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 WAYNE S. VU ClWlCii 
 
 
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 €l]p fnnii nn^ tijp fm{\ 
 
 OR 
 
 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATIONS DRA WN FROM THE MANNERS 
 AND CUSTOMS, THE SCENES AND SCENERY, OF 
 
 THE HOLY LAND 
 
 LEBANON, DAMASCUS 
 
 AND 
 
 BEYOND JORDAN 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM M. THOMSON, D.D. 
 
 FORTY-FIVE YEARS A MISSIONARY IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE 
 
 147 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 
 
 F R A N ICI. F N SQUARE 
 I <S <S 6
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 All rights reserved.
 
 9AYNE S. VUCINI 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The previous volumes of this work — " Southern Palestine 
 and Jerusalem" and "Central Palestine and Phoenicia" — were 
 mainly devoted to the Promised Land west of the Jordan. 
 The present volume — the third and last — relates to the Leb- 
 anon, Coelesyria, Anti- Lebanon, Damascus, Bashan, Gilead, 
 and the regions " beyond Jordan eastward.'' Though not 
 originally included in the Land of Promise, those adjacent 
 districts were closely connected witli it. Some of them 
 were the first that were occupied by the patriarchs of old, 
 others were the first taken possession of by the Hebrew 
 nation, and all of them were most intimately associated 
 with the children of Israel in their social, civil, and re- 
 ligious institutions, and in their secular history. In trav- 
 ersing those regions, therefore, we are still in the land of 
 the Bible, and drawing our Biblical illustrations from the 
 manners and customs, the scenes and the scenery of the 
 Holy Land. 
 
 The tours and the excursions described in this vohmie 
 take a much wider range than those in the i)receding por- 
 tions of this work, and tliey lead to and tlirough various 
 regions rarely visited by the ordinary traveller, Ijut which
 
 iv PREFACE. 
 
 are invested with peculiar and surprising interest. Leb- 
 anon, little more to the average reader of the Bible than 
 a vague geographical expression, is not a single mount, but 
 a long and lofty mountain range, abounding in picturesque 
 and magnificent scenery, from which the inspired prophets 
 and poets of the sacred Scriptures have derived some of 
 their most exalted and impressive imagery. And the an- 
 cient cities in the regions beyond and east of the Jordan, 
 whose prostrate temples, theatres, colonnades, and public 
 and private buildings amaze and astonish the modern trav- 
 eller, are not mere names, but impressive realities. 
 
 In the preparation of this volume the author has availed 
 himself of the valuable archaeological researches of the 
 American Palestine Exploration Society and the Palestine 
 Exploration Fund of England ; and he has also incorporated 
 into it many important and interesting observations derived 
 from the publications of eminent writers and travellers who 
 have recently visited the regions east of the Jordan. 
 
 The pictorial illustrations of manners and customs have 
 been designed from photographs of living subjects, and the 
 scenic views were composed from photographs taken by the 
 author and by the exploration societies of England and 
 America; and all of them have been drawn and engraved 
 in London, Paris, and New York. 
 
 Great attention has been bestowed upon the spelling of 
 proper names, and all who have any knowledge of the sub- 
 ject will appreciate its importance. The system adopted for 
 this work is that of Dr. Edward Robinson, drawn up by 
 himself and his fellow-traveller. Dr. Eli Smith, and submitted 
 to the general meeting of the Syrian Mission. After care-
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 fill examination, in which the author participated, it was 
 adopted by the mission ; and it has gradually grown in 
 public favor — has been accepted by the Palestine Explo- 
 ration Fund of England, by the American Exploration So- 
 ciety, by recent writers, and in guide-books to the Holy 
 Land. In addition to the ancient names of places which 
 occur in our English Bible, the present Arabic names are 
 added in all important cases — a feature, in this work, of 
 much importance. 
 
