excitation. By virtue of its very nature it is perfectible, in the sense that an individual constant must be introduced into the expression of this psycho-physical law. We shall not attempt, 1 E. Weber, Wagner's Handwort., Vol. III., 2nd part, p. 481, 1846. 2 Jacques Bernouilli, Ars Conjectandi, French trans, by Vastel, p. 61 ; Paris, 1801; Laplace, (Euvres (authorized ed.), Vol. VII., p. 441, 1829. 3 Nicati, La psychologic naturelle, pp. 165, 225, Paris, 1898. 4 Fechner, Elemente der Psychophysik, Leipzig, 1800. 5 W. James, Principles of Psychology, Vol. I., p. 549, 1901. 62 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION in a volume dealing with the elements of our subject, to go deeply into a particularly difficult problem of a mathematical nature. XXVIII. Conclusion. We may conclude, in a general manner, that the body and the mind, in their development, are obedient, on the one hand, to inevitable hereditary influ- ences ; those influences of which we might say, in the words of the old French proverb, Chassez le nature!, il revient au galop. And again, on the other hand, they are subject to the environ- ment, both physical and social. By this latter I mean the complex of ideas, sentiments, and aspirations, of a more or less confused nature, which shape humanity. Our evolution may thus undergo improvements, and may tend toward perfection. This is precisely where education comes in, a methodical educa- tion which adapts its effects to the age and the constitution of the individual ; which works without interruption, but without forcing the pace ; whose principles are those of a healthy culture, not those of cramming or over-loading. What could be more criminal than to make learned men or scholars of fifteen years ! Or to entrust difficult and protracted tasks to children who have not yet completed their eighteenth year ! Science denies the value of these intemperate methods, these abuses, which would pave the way, did not the legislator take serious precautions, for mis-shapen, sickly races, and a stunted humanity. If, on the contrary, the normal development of the human personality is realised by effective means, all the aptitudes dis- play themselves, and unfold completely and sanely. Then each individual reveals his special capacities, whether for specula- tive science or for art. Industry, which should assign the man to the task which suits him, in which he will turn all his talents to account, will quickly accomplish its work of selection. And the same in all the trades or professions, which are nowadays so numerous ; a judicious examination, a fair and unerring investigation, will make it possible to apportion the work of society, the task of eternal progress, among those whose competence is recognised. It is a matter of putting the right HUMAN PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY 63 man in the right place. The classification of men is not the same thing as their subordination ; every man who knows a trade and follows it conscientiously ought to be proud of it ; the task of the labourer is one with the work of the engineer. I will even go to the length of claiming, with Voltaire, that *' the man who devised the shuttle had the best of it, with a vengeance, over the man who conceived the doctrine of innate ideas." And lastly, it would be merely justice to take moral worth into account ; it is one of the levers of prosperity ; it is, in every way, the best safeguard against the temptations among which the mind may suffer shipwreck. The idea of duty and responsibility is readily acquired when it is taught from early youth, and represented by the examples of home life. It is thus above all an attribute of the family, and, in the long run, a hereditary virtue. It appears to me that morality is more highly developed, at all events in France, in the lower strata of society ; it would attain an even higher development could poverty be diminished. The man of the people possesses frankness and sincerity in a greater degree than the educated and refined member of society, for he has not learned the art of disguising his thought ; he speaks and acts naturally, and nature never deceives. To the German physician Mobius, whose theory of the intellectual superiority of the male has already been men- tioned (p. 42), the moral equality of the two sexes does not appear to admit of any doubt. I think I have given the strongest reasons for disallowing the former claim ; but as for the latter, I will say, with the ancient philosopher : " Let us not venture to discuss this problem, for it would be an offence to the Divinity." Let us only beware lest we stifle, by means of injustice and abuses, the flower of the morality of our race. Let us do our utmost to encourage those who combine unfailing honesty with sound judgement, for they are the guardians of the treasure of civilisation. CHAPTER IV WORK AND FATIGUE XXIX. It has already been explained that the human machine is subject, as far as its motive force is concerned, to the same laws as inanimate motors. In its cells it possesses innumerable silent furnaces ; it feeds itself with fuel and oxygen ; it derives, from the chemical energy of the nutriment absorbed; both heat and work ; it charges the muscles and makes them ready to contract, thereby actuating the imple- ments represented by the robust limbs of the working-man, the skilful members of the artist, or the agile digits of the typist, the author, the pianist, or the seamstress. So much for the energy available. How does it act ? And how measure it, how discipline it, how use it with care and economy ? This is what we shall now briefly consider. A. MUSCULAR ACTIVITY. If we had not, in the magnitude of the respiratory exchanges, the true expression of all muscular activity, we could form only an approximate idea of it, for static efforts are not the same thing as work performed, and cannot be measured, yet they affect the resistance of the organism, and produce fatigue. It fatigues a man merely to remain standing all day, overseeing a workshop, even though he does not move a step. This form of activity is the least useful. Usually activity involves movement, walking, running, or work x done upon various implements, and the expenditure of both physical and intellectual energy. 1 Work done is of course expressed in terms of the effort or force exerted,, multiplied by the distance over which it is exerted. Thus, when water is drawn from a well, the factors of the work done are the effort exerted on the rope and the depth of the well. (54 WORK AND FATIGUE 65 Our limbs or our bodies move, actuated by muscular con- traction. When a limb moves away from the body its move- ment is a movement of abduction, and when it draws nearer to the body its movement is a movement of adduction. Its ventral position (the fore-arm outstretched, with the palm of the hand turned downward) represents the movement of pronation ; the contrary or dorsal position represents the movement of supination. Not only does it assume a variety of positions, but the same limb will involve, according to circumstances, the contraction of different muscles, which combine and harmonise their effects. One supposes, for example, that the muscles of the upper arm actuate the fore-arm. But the muscles of the shoulder help to do so more effectually, the former acting upon the elbow when an effort of simple traction by the hands is intended. The highly flexible articulation of the wrist is hardly subjected to any effort ; it is very delicate, moreover, and better adapted to perform quick movements than forcible ones. To the action of the muscles which produce the movement is added that of their antagonists, as in the case of the flexor and extensor muscles ; and it is thanks to a combination of muscular efforts that we are able to move a limb in the direc- tion and with the degree of celerity desired. It would not, therefore, be sufficient, did we wish to estimate the muscular work performed in flexing the fore-arm, to know the force exerted by the biceps and the magnitude of the movement ; we should also require to know what force was exerted, what work done, by the triceps, its antagonist. The muscular system, as we know, acts under the control of co-ordinated nervous excitations, each group of muscles acting synergeti- cally. For example, if we wish to raise our arms, the abductor, adductor, and levator muscles intervene, the first helping to carry the arm forward or backward. If we wish to lower the same limbs, the depressors will then come into play, not as antagonists of the levators, but as moderators of the falling movement. The brachial biceps, on the other hand, is not exclusively a flexor muscle ; it is also a supinator ; we feel its distension when we turn a stiff key. 66 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The rectus femoris (see Fig. 11) is not merely an extensor of the lower leg ; it is also a flexor and levator of the thigh, and serves to maintain the equilibrium of the hips. The modalities of muscular action are numerous, and are not without influence upon the degree of fatigue ; we ought to understand how to confine muscular action to the strictly useful effect, with the smallest expenditure of energy ; it is important to avoid superfluous contractions, and movements in which part of the effort is wasted or annulled. This economy is of the greatest value in prothesis after amputation. Sports and games, notably boxing and fencing, are in certain senses comparable to industrial labour ; but in them the elimination of useless movements has been brought to a much higher pitch. Good athletes are careful to avoid such movements, for their reputations, and sometimes their lives, are involved. Physical education must employ the same economy, for the sake both of discipline and of health. Use educates the activity of the muscles, and produces perfect regularity ; automatism, thanks to the bulbar reflexes, takes charge of our movements, and a kind of dynamic instinct eventually imposes its sovereign laws upon the human machine. XXX. The Measurement of Muscular Activity. The direct evaluation of all these forces is interesting work. To begin with, it gives us information concerning the difficulty of this or that handicraft, and enables us to determine if it can be practised by women, or children, or even by invalided soldiers, or the cripples of war and industry. It is equally necessary if we are to appreciate the progress of physical education and the restoration of muscular strength, and to compare the work accomplished with the energy expended upon it a comparison which tells us if a good or a bad output, or ratio of efficiency, is being obtained. We obtain these measurements of forces by means of graphic methods, by direct registration, according to the rules formulated fifty years ago by the famous French physiologist, Marey (1830-1904). WORK AND FATIGUE 67 The muscles are made to act upon springs which, under the conditions of the experiment, undergo compression and a slight change of form. Each of these springs terminates in a disc. This compresses a small rubber ball. This ball, by means of a flexible tube, is connected with a small metallic cup, over which a rubber membrane is stretched. This is known as a Marey tambour (Fig. 19). Compression of the ball produces a pressure of air in the tambour, and raises the FIG. 19. Diagram of Recording or Graphic Dynamometer. recording lever or stylus which is actuated by the membrane. If we arrange the stylus in contact with a recording cylinder, such as is fitted to a recording aneroid barometer, we shall obtain a written record of the muscular efforts exerted, ampli- fied to the desired extent (Fig. 20). I have applied myself to devising dynamographic apparatus which can be adapted to all kinds of tools, and which give me, under any circumstances, clear and faithful graphic records. If it is desired, for example, to analyse the efforts F and F 1 , exerted by a man using a file in finishing steel or brass, the tool is fitted with suitable attachments precisely where it is gripped by the hands, and these attachments are connected with Marey tambours mounted on a carriage. In this way we may record all the forces in action, and all the components of these forces. It will readily be perceived that the vertical components, V and V 1 , combine to press down upon the file and 68 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION to make it bite, while the horizontal efforts, H and H 1 , cause the sliding motion, and therefore perform the useful work (Fig. 21). FIG. 20. Recordi ler with Marey Recording Drums, arranged to record Jylmcler with Marey Kecoramg ur the Efforts of a Man filing Metal. Fig. 22 shows the file with its dynamographic attachments ; to these must be added a special support, which measures the pressure exerted upon the block of metal. FIG. 21. Analysis of the Efforts exerted in filing Metal. The file is fitted at its free extremity, at D, with springs, each of which compresses a rubber ball, the attachments of WORK AND FATIGUE 69 which record the pushing force and the pressure of the left hand ; while the handle encloses a spiral spring, S, and a rubber ball, B, which actuates the stylus recording the pushing effort of the right hand. For detailed calculations we must refer the reader to our volume on Lemoteur humain (pp. 528-552), which shows how a number of tools and implements may be adapted for dynamo- graphic purposes (spade, hammer, shears, wheel- barrow, etc.). However, we shall once more, in these pages, describe the registering jointing-plane and the registering spade. The thrust of the arm, acting upon the handle of the plane (Fig. 23), is decomposed into the hori- zontal effort which moves the tool, and the vertical effort, which presses the tool upon the plank to be planed. By means of rubber attachments suit- ably disposed this pres- sure is measured, as well as the total force exerted upon the handle ; from these data the horizontal 70 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION component is deduced, which in this case represents the resistance offered by the wood to the iron of the plane. On the other hand, the plank is placed between two- parallel guides, which may at will be adjusted at varying distances from each other. On each guide is fixed, along its entire length, a veiy flexible rubber tube, which is pressed out of normal shape by the lightest contact of the plane. If we connect these tubes with Marey tambours, we obtain a written record of the jerks resulting from unskilful movements on the part of the worker. FIG. 23. Registering Jointing-Plane. Lastly, the attachments which enable us to render a spade dynamographic, whether it be employed in excavation,, embanking, etc., or in agricultural operations, are shown in Fig. 24 ; they register the total thrust, or resistance of the soil, and the efforts exerted in removing the spadeful of material excavated. XXXI. The Measurement of Speed or Pace. As for the rapidity of voluntary movements, it is possible to measure this simultaneously with the measurements of the efforts put forth, by the employment of a rapid chronograph measuring fractions of a second. Even with the fingers, which are the most agile members, it is unusual to accomplish more than seven move- ments per second. Taking the case of the self-registering plane, we can make sure of regularity of movement at any WORK AND FATIGUE 71 Dynamographic Spade FIG. 24. D.ynamographic Spade (detailed Section.) 72 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION given speed ; while the number of jerks to right or left regis- tered upon the recording cylinder will inform us of the faults to be corrected. One might also make use of the cinematograph, recording FIG. 25. Graphic Record of the Work of a good Workman using the File. on a film run at a known speed the various positions of the tool. This method also enables us to note all the attitudes assumed by the body during work, and enables us to recognise any defects. Lastly, following the example of Dr. Gilbreth, we may attach a small incandescent light to the worker's hand, and obtain, by means of photography, the cycle of his move- WORK AND FATIGUE 73 ments. Cyclography, if not an original method, has certain advantages which we cannot go into here. 1 The combined graphic record will enable us to note the order and the intensity of the muscular efforts exerted, their rapidity, and their degree of regularity or uniformity, all these details being recorded with admirable fidelity and clearness. To these we may add the record of the respiratory efforts (Fig. 25). The active life of the worker has placed, so to speak, on the paper of the graph an indelible imprint, its personal signature. XXXII. B. THE EXPENDITURE OF ENERGY. To the work thus performed by the man, and graphically measured, corre- sponds an expenditure of energy levied upon the reserves of the organism; not upon the nutriments which have just been absorbed, but upon those which the body-cells have had the time to elaborate, to fix, to bring to that particular state which enables them to become readily oxidised, and to produce energy. The expenditure of energy is in proportion to the activity of the muscles, to the synergetic sum of their contractions; intensity, rapidity, and duration all being comprised in this activity, which extends to the nervous as well as to the mus- cular element. And all this produces fatigue, and regulates the consumption of oxygen respired, adding a further quantity to that which we already absorb during periods of repose. The total energy of the active man is thus a sum, in which one of the terms, that corresponding with periods of repose, under- goes hardly any variation, when the external temperature is constant, while the other term increases in proportion to the muscular activity. Without entering into lengthy details concerning the measurement of the volume of oxygen consumed, we will explain, as an example, the principle of our method. The person experimented upon breathes through the mouth, which is convenient in the event of great fatigue the nostrils being compressed by a little wooden clip, with padded jaws. A tube fitted with a two-way valve is held, by means of a rubber mouthpiece, between the lips and teeth ; the outer 1 See theRevue de Metallurgie, p. 203, April, 1915; Revue generale des Sciences, p. 173, 1916. 74 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION atmosphere is breathed in through one valve ; it is expired through the other valve into a rubber tube, passing through a bell-shaped container C and a gasmeter G (Fig. 26). The container is connected, by means of a fine rubber tube, with FIG. 26. Respiration Gauge. a system of reservoirs containing mercury, R and R. 1 Accord- ingly as R empties itself into R 1 or the reverse, some of the air expired is shunted, or the sample contained in R is passed into a eudiometer for analysis. We thus obtain the total volume of the air respired, or the WORK AND FATIGUE 75 pulmonary ventilation effected during the experiment, and also the composition of the air expired. Normally the atmosphere surrounding us contains 21 per cent, of oxygen, reckoning by volume. As there is less than this in the air expired, the difference represents the quantity consumed by the organism. 1 Such, briefly described, is the respiration gauge, which enables us to estimate the expenditure of energy. It is mounted on a table running on rubber-tired wheels, which rolls to and fro without jarring the instrument, following the subject as he moves to and fro, enabling us to investigate normal or pathological locomotion, or physical exercises, or mechanical labour. The mouthpiece is easily kept in the mouth, without any inconvenience to the subject, whatever the length of the experiment. Knowing the total volume of oxygen utilised by the organ- ism, we estimate it in terms of calories, as has already been explained, at the rate of 4-9 calories per litre. We thus obtain the expression of the energy developed by vital combustion. The distribution of this energy is of a multiple character. It maintains the deep-seated physiological activities : the movements and the nutrition of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. It maintains the temperature of the body at a constant level, making up for the losses which it suffers by contact with the air and by radiation. Lastly, it provides for the intense activity of the muscles and the less onerous task of the nervous tissues. While in the case of an adult the expenditure of energy during repose amounts on an average to 2,100 calories during the twenty-four hours, cold increases it ; in the winter, with the thermometer only a few degrees above freezing-point, it amounts to 3,500 calories, while in summer, with a temperature of 77 to 86 Fahr., it falls to about 1,800 calories. 1 Thus, we may find, in the eudimometer, 17 per cent, of oxygen instead cf 21 per cent., or a difference of 4 per cent., when, if the total volume respired is 150 X 4 150 litres, the product - gives the total consumption of oxygen, or (> litres. 100 76 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION If we reckon that the heaviest day's work consumes from 2,000 to 2,500 calories, and add this to the foregoing values, we reach a total of 4,000 calories in summer but the heat, which diminishes the energy of the muscles, often makes it impossible to attain this and 5,000 to 6,000 calories in winter, as the daily ration of labour. This varying expenditure is maintained by means of alimen- tation ; but it is a notable fact that whereas any substance which can be burned can be employed in a heat motor, this is not the case with the living organism, for the latter is not indifferent to the quality of combustible supplied to it. It can utilise as aliment any substance which it can elaborate in such a way that it may be stored in the body cells. This is the only store which it can exploit immediately and without loss, and which is able to ensure its uninterrupted upkeep. The expenditure of energy is continuous, for any interruption would be a sign of death. Life, therefore, is energy. XXXIII. C. FATIGUE. The physiological point of view offers this inestimable advantage over any other point of view, that it reveals the effects of excessive fatigue, and furnishes us with means of ensuring that it shall not exceed the limits of the normal. But for this physical training would be a fallacy ; it would lead to overwork ; it would not accomplish its aim. It must be added that organic disorders and affections of the nervous centres have become more frequent than humanity has ever known them as a result of this terrible war. Deficient cardiac activity is particularly to be looked for in discharged and wounded soldiers and war- cripples. It is therefore a most important matter to investi- gate the indications of fatigue. Fatigue is the result of muscular and nervous phenomena which give rise to an increasing malaise or uneasiness, and above all a feeling of impotence. This feeling progresses through every stage, from a mere lassitude to the acutest suffering, and it persists for a varying space of time. It arises from various sources of excitation ; from the nervous fibres which terminate, as has already been explained, in the WORK AND FATIGUE 77 muscles and tendons, and on the articular surfaces, and from the coverings of the viscera, in which Lennander has localised the origin of organic pain ; thence it assumes a general character, and eventually embraces the whole extent of the body. For fatigue is fundamentally an intoxication ; if the brain and the muscles function in a disorderly fashion, as a result of excessive efforts, or too great a rate of exertion, the blood is no longer able to cope with its task of purification. The waste products of this intense cellular activity accumu- late ; the blood, loaded with toxic products, produces fatigue in any animal into whose veins it is irjected. It acts to begin with upon the periphery, the seat of the sensitive fibres, so that even though the brain alone has been working, fatigue affects the muscular organs. It is a singular paradox to pre- tend, as certain pedagogues have done, that the mind may be refreshed by the fatigue of the body ! It is as good as a con- fession that they have never fatigued either. On the other hand, it is essential to distinguish between fatigue and pain, for pain may often be wholly accidental, the result of an excessive or clumsy effort, or a faulty attitude, or a pathological condition ; in these various instances it is, moreover, confined to the limb or the organ affected, and does not invade the whole system. Neither in the organisation of physical education nor in that of mechanical labour should there be any room for this sensation ; for it signifies a vicious method. A look-out for the signs of fatigue should be kept in respect of all the functions of life. To-day such investigations have hardly commenced. 1 Let us consider the facts. XXXIV. (1.) The Circulation of the Blood. We cannot in this place give a detailed account of the technical methods employed in such observations. We will only remark that 1 A. Mosso, La Fatigue (French translation by Langlois), 1894 ; Jules Amar, Observations sur la fatigue professionelle ( Journal de Physiologie, pp. 178-202, 1914) ; Stanley Kent, Interim Report on an Investigation of Industrial Fatigue by physiological methods. White Paper published by H.M. Stationery Office, 1915. Second Interim Report on an Investigation of Industrial Fatigue by physiological methods. Blue Book published by H.M. Stationery Office, 1916. Health of Munition Workers' Committee. Interim Report. Blue Book published by H.M. Stationery Office, 1917. 78 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION the person to be experimented on works an ergometric cycle, of which we shall have more to say presently. He actuates the pedals by the contractions of the leg muscles, or he works a crank by contracting the muscles of the arms (Fig. 27). Records are taken of his heart-beats and of his pulse, and the arterial pressure is measured ; the first two operations are effected by means of the cardiograph and the sphijgmograph FIG. 27. Taking a Graphic Record of the Pulse during an experimental Investigation of Fatigue. (Marey), and the second by means of Pachon's oscillometer, which gives the systolic and diastolic pressures successively that is, the highest and the lowest. However, I advise the experimenter to content himself with the record given by the cardiograph ; this instrument, applied as in Fig. 28, remains in place while the subject is exerting his strength, and its indications are sufficiently reliable. The results of such experiments are interesting. Gradually, as the muscles continue to work in a normal and regular fashion, WORK AND FATIGUE 79 the frequency of the pulse continues to increase ; but pro- vided that a maximum of two hours of work is followed by a quarter of an hour of repose, the average frequency does not exceed 120 pulse beats per minute, or about 50 beats per minute more than during repose ; and it tends to remain constant. On the other hand, if the pace of the work done exceeds the FIG. 28. Cardiograph and Pneumograph in Position. usual limits, the pulsations become more rapid, quickly attain- ing a rate of 130, 140, and even 160 per minute. Such a rate as the last is most unpleasant and injurious ; fortunately it is fairly unusual, except in athletic sports (running, rowing). But even when the number of pulsations, as a result of a moderate effort combined with a rapid pace, rises only to 120, 80 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION to prolong the duration of the effort fatigues the circulatory system. This fatigue reveals itself by a regular decrease of frequency, the latter finally falling to 100, or sometimes to 96. The heart is no longer able to respond to the pace of the effort, and to satisfy the needs of the organism. The physiological synergy is deranged, if not destroyed (Fig. 29). Directly the observer notes this discordance between the muscular and cardiac functions he should bring the experiment to a close, or at all events greatly moderate its pace. 118 1 '20 --.. 24 A 8 115. 14 *L. 110 * 05 16 08 1 "---. TIT- 04 X **^_ 02 --... 18 ,9 7 5< 5_ I 38^ 3757 \ 96 W ^96 90 I \ 84 "*.. 1 v \ > 78 ^ > 75 I) cu .t c: ^ '^ ^ Co Q CO <0 to H Si ^. C, ^ t. i FIG. 29. Rhythm of the Heart during Work (a Case of Fatigue). The cardiac curves give us quite as much information concerning the cardiac rhythm as do the graphs of the pulse. We further learn from them that the amplitude, that is, the force of the hear t-b eats > increases, and that the heart under- goes a slight and temporary increase in volume. This latter fact has been observed by fatiguing the subject by causing him to walk upon a rolling track, and subjecting the thoracic cage to radioscopic examination. 1 1 Zuntz and Nicolai, Berl. Klin. Wochensch., No. 18, 1914. WORK AND FATIGUE 81 The ratio diastole = about 2, or even 1-50; the contraction systole of the auricles is accentuated, and the right-hand undulation of the systolic plateau descends toward the lower third of the curve, its normal position being in the upper portion. The aspect of the tracing taken during fatigue is characteristic (Fig. 30). It denotes a sudden expansion of the ventricles, and an absence of sustained cardiac effort. Careful scrutinv Resting Medium Fatigue 240 Later. extensions oF both arms. 60 Movements per minu( (Normal subject, A. 6) Great Fatigue 360 movements in 4 minutes 30 sec. fx A Time in fifths of a second. FIG. 30. Graphic Record of the Heart of a young Gymnast (at Rest and during Fatigue). of the curve enables us to detect a kind of periodicity in the systoles, producing a striking type of record (Fig. 31). We need not, therefore, linger over its description, still less over its interpretation. As for arterial pressure, this amounts to 15 to 16 centi- metres (about 6-0 to 6-5 inches) during repose, but often attains as much as 33 centimetres (about 12-5 inches) during exertion ; this too diminishes during extreme fatigue. Under conditions of medium activity, when the heart is still per- 82 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION forming its functions in a regular manner, the systolic pressure varies but slightly, oscillating about a value of 25 centi- metres (10 inches). We now perceive the nature of the indications of normal labour, which does not expose the subject to the danger of over- exertion; the frequency of the heart-beats should be from 1 15 to 120, and the cardiograms should show signs of a systolic plateau, the undulation forming it being rather lower than during repose ; the FIG. 31. Cardiograms during Repose and extreme Fatigue (normal Subject). maximum arterial pressure should be 25 centimetres (10 inches). Athletic exercises, which often overwork the cardiac muscle, render its previous examination absolutely necessary. The high pressure and abundant flow of the blood-stream, no less than its adequate renewal, are indispensable in the intense physical life of the athlete, as in all heavy mechanical labour. XXXV. (2.) Respiration. Fatigue affects the respiratory function perhaps even more rapidly than the cardiac function. Not only does respiration become extremely frequent : it also ceases to be regular; it is dyspnceic, and of a jerky character. WORK AND FATIGUE 83 The respirations may be registered by means of the double pneumograph, applied to the chest by means of a tape surround- ing the thorax, or, better still, to the back, where it is less likely to inconvenience the worker (see Fig. 28). The tracings of the pneumograph express the variations of amplitude and rhythm occurring in the thorax, as its muscles ^re more or less contracted (Fig. 32). But we may connect a special attachment with the mouthpiece of the respiration FIG. 32. Respiratory Tracings taken by Means of the Pneumograph (normal Subject, working a Cycle). gauge (as shown in Fig. 33), and record the movements of the breath in the lungs, thus obtaining what are known as tono- grams (Fig. 34) ; records, that is, of the variations of pressure (from the Greek TOVO;, pressure). For this purpose the "valve is fitted with a stopper which is traversed by a small tube, which receives a rubber tube connected with a Marey tambour and recording cylinder. Pneumograms and tono- grams combine to provide us with a complete analysis of the 84 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION respiratory function ; the tonograms being more accurate and more significant of the actual condition of the pulmonary cavities. Both forms of tracing reveal the derangements which may occur in the lungs themselves, or in the muscular PIG. 33. Showing the Valve of the respiration gauge fitted with a " Shunt " for making tonographic tracings, also the employment of the pneumograph (young Athlete, 18 years of age, A.G.). system which causes the lungs to perform their function (Figs. 35 and 36). We know that during repose the duration of the expiration, g e, is at "east double that of the inspiration, 1 z. The ratio- is 1 The difference is generally taken to be less than this. (Ed.) WORK AND FATIGUE 85 progressively diminished during fatigue, while the respirations become deeper and deeper. At a certain point this ratio - becomes greatly diminished, the ventilation of the lungs is no longer ample, and the flow or delivery of air is less con- siderable. The volume of air expired per minute, which previously underwent a progressive increase it usually attains 86 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION a figure of 20 litres during labour tends to diminish. Thus, during a case of normal fatigue the following readings were obtained on the respiration gauge : During repose, average delivery per minute, 7 litres. FIG. 35. Tracings of deep Respiration during rapid Work (Pneumograms and Tonograms). Working the cycle, 192 revolutions per minute, load on brake 2 kilogrammes : 13-20, 19-80, 20-75, 21-35, 20-70, 19-70, 22-50, 20-85, 22v5, 20-0, 22-0, 20-40, 20-60, 19-50, 20-90 litres. Or an average of 20-25 litres. The curve shown in Fig. 37 shows a plateau signifying a phase of constant ventilation, which disappears only on the threshold of the dangerous phase, that is, the phase of over- exertion. We may therefore assert that while normal exertion increases the ventilation of the lungs, and even slightly increases the- WORK AND FATIGUE 87 diameter of the bronchial tubes, 1 great fatigue diminishes the regularity of the gaseous exchanges ; it is then that carbonic acid gas, a toxic product of the vital combustion, accumulates in the blood and causes breathlessness, while the resistance of the nervous centres, and consequently the muscular energy, rapidly diminishes. 1 Haldane and Douglas, Journal of Physiclcgy, Vol. XLV., p. 235, 1912-1913 ; Krogh and Lindhard, ibid,, Vol. XLVIL, p. 30, 1914 ; Krogh, The Respiratory Exchanges of Animals and Man, London, 1916. 88 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The most elementary observation shows also that the respiratory troubles of fatigue are due far less to exaggerated muscular effort than to the excessive rapidity of the muscular contractions, which produces a lack of harmony between the synergetic rhythms of the vital functions. It is to be noted, on the other hand, that the respiration becomes prolonged whenever a great effort of some duration is exerted (Fig. 37) ; a nervous ramus, emanating from the bulb, gives rise, in particular, to a prolonged expiration. But a sustained effort tends to become impossible in the fatigued state of the organism, because the bulbar intoxica- tion precipitates the activity of the nerves and throws it out Normal Curve of Pulmonary Ventilation 207521.35 Average, 20'25 litres (35 -6 pints) i i i p] " \ 5 tf>\gth\ 7 th \gth \ Working FlQ. 37. Curve of Pulmonary Ventilation. of gear ; the expirations become short and jerky, a sign of breathlessness. It is possible, however, to store up oxygen by means of a very deep inspiration, and to prolong the duration of the expiration ; but this cannot be done often, nor for longer than two minutes. The Arab divers of Ceylon, whose trade is sponge-fishing, remain under water for 90 seconds. 1 Despite this effort, which appears to immobilise the thoracic cage, the breath oscillates in the lungs, as is shown by a tonogram. The lungs retain their rhythm and their amplitude (Fig. 39). Let us now measure the consumption of oxygen : we shall find that it increases, under the same conditions of labour, with the advance of fatigue. The muscular engine yields a poorer and poorer output ; it becomes less efficient ; it begins 1 Vernon, Amer. Journ. of PhysioL, Vol. XXL, p. 126. WORK AND FATIGUE 89 to waste energy. On the other hand, I have observed a greater efficiency, an economy, when the effort and the pace were moderated so that the work was accomplished without great fatigue. 1 At what inferior ratio of efficiency are we to regard the -continuation of work as dangerous ? This is a very complex problem, for the yield depends upon the worker himself ; it is a personal coefficient ; it has reference to a plainly specified sphere of activity, and cannot be applied generally to all. We FIG. 38. Pneumograms showing the expiratory Arrest of the thoracic Rhythm during a Static Effort. should have to make some sort of experiments in order to estimate the depreciation suffered by fatigued muscles. Moreover, such a thing may occur as static fatigue, produced not by movements, whether useful or useless, but by the mere fact of exerting force ; this exhausts the peripheral nerve- terminals 2 , and complicates the interpretation of the re- spiratory phenomena, which are consequently no longer exclusive of all other physiological data. 1 Lc Moteur Humain, p. 255-256. 2 K. Frumerie, Skand. Arch. f. Physiol, Vol. XXX., p. 409, 1913. 