UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION *w^. . «.*.- ~- «~„.~... -r..r,- BENJ. IDE WHEELER, President COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ^ W Ut0t Vr M,J^,,v ' wl - , writ THOMAS FORSYTH HUNT, Dean and Director BERKELEY H. E. VAN NORMAN, Vige-Director and Dean University Farm School CIRCULAR No. 165 May, 1917 FUNDAMENTALS OF SUGAR BEET CULTURE UNDER CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS By E. L. ADAMS The commercial growing of sugar beets necessitates not only con- ditions of soil, water, and climate satisfactory for the growth of the beet, but transportation facilities to a mill, as sale to a sugar compam r constitutes the only available market for the crop. Sugar beets are a bulky crop low in value per unit of weight, and beet-growing areas are of necessity confined to localities on some railroad line, usually within 100 or 125 miles of a mill, and to lands situated within easy hauling distance of the railroad or mill. An idea of the present confines of the beet-growing territory in California may be gained from the location of the fifteen mills now (1917) operating or soon to be ready for operation. These mills are in counties as given below : No. of County factories Alameda 1 Glenn 1 Kings 1 Monterey 1 Orange 5 San Bernardino 1 San Joaquin (now building) 2 Santa Barbara 1 Tulare 1 Ventura 1 Some idea of the rapid development and resultant importance of the beet industry to the state may be gleaned from the fact that in the relatively short period of ten years the acreage has increased from approximately 60,000 acres in 1906 to an estimated acreage of over 144,000 in 1916. By three-year averages the acreage has risen from an average annual acreage for the years 1907-09 of 64,227 acres to 98,960 acres for 1910-12, and to 118,600 acres for 1913-15. Indi- cations point to an increasingly larger area for the near future. General Requirements for Sugar-Beet Production. — California is climatically well adapted to the production of sugar beets because absence of rain from May to October permits the beets to mature normally, and to be readily harvested, while the control of soil moisture by irrigation insures ideal conditions. Sugar beets will yield profitable crops on widely varying soils, ranging from sandy loams to heavy adobes, provided the land is properly handled. Depth is essential for best development and two, three, or more feet of uniform soil free from hardpan or standing water is necessary. The heavier types of soil tend to produce the largest tonnage, but are somewhat more difficult to work. While beets will tolerate more alkali than most field crops, lands heavily charged with sodium chloride or sodium carbonate will not produce the best crop of beets. Sodium sulphate is less injurious than the other salts. 1 Ideal land for beet culture should be level and should consist of soil of friable clay loam nature four or more feet deep. The subsoil should be "free from hardpan or preponderating amounts of gravel. Organic matter and plant food must be abundant and alkali must not be present in any but very small quantities. Soils of such nature now producing good yields of barley, potatoes, beans, alfalfa, corn, or any other ordinary field crop, will prove to be good beet soils. The beet can use generous amounts of water to advantage, and in fact ample moisture is essential for the production of heavy ton- nage. Different soils require different amounts of water, but as nearly as a general rule can be given, from eighteen to thirty acre-inches of water, properly distributed or available throughout the growing season (as explained under irrigation) will be required to mature the crop. To make its best growth the beet requires a long growing season. Once it is established, it is not especially sensitive to either light frosts or hot weather. Sections having a growing period of from 150 to 200 days, when temperatures do not drop below 20° F. or rise much above 100° F., with ample sunshine to promote sugar formation, a/id not subject to too severe drying winds, are suited for sugar-beet production. Beets Are Grown under Contract. — In arranging for the growing of beets, the usual practice is for the interested grower and the mill i For discussion of tolerance of beets to alkali, see Bulletin No. 169, Cal. Agr. Exp. Station. to sign a contract, the terms of which govern the growing and sale of the crop. This contract is signed early in the season, even before the seed is planted, and stipulates the conditions under which beets must be raised if they are to be acceptable to the sugar company. Usually the contract indicates the acreage to be sown, binds the company to advance and supply the seed at a given price, limits the grower to the use of this seed only, regulates the time of harvesting and delivery, defines the limiting size and sugar content of an accept- Ik. w > 1 ||^^^ Ilial H&HL v ww4 IIP «v8 mm r ^i3nH Fig. 1. — Sugar beets nearing maturity. able crop, points out the place of delivery, sets the rate of payment, and allows deductions for improperly topped or dirty beets. Two Kinds of Contracts. — In general, two kinds of contracts are offered to growers; one providing for the purchase of the crop upon a flat tonnage basis; the other upon a sliding scale of payment, depending upon the sugar content of the beet. All contracts define a limiting point below which the quality of the beet may not fall, and a limit which the weight may not exceed. As a rule, 11 or 12 per cent sugar, with individual beet weights not to exceed four pounds, are the desiderata. The flat rate or tonnage method provides for payment to the grower for all beets delivered to the company on the basis of weight alone. The grower is reimbursed to the extent of the actual tonnage delivered at a given rate per ton for all loads, less deduction for dirt, green tops, and trash, provided the beets meet the requirements of minimum sugar content and maximum weight. Under this plan beets testing, for example, 14 per cent sugar bring the same returns as beets testing 20 per cent. In the sugar-content contract, payment is made on the basis of quality by providing a flat rate for all beets of a minimum sugar content, with provision for an increasing rate of payment