 This volume of the Land and the Book is supplied with 
 two carefully prepared indexes — one of texts, and the other 
 of names and subjects — and the attention of the reader is 
 directed to them, as they will facilitate reference to those 
 parts of the work where the Scripture passages illustrated, 
 and the subjects treated of, are to be found. 
 
 The present inhabitants of the Lebanon and of the re- 
 gions beyond Jordan eastward are divided into many sects 
 and tribes, differing in appearance and in manners and cus- 
 toms, and professing various antagonistic creeds and re- 
 ligions. We shall meet in our travels the courteous and 
 warlike Druse, the industrious but superstitious Maronite, 
 the orthodox Greek and the energetic Greek Catholic, the 
 fanatical Muhammedan, the heretical Mutawaly, tlie heathen 
 Nusaireh, the crafty Israelite, and the roving son of Ishmael ; 
 and the enervated and indolent Osmanli Turk is the lord of 
 the land, dreaded but not respected by all his subjects, whose 
 
 united prayer is, " O Lord, how long !" 
 
 W. M. T.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. 
 
 SIDON TO BEIRUT. 
 
 Sidon from the North. — Ancient Wall. — Boats drawn up on the Shore. — The Gardens of 
 Sidon. — The Banana-tree. — Na'urah, or Water-wheel. — The Aqueduct. — El Auwaly, 
 the Bostrenus. — The Bridge. — Bridges not Mentioned in the Bible. — Bridges in the 
 Time of the Romans. — The Khan. — Migration of an Arab Tribe. — A Winter Storm. 
 — An Officer of Sa'id Beg. — Personal Experience. — A Bridal-party. — The Road from 
 Sidon to Beirut. — Dahar June, the Residence of Lady Hester Stanhope. — The Burial 
 of Lady Hester. — Eccentricities of Lady Hester. — Neby Yiinas, Tomb of Jonah. — The 
 Mother of Samuel. — " Horned Ladies." — Biblical Allusions to Horns. — The Story of 
 Jonah and the Whale. — Berja. — El Jiyeh, Porphyreon. — Arabs at a Well. — Tattooing. 
 — The Hebrews Forbidden to print Marks upon themselves. — Along the Sandy Beach, 
 and over the Rocky Headlands. — Nukkar es Sa'diat. — Defeat of Ptolemy's Army by 
 Antiochus. — The Shepherd and the Sheep. — Ed Damilr, the Tamyras. — The Mulberry 
 Gardens of Mu'allakah. — Sugar and the Sugar-cane. — The .Sweet Cane of the Bible. — 
 "The Burnings of Lime." — Lime Mentioned Twice in the Bible. — El Bellan, Thorn 
 Bush. — Biblical Allusions to Thorns. — Raw or Burnt. — Pots and Plots. — " The Crack- 
 ling of Thorns under a Pot." — Khan Khulda, Heldua. — Ghiifr en Naimeh. — One of 
 St. Helena's Towers. — Broken Sarcophagi. — Esh Shuweifat. — Olive-grove. — Beauty 
 of the Olive-tree. — " Oil out of the Flinty Rock." — Oil-presses. — Grafting. — " A Wild 
 Olive-tree." — The Flower of the Olive. — " The Labor of the Olive." — " The Shaking 
 of an Olive-tree." — The Gleaning of the Olive. — "Thy Children shall be like Olive- 
 plants round about thy Table." — Dukkan el Kusis. — "A Sea of Sand." — El Ghiidir. 
 — El Kalabat. — Ibrahim Pasha and the Emir of Shuweifal. — The Goodly Lebanon. — 
 Picturesque Villages. — The Pines. — Arrival at Beirut Page 5 
 
 II. 
 
 BEIRUT. 
 