90 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION XXXVI. (3.) N euro-muscular Energy. It will be under- stood that the feeling of impotence which is the sign of fatigue is localised in the neuro-muscular system. A man who sets off running at a rapid pace is inevitably, sooner or later, forced by this sensation to relax his effort and to slacken speed. FIG. 39. Tonograms taken during Static Effort. There are various means of verifying this fact. To begin with, we may employ the ergometric cycle, actuated by the pedals or by a crank. We may employ a braked wheel, the brake being loaded with a weight of 6 kilogrammes, turned at a rate of 200 revolutions per minute. The wheel inscribes a record of its own revolutions, by means of an electric contact, and we presently note that the tracing exhibits longer and WORK AND FATIGUE 91 92 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION less regular intervals. With the cheirograph, 1 which we shall describe later, the decrease of muscular activity may be fol- lowed, either in the fingers separately, or in the whole hand, or in the wrist (Fig. 40). The rhythm is measured by a metronome, and the weight to be moved by the muscular con- tractions does not vary (Fig. 41). The data relating to the form and frequency of the mus- cular contractions being thus determined, it is obviously only the amplitude of the contractions, the height through FIG. 41. which the weight is lifted, which is diminished by fatigue. The work performed, then, is less and less. The appearance of a cheirogram is characteristic ; the crests of the tracing are lower and lower as fatigue advances, or as it is increasingly affected by circumstances : by bad food, lack of sleep, moral depression, high temperature, alcoholism, or some unapparent condition of impotence. To a practised eye, I might remark, the comparison of the cheirograms taken before and after an experiment should 1 J. Amar, Lz Moteur Humain, p. 391 ; Journ. de Physiol., p, 849, 1915. WORK AND FATIGUE 93 permit of an estimation of the degree of fatigue. If we display such a tracing by rapidly rotating the recording cylinder, we shall note the flagging of the muscular effort in all the phases of the curve. The will does not act upon the muscles by a single impulse ; the nervous centres have to multiply their impulses, and then the weakness of the contraction betrays the simultaneous fatigue of the nervous system ; simultaneous because the muscular fibre itself, above all, becomes fatigued, becomes less irritable and less elastic ; its very elementary structure becomes impaired. After very violent move- ments, after very great efforts, the muscles suffer from con- tracture ; they become rigid, only slowly and with difficulty recovering all their original flexibility. We have instances of such contracture in the rheumatic stiff neck, which affects the sternocleidomastoideus ; or in the spasm known as writer's cramp, to which typists and seamstresses are subject as well as authors. The fatigue of the nervous system is in proportion to the number of motor impulses which it is obliged to furnish to the muscular system in order to cause the latter to function ; this expenditure is heavy in work which demands movements repeated with great frequency. Short steps, very often repeated, are more tiring than good long strides ; and here we see why in certain kinds of work which do not require strength there is considerable nervous exhaustion, while fatigue soon makes its appearance. A further consequence of this phenomenon is that disorders of the general sensibility are produced ; the nerves react less swiftly ; the personal equation increases ; the sight becomes less acute ; this is the ocular asthenopia of compositors, shoe- makers, etc., in which one can no longer distinguish colours without increasing the intensity of the light ; at the same time the cerebral activity is diminished, ideas or images being less quickly distinguished by the mind. The tactile sensibility, the source of our most frequent sensa- tions, and our principal means of education, is also in turn diminished. It may be measured by touching the surface of the skin with two ivory points ; the normal separation of the 34 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION points of this special compasses or aesthesiomeler has to be increased, so as to include a larger sensitive area. These various manifestations of nervous fatigue often result from a deficit of oxygen in the blood, or an excess of carbonic acid gas due to working too rapidly. Under these circumstances the excitability of the nervous centres diminishes, at all events for a certain time, 1 involving a diminution of the peripheral sensi- bility. Voluntary actions and reflex actions also are per- formed in a hesitating manner ; sometimes they become disordered. For example, a young girl who uses a skipping- rope too long at a stretch eventually makes mistakes, and her movements become confused. All these factors, at which I can give only a rapid glance, are measurable values ; and we may draw up tables of figures representing the extent of these reactions before and after fatigue, which will furnish us with useful information. In many cases I have been able to replace the tracings of the cheirograph by a more expeditious method of determining the greater or less resistance of the nervous centres ; the subject at a given moment seizes two weights of 5 kilogrammes (about 11 Ibs.) which are placed within his reach, one on either hand, his arms being outstretched laterally and in a horizontal line. He must not allow his arms to fall, save as a result of fatigue ; when this occurs the arms begin to droop and to tremble. We note the duration of this static effort, and it is repeated at intervals of a minute, as long as it is judged necessary to con- tinue the experiment. The product of the weight and the time, p x /, in kilogramme- seconds or pound-seconds, varies in different individuals ; at the beginning of the experiment the time value may vary from 18 to 20 seconds. But it is to be noted that in an hour's tests the endurance, expressed by the total of the products p x t, is found to be characteristic of a man, and often of a group of men addicted to the same form of muscular exertion. In twenty instances, for example, it had an almost constant 'Altobelli, Arch, ital Biol, Vol. XL., p. 99, 1903; Piotrovsky, Du Bois- Eeym. Arch. /. Phys., p. 205, 1893; Baglioni, Arch. ital. Biol, Vol. XLIL, p. 83, 1904. WORK AND FATIGUE 95 value. The endurance limit reveals itself thus : to begin with there is a determined effort, then a sudden fall, and an absolute refusal of the muscles to bear the weight any longer. After an hour's rest, the curve again declines very rapidly, and one is justified in saying that nervous motor excitation tends to become exhausted, just as does the muscular energy. The shape of the curves of endurance is that of a hyperbola (Fig. 42). For example, we may obtain such results as these : 44", 30", 29", 19", 16", 15", 14", 13", 13", 11", 10", 11", 10", 11", 11", 11", 8", 10", 11", 11", = 308", or a total of 308 x 10kg., or, 3,080 kilo- General Form of Curves of Endurance Time FIG. 42. gramme-seconds. On an average a healthy adult, not suffering from fatigue, attains a total of 3,000 kilogramme-seconds. All striking irregularities, and all values lower than 2,000 kilogramme-seconds, betray great fatigue of the nerve-centres. XXXVIL (4.) Biochemical Indications of Fatigue. The nature of fatigue, as we have already seen, is an intoxication, which, occurring at the points where activity is at its maxi- mum intensity, gradually extends to the entire organism. The poisons of fatigue result from the transformation of the -cellular albuminoids, which is always extremely bad for the health, for not only is it extravagant, necessitating far more oxygen than if fats or sugars were concerned, but it liberates toxic bodies or ponogenes. These are formed more particularly when the muscles are putting forth excessive efforts. These 96 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION products are based upon nuclein, whose origin is the nucleus of the cell ; they are acid, and phosphorised or nitrogenous. These nuclein bases are also found in the urine, together with phosphates and uric acid. This last, eliminated by the organism at the rate of 8 milligrammes per kilogramme during the 24 hours, this rate being constant, 1 is more abundant after fatigue. 2 And all these products, conveyed by the blood, poison the organism. We have seen tha^ their injection into the veins of an animal causes a depression of the vital forces, and the disorders peculiar to fatigue ; they diminish the muscular excitability, involving an increasing expenditure of nervous energy, and an actual wasting of the vital resources ; they impair even the living tissues, those of the muscles and the nerves ; they impede the regularity of the phenomena of respiration and circulation. While normal activity reduces the proportion of the urinary toxins, 3 intense labour and extreme fatigue visibly increase it ; and Bouchard has noted that they produce a certain narcotic effect, which may vary from mere somnolence to death. Unfortunately the measures taken, when examining urine, to detect the extreme limit of physiological fatigue, are still deficient. Neither from the analysis of the blood nor from the toxicity of the perspiration can we obtain more reliable infor- mation. We must combine a large number of data briefly indicated here in order to appreciate the intensity of fatigue. The truly physiological characteristic of the latter is proved by the disappearance of all its effects after rest and sleep, both necessary things, and both demanded by the auto-intoxication itself. The toxin which causes sleep, the hypnotoxin, is formed during the waking state ; it is found in the blood, and more particularly in the cerebro-spinal fluid ; it is said to produce temporary degenerative changes in the frontal lobe of the brain. 4 Fatigue and lack of sleep give rise to a torpid con- 1 Faustka, Pfl Arch., Vol. CLV., p. 523, 1914. * Herther and Smith, Maltfs Jahrb., Vol. XXII., p. 200, 1892 ; Dunlop.etc., Journ. of Physiol., Vol. XXII., p. 68, 1898. 3 Ch. Bouchard, L:$ons sur les auto-intox. dans les maladies, Paris, 1887; Colasanti, Bicerche Istit. Farmacol. Sper., Vol. II. -IV., 1893-1899. *H. Pieron, Le Probleme physiologique du somme.il, Masson, 1913. WORK AND FATIGUE 97 dition of the organs of movement, and relax the tonicity of the muscular system, exerting a depressing effect on the innervation ; they render rest and sleep inevitable, for at a certain moment they become inhibitory, constituting a mechanism of defence against exaggerated activity. The oxygen of the blood will restore the vitality of the organism. If, through a false conception of the laws of work, one disregards these warnings of fatigue, the normal limits are quickly passed ; the intoxication becomes aggravated, giving rise to a febrile stiffness, headache, and other painful symp- toms. The resistance of the nerve-centres becomes greatly diminished, and, in short, the resistance of the organism collapses ; and it is this lessening of resistance which awakens latent imperfections and maladies, which have very often been unsuspected ; it is this which breaks down the reaction that infectious germs find it so difficult to contend against. Typhoid fever or tuberculosis declares itself. We know what is the dismal fate of armies exhausted by warfare. The object of the physiological organisation of human activity is to render impossible the circumstances which give rise to overwork, and end by ruining the health. Its aim is the conservation of the human race by means of social hygiene. CHAPTER V THE FACTORS OF LABOUR XXXVIII. In order to organise human labour, we must understand the laws of muscular and nervous activity, and the numerous factors on which they are dependent. Even among the ancients precepts were current to the effect that one should exercise the body before and not after meals, and that such exercise should be continued " until a slight lassitude is felt, until a little perspiration appears, or at least until a warm vapour is exhaled by the exertions of the body." l These rudimentary ideas of physiology and hygiene were, however, entirely disregarded when the army was in question. The military ideal, especially among the Romans, was one of the most rigorous training, until the soldier was able to cover distances of twenty-five miles a day with a load averaging about 77 Ibs. It must be admitted that such a life as this gave the soldier a tough constitution, and that the organism became accustomed to extreme fatigue. The principles of physical training were in the course of time forgotten, and under Louis XIV. victories were dearly bought. In 1734 Montesquieu remarked with justice : " We note to-day that our armies are largely perishing owing to the immoderate exertions of the soldiers ; yet it was by means of immense exertions that the Romans saved themselves. The reason of this is, I believe, that their hardships were continuous, whereas our soldiers, on the other hand, pass incessantly from extreme exertion to extreme idleness, which 1 Galen, De Sanitate tuenda, Vol. II. THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 99 of all things in the world is most likely to kill them. We no longer have a just idea of bodily exercises." l This just idea could have been obtained only by consulting Nature, and Nature, according to Newton, creates nothing but geometry, and derives her inspiration from the principles of this geometry. Galileo 2 demonstrated the fact that of all our muscles that which works without resting, without irregularity, and which reveals itself as truly indefatigable, is assuredly the heart. It possesses a given mass, and it contracts at the rate of about seventy- two times per minute ; and as "it moves only its own mass," this may be the explanation of its indefatigability. 3 The other muscles, on the other hand, have to move the skeleton, and sometimes the entire weight of the body, as in the case of the leg muscles. These speculative views of the great Italian scientist are in agreement with our modern ideas as to muscular effort. There is, in truth, for every locomotive apparatus, a rhythm of contraction and a resistance to be overcome which is per- fectly adapted to its normal action, although this has the appearance of being undefined. Further, there are certain values which correspond to the most economical rhythm and effort* those which entail the least expenditure of energy. In this connection we can do no more than briefly formulate the laws determined by the physiologists, and in particular by Chaveau. XXXIX. The Laws of Chaveau. 1. The expenditure of energy is in proportion to the muscular effort of contraction, to its duration, and to the degree of contraction. The meaning of this first law is obvious : the energy expended, or the 1 Montesquieu, Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur decadence, p. 10 (ed. Barckhausen, Paris, 1900). ' Galileo (1564-1642), Opere, Vol. XI., p. 558 (Milan ed., 1811). 3 But see note on p. 28. The absence of rest in the case of the heart is apparent only, since a part of every second is devoted to repose. Moreover, besides " its own mass " the heart moves the mass of the blood. ED. 4 If all our muscles could operate under the same conditions as the heart they would produce in 24 hours nearly 3 million kilogram-metres of work, or enough to enable one to make the ascent of Mont Blanc four times over. 100 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION fatigue produced, increases if the efforts are more intense and more protracted ; but it must be added that this fatigue, all other conditions being equal, is doubled if the shortening of the muscles is twice as great. The observation of a good workman will confirm this portion of the law ; in pushing a wheelbarrow he will allow his arms to hang straight in place of FIG. 43. Position of Arms on lifting Wheelbarrow. flexing them, thereby exerting the same sustaining effort with the minimum of fatigue (Fig. 43). If it is on occasion necessary to exert great muscular force, it must be remembered that the latter increases less and less rapidly as the muscle approaches the limits of its contraction. The effort of contraction should not be carried to its limit, THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 101 or there will be waste of energy. Violent exertions constitute abnormal conditions of muscular activity, whose consequences are irreparable. 2. The expenditure of energy required to perform a given amount of work diminishes in proportion as the rapidity of the muscular contractions increases. But this is true only within certain limits of speed, beyond which nervous exhaustion will ensue, together with profound physiological disturbances. As I have already remarked, a rapid gait, or a rapid rate of work, is permissible only when it does not overload the organs of circulation and respiration. Under such conditions speed is really economical. Modern industry, which demands the qualities of skill and speed far more than strength, should confine itself to these economical speeds, of which the Taylor system suspected the existence, although it could not state what they were. 3. There is a most favourable effort and a most favourable speed for the performance of the maximum of work with the mini- mum of fatigue. This is a consequence of the preceding law, and the determination of this effort and this speed constitutes the real object of the scientific organisation of human energy. Whether the most delicate kind of work or the heaviest labour is in question, the force exerted, and the pace of the work, should always be duly proportioned, the sole guide being the data obtained by experiment. 4. Law of Rest (Jules Amar). A muscle returns more speedily to its condition of repose in proportion as its work has been more rapidly performed. This law, formulated in 1910, is entirely comparable to the law of the cooling of heated bodies. The temperature of a body which has been heated falls at a rate proportional to the temperature to which it has been raised (Newton). Similarly, the consumption of oxygen, which expresses the expenditure of energy, decreases pro- gressively from the termination of work until the condition of repose is regained, and this decrease proceeds rapidly, the return to the initial condition occurring quickly when the work lias been strenuous of course within certain limits. The law of this decrease enables us to determine the interval of rest which 102 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION is necessary on each occasion to restore the physiological conditions which obtained at the outset, and to divide the work into reasonable shifts. In this way a large daily output will be obtained without impairing the resistance of the organism. In the same way the degree of ventilation pro- gressively decreases ; it should resume the value normal to periods of repose four minutes after the work, whatever it may be, is ended. The tonographic curves also return to their initial amplitude (Fig. 44). FIG. 44. The whole science of human labour is condensed in these four laws, and the whole art of working, together with the whole of physical education, resides in their application. Duly to proportion effort and pace, to enforce intervals of repose this is the secret of a normal activity, exempt from overwork, and, what is even better, favourable to the complete develop- ment of the functions of life. Whether in physical or intel- lectual exertion, everything is a question of measure, of discipline ; that is to say, of order and harmony. THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 103 But this order and this harmony must yield both an outward and an inward irradiation, must control the living machine internally as well as in its relations with the outer world, for life is subject to the incessant influence of numerous physio- logical and cosmical agencies. Human activity is therefore dependent upon these, and we shall see by what powerful bonds they hold it and control it. XL. A. INTERNAL FACTORS OF WORK: OUR FOOD. No motor can fulfil its function and perform work unless it is suitably fed. In the living motor the fuel is known as food or aliment, and the phenomenon of combustion bears the name of nutri- tion ; it is, as we have seen, an oxidation affecting the reserves of the body-cells. " It is not the food eaten at the time that furnishes the energy employed in the physiological tasks of the organism," says Chaveau, " but the potential created with the food which one has eaten previously." x These physiological processes require the presence of oxygen and water and certain saline substances salts of lime (carbon- ates and phosphates) and of soda (chloride of sodium), which consolidate the bones and participate in the processes of digestion or humoral equilibrium. Our alimentary rations almost always contain the necessary salts, and the 2 to 3 litres of water which an adult requires. And all our foodstuffs contain, in varying proportions, three kinds of alimentary material : fats (bacon, butter, etc.), albuminoids (white of egg, lean meat), and carbohydrates (sugars and starches). Expe- rience has shown that alimentation should furnish our bodies with one gramme of albuminoids per kilogramme of body weight in order to make up for organic wear and tear. Above all, it has taught us and the theory of energetics confirms this that the work of the muscles, and probably that of the nervous system, consumes carbohydrates almost exclusively. The true source of available energy resides in these saccharine aliments, which are derived from the glycogen accumulated in the liver. Proceeding from the liver to the muscles, they 1 It is impossible to enter into the problem of alimentation here. I must refer the reader to Le Moteur Humain, pp. 176-217. 104 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION are there transformed into useful or mechanical energy, almost without waste ; 100 calories of the said aliments really yielding 100 calories of available work, either in the muscle-cells or the nerve-cells. The fats and albuminoids, on the other hand, are a wasteful fuel, less digestible than the carbohydrates and not so pure ; this is especially true of the albuminoids, for they give rise to the toxic products which hasten the advent of fatigue. In the process of transformation they lose, respectively, 15 per cent, and 45 per cent, of their avail- able energy, a loss which takes the form of a mere production of heat, which is a degraded form of energy. Thus, the more active the life we lead, the greater use we shall make of the foods which contain carbohydrates ; and there is, in principle, a minimum of albuminoids a compara- tively small minimum which should be absorbed by the body, and a larger minimum of carbohydrates. With the latter excess is an advantage ; with the former, an inconvenience, and often a danger. Let us add that food best stimulates the digestive secretions when it is slightly seasoned ; that it is more digestible in some states than in others ; concerning which we shall give a few hints later on. The manner in which a dish is prepared, according to Pavloff, acts in a psychical or mental fashion on the powers of digestion (see 10) ; so that the traditions of the culinary art are deserving of respect. It is enough to improve the quality of the food provided and to provide it in sufficient quantities. XLI. Hunger, Inanition. Bad or insufficient alimentation depresses the vital forces and gives rise to anaemia. In inanition nervous disorders may make their appearance, although the brain is of all the organs that which offers the greatest resistance to material exhaustion. But the muscles suffer great losses ; hence it is the labourer who suffers most from hunger. It is the same with the child, by reason of the necessities of growth ; the child who has been ill-nourished suffers damage which the best of diets will never make up for. I have found that it is of advantage, when endeavouring to THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 105 repair such damage, not to exceed a proportion of 2 grammes of albuminoids to the kilogramme, and to depend upon carbo- hydrates ; in other words, the process of repair must be pro- gressive and gradual. I would say as much to those young men who are ardently devoted to athletic sports, and who undergo exertions whose effects can be repaired, and which can be rendered useful, only by a correct alimentation. Hunger is a defensive sensation, which begins by a dragging pain in the stomach, accompanied by powerful contractions. By means of thin bladders of rubber introduced into this organ it is possible to register these contractions, and to measure their intensity, their rhythm, and their synchronism with those of the lower oesophagus. 1 The pangs of hunger are next reflected by the pharynx and the temples, producing headaches. They are keener during fatiguing exertion, espe- cially in winter. Lastly, we know that some persons suffer from bulimia, or a morbidly large appetite, and are obliged to eat incessantly in order to satisfy their devouring hunger. But, apart from this abnormal condition, one should avoid excessive eating, and beware of the refinements of cookery. Unfortunately we eat too much, and we vary our food too greatly. The result is an excess of digestive labour, which involves a supple- mentary expenditure of energy ; 2 the stomach becomes dilated, the respiration is embarrassed, while vertigo, insomnia, and cardiac acceleration often make their appearance ; one becomes unfit for hard physical work, and even the mind is obscured. The toxic effect of these copious rep'asts is abso- lutely incontestable. And, on the other hand, an excess of alimentary excitation fatigues the nerves of the digestive system. " The majority of choice dishes . . . irritate the organs of digestion and secretion in an injurious manner." 3 The case is complicated by the appearance of more serious disorders, such as rheu- matism, gout, albuminuria, or obesity, according as the diet 1 Carlson and Lukhardt, Amer. Journ. of Physiol, Vol. XXXIIL, p. 126, 1914. 2 Laulanie, Comptes Rendus Biologie, p. 548, 1904. 3 E. Metschnikoff , Etudes sur la nature humaine, p. 379, Paris, 1908. 106 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION is chiefly fatty or albuminous. An abundant diet is the glaring defect of middle-class society. XLII. Alimentary Rations. It must always be remem- bered that the alimentary ration which will suffice to make up for our material expenditure, whether resting or working, and to cover the expenses of bodily maintenance, must be regulated by the mass of the body and the amount of mus- cular work performed. In order that it may be a true ration of maintenance it must suffice to make up for the wear and tear of the organism, and to maintain the weight of the subject. A constant weight is, in the adult, evidence of the integrity of the functions and the suitable nature of the ration. Abstin- ence from albuminoid foodstuffs results in organic wasting ; the weight decreases by about 1 per cent, daily. 1 The diet, therefore, must supply, in addition to the necessary calories of heat, an alimentation perfectly adapted to the most definite physiological needs. It should contain the minimum of albu- minoids or proteids, which, as we have already seen, is 1 gramme per kilogramme of body-weight, and a minimum of carbo- hydrates, the proportion of which will increase with the severity of the work performed. Fats, which will not be largely represented in these rations, will, however, be present in larger proportions when the weather is cold. And these foodstuffs should always be prepared in such a way as to stimulate the appetite, that complicated reflex by which the body and the mind interpret their inner life, a reflex which it is profitable to consult. Food should always be well masticated and slowly ingested into the alimentary canal. It would seem that there were formerly, in Rome, persons whose duty it was to teach the art of mastication. And more recently the Fletcherites have made an important hygienic duty of the act of mastication. Fletcherism deserves more than a mere mention. In 1890 a wealthy American, Horace Fletcher, hardly forty years of age, resolved to cure himself of an evil from which he suffered greatly : obesity. *S. Hatal, Amer. Journ. of Physiol, Vol. XII., p 116, 1904 THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 107 " He had become incapable of conducting his business, of frequenting the clubs, of fighting the battle of social life ... he found himself so physically disordered that the insurance companies refused to accept him. . . . Then he bethought himself that the derangement of his mechanism was due especially to over-eating, and he himself sought the method of treatment : this was an economical alimentation" He decided upon a diet containing a large proportion of carbo- hydrates and a quantity of proteids corresponding to 0-60 grammes per kilogramme of body-weight. This diet consisted only of vegetables, cereals, sugar, and milk, and represented 1,600 to 1,610 calories for a man of 72 kilogrammes (about 11 stone 5 Ibs.) ; an insufficient figure, but the diet was a suitable one for a person who had to consume the fatty surplus of his own obesity. We may remark that a fasting man, during complete repose, expends a minimum of 1 calorie per kilogramme-hour, according to a mass of concordant observa- tions. 1 In Fletcher's case this would give a value of Ic x 72 X 24 = 1,734 calories. By this means Fletcher restored himself to a remarkable state of physical and moral health. During the whole of the year 1903 he consented even to become the subject of experi- ments conducted by the physiologist Chittenden, which were the basis of a very valuable survey of the question of hygienic and economical alimentation, and the origin of Fletcherism, for this singular person found many zealous followers. These latter discipline their sense of taste, gradually triumphing over the tyranny of the palate, by accustoming themselves to relish patiently masticated foodstuffs, which, turned over and over upon the tongue, stimulate the secretion of the digestive juices, and eventually become agreeable. Elaborate cookery is, justifiably, rigorously opposed. Fletcherism is merely a matter of training. Some will regard a rhyth- mical, calculated* regulated gymnastic of this kind as excessive in connection with the elementary act of mastication. There is a certain amount of tiuth in this, but I would gladly see it 1 R. Tiegerstedt, Arch. di. fisiol, Vol. VII., p. 426, 1909. 108 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION cure us of the opposite excess, of the tachyphagia, of which we are, at table; the often unconscious victims. We will conclude by indicating the method of evaluating and apportioning our aliments, that is, of determining the rations proper to each according to his age and the nature of his work. In this volume, which is at once elementary and practical, I shall always be careful to refrain from giving advice impossible to follow. The best advice is that which respects the scientific truth and wins men to follow it. The chains of the laboratory must not too closely shackle the limbs of educa- tion, for education is a thing which lives and moves. TABLE OF ALIMENTARY RATIONS. (Number of calories per kilogramme of body weight per 24 hours. 1 ) 1. LIGHT OCCUPATIONS AND INTELLECTUAL WORK (authors, scientists, business men, officials, schoolmasters, clergymen, jewellers, tailors, dressmakers, etc.): 30 calories (macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, etc., fresh vegetables, milk, the more delicate kinds of fish, pastry,.etc., to be given preference), of which proteid should form one-tenth. 2. WORK OF MEDIUM HEAVINESS (skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers, hairdressers, dyers, chimney-sweeps, shop-assistants, domestic servants, etc.) : 36 calories (same remarks as above; a moderate consumption of bread, and a very moderate consumption of meat 75 grammes [2-6 oz.] daily; dried vegetables). 3. FATIGUING WORK (soldiers, sailors, navvies, dock labourers, artisans, mechanics, labourers, agricultural and other, etc.) : 50 to 70 calories, according to the amount of work performed (the above remarks apply; while bread, potatoes, and fruits, such as prunes, chestnuts, figs, grapes, raisins, etc., should be given, and not more than 200 grins. [7 oz.] of meat). 1 In winter increase all these rations by one-fourth. Rations should be selected and apportioned according to the table which follows. Table of Foods in Ordinary Use. 1 Calories. 641-23 65-53 36-06 70-00 36-94 96-51 347-38 93-81 155-59 830-67 203-46 271-33 279-26 264-71 254-14 60-30 770-91 97-42 45-56 37-90 305-93 298-16 400-43 464-00 62-89 57-88 154-18 15464 523-10 51483 556-40 06-12 409-16 283-69 253-40 1 Unless otherwise stated these values are for fresh foodstuffs bought in Paris. 2 Five days old. 3 A. Balland, Revue de Vintendance, p. 361, 1907. * These are Limousin chestnuts, the most abundant species ; chestnuts form an important article of diet in many departments of France. The country produces about four million quintals (hundredweight approx.). 5 Chocolate, made from the cocoa-bean, contains an alkaloid principle, caffeine, which is a neuro-muscular stimulant. According to our own investigations cocoa contains 0-16 per cent, of caffeine, while 100 grammes of Chocolat M enter contain 1 gr. -40 per 100 grammes. American chocolate is very rich in fats, containing 26-80 per cent, of carbohydrates, 47-10 of fats, and 12-50 of proteids. Its calorific power is 589-74 (Atwater and Woods, ibid.). But the calorific power is no criterion of the quality of a foodstuff. 8 According to Atwater and Woods, Washington Bulletin, no. 28, p. 41 ; 1896. 7 Jules Amar, Le Rendement de la machine humain, pp. 50, 51, Paris, 1900. This value refers to the dried material ; but the average amount of water contained in the freshly made dish is 58 per cent. It contains (in the dry state) -735 per cent, of normal sulphuric acid. (See p. 221.) 109 Per 100 Grammns. Carbohydrates. Fats. Proteids Almonds, dried 18-00 54-20 18-10 Apples 14-41 0-06 1-44 Apricots, fresh 8-10 0-12 0-48 Artichokes, Jerusalem 13-07 0-21 3-68 Asparagus 4-72 0-41 3-38 Bananas 21-90 0-09 1-44 Beans, dried 54-41 1-32 27-32 Beef, sirloin 2-54 1-82 16-30 heart 2-20 4-84 15-25 suet 0-00 90-94 0-76 Brains, calves 0-12 16-33 13-26 Bread, home-made 2 58-04 0-40 7-25 French roll 61-59 0-24 5-99 ,. Viennese 57-29 0-11 7-03 Army 3 53-58 0-10 8-05 Brussels sprouts 9-62 0-58 3-80 Butter 0-00 83-58 2-52 Carp 0-52 3-56 15-34 Carrots 9-50 0-19 1-19 Cauliflower, heart ... 4-89 0-38 3-51 Cheese, Brie 4-85 22-45 19-94 Camembert 5-95 21-65 18-72 Gruyere 1-79 26-95 36-06 ,, Roquefort... 3-00 38-30 25-16 Cherries, sweet 14-12 0-09 1-02 tart 11-97 0-40 1-26 Chestnuts, Limousin 4 33-16 0-89 2-47 : , large (marrons) 32-17 1-08 3-15 Chocolate, ordinary 62-65 25-50 8-35 Menier 5 68-90 21-00 8-75 Cocoa (Congo) 30-25 42-40 11-35 (New York)' 37-70 28-90 21-60 Couscous 7 ... 85-40 2-07 9-80 Dates 67-10 0-06 1-96 Doura 52-50 0-44 8-33 Per lot) Grammes. Carbohydrates. Fats. ProtcicU. Calories. Eggs, hens' Endive Figs, dried Fowl, leg Goose Grapes Gurnard, red Ham (Potted) Hare Haricot beans, fresh dried Herrings, fresh kippered Hazelnuts Horseflesh (steak) Lentils, dried Lettuce (Cos) Liver (calves') Macaroni 1 ... Mackerel Melon (Canteloupe) Milk (cow's) Mushrooms Mutton (leg) Oysters Peaches Pears Peas, green ... dried Pork (leg) Potatoes Prunes (pulp) Babbits (leg) (loin) Raisins Bice, white Salmon Sardines, fresh (pilchards). . . Sole Spinach Skate Strawberries, wild Tomatoes ... Turnip Tripe Veal (round) (fillet) Vermicelli (ribbon) Walnuts Whiting 1-43 4-02 53-67 1-16 0-58 17-69 2-29 0-73 2-55 4-17 53-68 0-46 0-71 13-22 1-44 56-07 1-74 1-83 75-70 0-28 3-72 4-83 3-68 2-36 7-33 10-36 9-93 14-02 57-76 1-58 17-58 71-44 0-77 1-90 76-70 75-22 0-08 0-57 1-11 5-58 0-17 8-85 2-92 5-57 4-73 0-92 1-22 75-21 17-57 11-04 0-10 2-10 10-95 18-85 0-38 0-98 33-83 3-34 0-28 1-44 4-80 14-97 61-16 2-95 1-45 0-15 7-13 0-65 15-04 0-11 4-12 0-32 6-53 1-43 0-48 0-04 0-24 1-40 3-10 0-04 0-40 3-14 1-97 0-56 0-30 20-00 2-33 0-81 0-33 0-45 0-99 0-10 0-06 16-79 2-28 4-08 0-60 41-98 0-46 11-59 1-04 2-26 17-19 14-24 049 22-85 18-60 29-88 1-99 20-18 17-23 51-62 15-58 21-95 2304 0-92 19-12 10-89 15-67 0-60 3-23 4-50 17-86 8-70 0-86 0-24 4-47 20-56 20-30 1-71 2-37 23-49 18-66 0-45 8-89 17-65 22-12 17-26 4-06 22-08 1-36 0-89 0-47 19-06 20-40 22-27 11-58 11-05 16-15 153-85 21-65 248-42 174-58 232-30 7800 112-00 387 10 163-36 27-86 315-93 116-21 350-74 674-64 122-74 337-55 12-27 150-78 361-02 202-26 18-71 70-54 36-45 142-32 78-84 50-37 42-06 78-00 335-85 117-92 79-45 306-26 126-81 102-22 313-41 347-58 254-69 114-23 82-69 42-53 95-32 50-87 16-53 25-31 250-33 108-16 138-43 361-30 499-36 75-53 1-25 1 The various farinaceous pastes macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, semolina, etc. have much the same composition. 110 THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 111 XLIII. Observations, and Particular Cases. As a general rule, it is a good thing to ensure that vegetable foods shall pre- dominate in our diet, without employing them exclusively ; for instance, we should not exclude eggs, milk, and the lighter fish (sole, whiting, gurnard, and fresh-water fish). Great care will be taken that the aliments are of good quality. Restaurants and eating-houses should be subjected to a very strict inspection, for the working-classes are particularly exposed to the frequent consumption of stale or spoiled food- stuffs, to the detriment of their health. Cheapness should never be made an excuse for fraud, and here least of all. The child, after the period of suckling, must eat freely, on account of his growth. He will always thrive best on mother's milk ; otherwise he should be given cow's milk, boiled, and slightly diluted with a 10 per cent, solution of lactose. Then pap and bread and milk will be given, and at the age of 18 months meat broths, finely minced chicken, mashed potatoes, and sweets. At this age, as later in the case of the adult, the bodily weight should be kept under inspection ; in the adult it should be constant, while in the child it should steadily increase. But the treatment of the nursling requires competent supervision ; in cases of anaemia, dyspepsia, or intestinal catarrh a specialist should be consulted without delay. Between the ages of two and nine to ten the child absorbs 90 to 70 calories per kilogramme, or two to three times as much as the adult. One cannot without danger reduce the child's consumption of food, nor his activity, for his organs are undergoing formation, and are learning to perform their functions. Limitation is not education. On the further slope of life, in the aged, the digestive function becomes enfeebled, and the expenditure of energy gradually diminishes. Care must be taken to avoid fatiguing the gastro-intestinal organs, and to provide them with easily digested foods ; farinaceous foods, such as macaroni ajid vermicelli ; very tender white meats, fresh vegetables, and stewed fruits. Sobriety is a necessity in old age ; a sobriety which should extend to all causes of excitation, in order 112 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION that the cerebral system shall not be unduly tried. The economical use of food and stimulants prolongs the life. We may cite the well-known example of the Venetian gentleman Luigi Cornaro (1464-1566), who carried alimentary economy to the verge of parsimony, and at the age of 94 preached his doctrine in a volume " full of wit and common-sense " : 1 Metodo di viuere a lungo, with the sub-title Discorsi della vita sobria (Padua, 1558). An invalid until his fortieth year, having abused his constitution, he succeeded in completely re- establishing his health, and in dispensing with medicine of any kind, thanks to the regimen which he imposed upon himself. When almost a centenarian he even took part in a lawsuit, which caused him great annoyance, without affecting his health ; more, he fell out of a carriage, but the fall left no traces. " Which plainly shows," he writes, " that neither melancholy, nor the passions of the mind, are able to produce unpleasant results in those who live according to rule and that the majority of accidents should not be very dangerous " (Loc. cit., pp. 49, 53). It does not enter into our scheme to deal, even in passing, with the question of diet, or the science which adapts the diet to the state of health. The science of dietetics stands, as it were, at the cross-roads of physiology, pathology, and therapeutics ; it must not be degraded to form one of the departments of the culinary art. The moment a sick man has received competent advice to carry out a given regimen, he should do his utmost to submit to the latter. Order and proportion govern the whole universe. It would be a singular pretention to seek to liberate our vegetative life from their empire ! XLIV. What to Drink. Alimentation, in the true sense of the word, comprises the liquid part of our diet, a very large portion of which is represented by the fluids which enter into our foodstuffs. 1 From an appreciation by Joseph Addison in the Spectator for 13 October, 1711 (see the Introduction to the English translation of Cornaro's book, The Art of Living Long, p. 21, 1903). THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 113 Water is incontestably and par excellence the natural hy- gienic beverage, for it is one of the constituent elements of all living creatures. We too often forget that the end of drinking is a physiological end, which no liquid other than water can accomplish ; the organism strives to maintain an invariable degree of hydration. 1 Further, the water drunk must be wholesome, neither containing salts nor infected with microbes. // is always best to boil it and to let it stand for twenty-four hours in the cellar. It is then free from all contamination, and one may be certain of having a water agreeable to the taste. On the other hand, water favours the digestion, and in particular the digestion of fats and carbo- hydrates. 