based upon each additional percent, or frac- tion thereof, of sugar present in the beet. An example of a sliding-scale rate of payment is a contract calling for so much per ton (for example $4) for all beets of acceptable weight having not less than the low limit in sugar content (for example 11 per cent), with provision for the payment of so many cents (for example 25c) for each additional per cent increase in sugar content or fraction thereof above the required amount. Some companies offer a choice of contracts based npon either method of payment. Study the Contract. — To fully understand his responsibilities in connection with the financing and growing of a crop, every signer should fully acquaint himself with the provisions of his contract. This simple course will later avoid confusion and possible unnecessary misunderstanding. In making out a contract, the factors to be considered by both grower and mill are : 1. Selection and amount of acreage to be planted, with special reference to its fitness for sugar beet production and the capacity of the farmer to grow the beets. 2. Source and kind of seed, with reference to price and germinating qualities. 3. Conditions governing the growth of the crop, especially as to time of thin- ning, irrigatr^, and time of harvest. 4. Conditions governing the harvest of the crop, such as time of delivery, and terms of acceptance, as point of topping, deductions for green tops and dirt, and restrictions concerning individual weight of beets or their sugar content. 5. Eate and time of payment, including any bonuses. 6. Payment of freight and demurrage charges. 7. Financial advances to growers and the manner of protecting the mill. 8. Assignment of contract. Kind of Contract Determines the Beet to Grow. — When a choice of methods of payment is offered, the grower will be helped to a decision as to which to select by a study of the land to be planted to beets. In sugar-beet growing the crop will run, as a rule, either to heavy tonnage of beets fair to good in sugar or to light tonnage of beets rich in sugar. Apparently tonnage and sugar content are more or less opposed characteristics of healthy beets, and while the two merge on common ground of medium weight and medium rich- ness, the extremes of heavy weight and excessive sugar, or light weight and low sugar are rarely found together. Beets to be grown under conditions of deep, rich, friable soils, supplied with ample moisture, properly planted and cared for, with a long season of cool weather conditions in which to make their growth, will tend toward heavy tonnage and moderate to good sugar. Beets grown on the light, sandy, warm soils, under climatic conditions tending to be hot and dry during the growing season, will tend to be light in weight and rich in sugar. The first contract a grower makes must of necessity be based upon the judgment of others as to what his land will do. After the first season any grower should be in a position to decide intelligently for himself which kind of contract best meets his interests. An illustra- tion may make this point clearer. A certain grower has a piece of land capable of producing fifteen tons of 16 per cent beets. We will assume that factory contracts are optional under which payment will be made at: (A) $5.50 per ton f.o.b. cars, for all beets con- taining not less than 12 per cent sugar, or (B) $5 per ton f.o.b. cars for 12 per cent beets and 25c for each additional percentage of sugar. Under these contracts this grower will secure $5.50 per ton under schedule A and $6 under schedule B. It is obvious which schedule he should secure to obtain the greatest returns. A second grower has two types of land and desires the greatest returns. The first type will produce fifteen tons of 16 per cent beets, the second type but nine tons of 20 per cent beets. Given his choice of contracts as outlined in the pre- ceding paragraph, he finds that payment will be $5.50 per ton for the product of either field on the flat rate basis, $6 per ton for the 16 per cent beets, and $7 per ton for the 20 per cent beets, on the sliding-scale rate. For either field the sugar content contract is preferable. To determine his final selection of land, however, he must compare his per acreage returns, and he then finds that the land producing fifteen tons of beets at $6 will return $90 per acre, while nine tons of beets, even at the high price of $7 per ton, will only return $63 per acre. In general, the grower's contract based on purchase of beets by the sugar content is the more profitable (and more fair), and the land capable of producing the heaviest tonnage will give the greatest acre- age returns. But whether tonnage or sugar content is desired, the aim should always be to produce a well-filled root, symmetrical in outline, possessing a single tapering tap root free from sideroots, and carrying a single, contact, w r ell-formed top. CULTURAL METHODS Preparing the Seedbed. — A good seedbed is the first essential in the production of sugar beets. If maximum crops are to be secured, the land must be placed in a fine state of cultivation to as great a depth as possible. This means the subjection of raw land, the eradi- cation of the residue of former crops, such as alfalfa roots or corn stubble, the breaking up of plow soles, and the destruction of all weed growth. Usually a plowing is given two months or more in advance of seeding and the soil worked down to a fine seedbed. Since the beet is a deep-rooting crop, it is essential to plow as deeply as is con- sistent with the past handling of the land, regulating the depth of plowing to prevent the bringing up of more than an inch or two of soil heretofore unplowed. When deep plowing is not possible or when a hard layer or plow pan exists beneath the depth reached by the plow, it is well to follow the plowing with a land cultivation to an additional depth of four to six inches. This tends to break up any plow pan which may exist and provides a still deeper seedbed. The objects of thorough preparation are : (1) To furnish a medium in which the beet can freely develop, permitting the root to penetrate the subsoil, and preventing growth above ground; (2) to provide a deep feeding area; (3) to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil, and (4) to destroy such insect and fungus troubles as are susceptible to at least partial control by this means. Following the plowing, subsequent working consists in the fre- quent use of the land cultivator, ringroller, plank drag, harrow, and possibly a replowing to conserve moisture, destroy weeds, and prepare and preserve a seedbed until the planting season opens. Thorough cultivation of this sort results in a seedbed capable of germinating a high percentage of seed and in conditions favorable to the growth of the young seedling from the very beginning. In plowing land left rough from harvesting the previous crops or from a previous plowing, it is very advisable to roll or disk the field in advance of the plowing with a view to breaking up the clods, which if turned under would prevent the production of a good seed- bed. The degree of packing which must be practiced depends on the season, being less when future rainfall is expected and more when the rainy season is about over and drying conditions prevail. The aim is to secure in the final result a firmed cultivated area well united with the undisturbed subsoil beneath. When much manure, weeds, or similar material has been turned under, special care is needed to insure a proper contact. If the amount of green stuff is excessive, it is sometimes necessary to reirrigate and rework the land before a satisfactory seedbed is secured. In general, the fall and early winter preparation is the more important. In the spring, plowing is usually not required, unless weed growth or packing is excessive. In fact, in handling all types of heavy soil the less they are opened up in the spring the better, as the limits of their being either too wet or too dry are very close. Fall plowing a little on the dry side, immediate harrowing, frequent use of the weed cutter during the winter, followed in the spring by a shallow cultivation, ringrolling, dragging, and harrowing to settle the seedbed will prove the best policy to follow. Since irrigation is generally practiced in sugar-beet production, the necessary ditching, levelling, checking and preparation of the field for the handling of the water precedes the preparation of the seedbed. For lands to be irrigated by the furrow system the plow furrows should run with the slope of the land to permit thorough saturation of the land when the water is turned on the field. Time of Planting. — The commercial time of planting in California covers a period from October 1 until June 1, local conditions largely influencing the time when the seed is sown. In general, as near as a rule can be given, fall planting — October, November, and December — is more common in the southern portion of the state ; early spring planting — last of January and February — in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys; and later spring planting in the coast sections, such as Monterey and Santa Barbara counties. Local conditions will determine the best time to sow, but as a general recommendation, as early planting as is possible to be strongly recommended. Although early planting carries with it attendant difficulties of soil preparation, weed destruction, thinning and hoeing, danger of root rot and crust- ing, the increased tonnage of beets obtained fully warrants early planting, even though it becomes necessary to replant occasionally. In the interior valleys where warm weather begins at an early date, early planting is absolutely essential to insure well-established growth before the heat and dryness of late spring and summer descend upon the fields. The danger of Curly Top — described under beet troubles — further justifies the general recommendation that early planting should be the rule. In certain sections, especially in the Sacramento Valley and some of the central coast sections, it is possible to plant beets so early that a considerable percentage will throw up seed-stalks. If this seed formation progresses too far, the sugar content of the crop is reduced 8 and the beets become too woody for profitable working. " Early planting," therefore, must be construed as meaning the planting of the seed as early as possible, while guarding against planting .so early that seed production replaces satisfactory maturing. The concensus of opinion is that the preferable time of planting for various sec- tions is : Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, January 15 to March 15. Southern California, October 1 to April 1. Central Coast counties, February 1 to June 1. Late planted beets sometimes look greener and have larger and more luxuriant tops than early planted beets, but the actual tonnage of roots secured is greater in the early plantings. The cooler weather which exists when early planted seedlings are coming up causes them to develop a small, compact top, but the greater supply of moisture available for their use and the longer growing season result in a larger average root. When planting in advance of copious spring rains, followed as they usually are by heavy winds, which combine to crust the soil, planting should be made early enough to give the seedlings time enough to form several true leaves in advance of the storms, or else seeding should be delayed until after these storms are past. If seeding is done in late spring when sufficient moisture is not available to germinate the seed, an irrigation should be given before seeding. Success does not usually attend any effort to irrigate seed with a view to inducing germination, as crusts form to a detrimental extent. If crusts are formed by irrigation or rainfall before the seed germinates, care to break this crust is essential before the young germinating plantlets turn yellow (noted by turning over the crust and inspecting the germinating seed). This can be overcome on most soils by a light harrowing across the rows with the spike-tooth harrow, inclining the teeth to the rear or setting them back to the point where they merely penetrate the crust, or by a rolling, or by the use of "spiders" on the cultivator, utilizing two "spiders" for each row and running on the outer edges of the row. Usually, however, under such conditions replanting is advisable and, in fact, is necessary if the seedlings are yellowed or the final stand is irregular. In