 Beirut and its Surroundings. — The Plain of Beirut. — Gooilly Lebanon. — Beirut from the 
 .Sea. — Beirut not a Biblical City. — History of Beirut. — Colonia Augusta Felix Julia, 
 Berytus. — Herod the Great. — Agrippa. — Titus. — Law School. — Earthquake. — Theo-
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 prosopon. — The Crusaders. — The Saracens. — Miracle of the Holy Cross. — Palace and 
 Gardens of Fakhr ed Din. — The Saraya. — Muhammed 'Aly. — Bombardment of Bei- 
 rflt. — Population of Beirut. — Railroad. — Antiquities about Beirut. — Ancient Aque- 
 duct. — Tunnel. — The Wife of Haroun er Raschid. — Ruined Temple at Deir el Ku- 
 I'ah. — "The Smell of Lebanon." — Magnificent Prospect. — Roofs with Battlements. 
 — The Holy Land and the Holy Book. — House-tops. — Samuel and Saul. — David's 
 Palace. — The Inhabitants of Jerusalem upon the House-tops. — Proclamations from 
 the House-tops. — The Year of Jubilee. — Peter Praying upon the House-top. — House- 
 tops in the Time of Christ. — The Sparrow upon the House-top. — In the Streets of 
 Beirut. — Coffee and Coffee - shops. — Shopkeepers. — Pipe - stems. — Cigarettes. — The 
 Letter -writer. — Writing and Writing Materials. — The Open Letter. — Seal Rings. — 
 The Call to Prayer. — Moslems Praying in the Mosk. — Hypocrisy. — The Pilgrimage to 
 Mecca. — Praying Seven Times a Day. — The Sanctimonious Judge. — Praying towards 
 Mecca and Jerusalem. — Shops and Streets. — The Crowded Street. — Hewers of Wood 
 and Drawers of Water. — The Gibeo'nites. — Shaving the Head. — Paul at Cenchrea. — 
 Barbers' Shops. — Street of the Auctioneers. — No Provision for Lighting the Streets. 
 — Bidding the Guests to the Supper. — Dining amongst the Orientals. — Sitting at 
 Meat. — Rice, Stews, and Meats. — Etiquette at Meals. — Washing the Hands. — Elijah 
 and Elisha. — Ceremonial Etiquette. — Pipes, Nargilehs, and Coffee-cups. — Talking to 
 be Heard. — Garments, Ancient and Modern. — Elijah's Mantle. — Joseph's Coat of 
 Many Colors. — Rending the Clothes. — Linen, Woollen, Cotton, and Silk. — Manners 
 and Customs. — Boots and Shoes. — Putting off the Shoes. — The Head and the Feet. — 
 Costume of the Women. — Domestic Relations. — The Harem. — Naming the Father 
 after his Eldest Son. — Significant Names, Ancient and Modern. — Sleeping without 
 Change of Garments. — Co-operative House-keeping. — "Saving your Reverence." — 
 Matrimony. — Sous and Daughters. — Marriage with Slaves Page 43 
 
 III. 
 
 THE DOG RIVER, AND THE SUBURBS OF BEIRUT. 
 
 Excursion to the Dog River. — Eastern Suburbs of Beirut. — The View from Mar Mitr. — 
 The Reservoirs. — Chapel of St. George. — St. George and the Dragon. — The Quaran- 
 tine. — The Beirut River. — Jebel Keniseh and Siinnin. — Bridge over Nahr Beirut. — 
 Emir Fakhr ed Din. — The Mulberry Gardens. — St. George's Bay. — Ride along the 
 Beach. — The River of Death. — Ant Elias. — Narrow Plain. — Fountain and River of Ant 
 Elias. — Beirut Water-works. — The Tunnel. — The Promontory of Nahr el Kelb. — The 
 Ancient Road. — View from the Summit of the Pass. — A Roman Mile-stone. — Sculptured 
 Tablets. — Egyptian Tablets Described by Wilkinson. — Layard's Opinion of the Assyrian 
 Tablets. — Dr. Robinson's Observations on the Antiquity of the Tablets. — Greek Inscrip- 
 tions. — Professor J. A. Paine. — Cuneiform Inscription. — Napoleon III. — The Dog, and 
 the Rock in the Sea. — Inscription of Marcus Antoninus. — The Greek "Wolf" and 
 the Arab "Dog." — Inscription of Sultan Salim. — Scenery at Nahr el Kelb. — A Wild 
 Cabbage. — Bone and Flint Deposits. — Canon Tristram. — Mr. Dawkins. — Fossil Teeth 
 and Arrow-heads. — Prehistoric Savages. — Lebanon abounds in Caverns, Fossils, and 
 Minerals. — Visit to the Caverns of Nahr el Kelb in 1S36. — The Caverns Explored by
 