2 It infallibly quenches the thirst, for thirst is sensation resulting from a deficiency of water, just as the appetite is a sensation announcing hunger, or the need of food. Both sensations originate in a derangement of the dynamic condition of the cells, which results in a disturbance of the nervous system. The custom has unfortunately prevailed of regarding alcoholic liquors as the equivalents of water ; and almost everybody makes use of them. This is an absolutely mistaken attitude. Alcohol is above all a fuel ; it yields more than 7 calories per gramme ; if taken in doses of 50 to 60 grammes per diem it will supply the organism with heat, and will in part do the work of the ordinary foodstuffs in this connection. But it should never be regarded as an immediate source of increased energy, whether mechanical or intellectual. Above all we must not lose sight of the toxic effects of alcohol. The nerve-cell is particularly sensitive to these effects. Wines, beer, and cider produce such effects by reason of the alcohol which they contain ; but spirituous liquids add to these toxic effects the terrible effects of the stupefying ethers and essences which enter into their composition ; and their sale like that of absinthe, now absolutely forbidden in France, thanks to the enlightened zeal of M. Ribot should be pro- hibited, or at least restricted. The other alcoholic drinks 1 Terroine, Comptes rendus Biologie, 28 March, 1914. "Mattill and Hawk, The. Journ. of the Amer. Chem. Soc.,Vo\. XXXIII., p. 1,978, 1912. I 114 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION may be permitted without serious danger, provided their daily consumption does not exceed, say, half a litre of wine (-88 of a pint, or about 17| oz.) or a litre of beer or cider (1-76 pints, or about 35 oz.). A hygienic doctrine which should recommend such principles would be understood by all, and would in the long run triumph over the hideous evil known as alcoholism. 1 XLV. The Effects of Alcoholism. It may be as well to describe the ravages of this disease. " The best means of insuring oneself against drunkenness," said Anacharsis the Scythian, a Greek philosopher of the sixth century B.C., '* is to represent to oneself the degradation of drunken persons." I will say nothing as to this moral deterioration ; but what of the physical ! The entire digestive system is irritated ; its secretions accumulate ; gradually irritation gives way to an ulcer which perforates the stomach. The " morning phlegm " is the first symptom of this degenerative process. Kyrie and Schopper 2 have stated that the alcohol of wine, employed in doses of 100 to 110 grammes daily, causes gastric ulcerations, with congestion and degeneration of the liver, finally leading to hepatic cirrhosis. The liver, that storehouse of glycogen, from which the muscles are revictualled by means of the blood, and which assists in the production of the heat of the organism, is profoundly impaired ; it becomes hard and fibrous, and ceases to fulfil its manifold functions. And the circulatory system ? Alcohol has a depressing action on the heart ; the contractile power of this organ rapidly diminishes ; it can no longer exert its normal effort, nor its ordinary capacity for work ; the nervous mechanism regulating its action is paralysed as soon as the dose reaches 2 grammes per kilogramme of body-weight 3 ; the frequency of the heart-beats diminishes, and the depressing effect is revealed by a prolonged diastolic pause. 4 1 1 have given all the arguments, whether of fact or of doctrine, on which my conclusions are based, in Le Moteur Humain, pp. 198, 283 and 596. Pentimalli and Di Christina, Archiv. di Fisiol, Vol. VIII., p. 131, 1910. 3 Kyrie and Schopper, Arch. f. Path. Anat. u. Phys., Vol. CCXV., p. 309, 1914. 4 Chistoni, Arch. int. de Physiol, Vol. XIV., p. 201, 1914 ; Galleotti and Di Jorio, Arch. di. Fisiol, Vol. XII., p. 401, 1914. THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 115 Degeneration of the heart may result in death ; the blood- vessels, moreover, become less elastic, and their rupture is of frequent occurrence : hence disastrous haemorrhages. In this connection we observe, as on the confines of old age, a degeneration of the tissues a sclerification, giving rise to arterio-sclerosis. The observations of Lian * have estab- lished that all heavy drinkers suffer from arterial hypertension. Lastly, the nervous disorders. Lussana, who experimented with doses averaging 2 grammes per kilogramme of body weight, found that the tonicity of the muscles and the reflexes was enfeebled, a result due to nervous depression. 2 And if the presence of alcohol in the organism is sought for, it will be found that it localises itself, by preference, in the brain and the medulla oblongata, finally arresting the respiration and producing asphyxia. 3 The alcoholic subject frequently dies suddenly, and from asphyxia. Other manifestations of alcoholism are observed, the most familiar of which are : the characteristic trembling of the hands, headaches, vertigo, cramps, hallucinations of the senses, nightmares, and above all, delirium tremens, a violent crisis in which the conscience disappears, rendering the man capable of any crime. Even when he is still far removed from this acute stage, the control of his sensations and the associa- tion of his ideas are far less assured than usual ; the mind wavers ; there is moral and physical deterioration. The alcoholic offers little resistance to infectious maladies ; it is on him that tuberculosis takes its firmest hold ; and in him accumulate all the morbid taints and germs which, by an inevitable physiological law, he will transmit to his descend- ants 4 ; his children, weakly, atrophied, or insane, die at an early age. Had not the first legislators this law of heredity in mind when they announced that God would punish the transgressor even to the third and fourth generation ? 1 C. Lian, Bull. Acad. de Medecine, 9 November, 1915. 2 Lussana, Arch, di Fisiol.,Vo\. X., p. 269, 1913. 3 Sabbatini, ibid., Vol. VII., pp. 49-80, 1909. *Stookard and Papanicolaou, The American Naturalist, Vol. L., February and March, 1916. 116 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The alcoholic is incapable of work which demands atten- tion, delicacy of touch, and precision of movement. If he is wounded, if he breaks a bone, his recovery is slow and difficult. He becomes a charge upon society much more readily than the sober man. How should society not treat him with disdain ? Concerning the organisation of the struggle against alcohol- ism and tuberculosis, see a capital article by Albert Robin, 1 and a very interesting discussion between Chauveau and Landouzy. 2 XLVI. Physiological Conditions. The organisation of labour is founded on individual aptitudes and the general condition of the organism (see Chapter II). An attentive medical examination will enable one to discover whether the vocation which the subject intends to follow is in accord- ance with his physiological resources. Intellectual labours and those demanding rapidity of movement exhaust the cerebral energy, especially when protracted. Thinkers whose health is poor, whose nervous potential is low, are obliged to interrupt their work by frequent intervals of repose, and to avoid lengthy tasks; the connection to be established between their ideas, and the proportions to be maintained between the parts of an immense and complex whole, would compel them to exert an effort of attention of which they are not capable. If they persist in such an effort, disorders of the sight or hearing, or the impatience of the neurasthenic, warn them of the danger, neurasthenia being merely a form of nervous exhaustion. In manual occupations these disorders affect the co-ordination of the movements : the sportsman and the athlete are no longer sure in their movements ; typists, shorthand-writers, and compositors " drop their words " ; dressmakers miss their stitches. Their sensitiveness, generally exquisite, cannot be replaced by determination ; there must be organic fitness. Alcoholics, accordingly, should be abso- lutely excluded from such pursuits. I might say almost as 1 A. Robin, Bull. Acad. Med., 15 July, 1913. 2 A. Chaveau, C. B. Acad. Sciences, Vol. CLXIL, pp. 855 and 932; June, 1916 ; L. Landouzy, ibid., pp. 903 and 967. THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 117 much of anaemic subjects. In branches of labour which entail the exertion of great strength sprains, dislocations, cramps, and lacerations of the muscles are of fairly frequent occurrence ; so that a robust constitution is requisite, exempt from any defects which predispose one to accidents. Alco- holics are not fitted for such work ; in them the muscles of the heart are debilitated, and liable to failure, which leads to syncope ; nor are diabetic subjects, for their muscular force is diminished by at least fifty per cent. ; 1 nor those suffering from declared tuberculosis, nor ruptured persons, etc. It is obvious that those who have been wounded in the war, or have suffered injury in industrial accidents, but particularly the former, should be subjected to an examination which will compute the degree of their physiological resistance to fatigue. Neither women nor minors who have not attained their eighteenth year should be allowed to undertake heavy work, for they have not the necessary strength, their musculature being insufficient. Women are weakened by menstruation and by pregnancy ; the pains and the lassitude in the loins and legs persist for four or five days after each menstruation ; while as a result of pregnancy the womb invades the space beneath the diaphragm, compresses the heart, and diminishes the volume of the respirations. The thoracic muscles are in a state of unnatural contrac- tion, which results in an actual condition of permanent fatigue, and there is also a slo wing-down of the processes of nutrition. During this period an industrial environment is highly per- nicious, for pregnant women are highly sensitive to toxic substances and infectious germs, 2 which, passing from the body of the mother to that of the child, result in the deteriora- tion or death of the latter. Here, if ever, social hygiene may profitably display its foresight, by organising prophylaxis and preparing the race to resist disease. Finally, attention should be given to the condition of the senses, which are rarely perfect. The sight of the myopic should be corrected, so that they need not stoop over their 1 Ducceschi and Albarenque, Archiv. di Fisiol, Vol. VIII., pp. 589-600, 1910. 2 Lewin, Berl Klin. Wochensch., p. 701, 1905. 118 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION work ; otherwise the body will become misshapen, acquiring the " scholar's stoop," and will be more subject to fatigue. The horizon of the myopic subject is limited ; the concave lenses seem to enlarge and illumine it ; the worker modifies his attitudes, corrects his movements, and shows a better appreciation of the relative proportions of objects. This correc- tion is indispensable in the case of jewellers, engravers, com- positors, authors, scholars, etc. Colour vision must be investigated in the case of painters, decorators, dyers, railwaymen, etc. Those who neglect this precaution may encounter many causes of mortification. The sense of hearing gives the worker his normal demeanour, as it gives the singer his note and the orator his tone. It marks the rhythm of speech. It also regulates the movement of tools whose action is periodical planes, saws, files, etc. Blacksmiths and navvies, for example, strike with their hammers in such a way that the latter do not clash with one another. Bi-auricular hearing helps us to locate the origin of sounds with accuracy ; it is, moreover, far more sensitive than the hearing of one ear only. Finally, in some pro- fessions it is important that those who follow them shall possess an acute sense of smell. Such are pharmacists, vint- ners, oil merchants, cooks. The sense of smell may be refined by practice, just as it becomes fatigued by the continual influence of odours (as in the case of leather-dressers, sewer- men, etc.). We might refer further to the sense of touch, but of this we have already spoken, and we shall return to it when dealing with the problem of the blind ; so that we may now conclude this brief survey of the internal factors of human activity. XLVII. B. EXTERNAL FACTORS OF WORK : THE ATMOS- PHERIC ENVIRONMENT. For the same reason I shall be sparing of details of the external factors, the chief of which is the tem- perature of the air. When this temperature falls the respira- tory exchanges are stimulated, and the production of heat increases, enabling our bodies to remain at their normal thermal level. It is by the intervention of those contractions of the THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 119 cutaneous muscles which we know as a shiver (Ch. Richet) that this phenomenon of extra stimulation is produced. It originates in a peripheral reflex. 1 As the external temperature rises we have less need of this thermogenesis. At 20 Cent. (68 Fahr.) the organism enters the zone of indifferent tem- peratures, and the minimum of respiratory exchanges corre- sponds with a temperature of 27 to 28 Cent. (80-6 to 824 Fahr.). 2 But having regard to the contractive effort of the muscles, one cannot, without greatly diminishing this effort, labour in an environment heated above 18 Cent. (64-4 Fahr.). In summer, or in hot climates, the muscles contract swiftly, but are incapable of sustained action ; it is the muscular fibre itself which is debilitated, for the nerve- centres are little affected by temperatures between 95 and 104 Fahr. 3 The toxic waste products become abundant ; they exist in the blood, the perspiration, and the urine. It then becomes necessary to cleanse the interior of the organs by a moderate vegetarian diet and by the use of beverages in which water predominates, and at the same time to cleanse the exterior of the body by washing the surface of the skin thoroughly and frequently. In winter, or in cold climates, the movements are languid, slow, but capable of sustained action ; the nervous reactions lack vivacity, and eventually the worker does not properly co-ordinate his movements, and modifies or controls them without delicacy. I have noted in many workshops that the best work is obtained in a temperature of 13 to 14 Cent. (55-4 to 57-2 Fahr.), when the buildings are spacious and well ventilated. Offices and living-rooms should be heated to 17 to 18 Cent. (62-6 to 64-4 Fahr.). For persons whose work keeps them motionless, the temperature of the air should not fall below 62-4 Fahr. The atmosphere subjects us also to various other influences : barometrical pressure, hygrometrical conditions (humidity or 1 Sjostrom, Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., Vol. XXX., p. 1., 1913. 2 Ignatius, Lund, and Warri, ibid., Vol. XX., p. 226, 1908. 3 Broca and Richet, Arch, de Physiol., p. 871, 1897. 120 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION dryness), aerial currents, dust, etc. The inconveniences resulting therefrom are manifold. In weaving-sheds and spinning- mills it is important to alleviate the heat and humidity by the use of proper ventilating apparatus ; otherwise serious symptoms will make their appearance ; the perspiration being diminished in the warm, saturated atmosphere, there results a retention of toxic substances in the blood, a process of slow poisoning, which is betrayed by the anaemic aspect of textile operatives, and their diminished resistance to infection. The influence of barometrical pressure and of altitude is also interesting ; but it is a complex question, for which we must refer the reader to our volume on Le Moteur Humain, pp. 322- 332. The cold adds its effect to that of the altitude ; the organism is weakened thereby ; and while the heart remains normal, with a constant arterial pressure, 1 we find that the muscular force is diminished, while the nerve-centres function irregularly. 2 An engineer has even stated that " at an altitude of 5,000 metres (16,250 ft.) a mine of golden sovereigns all ready minted would hardly be exploitable." We must also mention the case in which work is done in compressed air, as in diving-bells, caissons, diving-dress, boring- shields, etc. Working under such conditions often gives rise to " caisson disease." The respiration slows down ; the compressed air is dissolved in the blood in greater volume than usual, and when decompression occurs it leaves the blood, being liberated into the cellular tissue. The results are itching, pricking pains, and sometimes tumefactions. The most dangerous moment is that of emerging from the caisson. " One pays only on leaving," as the French proverb has it. Gaseous embolisms are more frequent and more dangerous in fat subjects ; they may be fatal. On diving there is a ringing in the ears, sometimes accom- panied by pain, which disappears upon the act of swallowing. During work a certain difficulty of movement is experienced, with a feeling of rigidity in the joints. 1 Guillemard and Regnier, C.B. Acad. Sc., 8 November, 1913. 2 A. Mosso, Fisiol. del uomo suite Alpi, pp. 7, 11, Milan, 1897 (2nd ed., 1910). THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 121 Lastly, the arterial pressure increases by 1 to 3 centimetres, denoting an excessive cardiac effort ; and there is a marked tendency to fatigue. The blood presents the characteristics of anaemia ; there is a diminution of the number of red blood corpuscles, and of the amount of haemoglobin, which persists after work has ceased ; these are indications of a certain derangement of the haematopoiesis, or the process of blood- making. 1 XLVIII. Clothing. We protect ourselves from the effects of temperature by covering our bodies more or less thoroughly ; but we are ill protected against the variations of atmospheric pressure and humidity. The choice of clothing should satisfy a threefold condition : it should protect the body from the cold, or the heat of the sun, should permit of a ready cutaneous transpiration, and should leave the limbs their full liberty. Wool is by far the most hygienic material for clothing ; still, in summer one may have recourse to white flannelette, which absorbs the solar rays with difficulty, and prevents a too rapid evaporation of the perspiration. Workers who are employed on the heavier kinds of physical work would do well always to wear woollen clothing, more or less light in quality. The belt should be replaced by elastic braces, and no tight garments should be worn to impede the circulation and respiration ; a tightly buckled belt makes sustained effort difficult, and diminishes the thoracic expansion. We need hardly add that cleanliness of clothing is conducive to the health of the wearer, while it shows that he is careful, heedful, and orderly. XLIX. Entertainments Amusements Rest. Many are the factors which cannot be mentioned in this survey, but which favour or impede human activity. But I should like to say a few words as to amusements. They are useful ; they are even necessary ; in the uniformly hard life of the worker they are actual nervous restoratives; the stimulations which they 1 Solovtsov, Rousski Vratch, Vol. XIII., pp. 511, 616, 1914. 122 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION afford the senses cause a reinforcement of the motor reactions. If, as has been proved by experiment, these stimulations are sometimes disagreeable and inhibitory, the worker avoids them. Consequently any good performance or entertainment which is of good quality, and wholesome, constitutes a factor of work. A recreation-room, close to the workshop or factory, is soon paid for by the increased production which results from the contented spirit of the workers. Here the daily hours of rest will find excellent employment. And I imagine that the working-man will form a habit of devoting a portion of his weekly rest to instructive and recreative walks, or merely to amusements ; the rest being devoted to the affairs of domestic life ; to his family, to his home. If he regulates his life, if he has a little method, these last occupations will not occupy him long, nor weigh heavily upon him ; so that the weekly holiday will be what it ought to be, humanly and physiologically; a rest, which repairs the organism, a veritable truce with fatigue. How many so understand it ? It would not be difficult to count them. L. Equipment and Labour. I will remark, in conclusion, that the very conditions of muscular work, regulated as to effort, pace, and hours of labour, are also properly external factors and the most important of external factors. How- ever, we have considered them at the beginning of this chapter. There remains the question of equipment. It is very obvious that every worker should get together a stock of tools adapted to the nature of his work, selecting the best, and that he should adopt the attitude which involves the least fatigue. It is the same whether he reads and writes, sews and embroiders, or observes and experiments. It is particularly important in the case of the working-man, and most important in that of the wounded man, the cripple, who is to be re-educated or re- adapted. There are three conditions which should be realised : To arrange the workshop or factory in such a way that there is no loss of time or energy. To determine the shape, the quality, and the pace which THE FACTORS OF LABOUR 123 will ensure the maximum output from the plant, and to favour the introduction of machinery. To fulfil, in the workshop, the conditions of lighting and ventilation which make for normal activity. I will illustrate these principles by an example drawn from the Art of the Mason, specially worked out by Gilbreth : 1 1. Is the bricklayer left-handed ? The position of the bricks and mortar will be changed, in order to facilitate his movements. 2. The hods of bricks will weigh from 27 to 40 kilogrammes (about 60 Ibs. to 90 Ibs.) according to the strength of the hod- man ; the hammer for breaking material will be 4 Ibs. in weight, and the hammer for shaping 4-3 Ibs. ; the spade for shifting materials will be 21| Ibs. in weight, and two different trowels will be provided for ordinary bricks and agglomerate bricks. 3. Bricks and mortar will be arranged by an assistant within reach of the bricklayer, so that he is able to seize the brick by a natural movement, which makes use of gravity, and not by a constrained movement ; above all, so that he does not need to stoop or move from his place or sway his body in one direction or another. 4. The mortar which is dropped during work will not be picked up ; a bag of cement will not be opened by tearing the paper and separating the various thicknesses ; the paper will be cut open by a blow of the spade, at the base of the bag, and the latter will be emptied by jerking the other end of it. Lastly, it costs less to use good cement to fill a gap less than half a brick in width than to break a brick or to look out a piece to fill the gap. 2 To these measures, which simplify and accelerate the worker's task, we must add such as economise his efforts, whether this involves a new implement, enabling him to do the work without fatigue, or the use of perfected machinery, whose control is mere play to the worker. When we think of the great number of weak and mutilated workers who would 1 F. Gilbreth, Motion Study, 1911. 2 For details see Le Moteur Humain, pp. 579-583. 124 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION find, in such a transformation of the technical instruments of work, the means to make themselves useful, and to earn a secure living, one can but hope that such innovations will be made in our industries, which are, unfortunately, slow to shake off the yoke of routine. These few hints will enable the reader to appreciate the importance of a rational organisation of the technical instru- ments of work, and of the workers, and of the economy thereby effected, and the lessons which it so abundantly teaches. Without such organisation the art of labour would not exist, and this art is the source of all prosperity. CHAPTER VI THE ART OF LABOUR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LI. The modes of human activity are infinite. They must be analysed into their constituent elements mechanical, physiological, and psychological in order that we may effect all the improvements desirable in each of these spheres. The most urgent task of social reform is precisely to investigate the means of developing, and devoting to useful ends, our human resources of energy. This task is one which concerns the economist, the engineer, the legislator, the physician, the parent, and the teacher, for its aspects are social energetics, manual craftsmanship, and physical education* The activity of man is one as regards its essential laws, but its forms and aspects are varied, as are its applications. We shall consider these only so far as will enable us to take a rapid survey of them. LIL A. The Handicrafts. Examples the use of the file and the plane. 1 A fair idea may be obtained of the method underlying our efforts by the following example, relating to the use of the file. As we have already explained, the tool is equipped and con- nected with appliances which make a direct record of all the efforts exerted by the worker. These give, in a graphic form, the path and the speed of his movements, a precise idea of their regularity or their detects, and the amount of muscular force expended. Jules Amar, Journal de Physiologic, p. 62, 1913. 125 126 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION On the other hand, the energy which the organism devotes to the work performed is estimated in calories, very exactly, by measuring and analysing the respiratory exchanges. The apparatus employed is shown in Fig. 45, where we see a young apprentice using the file. It will be noted that the mouth- FIG. 45. An Apprentice using the File. Method of estimating Fatigue. piece of the respiration gauge is supported by a metallic band which fits over the crown of the head. Pure air is supplied from without by means of a flexible tube, and the gases expired are collected in a gauge, from which a sample is taken later on for analysis. Tried first, and many times, upon myself, this method has for ten years given proof of its sim- plicity and reliability. During that time it has been applied THE ART OF LABOUR 127 to about a thousand persons Parisian working-men, soldiers, and natives of North Africa. It is therefore of universal applicability, and, for that reason, eminently scientific. The use of large metal-workers' files, when investigated on the lines already explained, has proved to be one of the most interesting subjects for consideration. If the man who handles the tool is a good workman, skilful and well trained, we find that graphic analysis furnishes us with regular curves, which are obtained without an excessive expenditure of force ; the muscular action is uniform and disciplined, while the respiration is regular, as we may see by the tracings in Fig. 25 (p. 72). FlG. 46. Economic Attitude of Man filing Metal. By correcting the trifling defects of attitude displayed by the worker, as well as his conventional or rule-of-thumb habits, in the light of the results of our dynamic and energetic measure- ments, we have been able to determine the normal position of the feet, the proper distance of the body from the vice, vertically and horizontally, and the positions of the hands with regard to the tool (Fig. 46). When these conditions are fulfilled the worker's fatigue is diminished without injury to his daily output. We may note, in Fig. 25, the great regularity of the work, the truly horizontal action of the file being represented by uniform curves, while the return strokes are, as they should be, effortless ; the subject, moreover, is working at a normal pace, the stroke of the file utilising the whole working length of 128 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION the tool. After eight months of experiment and investigation we succeeded in working out the laws of the maximum of production with the minimum of fatigue, the metal being brass, and the file a " half-rough " tool 35cm. (about 13| in.) in length. " The body of the worker should be vertical, but without rigidity, at a distance of 20 cm. (about 8 ins.) from the vice, the latter being at the level of the navel ; the position of the feet should be as follows: the angle of divergence, 68; the distance between the heels, 25 cm. (10 ins.) ; the left arm should be completely extended, and should press upon the tool rather more heavily than the right arm, their respective efforts being 8-5 and 7-5 kilogrammes (18f and \1\ Ibs.). The return stroke of the file should consist of a simple sliding movement, without pressure. Finally, the rhythm of the movements is 70 per minute. " All these conditions being fulfilled, 5 minutes' work will be followed by I minute s complete repose, the arms falling to the sides. " The respirations and the heart-beats then undergo an average increase of not more than 25 and 20 per cent, respec- tively, in comparison with the figures obtained during repose. The local fatigue of the right forearm is endurable, while general fatigue is hardly perceptible. The maximum output is at least double the ordinary output of the great majority of workers." In this particular case 600 grammes (1-32 Ibs.) of filings were removed per diem, the day consisting of 7 hours' effective work. LIII. APPRENTICES. In addition to this ideal output, we should determine an average output, that accomplished by the majority of workers who know their trade, and are normally constituted. This varies little. It is found to correspond with the graphic records of similar regular efforts. We find, in fact, that muscular action is exercised in the same fashion, and yields the same analysis, or almost the same, in all these men, when they are employing the same tool. It varies only THE ART OF LABOUR 129 in its absolute value, principally because the worker is lacking in skill ; or above all, because he is a beginner. But in the case of atrophy of the muscles, or functional weak- ness, which diminishes the strength and the play of the limbs, FIG. 47. Graphic Records of the Work of an Apprentice filing Metal. the tracings became irregular, the action of the muscles being unequal and obviously abnormal. In the case of a beginner who is handling a large file, the muscular efforts are considerable, unequal, ill-directed, and too 130 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION sudden. At the end of two minutes the young man is out of breath ; his respirations are irregular, proceeding by fits and starts (Fig. 47) ; it is extremely interesting to compare them with those of a good workman. An enforced halt becomes necessary, which is not the intentional and restorative period of repose ; the wastage of energy amounts to 66 per cent, of the best output. The apprentice seems to hurl himself upon the vice ; he leans his body forward, and erects it again on the return stroke of the file ; these oscillations of the body exhaust him, the more so because, in order to put a swing into the forward stroke of the tool, he places his feet incorrectly, lacks equilibrium, and, in a word, annuls a portion of his efforts. When one comes to take a cinematographic photograph of the beginner at the work-bench, his oscillations and ill-controlled movements are strikingly revealed. As a rule the so-called instructor, when correcting a beginner, advises him to hold himself erect and rigid. Now this absence of elasticity results in fatiguing con- tractions of the muscles of the trunk ; moreover, it produces an awkwardness, a gaucherie, which is a common fault of beginners. The classic apprenticeship is not without a certain amount of blockish stupidity. We have, for purposes of demonstration, trained an appren- tice, a boy of 15, with the help of the graphic method. He himself was able to read, in the irregularity of the tracings obtained, the effects of his inexperience, and to correct him- self accordingly ; he assured himself, by the weight of filings removed hour by hour, of the truth of the scientific principles of craftsmanship ; and, apart from personal instruction, he received a veritable object-lesson to the effect that the intelligently trained workman performs more useful work and squanders less of his strength. This was proved by the dynamographic curves and the figures relating to the consump- tion of oxygen. Having illustrated the ideas already expounded by this example of work with the file, we need not analyse in detail the elements of the work performed by the joiner using the jointing-plane (Fig. 48). Here again we have a periodical THE ART OF LABOUR 131 action, a to-and-fro movement involving a determined effort and rhythm. As has already been explained, the apparatus employed makes it possible to discipline the move- ments and to direct them properly. The efforts exerted are likewise disciplined, by the employment of a simple device; 132 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION an electrical circuit, containing an electric bell, is closed by the inscribing stylus and a contact-piece, thus enabling us to limit the pressure of the hand to 5, 10, or 15 kilogrammes (11, 16 J, or 22 Ibs.), as the bell is heard the moment the selected limit is exceeded. In this manner the apprentice can check himself, Working with the Jointing- plane lAAA^ Total eFFort on the handle. of the tool erks to the right. FIG. 49. Records made by a Joiner's Apprentice. and can even acquire, in a very short time, a sense of effort, and a notion of uniform work. If the plank which he is planing is changed for one of a different kind of wood, he perceives that his effort encounters a different resistance, and he quickly gains experience of the value of his tools. The total pressure on the handle, in the case of a jointing-plane in good order, THE ART OF LABOUR 133 amounts, on an average, to 25 kilogrammes (55 Ibs.) and the pressure on the wood to 12 kilogrammes (26-4 Ibs.). From this it follows that the resistance encountered by the iron of the plane is equivalent to 22 kilogrammes (48-4 Ibs.). The muscles of an apprentice or a wounded man may be overtaxed by protracted exertion of this kind. But it is evident that a number of factors go to modify the degree of strength required for such work (the nature of the wood, the thickness of the shavings, etc.), the most important of these being technical instruction (Fig. 49). LIV. THE CASE OF THOSE WHO ARE INCAPACITATED FROM LABOUR. Very different are the conditions of activity in the case of persons who suffer, in any degree whatsoever, from a functional incapacity, or from mutilation. We are speaking of the victims of industrial accidents, and the numerous workers who have been crippled as a result of wounds received in battle. This question we shall consider later on. But we would lay stress upon the pedagogic function of the foregoing method, in re-educating and re-adapting all these wounded soldiers, in determining the degree of physical diminution which they have suffered, and in guiding them to the choice of a trade. Apprenticeship, in any case, demands a re-education in the light of the data obtained by experiment. LV. THE CARRYING OF BURDENS. In 1907 we had occasion to study the carrying of burdens on the lines of the method which we have just explained. 1 Hundreds of workmen and soldiers were placed at our disposal during a period of several months. We will indicate only the results obtained : 1. Walking on the Level On a truly horizontal surface, the most economical rate of progress is 4-5 kilometres (2-8 miles) an hour. This enables an unburdened man to cover 45 to 50 kilometres (28 to 31 miles) in the day, with 2 minutes' rest at every kilometre. When the man is carrying a burden the economical pace, that which costs the organism least, is 4-2 kilometres (2-6 1 Jules Amar, Le rendement de la machine humains, Paris, 1909. (Doctor's Thesis ; o:u of prLit). 134 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION miles) an hour, the burden weighing from 20 to 22 kilogrammes (44 to 48-4 Ibs.). But to realise the maximum daily per- formance, the weight of the load should be 45 kilogrammes (99 Ibs.) and the rate of progress 4-8 kilometres (3 miles) an hour, while the day's work should consist of 1\ hours, with 2 minutes' rest every 600 metres (650 yards). An adult of 25 to 40 years of age can carry this load of 99 Ibs. for an average distance of 26 kilometres (16 miles) a day. But if the pace is increased to 5-5 kilometres (3-4 miles) an hour, the distance will be reduced by almost one half, no matter how the intervals of rest may be arranged. Multiplying the distance in metres by the weight in kilogrammes of the man and his load, and we shall obtain a figure of not more than three million metre-kilogrammes as the daily output, the average being two and a half million metre-kilogrammes. Experiment gives J calorie as the equivalent of 1,000 metre-kil ogrammes . It should be noted that in the carrying of pigs of cast iron,, each weighing 42 kilogrammes (92-4 Ibs.), Taylor, in 1912, obtained similar results, his figure being two and a half million metre-kilogrammes. The rate of progress and intervals of rest, however, do not altogether agree with our results, and his methods are different. But this only makes the result more interesting. As for the foot-soldier, it is best to give him a total burden of 30 kilogrammes (66 Ibs.), while his. normal pace should not exceed 5 kilometres (3-1 miles) an hour. In connection with the subject of troops on the march, this is a fitting moment to speak of a practice of which somewhat erroneous views are held : I mean the practice of resting the men by making them mark time for a few minutes. Now marking time expends energy; it costs a third as much, sometimes half as much, as marching. We have measured this expenditure of energy, and find that it increases in pro- portion to the rhythm of the steps and the height to which the feet are raised. Marking time should therefore be moderated in respect of the two constituent factors, in order that it may be reduced to a mere species of massage, which takes the stiff- ness out of one's legs. THE ART OF LABOUR 135 LVI. 2. Carrying Burdens Upstairs. -In carrying burdens upstairs the conditions of the maximum output are : The weight of the burden should be 40 kilogrammes (88 Ibs.). The pace should be 430 metres (1,370 ft.) per hour. The day's work should be limited to 7 hours, 2 minutes' rest being taken on each journey of 8 metres (26 ft.) measured vertically. The expenditure of energy is then represented by 8 calories per 1,000 kilogramme-metres (1 calorie per 893 foot-pounds), the unit here called a kilogramme-metre x being equivalent, in the energetical meaning of the word, to 16 times the con- ventional unit described as the metre-kilogramme. In other words, we expend the same effort in covering 16 metres on the level as in lifting ourselves through a height of 1 metre in the same time. When we descend a staircase the contraction of the muscles is less than on ascending ; it is employed principally in restraining our tendency to fall, and the more rapid the descent the less energy is expended. We may estimate the saving of energy effected by the muscles as 50 per cent., so that we expend barely 4 calories per 1,000 kilogramme-metres of descent. LVII. 3. Walking on an Inclined Plane. The problem of walking on sloping ground requires special investigation, which demands a costly experimental equipment. I will confine myself here to giving a few results which I was able to obtain by chance means (Fig. 50), and to which the recent contributions of the Carnegie laboratories have added scarcely anything. 2 The slope of my inclined plane varied from 8 to 13 centi- metres in the metre ; that is, the gradient was from 8 to 13 in the 100. Let us call this inclination i (in centimetres). 1 The kilogramme-metre is, of course, the metrical unit of work ; it is the work performed in lifting 1 kilogramme to a height of 1 metre, or in exerting an effort of 1 kilogramme along a path 1 metre in length. 2 Benedict and Murschhauser, Energy transformations during Horizontal Walking, publ. Xo. 231, Washington, 1915. 136 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The distance covered on the slope, L, is deduced from the distance covered on the level by the following ratios : L Ascending : L' = . On descending : L = 1 + lOz These ratios are approximate, but are quite sufficiently exact in practice. LVIII. 