some sections, especially if the land is charged with alkali, early planting is practiced, even though the land is dry, the seed being placed very close to the surface and the winter rains being counted upon to firm the seedbed, germinate the seed, and keep the plants growing. Methods of Planting. — The mill usually furnishes the necessary seed to the farmer at a price as close to cost as possible (in late years occasionally even below cost). Several advantages accrue to the farmer from such an arrangement. He secures seed on credit and at low cost. The seed selected is the best foreign or domestic avail- able, of strains tested out to prove their worth in the community, and each lot as received, is usually tested for germination and purity. In planting, the seed is sowed by drills capable of planting four or eight rows at once, spaced to distances ranging from sixteen inches to twenty-four inches between rows, with eighteen or twenty inches the more common spacing. The drills place any desired amount of seed at depths ranging from one-half inch to three inches or more, cover the seed, and if desired, compress the soil above them. The width of row depends on the beet desired and the growing conditions. Profitable close spacing is possible only on fertile lands with proper conditions of water and climate, and careful attention to the care of the growing crops. On less fertile lands, or where water is insufficient, greater spacing is desirable. A seedbed properly prepared for the reception of the seed will permit a one-inch or shallow planting and insure a stand. If deeper planting is necessary, greater attention to the preparation of future seedbeds will be in order. The depth of planting should be carefully determined. The rut in which the seed is dropped being comparatively narrow, large seed balls will not reach the bottom and care should be exercised when using a supply having a majority of large seed balls, to run the seeder deep enough so that the seed will be placed at the desired depth. Early in the season, when the subsoil is inclined to be cold and future rains are expected, quick germination is desired, and shallow planting to secure surface warmth should be the rule. Under these conditions, the minimum amount of seed is used, with little or no pressure being applied to the press wheels of the machine. Later in the season, when the moisture is receding or evaporating rapidly, more seed is provided and placed deeper in the soil. In instances where the moisture is three inches or more from the surface, it is desirable to clamp "clod pushers" upon the runner brace, just in advance of the runner and at an elevation of about one and one-half inches in a parallel line above the bottom of the runner. This reduces the amount of soil through which the young sprouts must penetrate to reach the surface. To conserve the moisture and to hasten germ- ination, some pressure is applied to the press wheels which pack the soil directly over the seed. From twelve to twenty pounds of seed are required per acre, with 10 fifteen pounds or more as the general rule. When a large acreage, 100 acres or more, is to be seeded, the work should be so planned that a delay in seeding occurs sufficiently often to prevent too great a rush of work at thinning time and to lengthen the ripening season. A four-row drill will seed about ten acres a day and thinners can handle about one-fourth to one-half acre per man daily, thus indicating some- thing of the limits of time in which the work should be completed. Cultivation. — Some growers roll their fields with a smooth roller as soon as the crop is well up, in advance of any cultivation. The rolling disturbs any crust which may occur, packs the land, insures a more even distribution of moisture, facilitates the use of the culti- vator, and materially lessens the labor of thinning. Cultivation is started as soon as the rows are well defined and is designed to provide the three-fold object of weed destruction, aeration, and maintenance of a loose earth mulch for retention of water. The first cultivation precedes the thinning, using cultivators equipped with weed knives to remove all weeds between the rows, and should cut as close to the beets as possible. Subsequent cultivations are given at intervals of ten days to two weeks and continued until the size of the plants prohibits stock and implements from passing down the rows. The narrow chisels (1*4- inch to lV 2 -inch) and the duck-foot cultivator teeth with weed-cutter attachment* are generally used, being attached to special two-horse adjustable cultivator frames capable of cultivating four rows at a time. The wheels are built to castor and are controlled by a foot pedal enabling the operator to shift the direction in following the rows. Deep cultivation should be the rule as the season progresses, to permit even expansion of the growing beets, and easier plowing-out at harvest time. The total number of cultivations given the crop vary in different sections, but more rather than less than the usual practice should be the rule. , Destruction of all weeds is important. Morning glory or Johnson grass must not occupy the land given over to beets, and to a lesser degree the same statement applies to bur clover, pigweed, mustard, dock and other common weeds. Thinning. — Since each seed-ball contains several beet seeds, more plants will be produced than are needed, and when the young beets have four true leaves well developed, they must be thinned to provide sufficient area for unobstructed development of the selected plants. Hand labor using short-handled beet hoes is the only practical method of doing this work as no machine for the purpose has thus far been perfected. Sufficient labor should be available to complete the thin- 11 ning before the third pair of leaves is fully grown. Blocking ahead of thinning, where it can be done, is advisable. Blocking consists in first hoeing out the spaces to be left, leaving the remaining beets in small bunches from which the beet selected to remain will be chosen in the final thinning. The spacing varies from eight to eighteen inches, the same quali- fications holding in determining the distance as pointed out above with reference to the distance between rows. Spacing from