 CONTENTS. ix 
 
 Mr. Maxwell and Mr. Huxley in 1873. — Description of the Caverns of the Dog River. 
 — The Screen. — Professor Robertson's Account. — The Cathedral. — Ma-wveil's Column. 
 — The Hermit's Pillar. — The Gallery. — The Dome. — Willow Point and Light-house. 
 — The Elephant's Cave. — Bliss's Straits. — The Draperies. —The Pantheon.— Clayton's 
 Passage. — The Styx. — Rustum Pasha's Chandelier. — Chaos. — Huxley and Brigstocke's 
 Rapids. — Personal Incident. — Attempt to Explore the Caverns above the Rapids De- 
 scribed by Professor Robertson. — Temperature of the Air and Water in the Caverns. 
 — Depth of the Water. — The Caves of Nahr el Kelb compared with Celebrated 
 Caverns in other Countries. — Ride up the River Gorge. — The Aqueduct. — Grand 
 and Picturesque Scener)% — The Weir. — The Road over the Tunnel and to the Sea. 
 — Ride around the Western Suburbs of Beirut. — The Barracks and Hospital. — The 
 Capuchin Monastery and Church. — Institute of the Deaconesses. — German Church. 
 — Khan Antun Beg.-^Ottoman Bank. — Consulates. — Post-offices. — Moslem Cemetery. 
 — Hotels. — Remains of Ancient Baths. — Modern Bathing-houses. — Minat el Husn. — 
 Sponge Divers. — Petroleum Warehouses. — Ship-building Yard. — Potteries and Tan- 
 neries. — Inhabited Well. — The Hospital of St. John. — Tiie Medical Hall. — Syrian 
 Protestant College. — Tee Observatory. — Unequalled Site and Magnificent Prospect. — 
 Jackals and Hyenas. — The Light-house. — Extended Outlook. — French Company. — 
 Numerous Inlets. — Deep Caverns. — Seals or Sea-cows. — The Rousha. — Perpendicular 
 Cliffs. — Ibrahim Pasha. — The Conscription. — Refugees. — Fugitives in the Caves and 
 on the Rousha. — The Rousha in a Winter Storm. — Petrified Echini in the Rocks. — 
 The Sand Sea. — Gardens and Houses Over\vhelmed by the Sand. — Woe -begone Don- 
 keys. — The Quarries. — Narrow Lanes. — Prickly-pear Hedges. — Fruit of the Prickly- 
 pear. — Pine-groves. — Sowing the Pine. — ^\'^enerable Pine-trees Planted by Fukhr ed 
 Din. — The Sycamore. — Zaccheus. — Sycamore Figs. — Gatherers of Sycamore Fruit. — 
 The Power of Faith Illustrated by the Sycamore. — The Black Mulberr}-. — The Syca- 
 more in Egypt. — Biblical References to the Sycamore. — 'Assur. — The Cemeter)-. — 
 The Press. — The Bible Warehouse. — Anglo-American Churcii. — Female Seminar)'. — 
 Mecca Pilgrims. — Fanatical Moslem Ders-ishes and the Priest of Baal. — The Dou^ch. 
 — Riding over Prostrate Men and Boys I'^y*-' 91 
 
 IV. 
 
 BEIRUT TO SHEMLAN. 
 