4. Cycling (Professional). From a very large number of experiments carried out by means of our ergometric FIG. 50. Study of Walking upon an Inclined Plane. cycle, we determined the fact that the normal rate of pedalling is 45 to 46 revolutions per minute. This corresponds with an economical pace of 16 kilometres (9-94 miles) an hour, which does not overtax the rider. According to Leo Zuntz, the equivalent of 1,000 metre-kilogrammes is 0-27 calories, which is half the equivalent of the work done in walking the same distance. The bicycle should always be adapted to the stature of the cyclist, as regards the height of the saddle and the length of the crank. Attention must be paid to the attitude of the THE ART OF LABOUR 137 body, in order to reduce its oscillations, and to diminish the stooping of the bust. The distance to be covered daily will be determined after examining the physiological condition of the rider, who in any case, but above all if he is addicted to racing, must abstain from the employment of alcoholic drinks. When the bicycle is loaded, or when a cycle pushes a vehicle in front of it, as in the case of tradesmen's delivery cycles, the speed will be diminished in proportion to the load. Sup- posing that the driving wheel and the wheels which carry the load are of the same diameter, then if the load to be carried is represented by P, the speed will be : 35 " = VP v being expressed in kilometres per hour and P in kilogrammes. This formula is deduced from a consideration of the moving forces of the motor and the thing moved. In any case the load should not be so great that v is lower than 5 kilometres (3-1 miles) per hour. LIX. 5. Agricultural Labour. The agriculturist will henceforth be obliged, to a very great extent, to practise the mechanical cultivation of the soil, making use of small motors. We shall see that these will be of considerable utility to discharged and wounded soldiers. But we will briefly give a few figures relating to the best output of agricultural workers. Digging or shovelling requires the employment of a spade or shovel weighing 1-7 kgs. (3f Ibs.). Loaded, it should not weigh more than 10-25 kgs. (20-55 Ibs.) at most. The effort of thrusting the shovel into the earth should average 15 kgs. (33 Ibs.). The wheelbarrow should bear a load of 100 kgs. (220 Ibs.), exerting a pressure of 20 kgs. (44 Ibs.) on the handles, while the resistance offered to propulsion will be only 4 kgs. (8-8 Ibs.). The employment of a two-wheeled barrow is advantageous. From the agricultural point of view properly so-called, every crop and every field constitutes a problem of varying factors ; the nature of the soil ; the nature and quantities 138 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION of manure ; the amount of water used for watering purposes ; its head or pressure ; the tilling of the soil ; the germination of the seeds ; the number of plants per unit of surface ; mowing and reaping ; fighting against parasites and stormy weather ; the propitious seasons for each of these operations ; and the perfecting of the implements employed ; all questions which we could not touch upon here without diverging from our programme. For the rest, we must refer the reader to Book VI. of Le Moteur Humain. LX. B. Physical Training and Functional Re-Education, : To our thinking, the aim of the physiological organisation of labour is essentially utilitarian. Sports, athletic perform- ances, etc., do not greatly interest us ; a robust, well-trained workman is of infinitely greater value than the most famous athlete ; while horse-racing, that sport so beloved by the people, will never make for the progress of the equine race. The war, I imagine, has opened the eyes of all in this respect. However, as an efficacious hygiene, and a bodily discipline, physical training possesses one very potent virtue, from which we must not fail to profit. It teaches us to control our attitudes, and adjust our movements, and it trains our muscles ; that is, it gives human energy full play and develops it to- the utmost. It is applicable (but not exclusively) to normal subjects,, improving them physically and raising their physical standard \ and it may also be extended to persons of weakly constitu- tion, and to those who are physically backward, or are suffering from physiological want ; above all, it may be applied to the functional re-education of the infirm, who are to-day sa numerous. I shall not deal separately with education and re-education ; their object is the same ; their methods are the same, and their province is the same. Both are guided by the same scientific principles. LXI. I. The Principles of Physical Training. The principles of physical training are those of a muscular activity THE ART OF LABOUR 139 varying its effort and its pace by insensible degrees, to be deter- mined by the general condition of the organism. This effort will be constant, for we find a constancy of effort under the ordinary circumstances of life, and physical train- ing should never call upon the total efforts of the individual, subsequently to diminish them. Numerous appliances for the administrations of mechanotherapy wrongly apply this law of decreasing effort, which is known as Schwann's law. This law, formulated by Schwann in 1837, states that " the absolute effort of contraction which remains available in a shortened muscle diminishes in proportion as the contraction increases." Let us note that Chauveau's law expresses the same fact in an inverse, but completer formula : " The force developed by a muscle increases with its degree of contraction, or shortening, and with the resistance which has to be over- come." It follows that muscular force regulates itself in accordance with the resistance encountered ; it does not waste itself in vain ; it may increase to large proportions without involving a shortening of the muscles, just as it may do so by means of this shortening alone. Thus it makes use of isometric and isotonic contractions 1 only to exert very great force. This is not the case in normal activity, and such are not by any means the circumstances adapted to the physio- logical training of the muscles. Whatever the nature of the movement, the object of the effort made will be to overcome a constant resistance, which it will be useful to increase day by day if it is desired to carry out a process of training ; but to vary it in the course of a single exercise, and to subject the tension of the muscles to sudden variations and absolute shocks, which wrench the fibres and lacerate the nervous filaments, is the very negation of any scientific method of functional education. If we abandon the idea of demanding their maximum of effort from the muscles, a course which would risk overtaxing them and cause them to atrophy, there is nothing to justify the principle of variable resistance, or even of decreasing 1 Isometric, without shortening, but with increased tension; isotonic, with shortening but with constant tension of the muscles. 140 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION resistance. Exercises are of physiological value, and are useful, only if the forces called into play are sub-maximal and continuous. In this case they produce their full effect upon the locomotive system, giving suppleness to the joints and developing the power of the muscles. Just as they cause, when pushed to excess, contracture and an elastic fatigue of the tendons, so their harmonious employment provokes irritability of the nervous, muscular, and tendinous fibres, stimulating their elasticity and increasing their strength, and induces an increased respiratory and circulatory activity, which profoundly influences the phenomena of nutrition. From this results what is known as functional hypertrophy. We see the mass of the muscles increase, not by the addition of new fibres, but by the increasing diameter of the old ones, which become thickened, storing up reserves of nitrogenous materials. 1 Physical training and functional re-education, therefore, produce a total effect, a massive action, on definite groups of muscles. They perform a work of synthesis, of synergetic training. The analysis of the movements is necessary in quite special and temporary instances ; but eventually we find ourselves thrown back upon synergy, as it is demanded by nature, in conformity with the most reliable teaching of theory and prac- tice. 2 LXII. Factors of Physical Training. The State of the Organism Alimentation The Seasons. However, physi- cal training does not consist merely of the regulation of muscular action. The spirit of the geometrician is not sufficient. Attention must be paid to the condition of the organs, to the power of the heart and the muscular system, to the elasticity of the respiratory cycle, and to the age of the subject. The child is naturally impelled to squander his energies ; education, while allowing this activity to develope, will impose upon it the necessary discipline, which will preserve him from over- 1 Morpurgo, Arch. ital. Biol, Vol. XXIX., p. 65, 1898. 1 Concerning functional and manual re-education, see the present writer's article in the Journal de Physiologic, pp. 821-871, 1915. THE ART OF LABOUR 141 exertion and bodily malformation ; so that it is important that we should possess clear and sufficient ideas of human physiology. The youth is exposed rather to the risk of over- taxing his brain, in the strenuous endeavour to pass examina- tions, to obtain degrees or other qualifications, which will fit him for his chosen career and reward him with the joys of success. He should be induced to rest from activities of this nature by devoting himself to moderate physical exercise, in games or gymnastics, which, provided all excess be avoided, will restore the balance of his energies. Up to about the forty-fifth year games or sports, pro- vided they are not of a violent nature, constitute a potent factor of neuro-muscular training, and increase the resistance of the organism. As one advances in years the function of the muscles surrenders its pre-eminence to the function of the brain ; the man increases, so to speak, in dignity ; he is more occupied with the things of the mind ; he is more of a man. " All our dignity resides in thought," said Pascal with justice. Physical education would miss its aim if it disregarded the human understanding. Whenever it prescribes exercises calculated to refresh the brain-worker, it will select them from among the simplest and the most automatic. Otherwise the man would be burning the candle at both ends. To the old man, whose movements have lost their vigour and celerity, whose cardio-vascular organs are less resistant and less elastic, moderate efforts and a deliberate pace are suited ; for example, those of walking. Entertainments and amusements, provided they do not evoke violent emotions, are for him reconstituents of the nerve-centres. We must get this idea well fixed in our minds, that life rapidly increases in intensity ; then its intensity remains constant; and then, during a long final period, it diminishes little by little. The curve of energy terminates in a gentle slope (Fig. 51). And as this period corresponds with a moderate and fastidious function of nutrition, so must the expenditure of active energy be limited to the strictly necessary ; otherwise the organism will be in no condition to make up for any extravagant expenditure. 142 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION We see how far physical training is governed by the principles of physiology, and why without these it would go astray. They are its raison d'etre ; without them it could not have been devised. From all antiquity indeed, it has been known that the activity of the muscles maintained the body in health, and games were born of this utilitarian idea. Cyrus, king of the Persians, forbade the eating of a meal before the body was fatigued by some kind of exercise. Lycurgus founded baths and gymnasiums, and, effecting a cruel elimination of weakly subjects, became, after his fashion, Curve of human energy. j . I . Age (years). 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 FIG. 51. Energy produced during the Day of 24 Hours at various Periods of Life. the ancestor of the Eugenists. The Greeks and Romans were wonderful organisers of athletic sports. Hippocrates and Galen expatiated on the subject of sports and games, often exhibiting a sound judgement. Even in the depths of Asia they were the preoccupation of the ruling classes. In the year 23 B.C. wrestling was regarded as a most noble sport in the empire of the Mikados. From gymnastics the next step was to " medicinal gymnastics " or hygiene. Hygiene, therefore, is the basis of physical training. Hygiene should render sports and games wholesome and enjoyable, should regulate them, and determine their intensity and their duration, and should adapt them to the age and constitution of the player. THE ART OF LABOUR 143 It should also take into account the law of functional hege- mony, by virtue of which the maximum of life repairs to the active organs, to the detriment of the rest. It follows that the good hygienist will forbid the performance of heavy work immediately after a meal, that is to say, in the midst of the digestive process ; nor will he approve of the performance of intense intellectual labour following upon a condition of muscular fatigue. The character of the alimentation absorbed, as we have already stated, is in itself a factor of training (see XL). Between the commencement of any sort of work, and the end of a meal, an interval of half an hour l should be observed when the diet is rich in carbohydrates. LXIII. Functional Re-education. General Laws. As for the infirmities, differing in aspect and in gravity, which usually affect the locomotive organs, they are the province of functional re-education properly so called. The persons whom we subject to the process of functional re-education are passing through that rather ill-defined phase which precedes complete recovery : the so-called period of consolidation. During this phase the cellular vitality is in full swing ; the tissues are undergoing regeneration, and increasing their powers of resistance, while the functions are becoming re-established. However, this anatomical and physiological restoration is subject to the effects, from the dynamical point of view, of malformations, adhesions, displace- ments, ankylosed joints, and atrophy of the organs. Vicious consolidations are not rare, often originating in faulty methods of immobilising fractured limbs, and sometimes to the exercises prescribed by an irrational mechanolherapy. The real object of functional re-education consists in re-establishing, or at least in improving, the motor condition of the man, the exercises 1 A mixed or albuminous diet necessitates an interval of twice or three times this length. Thus starchy foods and saccharine foods favour protracted exertion ; they assure the energy of the system of an economy of about 5 per cent., and constitute a safeguard against organic disturbances. The values of exercise f nd of rations depend very considerably on the season. The reader will remember that we have already dealt with this point (Climate, XLVII). 144 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION being regulated by the form of his movements, and the average power of the muscles which produce them ; lastly, in stimulat- ing the tissue-repairing processes. Natural movements may be referred to three types : Movements of translation, in which the member is displaced without rotation, remaining parallel to itself. Such move- ments are produced when the member is actuating a jointing- or smoothing-plane, a saw, or a file, and in various gymnastic exercises : Movements of rotation, in which certain points remain fixed, constituting the horizontal or vertical axis upon which the rotation is effected. This rotation is generally partial, limited by the play of a hinge, like the movement of a gate swinging on its pivots ; it may also be a simple oscillation : Helicoidal or screwing movements combine the two foregoing movements; they combine translation with rotation. Such are produced when the hand is working a screw-driver, or when the whole upper limb is turning a large key. It is worthy of remark that the screwing movements developing from left to right are more frequent than the reverse movements. Hence the origin of right-handed screws, corkscrews, etc This must be connected with the fact that right-handed persons are in the majority, and that the right-handed screwing movement is an economical movement for the right arm, as is the left-handed screwing movement for the left arm. All forms of movement are referable to the three preceding types ; it is enough to reproduce these latter in the planes in which they normally occur, with the force and amplitude which characterise them in the healthy subject, in order to be sure that we are giving the muscular system Chat real physiological training outside which there would be nothing but danger and empiricism. Whether in the case of wholly normal persons, or in that of the infirm, this training will always be graduated as regards effort, speed, and total duration. It will not be forgotten that the contraction of the muscles produces a movement which is necessarily alternating and oscillatory, in place of a continuous rotation, and which allows time for THE ART OF LABOUR 145 the accomplishment of the process of intra-cellular repair. The life of movement therefore assumes the aspect of a periodi- cal series of actions and intervals of repose. LXIV. Force and Amplitude. The force and amplitude of the movements of the limbs must therefore be determined in the case of the person to be re-educated, and compared with those of the normal subject. In practice we compare the wounded limb with the whole limb. I may add that the same remarks apply to the various segments of the limbs, and to the stumps of amputated limbs. But it may happen that a joint has grown stiff. Then the nearest joint in the case of the knee-joint, for example, the hip-joint takes its place. The conditions of movement, of walking, are changed, and favour a fresh mode of muscular synergy. It is necessary, therefore, to seek mechanical appliances which may prevent the atrophy of the quadriceps, and impose small movements on the ankylosed bones, so long as their fibrous and tendinous covering retains a certain amount of elasticity, or provided that radiography has not revealed an irremediable osseous adhesion. All the movements of locomotion will be treated in this way, with the alternative objects of re-establishing the normal function in the atiophied limb, or of contending, by means of re-education, against a more or less complicated infirmity, in order that mere stiffness may not develop into ankylosis r while atrophy is at least kept in check. Only definite cases of ankylosis or atrophy will obtain compensation from the articular or muscular substitution of the adjacent segment of the limb, stimulated by actual training exercises. It is only during this process of reinforcement that a rational and economical substitution may be established, guided by the instinct of the least effort or the minimum of constraint. The adhesions to which the wound has given rise gradually relax, allowing the movements of the articular surfaces a greater amplitude ; the elasticity of the ligaments increases, and the bones become polished by renewed friction, destroying the asperities which remain after the consolidation of the fractures. 146 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION It will not be forgotten that the contraction of a muscle may modify the contraction of muscles at some distance ; for example, the strength of the flexor muscles of the fingers is diminished if the articulation of the wrist is the seat of a rigidity which keeps it flexed, or of a nervous degeneration which relaxes the extensors. No attempt must ever be made to re-educate an articulation still capable of suppurating, or a limb painful to the touch or imperfectly consolidated, and the process of physical training must never be carried out hastily. There is no method of classifying those cases which can profit by functional re-education ; there can be none, for the diversity of the wounds received in respect of their gravity, their localisation, and the age of the wounded man is incal- culable. What we can classify are the movements which have been compromised by the wound, and their importance in the locomotive cycle, in the active life of the persons treated. A special class will be that of those who have suffered amputation, in whom we shall develop the strength of the muscles of the stump and the mobility of the principal articulation. This preoccupation is justified by the necessities arising from the wearing of a prothetic appliance, on the arm or leg, which is often too heavy for the stump. We shall take the oppor- tunity of returning to this subject when dealing with the work of war-cripples and prothesis. LXV. II. The Technique of Physical Training and Re-education. Physical training, and re-education of a functional character, in order to succeed in the directions which we have just defined, will have little need to borrow from the often disastrous technical methods of mechanotherapy and physical culture. It must substitute a rational method for the empiricism of the old methods. As we explained, it is necessary to train the activities of the upper and lower limbs in a gradual manner, avoiding any overtaxing of the nerves or muscles. The organism will reveal the effects of this gradual training by a synergy of effort. This result will be obtained by means of the ergo- THE ART OF LABOUR 147 metric cycle and the cheirograph, of which we have already made mention, and the dynamographic bulb. It will be verified by means of the arthrodynamometer. We will describe the details and the use of these instruments. (1). The Ergometric Cycle. The ergometric cycle consists of a flywheel W, weighing about 36 kilogrammes, which forms the hind wheel of a bicycle, of which only the frame and the pedals have been retained ; the whole is adapted for men of medium stature, but the height of the saddle may be adjusted if need be. The rim of the wheel is grooved, and in the groove lies a Desprez FIG. 52. Diagram of ergometric Cycle. ribbon of steel, R, which forms the brake ; one end of it supports a plate P, on which weights may be placed, while the other end is attached to a traction dynamometer, D, provided with a dial, which may be made self-registering (Fig. 52). When the rider works the pedals the ribbon causes an amount of friction, F, which corresponds with the pull marked on the dial. The virtual distance covered by the flywheel is multi- plied by the force required to overcome this friction, F, which gives the amount of work performed by the legs. Each revolution of the pedals corresponds to a peripheral distance of 6 metres, or to three turns of the flywheel, the latter having a circumference of about 2 metres. Under these conditions the 148 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION bust is completely at rest, so that the legs alone are working against a resistance which can be adjusted at will by altering the load on the brake, and at a pace which the subject will choose to please himself ; the mass of the flywheel will prevent sudden variations of speed. On the other hand, the crank- wheel C transmits its movement to a similar wheel which is fitted with a crank-handle, H, so that by actuating this latter the arms will perform work, which may be measured as before. The highest position of this handle extends the arm in a horizontal plane in the case of a subject of average stature. The subject may seat himself before the crank, on an adjustable stool, at a convenient height ; if he stands the movement of the arm will bring into play the articulations of the wrist, the elbow, and the shoulder, just as the movements of the rider utilised the articulation of the hip, the knee, and the ankle. Moreover, by moving sufficiently out of the vertical plane of the crank, he will make a greater demand upon the muscles of the shoulder and a portion of the trunk, while the effort of the elbow will be reduced, and vice versa. In this comparatively brief explanation I cannot discuss the conditions of the gradual advance of the process of physio- logical training, as effected by means of the ergometric cycle. I will content myself with remarking that for adults the follow- ing brake loads will be employed, in increasing order : 300, 500, 700, 1,000, 1,200, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500 and 3,000 grammes. Having noted by means of the chronometer the pace voluntarily adopted by the patient, this will be increased at the rate of 10 revolutions of the flywheel per minute every second day, the exercise lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. The pace will be set by a metronome, marking from 30 to 300 oscillations. We may regard as satisfactory an activity which works against a brake- load of 3 kilogrammes at a pace of 200 revolu- tions per minute, for a quarter of an hour without a halt. At this stage it will be as well to estimate the expenditure of energy and note the degree of fatigue, in conformity with the indications already given. THE ART OF LABOUR 149 LXVI. -The experimental equipment is completed, in the case of patients who have suffered amputation, by a metallic splint which is screwed into the place of the crank-handle, and which fulfils the same office, with the advantage that the FIG. 53. Re-education of Stumps. -stump can be strapped into it by means of straps surrounding the splint. This latter moves before a quadrant, Q, gradu- ated from to 180 on either side of the vertical ; it carries an indicating needle, which shows the amplitude of the articular 150 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION movements, in adduction and abduction. In order that the centre of the articulation of the shoulder shall lie precisely on the axis of the brachial splint, the patient is seated on the adjustable stool, whose height is regulated according to his stature (Fig. 53). The muscles of the stump maintain its oscillation, and one might assist it, at the outset, by gently working the fly-wheel. A patient whose arm has been ampu- tated, for example, will guide the movements of the stump by working the pedals. The rhythm of the oscillations and the resistance of the brake will be moderate ; they will depend upon the useful length and the actual strength of the stump, which will obviously be greater when the fore-arm only has been amputated. In patients who have suffered amputation of part of the lower leg, the knee-joint being preserved, an experimental prothetic appliance enables them to exercise the stump ; the sound leg will sustain the effort strictly necessary to re-educate it and call forth its activity in the most uniform manner. But as a matter of fact the lower limb is best re-educated by the use of a simple wooden leg, or by the employment of a splint. In these various cases we must supervise not only the gradation of the exercises performed, but also their continuity, advancing to the limits of physiological training. Finally, on the rim of the fly-wheel is affixed an elastic strip of metal, m, which, as it passes the fork, comes into- contact with a similar strip. The result is a ticking sound, and the patient is required to make this coincide with the ticking of the metronome. The time required to obtain this coincidence will be measured by the chronometer ; this will form a practical means of measuring the personal equation. When this period does not exceed 15 seconds the subject is. quick ; his personal equation is small, and he is adapted to call- ings demanding rapid movements. If it is longer than 25 seconds he is a slow subject. A classification of subjects made in this man- ner will constitute a guide to the manual re-education of wounded men, and their re-establishment in the industrial system. The fork of the cycle is fitted with two terminals, T, con- THE ART OF LABOUR 151 nected with a battery, in whose circuit is a self-registering Desprez signal. At each revolution of the wheel the circuit is closed, and a notch is marked on the record-paper ; and if the patient's progress is normal all these notches will be made at equal intervals. Otherwise we must suspect either a lack of co-ordination in his movements, or a slight tendinous rigidity, or muscular retraction, with secondary lesions. The cycle, with its accessories, constitutes the principal appliance employed for the purposes of physical education. LXVII. (2). The Cheirograph, I give this name to a type of ergograph designed for the hand, with its whole gamut of movements, including those of the wrist as well as those of the fingers. Mosso's digital ergograph, of which this is a transforma- tion and an improvement, serves merely to register the flexions of the right middle finger. Its usefulness is therefore extremely limited; moreover, it possesses several disadvantages, which we have already described (in Le Moteur Humain, p. 391). The cheirograph, on the contrary, possesses an excellent means of attachment to the fore-arm, which leaves the entire hand free, including the wrist, permitting of flexor, extensor, and abductor movements, and also of lateral inclinations. The registering apparatus consists of the ordinary form of Mosso's carriage, constructed to work with the minimum of friction (see Fig. 40). Thanks to this apparatus, the hand, that delicate segment of the upper limb, so well adapted to movements involving skill and celerity, may be subjected to a functional education, for whose results, as we have assured ourselves, we have not very long to wait. The appliance by means of which the cheirograph is affixed to the fore-arm is mounted on a heavy frame. It may be inclined to the right or the left, in order to support the right or the left fore-arm. To this end it is provided with a pivot and a clamping nut at one side (Cl, Fig. 54). The fore-arm is firmly held and supported by the semi-bracelets, b, b', which are suitably adjusted. The hand then rests upon a fixed slab S, on which the fingers are fully extended. THE ART OF LABOUR 153 Above this is a semi-circular bar carrying four rods, ter- minating in the small metal thimbles, /, t; their position can TDC adjusted by means of clamping-screws with milled heads. Brought down upon the slab S these thimbles cover the phalanges and hold the fingers immovable. It is then possible to liberate this or that finger at will, and to perform work with it, the rest remaining motionless. Moreover, the hand is pressed against the slab S by means of a clamp C, which presses upon the middle of the metacarpus. Lastly, at one side is a pulley device P, which transmits to the registering apparatus the movements of the thumb. The transmission is effected by means of a cord attached to a small leather ring clasping the second phalange, the other ^nd of which is connected with the registering apparatus. The slab and the set of thimbles, and also the pulley, can be swung aside, leaving an empty space in which the hand and the wrist can perform their movements of flexion, extension, and lateral deviation. In this case the cord is attached to a clamp similar to C, in which the hand is placed and then closed, the wrist of course remaining perfectly free. All the movements possible are eventually converted into traction on a thread, which, at one end of the Mosso carriage, supports a weight which can be varied at the will of the opera- tor. Registration is therefore always in the same direction, but the amplitude of the tracings varies. Care must be taken that the initial position is adjusted by means of the screw, as if the cord were allowed any play the different tracings could not usefully be compared. If these precautions are taken, and if the weights to be lifted are suitable from 200 to 1,500 grammes for the fingers, the voluntary rhythm observed by the patient being noted, and then increased to 60 contractions per minute it will quickly be realised how salutary these exercises are. They should be continued from 3 to 10 minutes. On the tracings thus obtained we can follow the increasing amplitude of the curves, which will record the degree of flexion and the mobility of the articulations. Records obtained with the same weight at regular intervals will give a faithful 154 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION account of the functional condition of the hand, and will permit of later comparison. Those forms of exertion which involve celerity of movement (as typewriting, stenography, fencing) are those which are particularly benefited by this method of training, which is also of great value in cases of articular rigidity. FIG. 55. Bulb Dynamometer. LXVIII. (3). The Dynamographic Bulb. With a view to continuing the training of the hand in respect of its total effort of compression or squeezing, we have employed a very simple piece of special apparatus : the dynamographic bulb, or bulb dynamometer. This consists of a strongly-made pear-shaped bulb of india- rubber having a capacity of 125 cubic centimetres. This is filled with air at any desired pressure by means of a cycle pump. It is connected with a mercury manometer, one of whose arms is capacious enough to contain at least 500 cubic THE ART OF LABOUR 155 centimetres of mercury, while the other branch, which is longer, contains about 30 cubic centimetres. This latter FIG. 56. contains a registering float, so that all displacements of the mercury caused by the pressure of the fingers, above the known pressure of the air in the bulb, are recorded on a register- 156 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION ing cylinder (Fig. 55). The oscillations of the mercury are damped by a constriction in the tube connecting the two arms. The difference of level in the two arms measures the total pressure. We have marked, on a graduated vertical stem, the values in grammes per millimetre of displacement (differ- ence of level). The compression of the fingers causes a variation of the initial pressure, and the variations furnish a tracing which is graduated once for all. The muscles may be trained until from exerting a pressure of 100 grammes they exert one of 5 kilogrammes, which is a very high figure. A hundred con- tractions cause the hand to perspire, while massaging the entire fibro-muscular system. It is possible to follow the advance of functional fatigue as the hand continues its exertions and also the rhythm of the movements (Fig. 56). LXIX. (4). The Arthrodynamometer. As the process of training advances, the strength of the muscles and the ampli- tude of their movement increases. These two factors, which yield an exact measure of the results, are determined by means of the arthrodynamometer. This instrument measures the angular displacements of the limbs or segments of limbs, and the absolute forces exerted by the groups of muscles which control them, whatever degree of flexion may be in question. 1 It consists (Fig. 57) of two parallel strips of steel jointed like a pair of compasses, and turning easily upon this joint. It measures all practically useful degrees of flexion, that is, from 30 to 180. The method of using the instrument will, as we shall see, explain its instruction and adjustment. Measurement of the Angular Movements of the Limbs. The arthrodynamometer is applied to two segments of the limb, on either side of the articulation, and in a determined plane, It is provided with semi-bracelets and armlets of thin steel, to which very strong straps are affixed. These are tightly fastened, in order that the legs of the instrument may be 1 See C.R. Acad. Sc., 1 June, 1915, Vol. CLX., p. 730. THE ART OF LABOUR 157 firmly attached to the segments of the limb, and incapable of slipping (Fig. 58). FIG. 57. Elevation of Arthrodynamometer. In order to make an angular measurement, the central nut N of the pivotal joint is unscrewed, and the pawl P, of which the tip engages in the toothed wheel T, is raised. Then the adjusting screw A, which is seen above the leaves of the spring SP, is turned until it is brought into contact with the swivel S. If the wearer now flexes one segment of a limb upon the ad- jacent segment (the foot upon the lower leg, the hand upon the fore-arm), the leg L of the compasses actuates a pulley ly- ing beneath the dial FlG - 58 - D, thereby Causing Manner of adjusting the Arthrodynamometer. the small pointer to rotate, when the angle of flexion may be 158 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION read on one of the circumferential scales of the dial. In the same way the lateral movements of the hand and foot may be measured. For Movements of the Entire Limb, whether in a frontal or sagittal plane, the instrument is adjusted by clamping the nut N and immobilising the joint. The angle of displacement is then given by the position assumed by the swinging pointer or plumb needle PL, a pointer with a counterweight which plays the part of a plumb-line. It indicates the deviation of the limb from the vertical in either direction. The amplitude of the movements in any given plane is thus correctly determined. It is compared with that required in athletic exercises or games, or in the management of machinery or the handling of tools. Measuring the absolute strength of the muscles. As for the force exerted by the muscles, we may determine its absolute or maximum value at any degree of flexion. In this case the nut N is loosened, and the pawl P lowered upon the toothed wheel, while the . adjusting screw A is turned until it touches the leaves of the spring. This firmly engages the pawl in the interval between two teeth, and suppresses all play when the muscular effort is made. The effort exerted upon the leg of the compasses is there- fore transmitted to the toothed wheel, and thence to the leaves of the spring, against which the adjusting screw A is pressed. The deformation of this spring, though barely perceptible, is amplified by the bent lever or crank C, which terminates in a segmental rack, which actuates a pinion whose axle carries the dynamometrical pointer moving upon the dial, D', on which the values are read. Graduation of the Dials. On the dial showing the angles of flexion the degrees are marked from 180 to 30 ; on that showing the displacements of the entire limb they run from to 360 ; but it is as well to define the direction of the angular deviation by the words lateral (to right or left) or sagittal (to front or back) in order to avoid misunderstanding. More detailed explanations are necessary in respect of the measurement of absolute force. The muscles, acting upon THE ART OF LABOUR 159 the mobile segment of the limb, while the spring opposes its flexion, actuate one arm of a lever with a variable moment. 1 The force exerted by them, even if it were constant, would produce an effect upon the dynamometer which would increase in proportion as the movement itself increased with reference to the axis, as it does, in proportion to the flexion, and up to a certain limit. Now the absolute effort of the muscles is not constant ; it tends to exhaust itself during the shortening of the muscle (Schwann's law). It is therefore difficult to determine it exactly, in the living subject, at every stage of this contraction. For this reason we have adopted a conventional graduation ; the force is supposed to act normally at the extremity of the leg of the compasses, in the centre of the attachment, at a distance of 8 centimetres (3-2 inches) from the centre of the hinge. The length of this arm of the lever being known once for all, we have contented ourselves with reading the efforts in kilogrammes on the small dial, in place of the kilo- gramme-centimetres which express the movements. If the exact position of the muscular insertion on the movable bone be known, it will be possible to deduce the effective component of the effort, and to calculate the actual power of the muscles concerned. This method of measurement enables us to follow the variation of the forces exerted during the movement, and to appreciate the results of the training process. It is essential whenever it is desired to undertake the scientific organisation of the work of re-education, whether functional or professional. (5). Lastly, in order to restore the movements of rotation in the arm, I make use of an apparatus based on the principle of the cam, called a gyrograph, which applies both force and movement, and measures them. LXX. III. Applications. Attitudes of the Body. Physical education, conducted according to the technical principles explained above, will produce rapid and lasting results ; it 1 The moment is the product of a force and the arm of the lever to which it is applied. 