eight to ten inches is perhaps the more general practice. In thinning, care should be observed to space accurately, to reserve the sturdiest beets, to pull by hand the beets close to the one which is to be left, to hoe off the remaining surplus deep enough to prevent resprouting, and to avoid unnecessary digging around the plant to be left. The thinning should be regulated so as to result in the selection of the strongest beets, their even distribution throughout the row, and the destruction of all weeds in the row or immediately around the beets. Irrigation. — As sugar beets draw quite heavily upon the moisture supply in the soil, irrigation is necessary except under unusually favorable natural conditions. Different soils require various treat- ment with regard to irrigation, and no definite rule can be given which is applicable to all conditions. A proper regulation of soil moisture means, enough available to germinate the seed and bring it well through the thinning period, a maximum quantity of moisture from the eight or ten-leaf stage until six or eight weeks before har- vest, and a gradually diminishing supply to permit proper ripening with its attendant increase in sugar content. The need of moisture may be determined by examination of the soil itself to the depth to which the root system is developing, by a darkening to a purplish or bluish green of the light green color of normal beets, by increasing flabbiness of root or leaf stem, and lack of thrift, or by a wilting not caused by excessive sunshine or heat of the day. On large tracts it is better to start irrigating too early rather than too late, as best results will not follow when beets are permitted to reach the stage of actually suffering for want of water. The flooding system of irrigating has been the prevailing custom in this state, but present tendencies are in the direction of more furrow irrigation and less flooding. This is apparently a wise change in methods. Whatever the system used, care must be exercised to provide ample moisture without over-irrigation throughout the soil area occupied by the root system. An insufficient amount will reduce tonnage, while an oversupply is not only not economical, but tends to 12 remove available plant foods by carrying them off through drainage. The rule in irrigating should be to study the movement of the water in the soil by means of a probe, soil augur, or shovel, and aim to pro- vide only the optimum amount of water. The quick going-back of beets once they show the need of water emphasizes the necessity of applying water to promote a steady, uni- form growth when the first signs of distress appear. Only a few days of insufficient moisture are enough to check growth seriously, the length of time depending on the climatic conditions which in turn regulate the movement of the moisture. In hot, dry, windy weather a "going back" will be much more rapid than during cool, foggy spells. Growing beets which become very yellow for lack of water are beyond the stage when they can give the largest returns from irrigation, but even then an application will often pay. Water applied to mature beets during hot summer weather tends to preserve the beets. It also assists by loosening the ground so that plowing-out is easier. Applied at this time, however, water will not increase tonnage to any appreciable extent. During cool weather, or at a time of year favorable to beet growth, water may prove detri- mental, by causing renewed growth, especially if this growth results in the formation of seed stalks, as these are usually produced at the expense of the sugar content. The beets may weigh a trifle more because of the water taken up, but the actual solid content is not improved. Every irrigation should be followed by a cultivation as soon as the land is dry enough to sustain stock. The cultivation will prevent baking, crusting, and cracking, with resultant loss of moisture and pinching of the beets. Fertilizers. — Commercial fertilizers have never come into general use in growing sugar beets in this state. Trials with different fertiliz- ing ingredients have been run by various mills, but the results have not been sufficiently uniform to warrant extensive applications of mineral fertilizers. Doubtless as time goes on more attention will be given to fertilizers, especially on the lighter, or the longer farmed, or on peaty types of soil. Fall application of stable manures to beet lands is a common practice in southern California, and is gradually receiving more atten- tion in all parts of the state. Stable manures are a valuable asset in continuous beet production and deserve extensive use, especially on the lighter soil types. Green manuring, consisting in the growing and plowing-under of green crops of such plants as rye, vetch, bitter clover, bur clover 13 and field peas, is a practice worthy of greater extension where the supply of organic matter is in need of replenishment or if stable manure is not to be had. When irrigation is available, green-manure crops can sometimes be grown in the interval between regular farm crops. On land utilized for more or less continuous beet growing, plow- ing under the beet tops, rather than feeding them to stock, is meeting with increasing favor. Maturity and Harvesting. — The time of harvest is usually desig- nated by the mill contracting for the beets. This varies somewhat Fig. 2. — Furrow irrigation of sugar beets. from season to season, as the starting of the mill campaign is post- poned until there is reasonable assurance of an ample and steady supply of satisfactory beets. So far as the beets themselves are con- cerned, harvest may go forward any time after maturity. Maturity is indicated by a circle of dead outer leaves on the individual plant, and a general yellowing appearance of the entire field, while mill laboratory tests for sugar of typical field samples provide an addi- tional and very satisfactory check. The time required to reach maturity varies with the time of plant- ing. Fall-sown beets require seven to eight months, early spring-sown beets six to seven months, while late spring-sown beets in favorable localities will mature in four to five months. The quickest maturation 14 takes place in spring plantings in localities of hot summer