 A Mountain House. — Moving to the Mountains. — Modern Summer Residences. — Leba- 
 non a Favorite Summer Retreat. — Dames de Nazareth. — The Sisters of Charity. — 
 Silk Factory. — Cocoons. — Export of Silk. — The Pines. — The Damascus Road. — No 
 Trace of an Ancient Highway over Lebanon. — 'Areiya. — F.l Miigheiteh. — Jebel el 
 Keniseh.— El Buka'a. — Shtora. — Mejdel 'Anjar. — Anti-Lebanon.— Diligences.— Bag- 
 gage-wagons. — The Carriage-drive. — Canals. — Rustem Pasha's Bridge. — Khan el Has- 
 mfyeh. — The Plain. — The Palm-tree. — Phienicia. — Hel)rew Women Named after tiie 
 Palm-tree. — Biblical Allusions to the Palm-tree. — Pabn-l)rancl)es an Kniblem of Re- 
 joicing. — Bethany, the House of Dates. — Clusters of Dates. — Kl lladeth. — Shihali 
 Emirs. — As'ad esh Shediak.— History of Lebanon. — B'abda.— Geodes of (^)uarl/. — 
 Blind Beggar by the Way-side. — The Carob-tree.— St. John's Bread. — "The Husks."
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 — Syrup. — Dukkan el Wurwar. — Nahr el Ghudir. — Wady Shahiiir. — Kefr Shima. — 
 Terraced Hill-sides. — Sarcophagi. — Protestant Chapel. — Soap. — Ascent of the Moun- 
 tain. — Deir el Kurkufeh. — Anemones and Cyclamens. — Pine-grove. — Sandstone For- 
 mation. — Road to Aitath. — 'Ain Bsaba. — Mountain Scenery. — 'Ain 'Anoub. — Village 
 Fountain. — Road to Shemlan. — Summer Eve on Lebanon. — Shemlan. — Lebanon a 
 Range of Mountains. — Dean Stanley. — "The White Mountain." — Rains and Snows 
 on Lebanon. — Geological Characteristics of Lebanon. — Conspicuous Summits of Leb- 
 anon. — The Rivers of Lebanon. — The Natural Bridge. — Temple of Venus. — Birth- 
 place of Adonis. — Cedar-groves. — Convent of Kanobin. — Orthosia. — The Seaward 
 Face of Lebanon. — The Orontes. — The Eastern Side of Lebanon. — El Berdflny. — 
 Fountains at Meshghurah. — Villages on Lebanon. — Biblical Allusions to Lebanon. — 
 Moses, David, Solomon, Isaiah. — Goodly Lebanon. — The Province of Tripoli and that 
 of Sidon. — Districts of Lebanon. — Emir Beshir Shebah. — Ibrahim Pasha. — The Allied 
 Powers. — Civil Wars and Massacres. — The Present Form of Government. — Population 
 of Lebanon. — The Muhammedans and Metawileh. — The Greeks and Greek Catholics. 
 — The Maronites and Druses Page I2i 
 
 V. 
 
 TOUR THROUGH SOUTHERN LEBANON. 
 