160 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION will easily lead the subject to the verge of the most active athletic exercises, for once the organic functions have been subjected to supervision and training there will no longer be any possibility of exhaustion or failure (see the whole of the chapter on Fatigue). But functional re-education, which is applied more particu- larly to wounded soldiers, must be kept within moderate limits, progressing at a very gradual rate, under penalty of accidents. Both physical education and functional re-education, in short, are based upon the fact that human activity should be physiologically regulated, and that it becomes, by that very fact, economical and hygienic. Attitudes. We may remark that even when lying down, or sitting, or standing, we do not all go about the business in the same fashion, as we are ignorant of the economical and hygienic attitudes. Measurements of the energy expended have plainly proved as much. Complete repose of the body is obtained in the recumbent position, but by lying on the belly, not on the back, 1 prefer- ably inclining to the right side ; the saving is 7 to 8 per cent, over the seated position. In the latter the body should be upright and symmetrical, the feet touching the ground with- out effort ; above all they should not hang clear of the ground. In sitting down to read or write care should be taken that the fore-arms rest on the table, and that the shoulders are drawn back ; if the desk is too high it will involve an awkward and very fatiguing attitude, which will impede the movements of the hand in writing, while too low a desk necessitates stoop- ing. The erect position is still more interesting ; it concerns the working-man and the engineer alike ; it is of particular import- ance to the overseer ; it is the attitude of the soldier, the watch- man, the policeman, the omnibus conductor, the railway- guard. It comprises two symmetrical attitudes and one asymmetrical pose, which are plainly shown in Fig. 59 (left to right). 1 Liljstrand and Wollin, Skand. Arch. /. Phys. t Vol. XXX., p. 199, 1913. THE ART OF LABOUR 161 The normal attitude (the Normal- Stellung of the Germans) is regular ; it places all the articulations in a single vertical plane ; but it is a source of fatigue. The convenient attitude (Bequeme-Haltung) is more stable, and contracts the muscles less. However, it does not reduce the expenditure of bodily energy to the minimum, as does the easy attitude, of which Fig. 59. Erect Positions of the Body. we all have an instinctive experience. Deportment calls for a convenient, symmetrical attitude, which eases the vertebral column, slightly hollows the loins, and expands the chest, retracting the abdomen and the shoulders. This undeniable condition of muscular tension causes some fatigue, but it has a very favourable influence over the whole economy ; it con- serves the energies and maintains the stature. 162 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION Let us compare the cost of these various attitudes, counting the energy-expenditure of the recumbent man as 100. We shall obtain the following figures : 1 Recumbent position (in pronation) . . . . 100 Seated position . . . . . . . . . . 107 Easy pose . . . . . . . . 110 Standing Convenient pose .. .. .. 113 Normal pose . . . . . . 132 LXXI. Locomotion. Gymnastics. Locomotion, too, is capable of improvement. We have already indicated the economical factors of a walking gait. It must be added that above 170 steps to the minute it is more profitable to run ; which, for that matter, all those do whose lower limbs are short. Very frequent short steps cause the prompt appearance of fatigue ; I will venture, in this connection, to utter a legitimate criticism of narrow skirts for women. The subject is a less serious one than that of corsets, but none the less hygiene deserves a certain consideration ; and it is by no means the enemy of fashion. Certain populations, such as the Arabs, effect a saving of 20 to 25 per cent, in their locomotion, and in the use of their legs in general. Their output is thus greatly superior to the average. Now these folk practise the so-called flexed walk (of which I have said what is necessary elsewhere), which aids progress and reduces the efforts of muscular contraction. This is, for that matter, the gait of the weary labourer, the navvy returning from his work, or the human beast of burden harnessed to a heavy hand-cart (Fig. 60) ; it diminishes the oscillations of the bodily centre of gravity, and increases a man's steadiness on his legs. Under ordinary circum- stances the trainer will combine walking and running exercise in order to increase the rhythm of the heart and lungs to a fitting extent ; he will note these at the close of 20 or 30 minutes' training exercise. Once again, a progressive advance will be observed, which will exclude any danger of strain or over-exertion. 1 See Le Moteur Humain, p. 444. THE ART OF LABOUR 163 The principles of economy, finally, may be applied to many attitudes ; from that of the man who writes or draws or plays a musical instrument to those of the athlete, the sportsman, and the soldier. Walking, running, jumping, climbing, crawling, and such modes of activity as boxing and fencing, are subject to the same laws of rhythm, measure, and physiological regulation. I FIG. 60. The Flexed Walk. have said all that is needful on this subject in Book VI. of Le Moteur Humain, to which the reader may refer (p. 469). Gymnastics, at a certain period of re-education, when the articulations have resumed their normal play, becomes a training method of great value. I am speaking above all of movements of the arms and legs. To these I add exercises with dumb-bells of 1 to 3 kilogrammes (2-2 to 6-6 Ibs.) weight, terminating, under the most favourable conditions, with a weight of 5 kilogrammes (11 Ibs.). The movements will be made in pronation, then in supination, at the rate of 80 to 100 per minute (Figs. 61 and 62), always vigorously, with the body in the normal attitude. FIG. 61. Gymnastic Exercises with Dumb-bells (Attitude of Body improving). THE ART OF LABOUR 1C5 Other gymnastic and acrobatic exercises merely bring into harmony the movements of the centre of gravity and the force of the muscular contractions. Dr Lachaud, of the Chamber of Deputies, insists upon FIG. 62. Gymnastic Exercises for increasing Strength. simple gymnastic exercises, with weights, cords, and pulleys ; he recommends what has improperly been called manotherapy. I cannot unreservedly support the views of this distinguished politician, for the movements practised should in the first place be guided, lest they should be performed incorrectly, and produce malformations, at an age when the soldier's skeleton is often not completely ossified, or the muscles fully developed. 166 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION Gymnastic exercises are suitable for normal subjects, and these they develop harmoniously ; applied to wounded soldiers and the infirm they are merely an auxiliary method ; they cannot constitute a complete means of functional re-education. By combining the education of the move- ments with observations of fatigue we have completed the training of a few young men and of many hundreds of infirm subjects. To the numerous attestations which would seem out of place in a work of this nature I should prefer personal verifications. Any one may test for himself these simple, quick, and economical methods. Experience, aided by an en- lightened judgement, will never employ them without success. LXXII. Summary Physical Activity. The identity of the methods which should guide both physical education and the activity of the craftsman is obvious. It results from the geometrical and harmonious forms of the contractions ot the muscles ; it reveals itself indeed in the very effects of this contraction, since fatigue, in the last analysis, is always an intoxication. Of the principles of the art of labour, I would lay especial stress upon order and the selection of movements. If, in order to execute any physical action whatever, we make the strictly necessary movements, which alone are useful in executing it ; if we eliminate the useless movements, and regulate the succession of the useful, we shall effect a great saving both of time and fatigue. Our education too will profit greatly ; a moral treasure will be added to the betterment of our well-being. The organisation which I am speaking of involves the art of making movements appropriate to an end, and of making a rigorous selection of the same, tending to an economy of effort ; in other words, of ordering them and utilising them in the best possible manner. Selection and order are, in truth, the characteristics of the new method, which will presently work an economic revolution to which no other can be compared. It is not purely mechanical ; it does not turn a man into a soulless body, a blind and tire- less force ; it embraces all the data of physiology and THE ART OF LABOUR 167 psychology, of which it alone is able to display the parallelism and the unfailing harmony. It would seem to have taken for its guide this saying of Montaigne's : " It is not a body, it is not a soul that we are forming ; it is a man ; we must not make two of him." CHAPTER VII THE ART OF LABOUR (continued) INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY 1 LXXIII. In the intellectual domain, which on every hand surrounds the domain of physical forces, and overflows it, we have attempted to introduce the discipline of the art of labour, that is, the same laws of selection and co-ordination, of the organisation of movement. The application to the things of the mind of the laws of general mechanics seems in itself to be a somewhat hazardous proceeding ; in any case it is anything but finally worked out. But being based upon facts which are perfectly established, although not large in number, and being moreover carefully verified and controlled, it is lacking neither in interest nor in social and, above all, pedagogical value. For these two reasons it is worthy of the reader's attention. LXXIV. Complexity of Intellectual Work. The problem to be solved does not necessarily presuppose the knowledge of that something which has in turn constituted the object of meditation of the philosophers, the theologians, and the physiologists namely, the mind or soul ; or, in a narrower acceptation, the intelligence or understanding. The classic methodology indeed distinguishes between the intelligence of the will and that of the perceptions; it places them in a hierarchy of the faculties, which are more and more highly spiritualised as they are further in the scale from perception. 1 This chapter was published as an article in La Revue, for 1 June, 1914, under the title L 'Art de penser. I should mention that since that date (in 1916) a volume has appeared under the same title, whose author, one Clement Goh, has plagiarised my article, and has most unhappily spun it out over 200 pages. 168 THE ART OF LABOUR 169 But from the experimental and physiological point of view the matter wears another aspect. Will and perception are, in unequal degrees, both functions of nervous activity, strictly adhering to its modalities ; they are its qualitative expres- sion. The good or the evil we do, said Diderot, depends on the condition of our diaphragm. This determination, or considered as a doctrine, this determinism, does not influence the function of thought ; it perceives, with a kind of internal vision, that which is good and that which is bad, appreciating, comparing, and judging, apparently quite freely. The. intelligence is therefore the series of operations which effect the representation and the classification of our ideas. Because it resuscitates images and transfers them to its plane of vision, it fulfils a function of the affective order ; that is to say, subordinated to the condition of the nervous system ; it arouses great numbers of neurones, re-awakens the cellular vibrations, and harmonises them with the vibrations of other cells ; a circuit of vital energy unites the elements of the cerebral substance. This is a purely physiological process, due to several causes. Sometimes it is provoked by the peripheral sensitive neurones, those of the sight, the touch, the hearing ; sometimes by humoral variations ; a fit of in- digestion, like an emotion, stirs up the whole swarm of dreams, and disperses them upon all the winds of fiction. To these solicitations the nerve-cell responds by a greater activity, and the reflexes draw upon the muscles of the face, with strokes of varying emphasis, the ripples of the tide of emotions which has swept through them (Fig. 63). These muscular contrac- tions have all the diversity of the emotions themselves, and, by their force and duration, they reveal the gravity of the sensitive phenomenon ; sometimes there is a contracture, a painful spasm. This muscular effort causes the blood to surge into the organ of thought. Also, during prolonged or intense intellectual exertion, or during slumber agitated by dreams, the temperature of the brain undergoes a slight increase ; the pulse is very marked in the temples ; there is a feeling of heat and a smarting sensation in the face, but the peripheral organs are sacrificed ; the feet and legs are cold. 170 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION When such phenomena are frequently repeated, when the periods of mental activity are combined with too few periods of repose, there are manifestations of cerebral fatigue; the head grows heavy, the eyes become bloodshot ; the sight is troubled by a diminished convergence of the pupils, and by a Rejection Meditation. Superior orbital portion of orbicu/arisga/pebrarum. Amazement. Attention. Frontal Muscles. Grief Pain. Corruyator Superci/i/. Laughing, lygomat icus rnaji Weeping. Elevators of upper lip. PJ Discontent. Disdain Depressor gngu/i or/s FIG. 63. Diagrammatic Expression of the Emotions. convexity of the lens ; the respiration is superficial and ir- regular, and the heart slows down. Toxic waste products accumulate in the organism. They are eliminated in the urine, but their effect upon the power of the muscles is already revealed by a rapid diminution of the tracings obtained by means of the cheirograph, while their effect upon the sensibility is betrayed by high readings on the aesthesiometer. The respiratory exchanges increase in intensity, THE ART OF LABOUR 171 by about 7 to 11 per cent., and the consumption of oxygen measures the extent of this complex activity, which is increased by attention, but diminished by training and habit. 1 The digestive secretions, on the other hand, are modified, and partially inhibited. 2 The vegetative life diminishes its activi- ties, in order to give full scope to the life of the higher nerve- centres. Then, as we have said, the mental images are revived, and the intelligence has performed a task of a physiological nature. Only the selection and the ordering of ideas appear in the intelligence as something of a different essence, a really transcendent power. This is precisely what we wished to establish : namely, that the exercise of the mind mingles operations which are true nervous reactions, reflexes, affective conditions, with other important operations which dominate the sphere of perception. But we of course intend it to be understood that both cate- gories of phenomena result from the physiological activity of the organism, and are subject to all the disturbances and eddies of life ; they levy tribute on the resources of the organ- ism ; they represent organic effort ; they involve a certain expenditure of energy which produces fatigue, for nothing in nature is gratuitous. And here we are at the very heart of the problem stated in the beginning : whether, in the living world as in the inani- mate world, energies are not merely transformed ; if, for example, muscular energy has its source in the chemical energy of the aliments absorbed, to what origin are we to refer intellectual energy ? Whence does it spring ? And how can it be utilised without loss ? LXXV. The Origin of Intellectual Energy. Two American scientists, Benedict and Carpenter, after laborious experiment, succeeded in demonstrating that the exercise of thought by itself occasions very little expenditure; it figures as a very small item in the alimentary budget. A man who 1 Johanssohn, Skand. Arch., Vol. XVIII., p. 85, 1898; Becker and Olsen, ibid., Vol. XXXL, p. 81, 1914; Die Umschau, Xo. 19, 1912. 2 Brunacci and De Sanctis, Archivia di Fisiol, Vol., XII., p. 441, 1914. 172 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION expends 2,400 calories in the twenty-four hours for his energetical maintenance expends barely 9 or 10 calories more when he devotes himself to long meditations, resolves difficult equations, makes learned calculations, and in short thinks, for 8 hours a day. The subject was enclosed in the calometric chamber already described (Fig. 3), where he was presented with a heavy German treatise on mathematical physics. The energy radiated in the form of heat was measured outside, unknown to him. On the other hand, I have verified the fact that the consump- tion of oxygen is only very slightly modified when students, in a condition of perfect repose, devote themselves to complicated mental operations. 1 It is obvious that in these different cases we are estimating the increased expenditure of intellectual energy, seeing that the mind is never absolutely at rest. But to represent me as saying that the expenditure of energy rises, at the moment when the mind begins to work, from zero to a positive value, and to find in my argument a positive contradic- tion in terms, as did a writer in a Dutch review, is, as anyone will perceive, completely unjust. 2 " The great difficulty," we repeat, with Voltaire, " is there- fore to understand how any creature comes to have thoughts." And indeed the whole difficulty is there. For him who considers the nervous operations which record images, pre- serve them, and repeat them, it is easy to conceive that they never cease ; that they are an attribute of life, and its accom- paniment. No state of rest absolutely interrupts them, serving as a starting-point from which we can measure the expenditure of energy which their profound and invisible exercise involves. In this respect the principle of the con- servation of energy which governs the universe remains unshaken. But the mind retains its mysterious secret ; it remains withdrawn, beyond the cycle of the vital energies ; a fact which is wholly disconcerting, unless indeed we have recourse to a recent explanation, inspired by the phe- nomena described as radioactive. Certain substances undergo 1 1 have described these experiments in Le Moteur Humain, p. 278. 2 Wettenschappelijke Bidden, Vol. IV., p. 1, 1912. THE ART OF LABOUR 173 disintegration, spontaneously dissociating themselves, with a secular deliberation, producing light, heat, and electricity. The example of radium points to this transformation of matter, which exhausts itself and disappears when once it has liberated all its reserves of energy. Can it be that thought also constitutes a radioactive pheno- menon ? Is it evolved from the disappearing cerebral sub- stance by a process as yet inexplicable ? If this were so the differences between the radioactive or dissociative powers of the cerebral substance would explain the differences of intellectual vigour and vivacity to be observed in different persons, just as the characteristic qualities of the sources of light affect its intensity or illuminating power. However, the radioactive origin of thought is not proven. Although it has been noted that the nervous tissues, and especially the brain, are highly radioactive, 1 it has also been recognised that this property results from the absorption of the traces of radioactive substances contained in our solid and liquid aliments, and in all mineral waters. All that we can venture to suggest is that the disaggregation of the cells of the brain liberates intellectual energy directly and exclusively, without the usual intermediaries : without heat or the emission of electricity. For our cells are assuredly the theatre of a material evolution which affects even the molecule, breaks it up into infinitesimal fragments, and in particular destroys its phosphated elements and nuclei. These are the compounds rich in phosphorus, the colourable portion of the nerve-cell that is, the chromatin which, being by reason of their organic bases in an unstable molecular condition, seem doomed to this slow destruction, and exhaust them- selves in the operations of the cerebral cortex, the very body of the cell becoming reduced. 2 And as in the activity of the muscles, the organic development taking place in these nuclear substances pioduces toxins, and renders acid the chemical environment which, normally, and in a state of repose, is 1 A. Caan, Sitzungsb. d. Heid. d. Akad, d. Wissensch., V., 1911. 2 Lugaro, Arch, ital Biol, Vol. XXIV., p. 258, 1895; Guerrini, ibid., Vol. XXXII., p. 62, 1899 ; Marinesco, Engelm. Arch. f. Physiologic, p. 89, 1899. 174 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION alkaline. It is an actual disaggregation, which is aggravated by external stimulations, such as luminous impressions, 1 but above all by fatigue. Then the nervous reactions grow weaker and thought is arrested, inhibited, poisoned ; it has even been noted that the filaments of the neurones shrink and retract themselves, so that the multiple connections thereby effected within the brain are less to be relied upon. 2 Rest, sleep, food, that is to say, above all, the blood, will repair this temporary derangement. We must wait for more precise details as to the delicate and wonderful process which gradually exhausts the nervous substance, giving rise to an energy of the highest order ; in the meantime let us consider the work peculiar to the mind. And let us proclaim that it is possible to organise this work, to employ it more effectually, if we resort to rational methods, and to effect considerable savings. For under the infinite variety of its forms it necessitates operations of the same nature as those of physical activity, and as far as the economy of effort is concerned there is nothing to distinguish between the exercise of the mental functions and the exercise of the muscles. LXXVI. The Organisation of Intellectual Work. But the work of the intellect is twofold. On the one hand it consists of finding, within itself, or seeking for, ideas. On the other hand, it sets itself to organise these ideas ; and by this we mean to utilise these ideas in an order and according to a plan which increases their value. It seems that the first undertaking, being comparatively easy, has less need than the second oi being improved and reinforced. The reserves of ideas which a man possesses in his own brain are enriched by reading, conversation, and daily experience. Now this, too, demands a certain discipline. To read, or to be read to, would serve no essentially useful end did not the attention apply itself to the task of extracting new 1 Muller and Ott, Pfliig Arch., Vol. GUI., p. 493, 1904; Lodato and Miceli, Arch. d. oftalm., Vol. X., pp. 294 and 327, 1903. 1 Trans. Lab. Inst. Solvay, Brussels, Vols. I. and II., 1897-1898. THE ART OF LABOUR 175 ideas and furnishing the mind with them ; if it did not defend the mind, by a process of rational elimination, against all the incidental reflections and literary stop-gaps which in general inflate speech without enriching it. It behoves the mind, which is endowed with the power of selection, to exercise it rigorously, while expending upon it as little energy as possible. The child should be educated according to these principles ; he should be taught to take hold only of those ideas which pre-eminently concern a subject, instead of running after all those that glitter, and whose brilliance often masks their fragility. The schoolmaster or lecturer should show him how the art of speaking, of speaking well, serves to give a striking prominence to those mental conceptions which are worthy of it, and to keep them forcibly in view. I should never place my academic trust in a professor who was a bad speaker, and who, far from exhibiting, as in a show-case, the pearls of knowledge, buried them in the trash of his obscure verbiage. Moreover, eloquence is genuine only when it is ordered. The best orators possess perfectly organised brains, which they have not necessarily overloaded. Erudition, of a widely miscellan- eous character, would be almost a hindrance to them, while by moving along the same grooves of thought it enables them to discuss their subjects readily, and as though without effort, training and adapting them to a specialised mode of intellectual activity. We would not have this specialisation exclude a solid general culture; on the contrary, it should find, in such a culture, its natural setting, the setting which will best harmon- ise with it. But the division of labour, which limits the mental field, is far less to be feared than the lack of mental order caused by excessive work undertaken in many directions. One cannot lose one's way in an alley, but the forest is treacherous. Writing, like speech, demands order and method, so that the reader may easily assimilate the dominant ideas, the only ideas which count, and so that his attention may not be divided. The art of writing consists, therefore, in being 176 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION simple, direct, and accurate, that is to say, clear, and in con- ceiving ideas clearly in order that they may be clearly expressed. After all, the writer is always understood if his knowledge is profound and methodical. He can, in the words of Montaigne, teach Greek and Latin " without tears," and more particularly can he teach the sciences, whose essential object is the economy of thought by means of demonstrations and general laws. How much time and effort could students of all ages be saved if they were not only too often compelled to re-read an author several times before understanding him ! But how many writers could be dispensed with if the reign of darkness in our teaching centres were to terminate ! In our days people would not tolerate a police force which should forbid the circulation of confused writings, which should forbid the vagabondage of ideas along the paths of literature. Nevertheless, it is a question which deserves consideration. A man does not write for himself ; he addresses himself to readers young and old, and professes to instruct them. The problem is to make sure that this instruction is elaborated in such a way as to cost the recipient the minimum of effort, and to afford him the pleasure and advantage of shaping his consciousness. The facts which teach are the important facts, because they hold the attention and are representative ; they are true symbols. Science employs such symbols in order to spare us detail ; it seeks out numerical relations, and then, retaining only the general character of these relations, it ignores the figures. Algebra, in this respect, effects an intellectual economy by means of its notations ; the same is true of physics, and every science which has a mathematical character. The logical character of the relation between facts should be established with equal care. For example, consider the tie of causality. It is good that one thing should involve another as its consequence. What a wonderful discovery is this of the universal and logical connection of the conquests of knowledge ! The most beautiful laws cover the widest domain. Such are Newton's law of universal gravitation, and Descartes' law of THE ART OF LABOUR 177 refraction. And they are the most admirable because they lessen the fatigue of the intellect. Lastly, other ideas take shape from the experience of life, lived in all its fulness, life as it is, with all its vicissitudes, like a sea that abounds with reefs. Never drag the growing youth wholly out of reach of these difficulties of life ; from those which are the work of men even less than from those which originate in things. The egoism and the moral defects which are to be encountered in our fellow men will teach him unforgettable lessons. But one must take care that he extri- cates himself from his mistakes, and fights his social battles, by upright and honest conduct. Virtue and truth are terrible weapons which triumph over all things. One must learn to handle these weapons, and to do so one must serve an apprenticeship of action. This is how the task of the mind should be maintained and regulated, considering it from the point of view of its. regular alimentation and repair. No useless aliments ; none of bad quality ; no waste of cerebral energy. LXXVII. The second point of view, we noted, embraces the work of the mind which utilises accumulated materials. It proceeds as follows : Do we wish to reflect on a given subject, or to solve a scientific or philosophical problem ? Gradually our ideas awaken, bestir themselves, and hasten forward. Generally they make their appearance in the natural order : that is to say, singly, without connecting links, each deter- mined by a sort of reaction or reflex. The natural order may be compared to that of a battalion on the march when the step is broken. The men march " all anyhow," diversely impelled, given over to hazard. To one who sees them from a distance the battalion is marching as a whole, despite the confusion of ranks. But it travels less quickly ; it presents less cohesion and solidity, and a less smart appearance than a battalion which is keeping step, closing its ranks behind its leaders, and obeying their orders. The same discipline ought to be applied to the ideas which travel in a host through the whole region of the mind. At 178 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION first, when we are still apprentices, we allow them to follow one another spontaneously at the point of the pen, and when not one is left worth the trouble of recording it in writing, we subject them to a severe examination. That idea will come first which in the natural order was third or fourth, and so with the rest. All will be classified, set in a hierarchy, so that the accessory shall not get the better of the principal idea ; so that an internally controlled order of succession shall preserve both their intrinsic value, and that secondary value, which results from the logical relation established between them. Such a concatenation excludes prolixity and digressions and useless references. The economy of words is the saving of time by means which signally increase the force of the argu- ment, and unfold it in a concentrated light. It is the function of practice, steadily maintained, to impose upon the mind this manner of working, whatever the basis of ideas upon which it is building. Habit finally renders easy, almost automatic, the classification of ideas, provided that the attention corrects at every moment the deviations from this discipline. One can understand that this very discipline finds it difficult to accommodate itself to the many keen excitations which, from without, shake its ranks, and why reflection and meditation are more efficacious when one is able to abstract oneself from one's surroundings. A richly furnished brain will elaborate coherent and ordered ideas in this " ivory tower." A scientific man, a director or manager of factories, or an engineer, will be able more usefully and with greater certainty to collate the items of his acquired experience. We should never follow the " first impulse " ; it is the most heedless impulse ; it is a reflex determined by an external action ; in spite of the popular saying, " first thoughts " are not " best thoughts." Let us examine our- selves ; let us take time to hold debate with ourselves. Let us accustom our cerebral channels of inhibition and our neurones of control to the necessary task of elimination. The man who, to some extent by heredity, and largely by educa- tion, possesses this type of nervous organisation, should under THE ART OF LABOUR 179 any circumstances hold an advantage over other men ; for he will display firmness, judgement, and method. He will be under- stood, and obeyed, without effort. We may be equally certain that one of the most important preoccupations of the orator is to cause the various elements of his speech to be grasped without fatigue, and in perfect order. If his memory is not very reliable he has recourse to a plan drafted in advance. The ornaments of speech which he employs are intended to capture the attention, to prepare it to follow his argument, and to sustain it to the end. They encourage his auditors to accept the intellectual labour de- manded of them, and they break its continuity. For the activity of the mind is rhythmical and intermittent, like the activity of the muscles. The psychical ego withdraws itself at intervals from the strain of thought, taking refuge, by prefer- ence, on some flower-strewn bank. It would seem that rhetoric is born of this twofold need of order and method. Rhetoric, then, we must have ; but not too much of it. It would be contrary to the scientific principles expounded in these pages to reduce the domain of ideas in favour of the domain of words, even were these the most gorgeous, the most happily chosen. The adornment of speech is a means, not an end. When I run through several pages of a book which is stuffed with fine phrases, and am unable to discover in them even a few fine ideas, I quickly put it aside. Happy is the writer who can make his reader think ! He will never have a foolish reader. LXXVIII. Applications. In nature movement is squan- dered, because those conditions do not exist which favour its perfect utilisation, either in the physical order or the intel- lectual. Mechanical science endeavours to achieve this per- fection in inanimate motors and living motors alike ; but it will be a long time before it succeeds, despite the great progress effected in the last few years. As far as thought is concerned, mechanical science can do little more than furnish indications and simple practical rules, 180 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION which enable us to reduce fatigue, and to give a true direction to the activity of the mind. This activity, as we have remarked, " is susceptible of discipline and method. Great intellectual power may manifest itself in disorder and uncon- trolled overflow. Such waste is the result of an unscientific education and unruly habits of thought. The delicate mechan- isms of the brain must neither be exhausted nor forced to go awry." 1 We should therefore reason out our actions, and we should sort out our ideas, arranging them clearly, while clothing them, if we will, in the fashions of the day. Otherwise we run the risk of refutation, or incomprehension. In rehearsing them we must give all our attention to the matter, weighing every word, considering each purpose. If the work is of secondary importance, and if, as a matter of professional necessity, it must be rapidly executed, it is expedient to sacrifice to haste a little of the intellectual labour which we should otherwise put into the work, unless indeed it is possible to reconcile haste and intellectual effort. The mental effort is measured by the attention, and rapidity of thought by the number of different facts embraced in a given time. Cerebral fatigue is the result of these two factors. To diminish this fatigue, intellectual labour will be divided into periods of one or two hours, according to its nature, and these will alternate with periods of comparative repose ; that is to say, these intervals of time will be devoted to moderate physical exercise : to walking, games, or conversation. A mental effort of several hours' duration enfeebles the cellular reactions, intoxicates the neurones, and thereby impairs the quality as well as the order of the ideas ; the writer hesitates ; the workman miscalculates ; both have suffered a temporary depreciation ; care must be taken that it does not become aggravated. To devote two hours' attendance in class or lecture-room to the exact sciences, without a few minutes' interruption, is to commit an error in pedagogics ; for after the first hour the capacity to attend and the ability to understand are already 1 Le Moteur Humain, p. 590. THE ART OF LABOUR 181 diminished ; 1 more so in the afternoon than in the morning. But the fund of nervous energy may be reconstituted by a suitable diet and a little open-air exercise, by cheerful and amusing entertainments, by the distraction of the senses of sight and hearing. The monotony of work, whatever its nature, must be broken, in conformity with the law of rhythm which governs the organism, and which is inscribed in parti- cular upon the nerve-centres of the brain. Obedience to this law alone will enable human activity to remain intact, regular, and efficacious. This is why we should profit by these wholesome doctrines ; why we should endeavour to adapt the efforts of the mind to the result to be obtained ; to co-ordinate them ; to allow nothing to be dissipated in sheer wastefulness. As this discip- line is more closely followed, a gradual diminution of fatigue is observed, though the nature of the mental effort and its duration remain the same. LXXIX. Such are the novel principles which I wished to expound ; it is not difficult to perceive their manifold applica- tions, whether social or industrial. There is one application, however, which bears upon the intellectual development of the child ; it is the art of teaching, a subject which M. Marcel Prevost has vigorously treated in a few masterly pages. 2 This eminent writer reveals the full educative value of the scientific organisation of teaching, and the profound truths which underlie this organisation. Neither Taylor nor myself, who had considered the problem in all its general bearings, and had formulated laws which are in a sense universal, could so usefully have grappled with a special subject such as the art of teaching. And while we find a pupil of Taylor's condemning, even to excess, the use of caligraphic ornaments ; 3 while business men and administrative officials are, seemingly at least, expressing a certain desire for progress in the direction of a reduced production of superfluous documents, I like to recall this very curious passage of Montaigne's. "The letters 1 Bellei, Riv. sp. freniat. e med. leg., Vol. XXX., p. 17, 1904. 2 See Annales politiques et litteraires, 21 December, 1913, to 29 March, 1914. 3 Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 100. 