weather, and on light soils ; the opposite is true in cooler sections, on the heavier types of soil, or in fall plantings. Harvesting is accomplished by ' * plowing out ' ' the beets. Specially constructed implements are run down the rows and loosen the plants in place. The beets are then removed by hand, several rows thrown together in one long windrow or in piles and the tops cut off by hand labor using heavy butcher knives. A very satisfactory method is to throw the beets from nine rows together side by side in one long row, tops all pointing one way, and to follow down the row in topping, standing each beet on its cut surface. A space of nine rows allows sufficient room for the wagons to pass through and places the beets in a position for quick loading. In different sections, however, the prevailing custom must be followed to a large extent, since the type of labor doing the hand work has its own way and is not easily changed. All beets to be correctly topped must have the leaves and all green portions of the crown removed. This means topping at the ground- line. The men who do the topping must be closely watched in this regard and proper topping insisted upon. The green crowns contain salts which interfere with sugar extraction in the mill and deduction for such beets is always made on delivery. In addition to paying for the transportation and handling of a portion of the crop for which he receives no returns, the grower who ships green tops is taking from his land the very plant food elements most valuable to him. Analyses indicate that of all plant foods removed by a beet crop in making its growth, approximately 75 per cent of the total is contained in the leaves and crowns, with but 25 per cent in the roots. The importance of proper topping cannot be too strongly emphasized. After being topped, the beets are loaded on wagons for delivery to the freight cars or to the mill. Where special unloading platforms or dumps are not available, rope nets are required to facilitate the removal of the load. The extensive construction of unloading dumps is, however, largely doing away with the net method. Yields. — Yields of beets vary within wide limits, from fields which produce barely enough to pay operating expenses to exceptional com- mercial yields of thirty tons or more. In general, ten tons represents about an average yield in this state, while fifteen tons is considered a good yield. Some experienced growers, who operate under favorable conditions, obtain an average of twenty and even of twenty-five tons from fields containing extensive acreages. Since, in general, 15 eight tons of roots are required to pay the cost of production, every effort should be made to increase tonnage wherever not more than ten or eleven tons represents the usual crop. The Sugar Beet in Crop Rotation. — On land annually receiving the beneficial effects of the mill waste water, it is safe to say crops of sugar beets can succeed one another for an indefinite length of time without exhausting the soil's fertility. The amounts of plant food and lime deposited in the waste water are usually more than enough to replace that removed by the beet crop. Only with increases in weeds or other influences detrimental to beet production, will the undesirability of continued beet culture develop. Fig. 3. — Practical Method of Handling Sugar Beets at Harvest Time. On land not receiving the waste water the number of crops which can be grown consecutively cannot be specifically stated. New land will produce crops for many years, and the gradual increase in pro- ductivity is a matter of common knowledge. Lands receiving intelli- gent handling, especially with reference to manuring, will produce beets for many years. Two reasons for rotation may be advanced, the time when the rotation will start being necessarily an individual matter. The first reason is based on gradually decreasing yields of beets through dimin- ishing fertility or increase in beet troubles. Rotation then follows as a natural means of building up the land again. The second reason for rotation is the desirability of securing the beneficial effects 16 of the sugar-beet crop upon succeeding crops. Large increases in yields of cereals, potatoes, beans, and other field crops follow sugar beet culture. The deep preparation of the soil necessary to provide a seedbed for beets, the careful cultivation and deep working of the land in removing the crop, the available plant foods freed in the decaying beet tops and roots provide an environment capable of producing heavy yields of any of the field crops adapted to the local conditions. In planning the sequence of crops to be grown it is advisable not to precede beets with any crops which will render the growing of beets difficult, such as the presence of undecayed corn or sorghum stubble or half -killed alfalfa stands, and to guard against the grow- ing of potatoes or beets immediately following one another. The sugar beet lends itself especially well as a rotation crop in connection with alfalfa, and should prove a desirable change for lands devoted primarily to dairying. As an intercrop in young orchards, where sufficient moisture and fertility is available for both trees and beets, the sugar beet furnishes a satisfactory means of providing an income while insuring thorough and proper working of the soil. By-Products. — Two by-products of sugar-beet culture are of in- terest to the California farmer. The first is the mill waste water, mentioned elsewhere, of value to all farmers whose lands are so sit- uated that they can irrigate with this water, which, heavily charged with lime and other elements favorable to plant growth, is of marked beneficial effect. The beet tops are a valuable stock feed and offer a substantial additional income whenever stock is available for feeding, if their use as green-manure crop can be dispensed with. Care must be taken to avoid feeding of decayed or moldy tops and to watch cattle for choking if they are unused to this kind of feed. Some dry roughage should be fed with the tops to avoid scouring. If these precautions are taken the tops, green or dry, form a valuable addition to the feed supply. Tops are salable whenever stock is available, at from 50 cents to $4 per acre, several