 Southern Lebanon. — The Bells of the Mules, and the Song of the Muleteers. — Wander- 
 ing about the Mountains. — 'Ainab. — Natural Tells. — Perpendicular Strata. — Dukkan 
 'Ainab. — Beit Tulhiik. — Original Inhabitants of Lebanon. — The Phoenicians. — Rock- 
 cut Tombs. — 'Ain Kesur. — The Wady below 'Abeih. — 'Abeih. — Old Palaces. — Burn- 
 ing of 'Abeih in 1845. — Escape of the Christians in i860. — Mutaiyar 'Abeih. — Mag- 
 nificent Prospect. — Kefr Metta. — Villages and Houses on Lebanon. — Beit el Kady. 
 — El Fiizur. — Traces of Glacial Action. — Tropical Climate and Fruits. — Cloud-bursts. 
 — Jisr el Kady. — Mills. — Nahr el Gabun and Nahr el Kady. — Villages Inhabited by 
 Druses and Maronites. — Bridges, Ancient and Modern. — Adventure with a Panther. 
 — Wild Beasts in the Holy Land in Bible Times. — Bshetfin. — Stagnation of the 
 Druses and Enterprise of the Christians.^Luxuriant and Fertile Fields. — Deir el 
 Kamar. — The Massacres of i860. — A Border Land of Antagonistic Tribes. — Revenge- 
 ful Spirit of the Maronites.— Beit Abu Nakad.— Bteddin.— The Emir Beshir.— Beit 
 Shehab. — Palace at Bteddin.— B'aklin. — Simekaniyeh.— Battle-field of the Druses. — 
 Esh Shuf. — Civil Wars. — Description of the Sceneiy and Geology of Lebanon by Dr. 
 Anderson. — El Judeideh. — Beit Jumblat.— Sheikh Beshir.— Palaces at Mukhtarah. — 
 Vicissitudes of Fortune.— Sa'id Beg Jumblat. — 'Ammatur. — Gray Squirrels. — Oak- 
 grove and Fountain of Bathir. — Fountains and Cliffs between Bathir and Jezzin. — 
 The Auwaly. — Merj Bisiy. — Ruins of an Ancient Temple.— Emir Fakhr ed Din Be- 
 sieged and Captured in a Cavern. — Cascade below Jezzin. — The Ambassador and his 
 Family. — Jeba'ah. — Neby Safy. — Jerjii'a. — Neby Sijud. — Jermuk. — Jebel er Riham. 
 — Globular Iron-ore. — High-places, Ancient and Modern. — Jezzin. — Hunting-ground 
 of the Shehab Emirs.— Taumat Niha. — Ancient Highway from Sidon to Damascus. 
 —Kefr Hiineh.— Smuggling Tobacco.— Circular Lake.— Descent to the Litany.— Jisr 
 Biirghuz. — Magnificent Prospects. — Meshghurah. — Villages upon the South-eastern
 
 CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Slopes of Lebanon. — Rapid Restoration to Prosperity after Civil Wars. — Schools. — 
 Jisr Kur'un. — Geodes. — The Biika'a originally a Lake. — Kamid el Lauz. — Luz. — 
 Sughbin. — Jisr Jubb Jenin. — Geodes of Chalcedony and Agate. — Vineyards. — Ascent 
 of Lebanon. — View over the BCika'a. — Manna. — The Cedars of el Haruk and el 
 Ma'asir. — Hiram and Solomon. — Fountains of el Baruk. — Aqueduct of Sheikh Be- 
 shir. — Description of Wady el Fureidis and Wady 'Ain Zahalteh by Dr. .\nderson. 
 — Scener}' around 'Ain Zahalteh. — Fountains of Nahr el Kady. — Avalanche at Kefr 
 Nebrakh. — Burj el 'Amad. — Beit el '.\mad. — Sheikh Khuttar. — Cedars at 'Ain Za- 
 halteh. — Sources of the Damur and the .Vuwaly. — Problem of Fountains. — Sandstone 
 Formation and Pine-groves.— Btathir. — Beit 'Abd el Melek. — Silk Factories. — Bham- 
 diin during the Civil Wars. — Wady el Ghabun. — Bhauwarah. the Residence of Colonel 
 Churchill. — Churchill's History of Lebanon. — A Glorious Prospect . . . Page 141 
 
 VI. 
 
 SHEMLAN TO THE NATURAL BRIDGE. 
 