182 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION of this age consist more of margins and prefaces than of matter. How much rather would I compose two letteis than close and fold one, who always resign this duty to some other, just as when the matter is finished I would gladly leave to another the duty of adding to it those long harangues, tenders, and requests, for which we find room at the close, and wish that some new custom should discharge us from it." CHAPTER VIII APPRENTICESHIP LXXX. Apprenticeship and Re -apprenticeship. Ap- prenticeship is the decisive factor of national wealth. It consists in the technical and psycho-physiological shaping of the man. Every profession necessitates an apprenticeship through which it becomes a habitude of the mind and the body, a habitude which to a varying extent leaves its traces on the organism and creates inclinations or aptitudes. Without resulting in a kind of instinct, like the instinct of the bees to construct a comb, such hereditary tendencies make for perfection, for professional skill. The repetition of the same actions, or the same trains of thought, endows the nervous system with a peculiar sensibility, which facilitates the performance of these actions, directing and guiding the thoughts in a given path. We are familiar with many examples of this pro- fessional vocation, whether of musicians, or men of letters, or physicians, or soldiers ; and in the bygone centuries the professional vocation was a very great power in the heart of the guilds or corporations, and exerted soveieign rule over the family. During the last forty or fifty years all this has been completely changed, to the detriment of our prosperity. We have ceased to love the calling for its own sake ; our young men are proud and ambitious. " Ouvrier ne suis, apprenti ne daigne, fonctionnaire suis." (Workman I am not ; I do not deign to be an apprentice ; I am an official.) Men seek for situations which demand the least effort, yet reward them with wealth and honour. When we perceive how ignorance and incompetence rule throughout society we feel discouraged, and we understand why so many far-seeing persons blame 184 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION the apprenticeship crisis. For all, whatever the social plane on which they live, have need of apprenticeship ; that is, of the lessons taught by things ; of the lessons of life, so fertile in virtues, in ideas, and in the principles of discipline and education. The age at which these lessons yield the best fruit is, as we have seen ( 19), between 13 and 20 years for boys, and for girls between 11 and 18 years. From the purely industrial point of view the army of labour, in countries which have adopted conscription, should have completed its apprentice- ship at the moment when it is called to the colours. In this way it is educated and instructed during the period of its physiological and moral growth. But to-day the wounded soldiers who are forced by the war to change their calling, the soldiers who are suffering from serious infirmities, and those who have suffered amputation, are entering upon a fresh apprenticeship, at the age of 25 and often of 30 years. This re-apprenticeship is obviously facilitated by the general experi- ence and mental maturity of these men ; it is none the less a very ticklish system of education, in which we must beware of committing blunders as to the vocational direction to be followed, and the physical capacities available. We shall return to this point later on. The organisation of apprenticeship, therefore, confronts us with a twofold problem : a problem at once technical and physiological; a problem of industrial practice and social hygiene. LXXXI. The Present Condition of Apprenticeship. But what, to begin with, is the crisis of which we hear people speak ? What was its origin, and what remedies have been found for it ? People complain that the environment in which the apprentice was formed no longer exists, precisely because the professional guilds and corporations no longer have any legal existence (in France owing to the Chapelier Act, 17 June, 1791), so that the atmosphere of industry, the service as journey- man, and the permanent guidance and advice necessary to the pupil, are things of the past. The Constituent Assembly APPRENTICESHIP 185 is said to have destroyed for ever the genuine school of technical education. Again, the inevitable increase of the use of machinery and mechanical methods is blamed, for in the factory or workshop which works at high pressure the artisans, labourers, and apprentices are employed each upon an elementary task which forms part of a general task ; they are the wheels of a mechanical system in which the functions are not to any extent interchangeable. In this way the worker is familiar with only a fragment of a trade, a single element of labour. It is impossible for him to grasp his calling as a whole ; left to himself, apart from the factory, he soon realises his pro- found ignorance ; a worker in a watch-making factory, he does not know how to make a watch ; a shoemaker, he is incapable of making a slipper. This defect is real ; it is inherent in any organisation founded upon the division of labour ; it is therefore unavoidable. Finally, it is said that the relations between apprentices nd employers, and their rights and duties, are ill defined, in the absence of well devised laws and adequate means of arbitra- tion. " Properly understood," writes Beignet, " the interest of both resides in the rapprochement of the two social entities, the working classes and the employing classes, by means of professional organisations." l But this solves nothing, and arbitration or agreement, which are always useful, do not modify the conditions of apprenticeship. In France, the law passed on the 22 February, 1851, relating to the contract of apprenticeship, or indenture, has certainly accomplished a good deal in this connection ; it compels the master to teach the apprentice the whole of his trade, and not to employ him upon tasks which do not profit him in the matter of instruction, nor upon those which are beyond his physical strength, or injurious to health (Article 8). "A decision of the tribunal of Limoges, dated the 30 January, 1906, basing itself upon the Act of 1851 and Articles 1134 and 1137 of the Civil Code, ratifies the right of the parents to break a con- tract and obtain damages for the time lost if an employer 1 A. Beinet, La Decadence de V apprentissage en France, p. 18; Angers, 1911. 186 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION employs an apprentice only upon a portion oi the work of his profession, which in no way adds to his personal education. ' Here,' declares Dubief, ' is a serious guarantee, a really efficacious protection.' " 1 The law of 1851 is nevertheless insufficient ; although it attacks possible abuses, it does not build up a system of con- trolled education ; it does not aim at the improved education of the apprentice, and it does not adduce any element of decision as to the revival of trade organisations, and the defence of the complete craft against its subdivision by machin- ery. To legislate is not to organise. LXXXII. Technical Schools. A masterpiece of organisa- tion and a means of serious control was the creation of trade schools, whose essential object is to educate and instruct, to form the mind and train the hand, to teach all the elements, theoretical and practical, of the trade or craft. " While it is true," said Millerand, " that in a few weeks a labourer can learn to operate a machine, it is no less true, and profoundly true, that the interest of national production, as of the producer himself, and the interest of the country, which has need of an educated and intelligent race, imperiously demands workers who are familiar with the whole of their calling ; who possess sufficient scientific knowledge to understand the working of a machine, to repair it, and at need to invent improvements." (Quoted by Dubief : loc. cit., p. 41.) There were already schools of apprenticeship in France, even before the Revolution ; 0-38 0-00800 I 1003 Foot ... 1-165 J 1-79 j 0-26 0-112 1 0-00070 J Trunk ... 27-750 42-70 0-72 Totals... 65-000 kgs. 100-00 These data indicate the extreme limits of weight ; but we must be guided absolutely by the functional power of the stump, determined as we have already explained. For the choice and the properties of the materials employed in the construction of prothetic appliances, I must refer the reader to Le Moteur Humain (Book L). It is enough to remark that the resistance of these materials (wood, leather, metal) is especially important in the case of the lower limb, which has to support the entire weight of the body in walking, and which, at rapid gaits, has to stand a stress 25 per cent, to 30 per cent, greater than the weight of the body. The necessity of reducing the inertia of the thigh-pieces makes us advise the employment of materials which are specially tough and light, such as three or four-ply wood, consisting of very thin layers, firmly glued, or papier-mache, or duralumin, which has the following characteristics : Density Limit of elasticity Tensile strength . . Elongation on rupture 2-8 27 kgs. per sq. mm. 36 kgs. per sq. mm. 17 per cent. Sheet Steel, I mm. to 1-5 mm. in thickness (^ to T ^ in.) will answer the same purpose. But the metallic sonority of steel 1 Measured from the superior or nearest articulation. 2 This is the product of the mass and the square of the radius of rotation, a product which enters into the calculation of the energy of rotation of a body. (See Le Moteur Humain, p. 54, et seq.) 3 Including the height of the foot (6 centimetres). 264 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION should be avoided by means of a strongly adhesive covering of parchment. Steel will always be employed in the construction of working parts. Prothesis demands steels whose composition should be more or less as follows : Carbon 0-35 to 0-45 Manganese . . . . . . . . under 0-70 Silicon 0-20 Sulphur 0-05 Phosphorus . . . . . . . . 0-05 The metal will be heated to 850 ; it will be allowed to cool in the open air and hardened at 750 ; it is then brought back to 500 for a space of 30 minutes. Its tensile strength is 100 kgs. per square millimetre, the elongation being 10 per cent. In my opinion, the use of pure aluminium should be aband- oned ; it tears easily, is difficult to work and to weld, and is lacking in toughness. This survey, which is necessarily extremely brief, of the objects and principles of scientific pro thesis, will enable us now to glance at its applications. CXXI. -2. APPLICATIONS. The capital point in prothesis is the anatomo-plastic application of the appliances. This demands a sound knowledge and a long experience of the subject. Prothesis of the Lower Limb. This is particularly a prothesis of strength, simple or graduated, according to the type of appliance which it is intended to apply. Simple if it is desired to equip persons who perform exhausting work, and who are much more anxious to possess a solid support than an actual artificial limb. As a rule in this case we do not seek to obtain regularity of gait. The cripple adopts the " wooden-legged " style of locomotion, the " wooden leg " being either rigid or jointed, and the mode of locomotion not unlike that of a stilt-walker. The more complicated models are the so-called artificial legs, whose design imitates that of the actual limb, in order THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 265 to ensure the development of the step, in all the phases which compose it. This harmony is inevitably achieved at the cost of solidity, on account of the number of articulations which it necessitates, all along the axis of support. I shall limit the series of models considered to those which seem to me the best, and which at the present time con- stitute a portion of the specifications recognised by the military' orthopaedists of France. 1 CXXII. A. AMPUTATION OF THE THIGH. (a) The 11 Pestle" Type with Locking-Joint. -In the case of patients who have suffered amputation of the thigh, we must first of all consider the old-fashioned " wooden leg," of the " pestle " type, jointed at the knee, but with a locking-joint. This is suited to persons of rural pursuits, and also to all those whose work necessitates much moving about, and causes a certain amount of fatigue. The rigid or non-articulated wooden leg, which was known even in the days of Pericles, is a makeshift, or, in the words of Pare, " the poor man's leg." To-day both industrial and social progress condemn the employment of such a wretched and primitive prothesis. The " pestle " type of leg with the lock, on the other hand, if it is made as it should be, offers notable advantages over its predecessor. It comprises the organ of attachment, the thigh- piece, the knee, and the leg-piece. The organ of attachment consists of an abdominal girdle G, a brace, B, and a sling (Fig. 85). The girdle is of flexible leather, 1-6 inches wide, or it may be of strong ticking, 3-2 inches wide. It buckles in front. It is joined to the thigh- piece by means of a hip-piece H, having almost the shape of a letter T, which is made of steel. The horizontal portion of the hip-piece, riveted and brazed to the vertical portion, is attached by means of two rivets to the belt, which is divided for the purpose. The vertical portion contains two articula- tions ; firstly a socket-joint /, situated about one-sixth of 1 Since 13 June, 1916. The results of the labours of the Specifications Com- mission (Commission du Cahier des charges) are assembled in the Prothetic Laboratory of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers. Bilateral Locking-Bolt (From back) Rubber Leather THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 267 an inch behind the anatomical coxo-femoral articulation, working in the antero-posterior plane, which reaches the edge of the great trochanter ; secondly, a hinge h, with a check which limits the flexion external to the pelvis to 30 ; it is placed immediately beneath the horizontal branch. The vertex is -4 of an inch behind and on a level with the iliac crest. The hip-piece is lined with leather or ticking, and is padded. It prolongs the external standard, S, of the thigh-piece. Care must be taken that it fits very accurately to the body, whose shape it assumes. For short stumps the hinge h must be suppressed. The brace is made of strong elastic webbing, one and a half inches wide. Its extremities are riveted, one to the outer surface of the thigh-piece, toward the middle of the body in front, and the other to the side at the back ; it buckles in front, after passing over the opposite shoulder ; it is kept in place by a second brace which passes over the other shoulder. Finally, the sling consists of a piece of catgut, which passes under a little pulley, P, which is fixed to the inner standard of the thigh-piece ; it is attached to the girdle front and back by means of straps and buckles. CXXIIL The thigh-piece, T.P., is a conical sheath, of moulded leather, as rigid as possible (density = 1), lined with very tough chamois leather. It presents a comparatively flat surface corresponding to the external and lateral portion of the stump, which ensures a firm attachment (see section). The whole of the supporting surface is as rigid as possible, and of reduced thickness. The sheath is armed with two steel standards, S and S', about nine-tenths of an inch in width and one-sixth of an inch in thickness. About the region of the knee this thickness is increased to one-fifth of an inch. These standards are parallel with the axis of the femur, outside and inside, and are riveted firmly to the thigh-piece with copper rivets. A circular hoop of mild steel, C, also riveted (an inch and a quarter in width and a twelfth of an inch in thickness), unites 268 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION the lower extremities of the standards. The outer standard is pivoted to the hip-piece, as we have seen. A second hoop, or rather half-hoop, of nickel-plated steel unites the two standards internally toward their upper extremities. One end of it overlaps the internal standard by two inches or so, and then turns downwards. The hoop is therefore complete at the back and open in front. The postero-internal portion is widely splayed, the upper edge being turned outward from the axis of the Hmb. The thigh-piece is split in front as far as an opening V which serves as a ventilator, and here the two halves of the sheath are united. There is a sufficient interval left between two rows of eyelet-holes to permit of the progressive tightening of the lace as the stump diminishes in size. The closing of the thigh-piece is completed by means of three straps, sewn and riveted, which buckle toward the side of the outer standard. The rim of the thigh-piece is scalloped on the postero- internal edge, corresponding to a concave line of ischial support. This portion is slightly padded, in order that it may not rub nor inconvenience the opposite thigh. The remainder of the rim is convex in form, bending inwards, and higher at the level of the hip-piece. The thigh, supporting the ischium, is thus gripped on every side, and cannot turn in the thigh- piece. This latter, finally, terminates in a separate leather cap, stamped or hammered, and seamless, which is riveted to and strengthened by the lower steel hoop, which, like the upper hoop, is nickel-plated. CXXIV. The knee comprises a stirrup of forged steel, fixed by two screws to the standards, which are curved in such a way as to keep the axis of the articulation two-fifths of an inch to the rear of a vertical line dropped from the coxo-femoral articulation. The articulation of the knee consists of two butt-hinges, giving a flexion of 90. They are contrived in two flattened shoulder-pieces which form the Jower extremities of the standards. The form of the stirrup THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 269 is that of a deep curve (parabolic) ; its thickness is one-fifth of an inch, and itfe greatest width one and a half inches. The pivot of each articulation is riveted on the inner face of the stirrup ; the shoulder-pieces are bored, and free at the extremities ; the faces of the shoulders meet in a plane which passes through the axis of the bearings, making an angle of 60 with the horizontal. The stirrup clears the cap of the thigh-piece by three-fifths of an inch at the centre. At its base is affixed perpendicularly, on a vertical axis, by means of two tenons diametrically opposed, a hollow steel tube in which the shank is fixed. The tenons are riveted into mortices cut in the thickness of the stirrup, and the joint is then brazed. A flat forged in the stirrup facilitates the adjustment of the two portions without reducing the thickness of the metal. The knee also comprises a bilateral locking-bolt, an arc of steel whose extremities are fixed by screws to the outer sides of the two standards of the thigh-piece. It may lie in front or behind the latter indifferently. It bears a spur at either extremity, lying in the plane of each articulation of the stirrup. It lies as close to the thigh-piece as possible. The spur must be so contrived as to engage accurately in the angle formed by the shoulder-piece of the standard. The bolt is alike at both ends ; its section is oval, except at the extremities, which are flat, and one-fifth of an inch in thickness. A powerful elastic tractor is attached to the bilateral bolt at the summit of the arc, and also to the steel tube of the shank. It serves to send the bolt home when it is intended to lock the articulation of the knee. But to allow of flexion the bolt is raised by means of a string of catgut, one end of which is fixed to the centre of the arc, while the other runs through an eyelet riveted to the upper portion of the thigh-piece. It is attached to a small knob or handle, which is pulled to disengage the bolt. CXXV. :The shank is made of ash, in preference to any other wood, and is cylindro-conical ; its diameter varies from 1-3 inches to 1-7 inches. The tip is enlarged to 2-8 inches, 270 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION and a sole of leather is affixed to it with nails. The lower surface of the " shoe " is convex, with a radius of 3-6 inches. Between the leather and the wood is a circular piece of sheet rubber, one-tenth of an inch in thickness. The shank is fixed to the thigh-piece by means of a hollow tube brazed to the stirrup. The upper end of the shank is shod with a tube of steel fixed by means of screws ; a gentle pressure should suffice to make it enter the sleeve of the stirrup. A small hole is drilled through the shank, and a boss is brazed to the external sleeve, boss and shank being drilled and tapped. The shank is fixed by means of a thumb- screw. For country work the shank should have a shoe 4-8 inches in diameter, fashioned precisely like the smaller shoe. If the weather is damp or the soil moist the sole should be greased, in order to avoid such a phenomenon of suction as is produced, for instance, by a school-boy's wash- leather "sucker." The objection to wooden shanks is their fragility ; they expose the wearer to accidents ; a hollow tube of duralumin might be substituted, the wooden shoe being screwed into the lower end of it ; or shanks of hollow wood may be employed, of a larger diameter. This type of " wooden leg " should never exceed a total weight of 5-4 Ibs. Returning to the principles of scientific prothesis, we find that the appliances of the " pestle " type possess a small inertia, afford great security of support, and cause a minimum of fatigue while walking. From this latter point of view it is more painful to throw the leg out sideways in walking, as is necessary if the shank is too long, than to limp slightly with a shank of insufficient length. Let us add that certain orthopaedists occasionally replace the round " shoe " by an actual " wooden foot," articulated in the fore-part. This is physiologically incorrect. Fig. 86 shows a bad pattern of " parade " leg, with a leather legging. It is fixed by means of an interior shank to the stirrup, the cylindrical shank having first been removed. The correct form of " parade " or " show " leg (Fig. 85) is articu- lated at the ankle. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 271 The " wooden leg " of the type described can easily be affixed to any thigh stump in which the bony lever projects FIG. 86. Li9g3 of the " Pestle" Type. No. 1 Model with Locking- joint, and defective " Parade " Leg. On the right a real " Wooden Leg." more than two inches beyond the inguinal crease in the case of very high amputations. Where the lever projects less than 272 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION two inches beyond the inguinal crease, or in cases of disarticula- tion, the arrangement shown in Fig. 87 will be adopted. There are three types of the " wooden leg " with the bolt or knee- lock ; L Nos. 1, 2 and 3, the two latter character- ised by a wide moulded girdle, while No. 3 pos- sesses a double-action bolt B and a guide-rail R, with a thigh-piece the back of which consists of flexible leather. CXXVL (b). The ''Ar- tificial Leg." But it is the "artificial leg" which is principally used by the majority of artisans, clerks, members of the liberal professions, etc. ; in a word, by all those who have to consider appearances and the fashion. The artificial leg, furnished with an articulated foot, restores locomotion (as far as walking goes) to a degree which is almost normal, and entirely normal if the leg has been ampu- tated some distance below the knee, and if there is no anchylosis of this important articulation. We must briefly recall the experimental data of walking 1 1 For further details see Le Moteur Humain, pp. 440-468. FIG. 87. Wooden Leg with Locking- joint No. 3, for cases of Disarticulaticn of the Hip-joint. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 273 in order to throw a light on the entire problem of the prothesis of the legs. The phases of the step are explained by Fig. 88 ; the 274 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL, ORGANISATION supporting leg forms with the foot an angle of 90, which may be increased by 20 or 25, but rarely diminishes. The tibio-tarsal articulation of an artificial leg should therefore allow of an average excursion of 20 beyond the right angle, but not more than this. It is, on the other hand, if we are facing the subject, behind the articulation of the knee, and this latter is two-fifths of an inch behind the coxo-femoral articulation ; the thigh, therefore, has an oblique antero- posterior inclination, and the line of gravity of the body passes through a point in advance of the tibio-tarsal articulation, preventing the bending of the knees. The contraction of the quadriceps produces the same effect. We must therefore give the hinge of the knee-joint sufficient play to allow of walking on the level, ascending a staircase, or sitting down, but must endeavour to avoid the tendency to sudden flexions, which would result in falls. The walk must not be a series of oscillations of the artificial limb caused by the periodic impulsions of the stump. We know also that the thigh and the lower leg form a less angle than 180, and that during the phase of impulsion the rear lower leg leaves the ground flexed at an angle of about 160. Finally, I will add this important detail, that the foot should be turned 15 outwards, and that its inner edge should be slightly raised. In this way a defective gait will be avoided, as also lateral oscillations of the body. Many types of artificial leg, constructed of wood and leather, have sought to reproduce this or that physiological element of the gait. None of these are perfectly rational. The American models, perfected during the years which followed the War of Secession (1860-1865), have often appeared to possess great advantages. In reality these appliances are copies of one another, and remain faithful to uniform rules of construction which are far from satisfactory. The foot is too heavy, and its excursion badly calculated ; the knee, too loose, betrays the considerable inertia of the lower leg by means of jerks ; the lower leg itself, accordingly, is subject to sudden oscillations, which have to be corrected by the impulses of the other leg ; otherwise the necessary extension THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 275 of the limb in its phase of vertical support will not be obtained. Above all, the articulations are not in their right places; so that the wearer runs the risk of an occasional accidental flexion of the knee ; that is, of a fall. These faults are in themselves sufficiently serious : I need not therefore insist on the insufficient attachment of the organs by means of simple braces ; the incorrect formation of the thigh-pieces, which do not closely embrace the supporting surfaces of the stump ; the resonance of wood, which makes a sounding-box of the appliance, and its fragility. In the victims of amputation who have worn artificial limbs of the American type, and have covered a mile or more at their own pace, I have noted a defective, often dangerous, and always fatiguing gait. Nevertheless, there are some American models which appear to me to be highly satisfactory. CXXVII. Expert Examination of an Artificial or 44 Wooden " Leg. The method of observation to be applied to prothetic appliances of the lower limb is two-fold. On the one hand I register, on my dynamographic gangway, 1 all the phases of support and propulsion, the locomotive efforts, and the duration of the elements of activity of the two legs, the normal and the artificial (Fig. 89). On the other hand, I measure, by means of the respiration gauge (p. 74), the expenditure of energy involved by walking 1 kilometre with the model under examination. We may state simply that the gangway records, for each of the two lower limbs, four kinds of forces : the supporting pressure, the backward impulse, and the lateral thrusts, outward and inward, as shown in Fig. 90. The apparatus consists of levers resting on springs of calculated strength, which are in contact with small rubber bulbs. The graphs obtained (Fig. 91) show that peasants naturally walk with a gait rather similar to that of the artificial limb ; they throw the feet outwards a little, and the backward impulsion is negligent. Every defect in locomotion which can be imputed to the model under examination is clearly revealed in the trac- 1 C.B. Acad. Sc., 31 July, 1916, Vol. CLXI1L, p. 130. 276 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION ings. In particular, if the cripple leans much less heavily on it than on his sound leg, the appliance is badly designed or fitted, or there is some cause of pain, or fatigue merely. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 277 Elevation ^Stretcher t B. B. Bulbs S.S. Springs Dynamographic Gangway. FIG. 90. Secti FIG. 91. Tracings of Footsteps made with the Dynamographic Gangway. 278 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION We may thus pronounce, without fear of error, on the compara- tive value of the different models, and on the progress accom- plished in their manufacture. A faithful, precise, and impartial analysis is obtained, which will prove a reliable guide to the technique of orthopaedics,, and will fertilise the mind of the inventor. The gangway is also employed in order to watch the effects- of the functional re-education of the limbs ; it corrects the process, and accelerates it. CXXVIII. A Model Appliance for a Case of Femoral Amputation. I will here describe the type of artificial leg (Fig. 92, to the left) which is at present the best. Let us begin with the thigh-piece. This is precisely like the thigh- piece of the type already described, with its organs of attach- ment, girdle and hip-piece, and brace with double buckles ; its organs of consolidation are two lateral standards and two- metallic hoops. The knee contains two hinged articulations contrived, in a line with the transverse axis, in the standards of the thigh-piece and the lower leg. They are countersunk, with a check which limits their play to an angle of 85 of flexion. The external cheek forms a portion of the metallic standard of the lower leg ; it is fixed upon the other by means of a pivot and lock-nut. When the appliance is in use the articular centre of the knee should be ~ of an inch behind the line of the coxo-femoral articulation. The standards are elbowed to give this result. The thigh-piece is modified in the lower portion ; the leather cap is pierced by a slit running in an antero-posterior direction, in order to allow an elastic tractor, T, to pass through it. The object of the latter is to oppose a greater or less resistance to the flexion of the knee. It is therefore made adjustable at will. For purposes of adjustment a catgut string is attached to the interior, in front, at the base of the standards of the thigh-piece ; it extends at least 1* inches beyond the total height of the cap, and is attached to a spiral spring of steel, of appropriate strength. A strap of tough, flexible leather, pierced with eyeletted holes, completes the attach- THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 279 ments of the tractor. It passes through a little window contrived at the base of the calf, in a prolongation of the For Cases of Amputation of Thigh. FIG. 92. Artificial Legs in Leather For a Case of Amputation of the lower Leg (short stump). malleolar circle, and makes it possible to regulate the tension by hooking this or that eyelet on the stud on the forepart of the limb. 280 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The elastic equilibrium of the knee is completed by a tractor T, which acts upon the posterior face, being firmly riveted to two attachments, on the lower portion of the thigh and the upper portion of the calf. Finally, to prevent the leather from " giving," the slit in the cap, and the upper edge of the calf, are bound with a strip of steel which keeps the material strictly in shape. It is riveted with small copper rivets. The lower leg or " gaiter " is a sheath of moulded leather, approaching as closely as possible to the shape and size of the sound lower leg. Two lateral standards, about J-J of an inch in width, riveted to the leather, ensure rigidity. They terminate at the upper extremities in the articulations of the knee, while at their lower extremities they are drilled to receive the axis of the malleolar articulation. A semi- circle of steel, placed behind and a little below the knee, strengthens the standards and the leather sheath. The foot is wholly of wood, or the fore part F may be of felt, glued upon the malleolar portion. In either case there will be a " wooden ankle," with socket articulation ; the shank-piece furnishes the socket or mortise, and the foot the tenon. A steel axis, covered with leather, traverses the whole joint and the lower extremities of the standards ; it is inclined from front to back and from inside to outside, in order to throw the foot outwards, so that it makes an angle of 15 with the antero-posterior line. The angle which the lower leg makes with the foot is one of 90, which may be increased to 110 only. These limits are assigned by the uniform and elastic action of a " double-action ' ' spring, made of steel wire one-sixth of an inch in diameter. The felt toe-piece gives lightness, and also a flexiMity which may dispense with an anterior articulation. Fig. 93 shows, beside the type which has been described, the average weight of which is 7J Ibs., models constructed of wood, either of French or American make. The foot possesses two articulations ; the cheeks or abutments are padded with rubber. The appliance worn by the cripple is the most interesting. This French model is characterised by the THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 281 ingenious articulation of the knee. Here we see a check- piece, C, with two elbows, formed of a piece of steel which is pivoted on an internal axis situated at the base of the FIG. 93. Models of artificial Legs in Wood (the two central Models) and Leather (left and right). thigh-piece, the free end of which abuts upon the posterior surface, of the lower leg (Fig. 94). It rests in contact with this surface owing to the action of the tractor T. This 282 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION Knee mechanism fulfils a double function ; it limits the forward play of the thigh upon the lower leg to an angle of 180 ; and it automatically rights the lower leg in case of a flexion greater than 90 ; which prevents all possibility of a fall. When the flexion exceeds 90, as when the wearer sits down, for example, the tractor ceases to act. This result, it is plain, depends on the position of the pivot of the check- piece, and may be calculated exactly. The whole appliance, for an ampu- tation of the thigh, . weighs 6| Ibs., and allows of a very comfortable gait. Nevertheless, in the case of ampu- tations of the thigh the orthopaedists should aim at the construction of artificial legs weighing not more than 2 kilogrammes (4 Ib. 7 oz.). The uses of multiple-ply wood, or duralumin should make such a result possible without impairing the strength of the appliance. CXXIX. B. AMPUTATIONS OF THE LOWER LEG. Any stump exceeding 2-8 inches in length is fitted with an appliance of the tibial leg pattern ; the particular model being No. 1 (Fig. 95), No. 2, or No. 3, according to the length of the stump, the last being intended for cases of the so-called tibio-tarsal amputation, in which only the foot is removed (Fig. 96). In all these cases a sufficient " scallop " or " window " must be contrived at the back of the knee. The " gaiter " or leg- piece is of moulded leather, which must be extremely rigid ; it is lined with tough chamois-leather. The upper edge is padded in front; this serves to support the weight of the body ; it is the principal support. To this support we must add the pressure uniformly distributed all over the stump ; it moulds itself, accordingly, on the sub-condylar tables of the tibia. FIG. 94. THE RE-EDUCATION" OF WAR-CRIPPLES 283 FIG. 95. Tibial Model Xo. 1. c "*l-2 "I 284 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION It is here that a correct moulding should be the aim of the maker. The anatomical application of the appliance demands very careful attention. The support will be chiefly lateral, the weight bearing on the outer surface of the lower leg ; if it were on the inner face it would be productive of pain. The same applies to Chopart's amputation, 1 which enables the subject to stand upon the stump ; but the two bearing surfaces are so adapted as to intervene simultaneously. If the stump of the lower leg is less than 2-8 inches in length it will be flexed, so that the cripple will " walk on his knee " (see Fig. 92). CXXX. C. DOUBLE AMPUTATIONS. In cases of amputation of both the lower limbs the appliances will be designed accord- ing to the foregoing indications. However, subjects who have suffered amputation of both thighs will be provided exclusively with legs of the " pestle " type, with locking joints, well and strongly constructed, the normal length of the shank being reduced by 2 to 4 inches, according to the case. There must be no sacrifices for the sake of appearances ; such would be criminal. Thigh-stumps which can be fitted with artificial legs with free joints are extremely rare. CXXXI. Prothesis of the Upper Limb. This prothesis is more difficult than that of the lower limb. For a long time it was neglected ; not long ago it seemed to be given up in despair, and the experts in particular laughed at the idea of making a one-armed man work. The early attempts, by Laurent (in the fifteenth century), whose name is recorded by Pare, by Father Sebastien in the eighteenth century, and by the omte de Beaufort in the nineteenth century, were by no means encouraging. Hugede, in 1873, had no better success with his model arm. We therefore applied ourselves to the subject, and after a thorough study of it we discovered that it presented no insur- mountable difficulty from the technical and mechanical point of view. 1 An amputation which leaves only the heel and the astragalus or ankle-bone. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 283 By means of an experimental arm (Fig. 97), with a spherical joint, which could be locked at will, to replace the wrist,, with a steel rod for the fore-arm, and a means of attachment to the thorax, all the portions being capable of modification and adjustable at will, we were able to devise and construct a true artificial arm, capable of performing hard manual labour; simple, strong, and practical. 1 FIG. 97. Working Arm being tested, with various prehensile Attachments for holding Tools. On the other hand, a skilful orthopaedist, M. Cauet, under- took, under our direction, investigations which enabled us to construct a mechanical arm, entirely automatic in its control, which is suitable for those following the " liberal professions." These two models, the worker's arm and the mechanical arm, may be adapted to all amputations of the upper limb. They offer the advantage that they are quickly constructed, 1 Journal de Physiologic, p. 860, 1915. 286 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION according to a type which is, so to speak, standardised, so that these models can be repeated with slight variations. 1 CXXXII. A. AMPUTATION OF THE UPPER ARM. (a) Worker's Arm (Amar). -The model known as Amar's worker's arm (bras tie travail Amar) is adaptable to all amputations leaving a stump more than two inches in length, measuring from the line of the armpit. It comprises : the attachment ; the brachial sheath ; the metallic fore-arm ; universal holder ; universal ring ; hook ; and parade or " show " hand. The attachment consists of a scapular portion and a thoracic portion (Fig. 98). The scapular portion consists of a plaque of leather, moulded to shape, and lined with fine tough lambskin or chamois leather. It should descend as far as the horizontal line drawn through the armpit, and should cover the shoulder for a width of 3-6 to 4 inches, coming into contact with the acromial arch without overlapping it. The thoracic portion is intended to hold the former firmly in position. It is a girdle of leather, of flexible calf-skin, or of inelastic fabric, 1-6 inches in width ; it is fixed at its two extremities, by means of tubular rivets, to the shoulder-piece. It encircles the thorax, passing under the opposite armpit, where it is covered with a moveable sleeve of lambskin or chamois, padded, and eight inches in length. In its dorsal portion the girdle contains a segment of strong elastic webbing, 2-4 inches in length. In front it is fastened by means of a nickel-plated buckle (preferably without a tongue). The brachial sheath is of moulded leather, as rigid as possible, and lined with soft leather ; it is split down the front, the edges revealing a wide strip or tongue of thin flexible calfskin. The closing is assured by sewn and riveted straps and small buckles. It possesses a metallic reinforcement consisting of a dome of steel ^ inches in thickness, which is prolonged by two standards, situated on the outer and the inner side respectively, the whole being forged in one piece. The standards are riveted firmly to the leather (with copper rivets). > Jules Amar, C.R. Acad. Sc., 13 March, 1916, Vol. CLXIL, p. 401. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 287 The dome possesses a central core of steel, which is brazed on ; it is bored for a- tap of international pitch (10 mm. and 1-5 mm.),. Sh oulder -pie FIG. 98. Amar's Worker's Arm with Parade Hand and universal Grip or Pliers. The outer rim of the sheath is convex (the radius of the curve being of some length) and projects upwards ; the inner rim is slightly hollowed at the armpit. 