localities basing their charges for the tops upon the net tonnage of beets sold to the mill. In disposing of tops the grower should either have them fed on the land, or return the equivalent in manure, and provide for the removal of all stock whenever the land is wet enough to be in danger of suffering from the tramping of the stock. Contract Labor. — As beet production requires considerable hand work, especially in thinning, hoeing, irrigating, pulling, topping, and loading, a class of labor able and willing to do this kind of work 17 must be available. The usual California farmer will not or can not do this work, even if raising but a few acres. Greatest reliance is placed upon Japanese, Hindu, and Mexican labor. Some Porto Rican, Italian, Greek, and a very little Chinese help is occasionally used. The common method is for the farmer to contract with some labor "boss," the terms of agreement being drawn up in writing, under which all stipulations as to rate of payment, housing facilities, feed- ing arrangements, and methods of handling the crop are specified. The contractor agrees to furnish sufficient men to properly care for the crop. Rates of payment for this work vary in different sections. Some contracts provide for payment of thinning on a flat acreage basis, as for example $7.50, divided into $5 for thinning, $1.50 for first hoeing, and $1 for second hoeing, with payment for harvest on a tonnage basis, and for other work, such as irrigating, on a daily basis. Other contracts provide for a sliding scale of payment for all work from thinning on through harvest. Here again rates vary, depending on the weediness of the ground, the size of the job, the character of the soil, and the ability and reputation of the farmer as a beet grower. For example, one system of payment for all work done on a tonnage basis is $15 per acre for six to twelve-ton yields. Another schedule provides for payment at the rate of $12 per acre for land producing but six tons, $12.60 per acre for seven-ton yields, and on up by a graduated scale calling for an additional 60 cents per acre for each ton increase in yield. In summing up the labor situation in beet growing it is well to point out the necessity of ample assurance of labor when needed, as the various kinds of work required must be done on time, and to open negotiations only with reliable contractors. Provisions for field super- vision of this labor, and penalties for non-fulfillment of the contract, if such can be included, are extremely desirable. Beet Troubles. — The limiting factor of sugar-beet production in California today, so far as beet troubles are concerned, is the danger of Curly Top, a disease resulting from the attacks of a small native insect (Eutettix tenella), a whitish leaf -hopper one-eighth of an inch long. This insect, feeding upon the plant, infects it in such a way that all leaves subsequently produced come forth curled, yellowish, stunted, and distorted, while masses of fine, hairy rootlets and black- ened rings develop upon and within the beet root — the typical Curly Leaf condition known to most experienced growers. The disease is produced by the feeding of even a single insect for as short a time as five minutes. Without going deeply into the reasons, it is well to point out several pertinent factors. Early beets grown in cool weather are much freer from Curly Top than those making their early growtli during hot weather. Supply of proper conditions for vigorous growth 18 reduces the damage. Beets infected after they have ten or twelve leaves will still make a marketable beet in spite of the infection. Proper irrigation will reduce damage, as will cool weather conditions, indicating the desirability, and in some of the warmer sections, the absolute necessity of early planting. In the San Joaquin and Sacra- mento valleys experience fully indicates the desirability of getting m ■! V ■ M?- ^ L, Jt^ ■" |^fc3?v^5 (1 i&$Bsm R • W^^m*. ^Bzmk H^V^^H Fig. 4. — Typical specimen df a sugar beet affected with Curly Top. Note the prominent veining, distorted leaves, and abnormal growth of fine roots. the seed into the ground not later than March 1 and as much earlier as possible up to the first of January. Even in the cool coast sections early planting is advisable to insure a well developed beet before a serious increase of insects occurs. The insects reach the fields from two sources, those wintering over in the immediate vicinity and those migrating from neighboring ranges of Atriplex, Russian thistle, sage and other plants on which the insects are native, often flying from 19 their native habitat to the beet fields. Control, as at present worked out, means planting as early as possible to insure a large beet at the time of exposure, and proper attention to thinning, cultivation and irrigation. Other troubles occurring occasionally or in certain localities which may require some attention from time to time on the part of growers, but need little more than passing notice here, are the woolly aphis, which forms woolly-like masses in the beet roots; nematodes, or eel- worms, which cause knotty excrescences on the fine roots ; small black beetles (Blapstinis sp.), one-fourth inch long, which destroy the tiny seedlings as they are coming up ; red spider, a green beetle with twelve spots (twelve-spotted Diabrotica), a leaf -feeding army worm, wireworms, plant lice, and cutworms, which feed upon the growing beet and are generally easily recognized by every farmer. Compound tops due to excessive growth, woody beets — the result of seed pro- duction, two fungus leaf spots (Cercospora beticola and Phoma betae), a seedling root rot (Rhizoctonia) , rust, ground squirrels, gophers, and moles, are also worthy of mention in a consideration of beet pests. Equipment Needs and Costs. — While some special equipment is needed in sugar-beet farming other than that required for general farming, the additional investment is not especially great. For the purpose of taking care of all the w r ork connected with forty acres of sugar beets, the operator will require : Four to eight 1200 to 1500-pound work stock (depending on type of soil, length of haul, and possibilities of hiring). Harness. One fourteen-inch plow. One spike-tooth harrow. One plank-drag (preferably equipped with spike harrow teeth). One land cultivator. One combined clod crusher and land roller. One beet seeder (unless rented by mill to grower). One running gear, four to five-inch tires, rated as two and one-half tons or larger. One four-row crop cultivator, with assortment of cultivating and irrigating attachments. One beet plow. Usual assortment of beet hoes, ordinary hoes and shovels. On most farms, where general farming is the practice, much of the equipment given here is already available. When the total equip- ment is to be purchased, the cost will range from $1300 to $3000, depending on whether new or second-hand, and the grade of stock 20 and implements sought. In general, however, sugar beet work re- quires good work stock and well-constructed tools, strong enough to stand a great amount of wear and tear. For small acreages planted to sugar beets, say considerably less than forty acres, it is usually necessary for two growers to combine their resources and use certain of the equipment in partnership, hire some of the heavy plowing and hauling off done by tractor owners or farmers growing other crops who have stock and implements available at the time of the rush of beet work. Economics of Sugar-Beet Production. — The cost of producing sugar beets varies within rather wide extremes, depending on what factors are included in determining the costs. If interest, depre- ciation, and management are taken into account, the cost will reach a figure considerably higher than if only the cost of labor — horse and man — material, and taxes are included. The capacity of the man, kind of land, distance of haul, size of acreage, available labor supply, presence of weeds, cflsts of water, are factors which vary greatly with different growers and in different communities. To show the approximate cost of producing the crop, taking only operating expenses into account, the following table is given : PEE ACRE OPEEATING COST OF PRODUCING SUGAR BEETS Market value of Land Bange High $400 to $600 per acre Low 85 to 100 Usual 150 to 250 Cost of the Crop Preparing land and planting Average figures Preparing seedbed ($4 to $12) * $7.00 per acre Seed 2.25 Seeding 50 Growing the crop Irrigating— labor ($1 to $4) 3.00 Irrigating — water ($2 to $6) 4.00 Thinning and hoeing ($4.50 to $8) 7.00 Cultivating ($1 to $3) 2.00 Harvesting Plowing out ($2.50 to $5) 3.00 Pulling, topping and loading Under ten tons (75c to $1) 90 per ton Ten tons and over (50c to 75c) 60 Hauling (two miles) 65 Taxes and insurance Average land 3.00 per acre Good land 5.00 21 Market Value of Yield, f.o.b. cars or factory High 7.50 per ton Low 4.50 Average 5.50 By-Products Tops (50c to $4) 2.00 per acre Using average figures as given, the cost, value, and profit per acre for ten, fifteen and twenty-ton crops are : Cost Values per Acre (Operating Costs) (Average Price) Profits Yield Per acre Per ton Per ton Per acre Per acre Per ton Ten tons $37.25 $3.73 $5.50 $55.00 $17.75 $1.77 Fifteen tons 37.75 2.52 5.50 82.50 44.75 2.98 Twenty tons 42.75 2.14 5.50 110.00 67.25 3.36 These calculations illustrate the desirability of good yields. Although the increase tonnage raises the cost per acre somewhat, the cost per ton is markedly less as the yield increases. The profits per acre increase with the larger yield in greater proportion than the increase in yield itself amounts to, for while the fifteen-ton yield is but 50 per cent more than the ten-ton yield in weight of crop, the profits are 250 per cent more. In the same way a 100 per cent increase in yield over the ten-ton crop increases the profits over 375 per cent. SUMMAEY Proper conditions of soil, water, climate, and transportation are essential to sugar beet production, commercial areas being confined to sections where sugar companies are operating as sale to a mill con- stitutes the only available market. California offers sections well adapted to the production of the crop, as demonstrated to some extent by an increase of acreage from sixty thousand acres in 1906 to over one hundred and forty-four thousand in 1916. Sugar beets are commercially grown only under contract made between the grower and a sugar mill. Contracts are of two general classes, based on either tonnage or sugar content. The grower should acquaint himself with the terms of his contract both for his own protection and to guide in determining the kind of beets to raise. The observance of deep soil preparation, formation of a good seed- bed, early planting, frequent cultivation, proper thinning, optimum moisture supply, and maintenance of soil fertility are necessary in obtaining the best yields. 22 Preferable times of planting are: Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, January 15 to March 15. Southern California, October 1 to April 1. Central coast counties, February 1 to June 1. In harvesting, the beets should be topped at the groundline to insure minimum removal of plant foods. As approximately eight tons of roots are needed to pay the cost of production, and ten tons is about an average yield, an increased yield for the state at large is worth striving for. Beets are placed in rotation when yields begin to decrease or to secure the beneficial effects of their culture on subsequent crops. Sugar beet by-products of interest to the California farmer are the mill waste water and the tops. Both are of interest in maintain- ing fertility, while the tops are of additional value for stock feed. Much hard work is necessary in producing a crop and labor able to do the manual work must be assured. Given good soil and good soil management, Curly Top is the limiting factor in sugar-beet production. Its control may be mater- ially aided by early planting and attention to supplying proper grow- ing conditions. Other troubles occurring from time to time, or in certain localities are of lesser importance. Some special equipment is needed in sugar beet farming, but the investment is not unduly great. From $1300 to $3000 will furnish equipment sufficient for forty acres. The cost of growing sugar beets varies greatly with conditions and the tonnage obtained. Large tonnage increases profits by decreasing operating costs per ton, the profits increasing in much greater pro- portion than the size of the yields.