 Summer Resorts on Lebanon. — 'Aitath. — Beit Tulhuk. — Suk el Ghurb. — Ancient Church. 
 — The Sweating Picture. — Convent of St. George. — Monks. — Wady Shahrur. — In- 
 habited Tree. — 'Aleih.- -Tragedies in the Old Palace. — Ibrahim Pasha. — Tragedy of 
 the Three Brothers. — Decline of Feudal Princes. — Wady Hummana. — Coal .Mine. — 
 Muhammed Aly. — Petrified Pine-cones. — District of el Metn. — The Emirs of Beit el 
 Lema. — Brummana. — The Damascus Road. — El Mugheiteh. — Snow Blockade. — Jebel 
 Keniseh. — Summit Level. — Khan Murad. — Cold Winds. and Malignant Fevers.— A 
 Glorious Prospect. — El Biika a. — Anti-Lebanon. — Eastern Side of Lebanon. — Shtora. 
 — The Road to Damascus. — Temple at Mejdel 'Anjar. — Neb'a 'Anjar.— Intermitting 
 Fountain. — Deir el Ghiizal. — Kiibb Elias. — Mekseh. — Extensive Views over Coelesyria. 
 — Zahleh. — El Berdiiny. — "Vine and Fig-tree." — El Mu'allakah. — Burning of Zah- 
 leh. — Prosperity of Zahleh. — Kerak Nuh. — Ascent of Lebanon. — Bituminous Shale. — 
 Globular Iron Ore. — Limestone Pinnacles. — Neb'a Silnnin. — Temples on Lebanon. — 
 Temple near 'Anturah. — Husn Niha. — Tomb of Noah. — Tomb of Seth. — Origin of 
 Primitive Sanctuaries. — Rock-cut Tombs. — The Druses and their Religion. — Druse 
 Funerals. — Feudal Families of the Druses. — Lex talionis, or Blood Revenge. — Moses 
 and the Hebrews. — Matrimonial Alliances. — Abraham and Jacob. — Betrothal. — Noc- 
 turnal Incident. — Bears and Wolves. — Ascent of Sunnin. — Outlook from the Sum- 
 mit of Lebanon. — Sirocco. — Descent of Lebanon. — Druse War-song. — Bringing Grain 
 to the Mill. — Grinding at the Mill. — Baking Bread in the Tanniir. — Native Bread. — 
 The Use of Leven.— The Staff of Life. — Cone-shaped Oven. — City Ovens.— Ovens 
 in the Time of the Hebrews. — Baking upon the Saj. — Wady Biskinta. — tniHin \ui- 
 tures. — Eagles. — Pinnacles of Limestone. — Casts of Fossil Shells. — Dr. Anderson's 
 Description of the Fossils of Syria. — Kul'at el Fukra. — Tiberius Claudius. — The Tem- 
 ple in the Midst of Rocky Pinnacles Described \>y Dr. Robinson. — Remains of a 
 Tomb. — Road from the Dog River to the Natural Bridge. — 'Ajeltun. — Fantastii 
 Rock .Scenery. — Wady es Salib.— Canal from Nahr el Leben.— Irrigation.— Sowing 
 Wheat in Autumn. — Neb'a el Leben.— Milk and Honey.— The Natural Bridge.— 
 District of el Kesrawan. — The Maronites. — Feudal Families.- Monastery BclK . iSS
 
 xii CONTENTS. 
 
 VII. 
 
 THE NATURAL BRIDGE TO THE CEDARS. 
 