288 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION The articulation of the sheath at the shoulder consists of three straps or lugs, fastened by tubular rivets ; an acromial strap of flexible leather, which supports the whole apparatus ; a dorsal strap, longer, and of strong elastic webbing, giving an elongation of 1-6 inches ; and an anterior strap of flexible leather, or even of elastic webbing. The total length of the brachial appliance will be less than that of the sound arm, to permit of the attachment of a piece of steel jointed to the fore-arm ; unless a disarticulation of the elbow is in question. CXXXIII. The metallic fore-arm consists of a rod of steel weighing about 6| ounces ; its form guarantees great strength with a small mass. It is provided with a socket joint cut in a cylindrical piece of steel which screws into the tapped hole in the dome. This joint is controlled by a small lever on the outer side of the arm. A lock-nut makes it possible to place the stem in any plane, while the joint of the elbow allows of angles of flexion varying from 180 to 45. The free extremity of the fore-arm is bored and tapped with a thread of the pitch already mentioned, in order that it may receive the following appliances ; the universal holder, the universal ring, the hook, and the parade hand. The holder is of bronze or forged steel ; it is shaped like a lobster's claw. Its characteristics are : a ball-and-socket joint, enabling it to be turned in all directions, and fixed in any given position by means of a small locking-screw and lever ; and an eccentric, to ensure the firm closing of the jaws, which open by means of an automatic control, actuated by a small lever which is afterwards pressed downwards- (see Fig. 98). The tips of the jaws make it possible to seize a tool or any other object ; tools fitted with a handle are thrust into a special funnel-shaped holder, where they remain firmly fixed. The universal holder suffices the worker for the great majority of purposes ; but the universal ring may also be used (see A, Fig. 99). This comprises a steel head, part of which forms a screw (international pitch) ; it is drilled in two directions, the axis of the holes being at right angles, so that one hole opens THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 289 into the other. In one of these holes is placed the shank of the ring, which is fixed by means of a locking-screw with lever handle working in the other hole. Th\s shank is shaped with a grooved neck, so that it may be turned freely without falling out. The hook, B, is sufficiently explained by the figure ; it is fitted into the same head as the ring. Grip, ring, and hook are nickel-plated. Finally, the " parade hand " is made of wood (lime) ; it is well shaped, resembling the sound hand as closely as possible ; the fingers are half-flexed and rigid ; they are split along their length from front to back, and a thin slip of wood with the fibres running longitudinally is inserted, in order to increase their strength. The thumb is jointed, and opposed to the index and middle fingers. The tips of the thumb and the first two fingers are counter- sunk and provided with rubber pads. In the centre of the wrist is fixed a threaded shank, the pitch of the thread being as before mentioned, so that it may be affixed to the fore-arm, band, which is screwed on, the lower portion of a rigid leather sheath is attached to the wrist. This envelopes the fore-arm as far as the elbow, where the edge is hollowed out to permit of access to the locking-nut. A small opening at the base of the sheath gives access to the locking-screw at the extremity of the fore-arm. All the threaded portions should be made with an easy entry, corresponding to three threads, in order to obviate fumbling and economise the wearer's time. CXXXIV. (b) Amputations very near the Shoulder, and Disarticulation of the Slioulder. If the stump to be fitted is Wash Universal Ring. FIG. 99. By means of a nickel-plated 290 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION less than two inches in length, measuring from the line of the armpit, or if the upper arm has been disarticulated, the proce- dure will be as follows : In the first case, the model should be the parade arm, No. 1. With this it is still possible to utilise, though only to a very slight extent, the small moveable stump of the arm, and the muscular power of the shoulder. FIG. 100. Waistcoats for Amputations, leaving a short Stum]) or none. This type of arm is characterised by its organ of attachment, which consists of a waistcoat of strong perforated fabric, with celluloid eyelet-holes, perfectly fitting the thoracic cage. It is laced back and front. On one side is a shoulder-piece of flexible leather, to support the appliance ; a counter-support of padded leather passes under the opposite armpit. The waistcoat will not be cut too low, or it will allow too much play (Fig. 100, A). THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 291 The waistcoat may, according to circumstances, assume different forms. Half may be made of leather moulded to the thorax and the shoulder involved ; it should be lined with lambskin or chamois. Numerous ventilation holes are pierced through the leather ; and a metallic reinforcement, formed of a strip of steel two-thirds of an inch in width, should be affixed to the edge, on the outside. The other half of the waistcoat may be of very strong ticking, with padding under the armpit e filled by one-armed soldiers, the normal workers being employed in other branches of the services. The Paris-Lyons and Mediterranean Railway Company, which gave ear to my proposals on this subject, has adopted the course indicated, anxious to promote the welfare of those splendid fellows, the French railway workers. Such innovations should receive continual encouragement, 326 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION and should be stimulated, if need be, by prizes, and this particularly in the agricultural world. One result will be a machinery of re-adaptation in the interests of war-cripples, for which they themselves will provide the physiological data, and which it will be necessary to introduce in practice. But care should always be taken not to complicate this machinery. When the war-cripple has been equipped with his worker's arm, with the universal holder and universal ring, there are few circumstances under which special tools or implements are necessary to him ; he does not experience the hesitations and the delays in " getting started " of which an employer, justly concerned as to the time-sheet, might be tempted to suspect him. In prothesis, the multiplication of organs of prehension is* both industrially and physiologically speaking, fallacious. In the Danish institutions, or in that of Munich, the cripples make use of tools and implements adapted to their infirmities. But in these institutions neither time nor money matters, a point of view easily understood, but one which we are far from sharing. If I had proposed to discuss the problem of the work of the blind, or of men who have lost both arms, I should have described the special equipment which is adapted thereto, and which, for these unfortunates, is absolutely indispensable. But this would have led me away from my present programme. I shall therefore reserve for the end of this volume a brief survey of the subject of relief by means of employment. CXLVII. The Advantages of Scientific Organisation. 1. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUE OF THE WAR-CRIPPLE. This method of organisation, whose exactness is beyond all doubl, has often seemed too rigorous and too scientific, and has aroused the fear that it would be difficult of application. This fear is not only regrettable ; it is totally unfounded. The scientific method is as simple as it is reliable. After a preliminary stage of falling into step, which requires a certain amount of attention, it can be applied with great rapidity. I have observed some three thousand persons, of all ages and all THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 327 stations, and I have never required them to subject themselves to any experimentation which was in the slightest degree FIG. 124. Case of Ablation of thejfour Fingers (Carpenter). disagreeable. The majority of the data respecting the wounded soldier, concerning the origin and results of his wound, his 328 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION Example of Certificate of Industrial Qualifications.] DIRECTOR TELEPHONE No. HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE OF SUBJECT No. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Weight Christian name Height erect (E) \2e seated (S) Military rank Address Thoracic co-efficient (g) Liberty of movements . Wound received on the Region affected Length of sound limb Operations Dimensions of stump or stumps : Tissues injured Useful muscular power Complications Results Previous profession Loss of functional capacity Wife Children THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 329 OF RE-EDUCATION. INDUSTRIAL QUALIFICATIONS. CITY OF. PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Extent of education General ... Technical ... Condition of reflexes.-. Personal equation. Vocation Tastes Character Suitable profession INDUSTRIAL QUALIFICATIONS. Condition of re -apprenticeship.... Tendencies to be observed in work Probable duration of re-education. Diminution of daily output. General remarks (Signed) The Director. 330 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION mental and physical aptitudes, his profession before the war, the new inclinations which he may reveal, and his family responsibilities, are collected in less than an hour. FIG. 125. The same at Work, thanks to special artificial Fingers. These various elements, carefully verified, with all possibility of dispute eliminated, are tabulated on a form which consti- THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 331 tutes the subject's certificate of industrial qualifications (see above). This certificate is personal. Nothing is wanting but an indication of the professional capacities resulting from re-apprenticeship or re-adaptation. This will be added later. Information of this nature, obtained by the methods described, inspires confidence ; it enables the interested party to feel his way, to choose his path ; a more and more curious observer of an inquiry which he understands, he emerges from it consoled and encouraged ; he feels as though he had been freed from that obsessive burden, anxiety as regards the future. Science has worked within him a moral transformation of the happiest nature, which he does not seek to dissimulate. And not only does the future workman or employe derive from this examination a real moral advantage : he also becomes aware of his precise social value. The employer, too, is intro- duced to this unsuspected sphere, in which he sees forces recuperated which he believed to be destroyed ; he feels, above all, that they are trained to serve with a maximum of output. For the rest, the certificate of qualifications mentions the loss of daily output resulting from the wound, estimated by experi- ment in connection with a measured and recorded task. CXLVIII. 2. THE OUTPUT OF PROTHESIS. In the case of those who have suffered the loss of a limb by amputation the evaluation must be based upon the gravity of the mutilation and the resources of prothesis. Are some of the phalanges lacking, or even all the fingers, the thumb excepted ? The loss of industrial capacity will be from 5 per cent, to 15 per cent., according to the trade or craft, on the condition that the missing phalanges are skilfully replaced by prothetic seg- ments. 1 The carpenter or small machinist is then able to resume his accustomed trade without appreciable inconvenience (Figs. 124 and 125). He himself succeeds in re-educating his sensi- 1 It is difficult to make up for the loss of a thumb. The Romans exempted persons thus mutilated from military service. However, in the case of calling* which do not demand great efforts of digital pressure or compression prothesis has succeeded in supplying fairly useful artificial thumbs. 332 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION tiveness to pressure, and in correcting the little awkwardnesses which at the outset characterise most of his movements. The amputation of one hand rarely forces a man to change his profession ; and this also applies to the loss of one fore-arm, -when the stump measures more than 1-6 inches from the internal THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 333 crease of the elbow. The loss may be remedied by the worker's type of fore-arm, or by the lever type. The wearer's vocation will decide the choice, and it is the part of re-adaptation lo exploit the war-cripple's resources of functional power. He FIG. 127. Fitter working in his Employer's Workshop. may hesitate, may become discouraged, may distrust himself. The facts, clearly and adroitly displayed before his eyes, pro- duce in him the determination to try. And this is everything. The war-cripple who wants to try is already near success. In this connection I will mention various trades and crafts in which wounded soldiers sculptors, marble-cutters (Fig. 126), 331 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION fitters (Fig. 127), bookbinders, tailors, printers have been able to resume work after a brief training ; but it was previ- ously ascertained that their strength remained in a degree FIG. 128. Faulty Prothesis (filing Metal). necessary to the exercise of their callings. The amputation of the upper arm demands a more laborious re-education, which only the scientific method can guarantee. In the case of these major operations the loss of output is always from 15 per cent, to 30 per cent., despite a superior prothesis. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 335 When this is defective, misconceived, or of an empirical nature the output is considerably reduced. I find, for example, that in one " School of Re-Education " men are taught to file by squeezing the handle of the file into a ring (Fig. 128). Here, in the first place, is a mechanical fault, for the ring has no articulation which makes it possible, as with the universal holder, to point the tool in any given direction ; secondly, only a fraction of the power of the stump is utilised. Similar details, all of which have their importance, show that re-education must not be a matter of groping for results, or of chance. For the rest, what conceptions can the instructors obtain to help them in the task of professional orientation, save those which the observation of prothesis in action, and an efficacious prothesis, enables them to form concerning the present value of the war-cripple, and the difficulty of his craft ? I will mention a sufficiently striking case. A benevolent society sent me a patient whose left upper arm had been amputated, leaving a stump 3-9 inches in length. He was a maitre d'hotel, and he was sent to me to learn whether he could not learn Russian with a view to becoming a hotel interpreter. I need not describe the amazement of the wounded man when I advised him to resume his old calling. Yet he did so, and with success. Provided with a good worker's arm, he was easily able to hold his knife, and display his skill in the art of Vatel. The same thing happened in the case of a foreman butcher. Agricultural workers or farmers, provided one stump is of greater length than 4-8 inches, should be able to endure all the fatigues of their calling. The universal ring and the hook are of inestimable value to them. And always, or almost always, the artificial organ will serve to support the implement, or to bear upon it. Experience leaves me in no doubt what- ever upon this point : but our peasants must be interested and instructed. On the other hand, if a man is forced to desert his original calling, the quality of his work will inevitably suffer. This is a truth which we must have the courage to affirm, and which cannot diminish the merits of scientific re-adaptation to work. 336 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION CXLIX. 3. SIMPLICITY AND RAPIDITY. To all these proved advantages of the new method of re-education, let me add the testimony of engineers and physicians who have been applying the method for the last eighteen months. A period of 4 to 5 weeks in my laboratory enables them to familiarise themselves with the technical details of the appliances provided, and the methods of investigation and professional orientation employed. Of the many institutions of which they are the directors, in France, Italy, England, Canada, and Russia, I will make particular mention of the cole Superieure of Bordeaux, the Roman school, and the Milan Institute. These establishments are attended by an average of 75, 80, and 130 war-cripples ; but they provide a real re-education, whose results are reliable. The number of the pupils is tending to increase, and it is found that the certainty of the method employed exerts a decisive influence upon the enthusiasm of the candidates. The benevolent institutions which have been scattered here and there at the inspiration of empiricism, and which are striving to attain the same object, are wasting time and money ; they are condemned to disappear, unless they strike tardy roots into a better-prepared soil. However, I will mention the workshops for the re-apprentice- ship of subjects with mutilated fingers (Fig. 129) ; they are economical, and facilitate the work of orientation. In the meantime the scientific system has proved its qualities, which we may characterise as follows : It quickly and efficaciously re-educates the infirm or muti- lated soldier ; it guarantees the endurance of the workers it has trained, and also their rational utilisation, and their moral; the information which it gives the employee is sincere, and it establishes a feeling of confidence ; it disciplines the professional activities, and inculcates habits of method and order. To fail to realise all the practical and effective truth con- tained in these principles is to be gravely misled, and to incur the heaviest responsibilities. 338 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION CL. The Methods of Scientific Organisation must now be considered. As re-education cannot be obligatory for all, nor con- fined to a single region, 1 an active propaganda should be carried out everywhere; in the family, in schools, and in public meetings; in order to induce the hesitating war-cripple to enter his name without delay for admittance to the establishments organised for his benefit, in which are accumulated such treasures of experience, science, and human solidarity as no other nation could offer him. From the day of his entry until the day when employment is found for hini in commerce, industry, or agriculture, there will be nothing lacking in the consideration and the sacrifice to which he has an absolute right. I have said, and I repeat 2 until, I hope, I have made myself understood that professional re-education continues and completes the functional education. The two together constitute an undeniable physiological unity. 3 But it is also necessary that they should form a psychological unity, in the sense that the wounded soldier should be prepared for his future calling from the time he enters the hospital To this end he will be given to. read a sort of guide and prospectus, in which will be described the kind of infirmity from which he is suffering, the professional destination to which it points, and the positive results of re-education and re-adaptation. Professors of manual craftsmanship will visit the hospital to give lessons with cinematographic demonstrations. Above all the instruc- tion given should be concrete and realistic, consisting of facts rather than of words. Let no promise be made if there is risk of disappointment on the morrow. Let the wounded soldier feel himself sustained by knowledge and experience 1 The law of France to-day admits, as the result of the fortunate intervention of M. Pierre Rameil and the report of M. Brunet, both deputies, that professional re-education is obligatory in the case of any victim of amputation who has the right to a military pension. Let us note with Monsieur Rameil that this re- education is the right of the wounded soldier, a right which places the obligation rather to the charge of the State. (Concerning this interesting discussion see rOfficiel, session of 14 April, 1916.) * C.B. Acad. Sc., 26 April, 1916, Vol. CLX., p. 559. ' The physiological effects of professional exercises are now beneficially utilised in the Austro-German hospitals under the name of Arbeits-therapie. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 339 united to probity, and by the material help of a generous country. It is important to banish from his heart the bitter- ness which is always left there by charitable assistance. To sum up : to commence the process of professional re-education as early as possible ; to set the bait, as it were, in the hospitals, by the visits of competent and highly tactful teachers, by lectures and ocular demonstrations whose teaching cannot be resisted : such is the indispensable programme. In practice professional re-education will not reach all our wounded soldiers. Some, who possess a certain compet- ence, will return to their homes, and will find some means of occupying themselves ; well equipped, they can re-adapt themselves to their work in their own way. Being educated, they will attach themselves, by the ties of intelligence and determination, to the general professional life of the country. Others a very small minority, I hope will hide themselves away, in indifference and idleness, which will inevitably drag them down into poverty. These disastrous habits have had time, alas ! to assume a distressing development during the years in which nothing has been done for the organisation of the work of wounded soldiers ; while private institutions for re-education have exhausted themselves in futile groping. Monetary assistance has been abused, since it has been given without the definite condition of being the reward of work, and thereby a spirit of idleness and mendicity has been created of which it will be difficult to cure the always interesting victims of the war. This evil has been enabled to increase to such a point (and I have investigated it very thoroughly in the wounded soldiers whom I am studying, in this connection among others) that it has seemed to me irreparable ; and I recently complained of it 1 in the hope of opening the eyes of those who, I can readily believe, have closed them to the things of this world. But we must behave as if they would one day open them, and describe the lealities. 1 Revue Scientifique, p. 367, 1916. 340 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION CLI. Schools of Professional Re-education. The great majority of wounded soldiers, instructed and stimulated by example, will resort to the higher schools of re-education, thus denominated in order te indicate that a pedagogic and technical method will be employed in them, with superior guarantees as to their organisation. One will be created for each economic region, the nature and importance of the regional products, and the resources of the producers in the shape of plant and equipment serving as guide. For France I propose eleven regions, that is to say, eleven schools, distributed among the cities of Paris, Rennes, Lille, Nancy, Lyons, Limoges, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Marseilles, Algiers, and Tunis. The original grouping here indicated is by no means absolute, although it seems to me rational. One might replace the cities mentioned by others, combining economic elements such as our departments in fresh units. Now the regional organisation appears in this connection to be opposed to the departmental organisation ; or, at least, so some have supposed. The truth is quite otherwise. It is because there are so few centres that numbers of small schools and workshops of re-apprenticeship, scattered all over the country, have been born of private initiative. They have followed the movement of the wounded men emerging from the military depots ; for all these men, once discharged and restored to civil life, have tried, more or less, to work and to find situations. Generous people whom we must not tire of praising in proportion to the indifference displayed by official figureheads have encouraged them by pecuniary relief, by recommendations to employers, and by the improvised insti- tution of special workshops. The Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers has several such workshops, affiliated to the labora- tory of which I am the director, if only for the sake of pro- fessional orientation and the assistance of my prothetic department. Can these small departmental organisations be made to harmonise with the existence of large regional centres ? Certainly, provided these latter undertake the work of functional re-education, examine and provide appropriate prothetic appliances, and draw up certificates of qualifications ; THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 341 after which they will send the wounded and mutilated soldiers to their respective departments, where they will be near their families ; that is to say, to the local workshops, whose function is then complementary and decisive. CLIL (a) THE ORGANISATION OF A CENTRE OF RE-EDUCA- TION. The Higher School of Re-education should exist side by side with these elementary workshops. Here follows an account of its organisation in France, as it should have been from the beginning, and as the regions and cities of which I have already spoken Bordeaux, for example have made it as a result of my indications. Each school possesses a technical department which prepares the certificates of qualifications, attends to all medical and orthopaedic requirements, and undertakes the general physio- logical examination which the certificate itself requires. In the same building are installed workshops, adapted to the prac- tice of the ordinary trades and crafts of the region. These will necessarily be of many kinds, in order to attract as many pupils to the school as possible. The following trades in particular will be taught : Orthopaedy ; mechanical engineering (fitting, tool-cutting) ; industrial design ; photography (retouching, enlarging, and printing) ; shoe-making ; harness-making ; saddlery ; elec- trical fitting ; tinsmiths' work and the lesser mechanical crafts ; typewriting ; the management of agricultural machinery and small motors ; toy-making in wood ; the making of hands and feet for artificial limbs ; carpentry. In some centres (Jura, Vienne, and Haut-Vienne) the prac- tice of the lapidary art and ceramics will be developed, which might yield France a considerable advantage over other countries. If the numbers of those who have lost a lower limb is large, and a change of trade becomes necessary, tailors and weavers will be trained. But in general we must avoid keeping at the school those war-cripples who are able to resume their old trades. The direction of the school is entrusted to a competent physician, assisted by an experienced engineer. Both must 342 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION be tactful, and capable of judgement and reflection. Their physiological knowledge will be in request every moment. The physician is responsible for functional re-education,, prothesis, and orthopaedy, and observations relating to the psycho-physiological qualifications of the wounded soldiers. It is impossible to divide these different services, to which the assistants and instructors are appointed. The victims of amputation work at repairing or transforming prothetic appliances, and installing workshops. But work of this sort should not be specialised, or serious disappointments may occur. The engineer, for his part, assisted by a few good professors of the manual crafts, or by foremen, has to supervise the general and technical instruction of the men, and divide them into professional categories. He keeps a watch upon the move- ments of his patients and the good condition of their artificial limbs, and he explains the best mode of employing them. I have always remarked that the victim of amputation very quickly completes his sensitive education, and shows, in the handling of his tools, a dexterity w T hich amazes his instructors. He is for them the occasion of many living object-lessons, for experience, in this connection, is the only guide. The teaching is not confined to workshop practice ; theoret- ical courses are provided ; complementary instruction in. science and literature increases the average level of intelligence, and enables the brain to co-operate with the arms, when the latter are uncertain. CLIII. (6) PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION. In our days, when man has ceased to be an active part of the mechanism ot the wonderful machine-tools of industry, to become a mere agent of starting and stopping, in whom automatism has reduced to a minimum the graduated and voluntary activity of the muscles, we must train the greater number of our war- cripples for economical trades, which are not fatiguing, and are often remunerative. I imagine that if small motors of 2 to 5 h.p. were placed in the hands of our farmers they would live more prosperous lives, and would render more fertile- THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 343 and productive the soil which has been so unhappily neglected. An examination of agricultural implements, with a view to their adaptation to the use of war-cripples, has become a necessary undertaking, but has not sufficiently attracted the attention of the State. When he first enters the school the farmer invariably informs me, if he has lost an arm, that he can no longer perform any agricultural operation, unless to give food to the live-stock. But when he has been re-educated,, when he is equipped with the worker's arm, with the universal holder and ring, he accustoms himself, first of all, to the use of the dynamographic shovel : then he employs, turn by turn, the ordinary spade and shovel, leaning on them and pressing them into the soil as they should be pressed ; then he strikes and pulls with the mattock, or presses and pulls the hoe or rake. In a few days after his return to the country the farmer writes to tell me that he is performing all his agricultural tasks without assistance from any one. In certain parts of Central France in Lozere, Correze, Cantal, or again in the Vosg$s the peasant might devote the slack season the winter to making wooden toys : a craft in which his ingenuity, his habit of making something of everything, and of doing everything with his own hands, would find useful scope. This toy-making industry used to be localised in Germany, in Nuremberg and Fiirth. Already the Italians of the North and the Swiss have reacted against this monopoly. We, too, who possess the wood usually beech and the most skilful labour, ought to follow this example, which costs so little in the matter of initial outlay : a knife, a saw, sometimes a small lathe, and a hammer. Even in navvy's work, road-making, etc., there is room for one-armed men. I had several yards of a path paved by such a worker, who employed a pneumatic paving-beetle, known as a demoiselle. It appears that this sort of work suits the one- armed man far better than it does the one-legged man, although the reverse is true of the removal of soil. Two-wheeled barrows, which are easy to guide, are obviously indicated for work of this kind. 344 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION IiTall the trades or crafts hitherto mentioned the knowledge of the movements and the efforts required of the worker pre- supposes a knowledge of the use of tools. This is a very im- portant point. Of course, the director of the workshops FIG. 130. One-armed Mechanic making a Forging. cannot contrive to be omniscient, but his general education and his experience should prevent him from making mistakes, or leaving to his assistants the task of selecting the trade or craft to be followed by the war-cripple. Otherwise it would be THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 345 better to induce him to relinquish his position. He must realise that the one-armed man is in a position to adopt the calling of a mechanician ; he can file, use and set a saw, handle the shears and the chisel, grind and set tools, drill holes with the centre-bit and brace, and employ the tap and screw-plate or dies. The sound arm will wield the hammer (Fig. 130). FIG. 131. Wounded Soldier working the Jointing-plane. Only the lathe will present any real difficulty. But this depends on the kind of lathe ; some can be controlled without much difficulty (the capstan lathe, for example). The war-cripple can also become a wood-worker ; he can saw, plane, assemble and glue parts, drill, mortice, etc. (Figs. 131, 132). To-day the intelligence of the worker is an important factor, which is seconded by the full force of technical experience. This enables us to destine a fairly large number of war-cripples 346 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION to work with machine-tools, which will in future be employed by the industrial world even more widely than at present. The mental vivacity which is one of the characteristics of the French people will greatly contribute to this professional adaptation. FIG. 132. One-armed Worker cutting Wood by means of a Rip-saw. If, on the other hand, we bring to these questions that deter- mination to realise the facts which is incumbent upon us, we perceive that only an exasperating prejudice has prevented the majority of crippled workers from obtaining employment, and that it has affected soldiers more than civilians. It is- truly to offer an insult to glory to exclude it from our work- THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 347 shops, humming with industry, or from the plains springing into life behind the ploughshare. The object of professional orientation is to react against social prejudices by placing the wounded soldier in the position for which he is fitted, in order to realise his full economic output. CLIV. (c) THE TIME REQUIRED FOR RE-EDUCATION. HOME. OR COTTAGE INDUSTRIES. But the technical department of the school will be consulted by the pupils for all sorts of reasons : some wishing to undergo a course of physiological training, which seems full of promise ; others seeking some improvement of their prothetic appliances, or to their more careful adjust- ment, or simply and I have had thousands of such before me a circumstantial examination of their capacities, in order that they may obtain their certificate of qualification ; this they will send to manufacturers inclined to employ them, or they will profit by it directly by setting up on their own account. For my part, I hope to see this effort to revive the life of the complete workman, the home-worker, encouraged. In this there would be nothing inconsistent with the tendency toward industrial centralisation, as the large workshops would, with- out loss to themselves, become accustomed to leave the smaller crafts and petty commissions to this class of worker, a class capable of great ingenuity and inventive power. The State also would benefit by this condition of affairs, provided the home-workers did not fail to turn out good apprentices. As for the workshops which are established for purposes of re-education, their object is perfectly well defined : to- perfect the technique of the handicrafts, and to adapt the wounded soldier to selected professional exercises, accordingly as he is obliged to change his calling or to specialise in that one of the departments of his craft which is best calculated to husband his energies without diminishing their output. The time required for this re-education varies. Although as far as manual labour is concerned a year constitutes a sufficient average, it must be remembered that the theoretical education will require a longer time ; and it will be of a 348 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION complete nature, so that it may form a working class Mite which will itself be qualified to teach. The principle of the school will be that of the boarding- school, the men receiving board and lodging, while their wages will be reckoned according to a scale which may vary according to locality, remembering that the loss of output in the majority of cases of amputation of the lower leg or thigh is practically nil Under exceptional circumstances it may be useful to adapt the system of the day school in the case of married cripples, so that they may return to their own homes every evening. Thus the schools established for the purpose of re-education distribute the benefits of instruction in pursuance of a definite aim ; they develop the minds of the workers, and complete their technical training. They determine, being familiar with the facts of the case, the industrial or commercial destination of the wounded soldier, preparing him securely to find employment and to take his place in the ranks of society. CLV. Finding Employment. For everything must con- verge upon the real object, which is to find employment for the wounded soldier. The mutilated workmen who are helped to set up for themselves, the young men who ought to enter the liberal professions, and whose efforts should be encouraged by subventions or by gratuitous training these are examples of the men for whom we are finding employment. One may also count upon individual initiative. This or that employer or factory-manager will apply to you for one or several wounded soldiers. I, personally, have received many applications of this kind, to which I have responded by sending to the applicant the required number of war-cripples, who have undergone their course of re-education and received their certificates. These certificates constitute an element of great value, because the employer finds in them information which is intelligible, exact, and honest. Between him and his employee a solid confidence is established, the foundation of which is the truth. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 349 A number of charitable societies have undertaken, during the war, to collect and centralise offers to employ war-cripples, and to elicit others by advertisements in the Press, or through the personal influence and connections of their directors. Beyond a doubt some of these societies have in this direction furnished a generous contribution of patriotic zeal. But to all attempts of this kind the more substantial influence of the syndical chambers is to be preferred (Trade Union Councils). I am strongly of opinion that the Trade Unions should be invited to collaborate in the work of placing our wounded and mutilated soldiers. The great factories are in a position to employ many thousands of them, provided they practise the division of labour, and lay down machinery which is easily controlled. The Ministries of Munitions in France and England, some of whose works employ from 5,000 to 10,000 hands, ought to have adopted this course long ago, and might have done so without diminishing the level of production. They possess means of action superior to those of other Ministries. 1 Certain great industries, especially the metallurgical, have begun to make such attempts, of their own proper motion, yielding to the spirit of solidarity which the intelligent em- ployer feels in respect of his wounded workers. I trust that this example will rapidly become contagious. Commerce also offers outlets : the wounded soldier may find employment as house-surveyor, newspaper canvasser, newsagent, or newsvendor. Young men who, for lack of apprenticeship to a trade, would adopt the calling of news- vendor, should be taught other trades, in which their arms or legs would be necessary. Book-keeping will absorb a certain 1 After twenty-one months of war I read in the newspaper that the Under- secretary of State for Munitions had " invited the heads of industries to arrange for the employment of war-cripples in all cases where it is possible to utilise them; as watchmen, inspectors, clerks, etc." (Le Journal, 27 April, 1916.) A more recent " invitation " " to ascertain the kinds of work on which the interested party (wounded or crippled soldier) can be employed without incon- venience " (ibid., 22 June, 1916), obviously constituted a perceptible step forward. Since then the Ministry has brought about the extensive employment of such workers. 350 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION number of wounded soldiers, above all those who are suffering from radial paralysis, and those who have lost a leg. Banks, business houses, etc., will employ them as typists, copying clerks, accountants, etc. The essential thing is to prepare the wounded soldier for his calling, so that he may practise it effectively ; then his position will be secure, and he will escape the hazards of charitable employment At the present moment the French Ministry of Labour is making an effort, thanks to a Central Office (decrees of March, 1916), to co-ordinate the scattered training establishments and employment agencies, and to repair, if possible, the mistakes which have been committed. CLVI. An Institute for the Organisation of Labour. It will be seen that a complete preliminary study of the problem was necessary before it was possible to obtain a thorough grasp of the methods of re-education. It was also necessary to examine all the modes of its application, and to act with decision and promptitude, in collaboration with qualified persons, grouped under a vigilant director. Lastly, it was indispensable to possess a central organism, comprising all the mechanism of control and co-ordination. The school to be installed in Paris might, under the name of the " Institute for the Organisation of Labour," become the organisation in question : it might serve as a centre of advanced instruction in the disregarded science of labour and apprenticeship, and as a connecting link between the competent departments of the several Ministries, and might introduce a little order into a condition of affairs which is of necessity confused. Let us, in fact, consider the diversity of the departments which occupy themselves with the lot of the wounded soldier. In France the Service de Sante (Army Medical Service) is responsible for matters of prothesis and psychotherapy, for the discharge of soldiers from the army, and for the award of pensions. General and technical instruction, apprenticeship, and all the legislation which surrounds them, together with the award of pensions other than military, unemployment, THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 351 and industrial accidents are the province of the Ministries of Labour, Commerce, Public Instruction, and Agriculture. The whole Government is therefore engaged in this social task, but it is advisable that a single mechanism should undertake it. Such seems to be the mature decision of Parliament, since it has entrusted the Ministry of Labour with the duty of organ- ising professional re-education in France. Thus a formidable waste of time and money will be avoided ; and unemployment will be prevented. It should indeed be inexcusable in countries in which the entire energy of the nation is required. I believe the scientific method of re-education will produce, in both employers and workers, an improved industrial discipline, and a higher moral and intellectual standard. As soon as the schools are in full working order, and employment secure, two years will not elapse before all our re-educated wounded soldiers will be in a position to gain their livelihood, without owing anything to any one. Our workers, artisans and peasants alike, are counting on this ; they are awaiting the action of the State with an impatience whose rapid contagion I have often regretted. No one must betray the hopes which have shone into their hearts. It is the time for decisive action, for a great obligation of solidarity is at issue, of which the likeness is not to be found in human history. CLVII. Relief Work. The Seriously Wounded. The physiological organisation of labour has an immensely wide bearing, since it embraces physical education and apprentice- ship, social hygiene, and professional re-education. In the special class of wounded soldiers we have seen that it enables the very great majority of infirm, weakly, and invalid subjects to return to normal life, and about 80 per cent, of the mutilated soldiers, of whom there are in Europe more than 2,500,000. x But the others, the seriously wounded; those who have had to suffer a double amputation, and those who are totally 1 There are nearly 80,000 in France, as against 2,781 after the war of 1870-1. The belligerent countries number, on an average, one wounded soldier per 30 inhabitants. 352 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION invalid, and, lastly, the blind ? What can the scientific method of re-education do for these unfortunates ? Some possess a degree of functional capacity so small that it cannot be used ; some are only in slightly better case. Others even when their limbs are intact have lost the most important of the functions of relation : their sight. For them the outer world has become a place full of ambushes; a heavy darkness has descended upon the horizon which met their eyes of old, and which, to them, was familiar. All these facts I reserved for the present chapter, since they did not immediately enter into my programme, and because the normal social output alone preoccupied me. I should like, however, to venture on a brief survey of the problem of charitable employment or relief work upon which the seriously wounded and the blind are dependent. I do not intend to attempt more than a mere contribution to the subject. The equipment with prothetic appliances of those who have lost two or more limbs is a delicate matter, which demands the fullest attention. The remedy is a perfected prothesis, adapted as carefully as possible ; a prothesis utilitarian rather than aesthetic. The lower limbs require less care. The patient, with two good " pestles," can enter some seden- tary occupation ; walking is comparatively easy, but the man must be his own master ; he must be master, too, of his time, and able to study his own convenience. The literally legless man, when he is poor, can only have recourse to benevolent assistance ; it is his right. Special workshops would permit of the utilisation of this category of worker, whose output is often fairly high. The category of those who have lost both arms or hands is more interesting, if we may say so ; for scientific re-education benefits it very greatly, both by exercising and training the sensitiveness of the stumps, and by adapting them to the execution of dexterous movements. Never has this physiological training appeared more fruitfully beneficial than in the case of the blind. The appliances of the Cauet type are those which best satisfy the needs of those who have suffered amputation of THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 353 both the upper limbs, who, if they are intelligent, can resume FIG. 133. Accountant, seated at a Cafe Table. Both his Fore-arms have been amputated. their old occupations with appreciable results (Fig. 133). But more is needed for the blind. 354 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION CLVIII. The Physiological Education of the Blind. The better to define the principles here involved, I will take the example of a blind soldier who had suffered amputation of the left upper arm and the right fore-arm. G. S., aged 41 years, married, and the father of two children, was a dealer in forced fruits and vegetables. In his calling the senses play an essential part. The man was utterly dejected as a result of his mutilations. I took him, barely cicatrised, from the hospital in which he was stifling his mental anguish, and I busied myself at first with the sensibility of the stumps. Here is the method employed : For a week the sensibility is trained by means of the weighted bracelet ( 112). This training is completed by exercises with the brachial splint, and controlled by the spike aesthesiometer and the pressure dynamometer. Finally the aesthesiographic table is employed (Fig. 134). This consists of a rectangular plate of brass, P, with a flue, F, which is placed over a small lamp, bringing the whole up to a temperature of about 86 Fahr. In the centre of the plane surface appears a blunt point of ivory, I, which by means of a micrometer screw, M, can be gradually made to protrude. The extent of this protrusion is, of course, known. At its base it presses on a Marey drum, with an internal spring, and tre pressure can be registered as usual. Under these conditions the patient is allowed to explore the surface of the plate or table, the point being at zero. He moves his stump over it in all directions ; and little by little the micrometer screw is turned. When the patient manages to detect the ivory point, the height of the projec- tion of the point is read, and the pressure which the stump has exerted in order to feel it is registered. From day to day the results improve. The patient is now provided with mechanical arms of Cauet's type, and the sensory re-education is recommenced, but is now combined with the adaptation of the movements. G. S. has succeeded in making himself useful in his old occupation ; he no longer feels iso- lated ; he is re-entering into possession of the active life which at one time he thought he had left for ever. We live by our THE RE-EDUCATIOX OF WAR-CRIPPLES 3jO senses, a little of necessity and a great deal by habit. The blind man has to lose the habit, and content himself with the necessity. CLIX. The Work of the Blind. The loss of sight is more grievous to some than to others. The man congenitally blind has no conception of his loss ; the man blinded by accident, on the other hand, attaches to it an importance 134. Employment of the Aesthesiographic Table in the Case of a blind Cripple. which depends on the sum of the delights of which it deprives him. The simple-minded man suffers, in this respect, less than the cultivated man. But one must continually appeal to the moral of the blind, and employ the finest tact in dealing with them. The best means of fortifying their moral is to find work for them, and preferably to re-adapt them to their old trades. Work manifests the action of man upon the external world, and draws him away from the anxieties, the griefs, and the 356 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION discouragement which have from all time been the lot of the blind : Sminthee Apollon, je perirai sans doute Si tu ne sers de guide a cet aveugle errant ! " O Smintheus Apollo, I shall surely die if thou dost not serve as guide to this wandering blind man ! " But the god of shepherds is assuredly less useful than a poodle to guide the blind farmer across the fields. For it seems to me necessary to adapt the latter to the work of the soil and the tasks of the farmyard. He has, in short, the necessary experience ; he is familiar with aspect and the use of agricul- tural implements. Well-trained as regards his tactile sensi- bility, and, at need, assisted by a boy, he can resume the laborious life of the peasant. For the peasant farmers form the majority of those engaged in agriculture. Such is the case of L , among others ; a small farmer smitten with blindness in the war, who, further, lost the four fingers of his right hand, the thumb having retained a certain though insufficient mobility. The artificial hand with which I equipped him enables him to make use of the universal ring or pliers, or even of the parade hand. His movements are being controlled and corrected, thanks to the dynamographic shovel, and his efforts evaluated, with a view to the possibility of the necessary exertions. There are in general no practical difficulties in enabling the blind farmer to resume his old occupations, except, indeed, that it is important to make it easier for him to do so. If he has no kinsfolk who can employ him, some benevolent society must place him in surroundings which are familiar to him. In general the process of re-adaptation to work should be the object of benevolent assistance, for it economises the whole business of getting to work again, and of apprenticeship. I have always, for example, recommended that blind men who belong to the category of mechanicians, tinsmiths, lock- smiths, etc., should be re-educated as fitters, and in the per- formance of heavy mechanical work. The Reuilly establish- ment has completely realised the force of my contention. THE RE-EDUCATION OF WAR-CRIPPLES 357 These men work by the task and are paid by the piece, neither more nor less than the normal workers in the factory. Here is a profession in which our great manufacturers can encourage the pious work of assisting the blind. The trades in which re-adaptation and even re-apprentice- ship are easy may be classified as follows, in the order of useful output : agriculture ; coarse mechanical work ; book- binding ; brush-making ; mending and re-seating chairs ; basket-making ; packing (closing boxes of fruits and vege- tables) ; cooperage ; making wooden shoes ; making small baskets of raphia ; massage ; piano-tuning ; telephoning (for customers). It is in all cases advantageous to train and exercise the sensibility by contact with the surfaces and the contours of tools and shaped articles ; for example, by utilising a cube of brass with rounded corners, the radius of the various rounded surfaces being unequal, and getting the blind man to recognise and estimate the differences. The chair-mender will pass his fingers over the straw, rushes, or cane of the chair-bottom, counting the rows and inequalities of the prepared surface ; and so with other kinds of work. I have caused little tablecloths to be made of silk or cotton twist, for tea-tables. Sweaters, mufflers, etc., can be made in the same sort of work. It is very easy to learn and very remunerative. These brief explanations will enable the reader to realise how much thought might be given to the subject of relief by means of work, a species of relief which affects so many unfortunates, and which snatches them from a cruel fate, while it extends the scientific work of organising human activity to ground which we shall never tread without a profound emotion and a pious respect. CLX. General Conclusion. Through the innumerable forms of our activity, in the exertions of the body as well as in those of the mind, a single principle appears : the principle of order and harmony. All Nature obeys it : the ray of light, as it is refracted or reflected, follows the shortest 358 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION path ; the stone which falls or is thrown from the hand describes a minimum trajectory ; the instinctive movement is also the most rapid. And man has never reflected that his voluntary actions squander time and energy and riches which would benefit society ! For he needed self-control and a rigorous science to avoid useless waste, and to keep himself on the sloping path of routine. A demonstrative experience was necessary to make him understand that economy, while husbanding the expenditure of our energies, increases their utilisation, and that this expenditure should be rational and methodical in every sphere which is open to our activities. For it is a mistake to suppose that the capital of our physical and psychical energies is inexhaustible. It represents a sum, a total, of which we do not know the exact figure, but it cannot be far from the equivalent of 150,000 horse-power hours for the normal duration of life, with a useful effect of about 10 per cent. This would be a very small mechanical output in comparison with that of inanimate motors, if we had not to consider the intelligence of labour and its infinite variety, if it were not for the existence of thought, which nothing hitherto has been able to parallel. The athlete is mistaken when he crazily dissipates his strength. The working-man is making a miscalculation when he refuses to improve the condition of his work by a more skilful technique, an improved equipment, and a judicious employment of his working day. The employer is mistaken when he rejects the employment of wounded or mutilated soldiers, a considerable reinforcement of the normal workers, and an important source of profit ; and in general we miscon- ceive the profound and veritable laws of social organisation if we fail to put each man in the place which should properly be his if he is to yield his full output. The day has come for a conception of this organisation which is at once scientific and humane, and a source of concord and well-being. THE END INDEX Acceleration, nervous, 51. Accidents, industrial : precautions against, 194 ; expert investigation of, 313. Accidents, industrial, victims of ; organic examination of, 116 ; functional incapacity of, 133 ; re-education of, 229. Acclimatisation, 203 ; its duration, 210 ; its development, 223. Acid, carbonic : present in the blood, 22 ; dyspnoea caused by, 25 ; its elimination, 25 ; breathlessness due to, 87. Acid, uric : elimination of, 96. Activity, intellectual, 41, 161, et seq. physical, 48, 127 ; its duration, 41 ; its laws, 166. psychical : its evolution, 41 ; its seat, 52. Adaptation, functional, 34 ; of the body, 46 ; of implements employed by disabled workers, 323. Addison, Joseph, 112. Aesthesiometer, 94, 170, 248, 354. Age, and intelligence, 38, 41 ; and physical energies, 40 ; the critical, 41. Effects of, 40, 41, 53, 111-12, 141-2. Age and apprentice- ship, 184 ; see Senility. Agricultural labour, 137 ; utility, 192 ; organization, 208, 342-3. Agriculture, mechanical, 137. Air, atmospheric : composition of, 23, 75 ; contaminated, 25 ; com- pressed, 120. Albuminoids, organic, 95 ; in foodstuffs, 103, 104 ; minimum of, 103, 104, 106 ; abstention from, 106. Alcohol ; action of upon the alimentary canal, 23, 114 ; and on the whole organism, 114, et seq. ; hereditary effects of, 40, 115 ; as a drink, 113-114 ; alcohol and athletics, 137 ; alcohol and colonisa- tion, 209. Alcoholism : effects of, 113-116 ; campaign against, 113-114, 225 ; among the Arabs, 222. Alimentation : effects of, 5 ; moderation in, 45, 141 ; bad or insuffi- cient, 104 ; economical, 106 ; of labour, 108, 143 ; of the Arabs, 220, et seq. ; see Food. Altitude, effects of, 120. Amar's Law, or Law of Repose, 101 ; Amar's worker's arm, 286, et seq. Amontons, 3, 10. Amplitude of movements, 145; measurement of, 156; power of, 245. Amputation, general effects of, 242-3, 246, et seq. ; of the thigh, 246, 265 ; of the lower leg, 246, 272, 282 ; tibio-tarsal, 274 ; Chopart's, 284 ; double, 284 ; of the upper arm, 284, 286, 332 ; of the fore-arm, 293, 332. 359 360 INDEX Amputation, victims of : functional re-education of, 143, 146, 149, 196 ; definition of same, 227 ; one-armed, 231, 303 ; the common illusion of, 250 ; the organic condition of, 252, et seq. ; victims of double amputation, 252, 326, 352 ; the gait of a one-legged man, 260, 275 ; training of men whose arms are amputated, 318 ; their labour, 324, 326, 331, et seq. Analysis of forces, 67-8, 312 ; of movements, 70, 180 ; of gases expired, 73. Annamites, as workers, 203 ; their qualities, 226. Appliances, prothetic, 146 ; description of, 257, etseq. ; theory of, 258 ; for working-men, 285 ; functional treatment by means of, 306. Appliances for physical training, 146, et seq. Apprentice, the work of an, 126, 128 ; his relations with his employer, 185, 188, et seq. Apprenticeship : organisation of, 8, 9, 128-133, 190, et seq. ; 206, technique of, 183, 193, et seq. ; schools of, 186 ; advantages of the latter, 192 ; the problem of, 184 ; indentures of, 185 ; to life, 177. Aptitudes : physical, 45 ; professional, 46, 204, 328-9, 340 ; individual, 116 ; psychical, 50 ; general, 183, 194, 323 ; of the French artisan, 207. Arabs : sponge-fishers, 88 ; as workers, 212, 225 ; gait of the, 162 ; investigations undertaken among by author, 211, 218, et seq. ; diet of the, 220 ; wages of, 225. Arbeitstherapie, 338. Arm, experimental, 285 ; Amar's type, 286, et seq. ; Cauet's type, 285, 297, et seq. ; disarticulation of the, 289, 301. Art of manual work, 125, 166 ; of thinking, 168 ; of speaking, 174 ; of writing, 175 ; of teaching, 181 ; definition of, 192. Arterio-sclerosis, the cause of, 44, 115. Artisan, see Worker. Arthrodynanometer, 156, 243. Articulations : surfaces of, 30 ; of old men, 44 ; rigidity of the, 120, 145 ; supplementary action of, 145 ; the principal, 259. Assistance and relief, 228, 311, 351-2 ; for victims of the war, 229, 312, 352 ; relief work, 352 ; the proper province of, 230. Asthenopia, ocular, 93. Athlete : athlete's heart, 30, 82 ; the pulse of an, 79, 82 ; the muscles, 46 ; the physical training, 64, 160. Attention : fatigue caused by, 11, 180 ; disorders of the, 116 ; genesis of the, 42, 55 ; the function of the, 178. Attitudes of the body, 38, 72, 122, 127, 161 ; of the cyclist, 136. Balland, A., 109. Barbe, 189. Beat of the heart, 29, 80. Beaufort, Comte de, 284. Beetle, pneumatic, 343. Beignet, A., 185. Belidor, 4. INDEX 361 Belot, Dr., 309. Benedict, 13, 135, 171. Berbers, the, 212, 215, 220. Bernard, Claude, 23. Bernouilli brothers, the, 3 ; Jacques, 61. Beverages, 112 ; alcoholic, 113-4, 222 ; of the Arabs, 222. Bicycle bearings, sorting, 11. Bile, the, 21. Blood, function of the, 25 ; movement of the, 29. Body, the : development and endurance of, 40 ; form, 46 ; weight, 40, 106 ; proportions, 260. Bouchard, 96. Bourgeois, Leon, 201. Bourrey, G., 188. Boussingault, 221. Bracelet, weighted, 249, 354. Brain, the, 34 ; cortex of the, 37, 42 ; differences observed in, 42 ; atrophy of, 44 ; localisations in, 50 ; functions of, 51 ; the frontal lobe of, 51 ; radio-activity of, 172. Breathlessness, 87, 322. Bricklayer, the work of the, 123. Broca's centre, 53. Brodmann, 52. Brown- Sequard, 25. Brunei, Deputy, 338. Bulb, dynamographic, 154. Bulimia, 105. C Cabrini, Deputy, 204. Calorie, definition of, 13. Calorimetric chamber, 13. Carbohydrates, necessary minimum of, 104, 106 ; sources of, 103. Carbonic Acid Gas, see Acid. Cardiograph, 78. Cards of instruction in Taylor system, 6. Carnegie, Andrew, 13. Carpenter, the work of the, 130, 132. Carriage of the body, 160-1. Cauet's artificial arms, 288, et seq. Cazalis, 44. Centre of gravity, 3, 165, 262 ; its oscillations, 162 ; of the fore-arm, 242. Cerebellum, the, 34, 37, 48. Certificate of qualifications, 328-9, 331, 341. Chambers, syndical, 349. Chauveau, 12, 99-101, 116 ; his Laws, 99-101. Child, the, 41 ; sensibility of the, 41 ; labour to be forbidden the, 62, 117, growth of the, 104, 111 ; diet of the, 111 ; education and training of the, 180 ; see Education, Training. Cheirograph, the, 91, 151. Chittenden, 107. 362 INDEX Chopart's amputation, 284. Chronometrical measurements, 7. Chyle, the, 22. Cinematograph, the, 72, 130, 195. Circulatory system, the, 25 ; fatigue and the, 77. Cirrhosis, 114. Clemenceau, G., 226. Climate, the, 5 ; hot climates, 119 ; cold climates, 119 ; effects of climate, 210. Clothing, tightness of, 24 ; nature of, 121 ; of the Arabs, 223. Coefficient, the thoracic, 45, 216 ; the morphological, 46. Colonisation, 209, 213, 216. Consciousness, function of the, 38. Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, 1, 201, 340. Contraction, muscular, see Muscles. Contracts of apprenticeship, 185 ; of labour, 205. Contracture, 93, 140, 169. Co-ordination, disorders of, 151. Cornaro, Luigi, 112. Corporations, 183, 184. Corsets, 24. Coulomb, 4, 7, 10, 210. Couscous, 109, 221. Cramp, writer's, 93. Creoles, 224. Culture, physical, 17, 146. Cycle, the ergometric, 78, 84, 85, 86, 87, 136, 147, 219. Cycling, professional, 136. Cyclography, 73. I) D'Arsonval, 25. Dastre, 45. Davy, Sir Humphrey, 56. De Camus, 3. Degeneration, organic, 114-5. Delbet, P., 44. Desault, 58. Descartes, 176. Diabetic patients, weakness of, 117. Diaphragm, the, 18, 24. Diderot, 169. Dietetics, 112. Digestion, 18, et seq. Digits, see Fingers. Dime royale, the, 3, 4. Dreams, origin of, 169. Dubief, 186, 188. Duchenne de Boulogne, 309. Dupin, Ch., 7. Duralumin, 263, 270, 282. Dyspnoea, 25, 322. INDEX 363 E Earthworks, road-making, etc., 3, 343. Economy : law of, 7 ; of time, 8, 196 ; of force, 166 ; of thought, 176 ; of words, 178. Education, of the nerves, 38 ; of the senses, 41, 117-8, 248, 253 ; physical, 46, 66, 125, 140-3 ; of the will, 56 ; social, 60 ; of the movements, 70, 194, 318 ; alimentary, 107 ; intellectual, 176, 191 ; of the muscular efforts, 312 ; physiological, 322 ; of the sensi- bility of amputation stumps, 248, 304, 354, et seq. ; see Technical Education. Effort, static, 34, 64 ; duration of, 94 ; and respiration, 89 ; the sense of, 132 ; psychical, 180. Embolisms, 120. Emotions, the : of pleasure, 56, 170 ; of pain, 56, 57, 170 ; expressions of the, 170. Employment of war-cripples, 228, 350, et seq. ; charitable, 356-7. Endurance, 94-5 ; curves of, 95. Energetics, 14, 126. Energy, the expenditure of, 12, 14, 73 ; vital energy, 16 ; nervous energy, 39, 55 ; psychic energy, 43 ; neuro-muscular energy, 90 ; energetic value of foods, 103 ; minimum expenditure of the body, 107 ; calorific, 107 ; human energy, 358 ; its variations, 142 ; intellectual energy, 169 ; its source, 173 ; energy of rotation, 262. Ennui, 59. Environment, the physical, 55, 118, et seq. ; the social, 55, 60, 177, 209. Equation, the personal, 53, 54, 93, 158, 219, 322. Equipment, mechanical, see Plant. Eudiometer, 74. Euler, 3. Exercises, military, 99 ; mental, 108, 116 ; of speed, 116, 154. Fatigue, the theory of, 4, 11, 57 ; effects of, 76, et seq. ; static fatigue, 89 ; pathological fatigue, 116 ; illustrated in case of artisan filing metal, 128 ; measured by bulb dynamometer, 155 ; due to bad positions of the body, 160 ; nature of, 77, 95, 166 ; cerebral, 171, 180 ; fatigue of attention, 174 ; of war-cripples, 313. Fashion, the, and hygiene, 24, 162. Fechner's Law, 61. Feminism, 43. File, efforts brought to bear upon a, 67 ; the dynamographic, 69 ; work done in filing metal, 128. Fletcher, Horace, 106-7. Fletcherism, 107. Fleury, de, 41. Force, exertion, of, 30 ; psychical, 38 ; muscular, of the limbs, 145-6 ; muscular, 158 ; vital, 2, 12. BB* 364 INDEX Gait, see Walking. Galileo, 99. Gall, 50. Games, influence of, in fatigue, 57 ; and age, 142 ; origin of, 142. Gangway, moving, 80 ; dynamographic, 275-7. Gaujol and Spillmann, 309. Gilbreth, F., 8, 72, 123, 181, 202. Gilbreth, Mrs., 55. Glycogen, 22, 103, 114. Grip, universal, Amar's, 287, 288, 292, 295, 333. Guilds, 183, 184, 194. Gymnastics, 163, 165, 166 ; masticatory, 107 ; respiratory, 255. Gyrograph, the, 159. li H < Haemoglobin, 27, 121. Hammer, the dynamographic, 319 ; blow of a, 320 ; mathematics of, 321. Hansemann, 45. Handicrafts, the teaching of, as an integral whole, 186 ; in the past, 186 ; practice and love of, 194 ; selecting a new craft, 231 ; the choice of a craft, 323, 344. Hearing, 118. Heart, the : contraction of, 27-8 ; weight of, 29, 99, ; rhythm of, 28, 80 ; hypertrophy of, 44 ; disorders of, 29, 56 ; fatigue of, 80 ; degeneration of, 114 ; affected by amputation, 255. Heat of the body, 104 ; damp heat, 25, 121, 210. Hegemony, Functional, the Law of, 31, 143. Helmholtz, 14. Heredity, intellectual, 55, 204 ; moral, 62 ; physiological, 62, 117, 216. Him, 14. Hugede, 284. Humidity, 25. Hygiene and physical education, 140 ; industrial hygiene, 194, 208 ; social, 116, 121-2. Inanition, mineral, 33 ; alimentary, 104. Incapacity, industrial : estimation of, 312 ; simulation of, 313. Infirm, soldiers, 133, 227 ; re-education of, 138, 140, 143, 231, et seq. ; re-apprenticeship of, 183 ; work of, 313. Inhibition, 38, 50, 58 ; of fatigue, 97, 170. Intellect, the, 38, 42-3, 55, 52, 57 ; education of, 141, 168, 171, 174, 191 ; of negroes, 216 ; professional, 323. Intestines, the, 18, 20. Intoxication of fatigue, the, 77, 93, 106, 170, 174. Italians, as workers, 204. INDEX 365 J James, William, 61. Jerky movements, due to clumsiness, 70, 72, 130 ; disadvantage of, in mechanotherapy, 139. Jointing-plane, the registering, 69 ; training by means of the, 320 ; work done with the, 131. Joy, 56, 170. K Kabyles, the, 203 ; as workers, 211, 214-5 ; history of, 212-3 ; life of, 215 ; anthropological characteristics of, 214 ; a source of labour, 218. Kenotoxins, 25. Kilogram-metre, the, 13, 135. Kirschhoffer, 47. Knudsen, Hans, 228. Kyrie, 114. Labour, the science of, 2 ; unit of, 135 ; maximum of, 3, 128 ; super- vision of, 4 ; on piecework, 4, 7 ; rest during, 4, 101, 121, 128 : Taylor's organisation of, 5, et seq. ; muscular exertion, in, 64 ; laws of, 99, et seq. ; factors of human, 98, 103, et seq. ; profes- sional, 125, et seq. ; agricultural, 137, 192 ; intellectual, 168, et seq. ; mental, 177 ; law of the division of, 185, 198, 207 ; the right to, 226 ; incapacity to perform, 313 ; of war-cripples, 311, et seq. Law, of functional hegemony, 31, 143 ; Fechner's, 61 ; Chauveau, 103, 139 ; Amar's, 101 ; of repose, 101 ; Schwann's, 139, 159 ; of rhythm, 181 ; Chapelier's, 184 ; of 1851, 186. Labbe, 189. Lachaud, 165. Landouzy, 116. Laplace, 61. Laurent, 284. Lavoisier, 14-16. La Hire, 3, 10. Le Chatelier, H., 5. Leg, wooden, rigid, 264-5 ; with locking-joint, 265 ; artificial legs, 272 ; et seq. Lemonade, vinous, 222. Lennander, 59, 77. Lian, C., 115. Liebaut, 193. Limbs, orientation of the, 65 ; strength and compass of the, 147 ; education of the, 146 ; phantom limb, illusion of the, 250 ; utilisa- tion of stumps, 259. Localisations, cerebral, 51. Locomotion, 162. Lombard, 59. Longevity, 44, 111-12. Lussana, 115. Luzzati, 205. 366 INDEX M Machine, the human, 1, 342 ; machine tools, 123, 326, 342. Marey, 66 ; his drum or tambour, 67. Marie, 51. Marinesco, 51. Marking time, 134. Material, employed in orthopaedics, 263. Meals, hours of, 142-3. Mechanisation of industry, 185, 206, 342. Mechanotherapy, 139, 143, 146. Memory, 38, 179 ; organic, 39. Menopause, the, 41. Messimy, M., his scheme of native conscription, 211. Method, 2, 5, 9 ; physical, 2, 9 ; physiological, 12, et seq. ; in the observation of labourers, 4, 6 ; graphic, the, 66, 194; see Order. Metronome, the, 92, 150. Metschnikov, 20, 105. Millerand, 186. Mobius, 42, 63. Moment of a force, the, 159 ; of inertia, 263. Montaigne, 167, 176, 181. Montesquieu, 99. Moral character, 63 ; moral equality of the sexes, 63 ; moral dejection, 256, 323 ; moral condition of the blind, 355. Mosso, A., 77, 120, 151. Motor, the motive portion of a machine, 11 ; the muscles as motors, 33 ; the utility of small motors, 137, 324, 342 ; in agriculture, 342. Movement, human, 30 ; automatic, 30 ; useful, 7, 166 ; useless, 7, 66, 166 ; voluntary, 55, 70 ; in the child, 53 ; the education of, 66, 194 ; the forms of, 143 ; force and amplitude of, 145 ; of the stumps, 259, et seq. Mozabites, the, 214. Mutilations (of the fingers), 261, 331. Mutilated workers, 46, 66, 122, 123, 241 ; movements of, 146 ; sus- ceptible of training, 230, 351 ; the total number of, 351. N Navvy's work, 4, 343. Negroes, the brain of, 43, 52 ; the pigmentation of, 216. Neurasthenia, 116. Neurones, sensory, 36 ; motor, 36 ; nature of the, 36 ; inhibitory, 38, 50 ; of association, 38 ; function of the, in thought, 169, 178. Nerve-centres, resistance of the fatigue, 93. Newton, 99, 101 ; his Law, 176. Nicati, 61. O Obesity, 34, 106, 107. Oesophagus, 18, 105. Office, technical, in industrial schools, 341, 347. INDEX 367 Order, 5, 9, 102, 166 ; of ideas, 17, 175, 177 ; habits of, 196. Organisation, scientific, 6, 124, 326, 336, 338 ; methods of, 338 ; regional, 340 : Institute of the Scientific Organisation of Labour, 350 ; of society, 358. Orientation : industrial and professional, 184, 312, 323, 324, 347, 348 ; of the arms, 314, 336. Orthopaedics, 47, 231 ; the principles of, 237, et seq. ; materials em- ployed in, 263 ; Commission of Orthopaedic Specifications, 265 ; physiological application of, 306. Oscillometer, Pachon's, 78. Osteomalacia, infatile, 33. Osteopsathyrosis, 32. Ostwald, 192. Ottolenghi, 213. Output, development of the, 66 ; during fatigue, 87 ; the economic, 127 ; the maximum, 128 ; the agricultural, 137 ; the industrial, 197 ; of prothetic appliances, 259, 331 ; diminution of, 331 ; the normal social, 352. Oxygen, 12, 23, 24, 27, 75, 95. P. Pace, see Speed. Pancreas, 20, 21. Paralysis : due to crutches, 233 ; radial, 307, et seq. Pare, Ambroise, 57, 265, 284. Pavloff, 23, 104. Pensions, military, 313. Peristalsis, 20. Peritoneum, the, 20. Personal equation, the, 53, 93, 150, 219, 322. Phenomenon : of referred sensation, 248 ; Weir-Mitchell's, 250. Placing, industrial, of war-cripples, 228, 231, 348, et seq. ; in charitable employment, 351. Plane, see Jointing-plane. Plane, the aesthesiographic, 354. Plant, of workshops, equipment, etc. ; organisation of, 6, 122, 197 ; adapted to war-cripples, 122, 324, 326 ; in charitable employment, 326, 356. Pneumograph, the, 83. Poncelet, 2. Power : calorific, 109-110 ; of amputation stumps, 242. Pressure : arterial, 78, 81, 115, 121 ; atmospheric, 120 ; of the hand, 154. Privat, Dr., 309. Professional malformations, 46, 47 ; fatigue, 116 ; intoxications, 117. Prothesis : for victims of amputation, 66, 146, 241, et seq. ; scientific (principles of), 257, et seq. ; mechanical, 262 ; of the lower limb, 264 ; of the upper limb, 284 ; testing of prothetic appliances, 275 ; functional, 306 ; percentage output of prothetic appliances, 331 ; defective, 335 ; in cases of double amputations, 352 ; of the blind, 354 ; Commission of Prothetic Specifications, 265. Pseudarthrosis, 308. 368 INDEX Psychical aptitude, 50 ; activity, 169 ; condition of war-cripples, 256 Psycho-physiology, 39, 40, 56 ; law of, 60 ; of the worker, 194, 200 ; of the war-cripple, 229. Pulse, 29 ; tracings of the, 78 ; in dreams, 169. Punch, perforating, for tickets, 324. R. Radio-activity, 172. Radiochronophotography, 21. Radioscopy of the heart, 80. Rameil, Pierre, 338. Rations, alimentary, 76, 106 ; table of, 109. Re-adaptation, industrial, 230, 240, 310, 324, 331, 336 ; sensitive, of the stumps, 247, 354 ; of blind war-cripples, 354, et seq. Re-apprenticeship of the wounded, 184, 196, 230, 331. Re-education, functional, 129, 138 ; general laws of, 143, et seq. ; tech- nique and results of, 231, et seq. ; cellular, 224 ; organic, 252 ; professional, 146, 228, 311, et seq. ; of the stumps, 149, 241, et seq. ; centres of the organisation, of, 341 ; duration of profes- sional, 347. Reflexes, nervous ; the reflex arc, 36, 37 ; control of, 52 ; duration of, 54 ; effects of alcohol on the, 115 ; of expression, 169. Regimen, alimentary, 111 ; of schools of re-education, 347. Rekkas (Arab runners), 47. Resistance of the human body, 40 ; organic, 40, 94, 141. Rest : frequency of intervals of, 4, 102 ; physiological, 96 ; the law of, 101 ; of workers, 122 ; daily hours of, 122 ; in the case of a metal-worker (filing), 128 ; physical, 160. Respiration, 23 ; in old people, 44 ; during fatigue, 82 ; pathological, 255 ; mask for measurement of, 14 ; analysis of, 75. Respiration gauge, 74. Rhetoric, the object of, 179. Richet, Ch., 59, 119. Rickets, 33. Right-handed persons, frequency of, 144, 318. Robin, A., 116. S. Schopper, 114. Schivann, 139, 159. Science, the function of, 193, 198, 326 ; social, 200. Scoliosis, 239 ; scholar's stoop, 118. Secretions, psychical control of the, 21, 104 ; their inhibition, 171. Seguin, 14-16. Selection : as taught by Taylor, 7 ; social, 62 ; of movements, 1C6 ~ of workers, 206. Senility, 41, 44, et seq. ; causes of, 44 ; measures preventive of, 112 ; diminished energy of, 142. INDEX 369 Sensations : organic, 34, 59, 77 ; tactile, 34, 248 ; visual, 34 ; gusta- tory, 35 ; olfactory, 34 ; auditory, 35 ; law of, 60 ; of fatigue, 76 ; of thirst, 113. Senses, the, 34, 37; of the child, 41; education of, 41, 61, 253; condition of, 107, 122, 253 ; function of, in dreams, 169. Sensibility, of women, 42 ; of the child, 41 ; relations between and intelligence, 55 ; disorders of, 93, 248, 250 ; tactile, 93 ; definition of, 169 ; of amputation stumps, 248, 250. Shakespeare, 39. Shovel, see Spade. Signal, Deprez, 54, 151. Sigaud, 49. Sight, the sense of, 31, 118, 254 ; fatigue of the, 92, 170. Simulation, in war-cripples, 313. Skeleton, the, 32 ; morbid fragility of, 32, 44 ; modified by amputa- tion, 247. Skin, pigmentation of the, 216. Sleep, the toxins of, 97. Sobriety : in matters of diet, 107, 112 ; of old people, 111. Sorting balls for bearings, 11. Spade, dynamographic, 71, 343, 356 ; normal weight of a, 137. Specifications, Orthopaedic, Commission of, 265. Spectacular entertainments, 122, 181. Speed, and fatigue, 88 ; the economic, 101, et seq. ; work demanding, 116, 154 ; of thought, 180 ; of labour, 219. Sphygmograph, Marey's, 78. Spillmann, Gaujot and, 309. Splint, for amputation stumps, 149, 150, 243, 245, 249 ; for paralysis, 308. Sponge-divers, Arab, 88. Sports, 66, 163 ; diet and, 105 ; cycling, 136 ; a luxury, 138 ; hygienic value of, 141 ; movements, made in various, 160. Stairs, carrying weights up, 135. Steel, quality of employed in orthopaedics, 264. Starvation, mineral, 33 ; alimentary, 105. Stenon, Bishop, experiments on dog, 30. Step, disadvantages of a short, 93, 162 ; phases of the, in walking, 265, 273. Stiff neck, rheumatic, 93. Stomach, 18. Strength, exertion, of, 30 ; of the limbs, 147 ; muscular, 156 ; of Arabs, 218-220 ; of the stumps, 245. Strikes, 207, 226. Suckling of children, 111. Sweat, toxins in, 96. Tachyphagia, 22, 108. Taylor, F. W., 5 ; his system, 6, et seq. ; 181 ; his insistence upon speed, 101 ; results obtained by, 134 ; his education, 191 ; on life in the workshop, 201. Tea, 222. Teaching, see Education. Technical education, 186 ; general or special, 186, et seq. ; 199. 370 INDEX Technique of apprenticeship, 194 ; of physical training, 146. Temperature of the body, 14 ; of the atmosphere (climatic), 120 ; of workshops, etc., 119. Tendon, 34 ; of Achilles, 34. Thirst, 113 ; how to quench, 113, 222. Thooris, 48, 50. Thumb, the, mutilations of, 262, 331 ; functions of, 262 ; artificial, 262. Tiegerstedt, R., 107. Time, registration of, 70, 72 ; of nervous reaction, 53, 150. Tonicity of the organs, 31, 57 ; of the muscles, 57, 58, 97, 115. Tonograms of respiration, 83, 102. Tool or instrument, as part of a machine, 11 ; good output of a, 123 ; choice of, 122, 197, 326. Touch, the sense of, 31 ; and pain, 59 ; and fatigue, 93 ; in the blind, 118, 248, 354. Toys, wooden, 343. Training of the child, 175. Transportation of burdens, 8, 133-4, et seq. ; 218. Trade, see Handicraft. Tuberculosis, predisposition to, 40, 115. Tuffier, Th., 233, 234. Types, of humanity, 47-50 ; of movement, 144 ; of grips or holders for artificial arms, in place of hands, 288-9, 295-6. U Urine, 96 ; toxicity of the, 96. Use of artificial arms, 302, et seq. Valve, two-way, for measuring respiration, 73, 83, 126. Vauban, 3. Ventilation, pulmonary, 24, 75 ; curve of, 88. Verne, H., 2. Viviarii, R., 225, 228. Vocation, importance of, 10, 184, 322. Voltaire, 172, 191. W War-cripples, the work of, 30, 129 ; endurance of, 117, 241 ; re- education of, 166, 230, et seq. ; definition of the term, 227 ; em- ployment of, 228, 350 ; certificate of qualifications of, 328 ; seriously disabled, 351. Wages, the law of, 206 ; depreciation of, 207 ; of the Arabs, 225. Waistcoats, prothetic, 290. INDEX 371 Walking, 30, 135, et seq. ; with Hexed knees, 162 ; theory of, 273 ; of atheletes, 46 ; of one-legged men, 260, 275-8. Water, 23, 113, 119, 222. Weber, Ed., his Law, 61 ; his aesthesiometer, 248. Weichardt, 25. Weir- Mitchell, 230-1. Wheelbarrow, how to hold a, 100, 137 ; with two wheels, 137. Woman, physical qualities of, 41 ; intelligence of, 42 ; labour of, 117, 208. Workmen, qualities of, 1, 7, 127, 150, 196 ; the educated, 193, 194, 206 ; the methods of good, 199, 200 ; probationers, 200 ; con- sideration of, 201 ; Italian, 204 ; French, 207 ; Arab, 211 ; rarity of good, 204 ; the home worker, 347. Workshops, for apprenticeship, 193, 199, 338, 341, 347 ; or industrial school, 186 ; the organisation of, 193 ; the function of small, 200 ; benefits of a return to the, 200 ; hours of work in, 204 ; special, 356-7. Wounded soldiers, see War-cripples. Wood, in orthopaedics, 263, 275 ; multiple-ply, 263. X-Rays, 21. The appliances illustrated in this volume are all made by MM. Pirard et Cceurdevache, 7 rue Blainville, Paris. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. REC'D LD-URL APR121996 REC'D LD-URL QLOCT14 m NOV121996 OUPRl 9 P 02 n library Graduate School of Business Administration |T ' ^rsity o^ r< ^"' I forrv? a THE SEVEN BOOKHUNTERS STATION 0. BOX 22, NEW YORK I I.N.Y. Out-of-Print Books