 Bird's-eye View of the Kesravvan. — Picturesque Hamlets and Flourishing Villages. — Con- 
 vents Isolated in Winter. — Nahr es Salib. — Flooded Fields and Ploughed-up Roads. — 
 Cascade. — Neb'a el 'Asal. — Wady Shebruh. — Volcanic Action and Fields of Trap- 
 rock. — Energy and Industry of the People. — Products of the Soil. — Lebanon Wine. — 
 Ziik Miisbah. — 'Arak. — Sacramental Wine used by Papists and Greeks. — The Juice 
 of the Grape. — The Wine Used at the Last Supper and the Feasts of the Jews. — 
 " Unfermented Wine." — Wine, Ancient and Modern. — The Wine of the Bible. — The 
 Hebrew Debash and Arabic Dibs. — Winter on Lebanon. — Monotonous Life of the 
 Natives. — Mountain Houses. — Miscellaneous Company. — Animals, Smoke, and Fleas. 
 — Smoking and Sleeping. — The Return of Spring. — Biblical Allusions to Manners 
 and Customs. — Ancient and Modern Habitations. — Reminiscences of a Former Tour. 
 — Lost in a Fog. — Magnificent Prospect. — The Lebanon Range. — Descent to 'Afka. 
 — Walnut and Sycamore Trees. — Venus and Adonis. — Goats in the Clefts of the 
 Rock. — A Tremendous Cliff. — Scene from the Bridge. — Mugharat 'Afka. — Source 
 of the Adonis. — Three Cascades. — Temple of Venus. — Syenite Columns. — The Wor- 
 ship of Adonis. — Destruction of the Temple by Constantine. — Retrospective. — The 
 Damsels of Phoenicia. — "Women Weeping for Tammuz." — The Poetry of Milton, 
 and the Vision of Ezekiel. — "Smooth Adonis ran purple to the Sea." — Ancient and 
 Modern 'Afka. — Metawileh. — The Valley of Nahr Ibrahim. — Bridge. — Emir Ibrahim. 
 — Mar Maron. — Burj Fatiah. — Ancient Aqueduct. — Plateau. — Wady el Muneitirah. — 
 Wady el Mugheiyireh. — Eagles and Ravens. — Natural Bridge. — Grotto at el 'Aukiirah. 
 — Wine-vats. — El 'Aukurah. — Trap -rock. — Burckhardt. — Native Hospitality. — The 
 Avenger of Blood. — Lofty Plateau. — Arab Encampment. — Transportation of Sheep 
 to Egypt. — Pasture-lands of the Kurds. — Funnel-shaped Pits. — Jebel Jaj. — El Mesh- 
 nakah. — Burr el Haithy. — "Timber of Cedar." — Wady Fedar. — M. Renan's De- 
 scription of the Ruins at el Meshnakah. — Rock-cut Tombs. — "Baal a la tete 
 Rayonee." — Figures Carved in the Rock at el Ghineh. — "The Image of Venus." — 
 Ard 'Akhlk. — Hid Treasure. — Inscriptions on the Rocks. — Dr. De Forest. — M. 
 Renan. — The Emperor Adrian. — Tannurin el Foka. — Fog in Autumn. — Fossil Fish. 
 — Hakil. — Duma. — Iron Ore. — Wady Tanniiiin. — Ard Tannurin. — Wady ed Duweir. 
 — Wady el Jauzeh. — Jebel en Niiriyeh. — Theoprosopon. — Nahr el Jauzeh. — Kiil'at el 
 Museilihah. — Black-mail. — Cedar-grove. — The Emir Beshir and the British Fleet. — 
 Manufacture of Pitch. — Trees Cut Down will often Sprout Again. — Riiins of a Con- 
 vent. — Amyun. — El Kiirah. — El Hadith. — Wady el Kadisha. — The Holy River. — Deir 
 Kanobin. — Maundrell's Visit to Kanobin. — As'ad esh Shidiak. — Hasrun. — Convers- 
 ing Across the Chasm. — Exceptional Cultivation. — Gorge of the Kadisha Described 
 by Dr. Robinson. — "The Beauty and the Grandeur of Lebanon." — Bsherreh. — 
 Bridge over the Holy River. — Productiveness of the Soil. — The Cedars of God. — 
 A Sabbath of Rest among the Cedars of Lebanon. — The Cedar pre-eminently the 
 Biblical Tree. — El Arz. — Biblical Allusions to the Cedar. — Cedar Wood. — The Palaces 
 of David and Solomon and the Temple of the Lord. — The Temples of Zerubbabel
 
 CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 and Herod and the Graven Images of a God. — Fragments of Cedar among the Ruins 
 of Nineveh. — Cedar not Mentioned in the New Testament. — Juniper. — Pine. — The 
 Thistle and the Cedars of Lebanon. — The Destruction of the Ancient and Modern 
 Cedar. — Sunday-school under the Cedars. — The Cedar-tree of the Bible. — The Lo- 
 cality of the Cedars Described by Dr. Robinson. — Dean Stanley. — Canon Tristram. — 
 Glacial Moraines. — The present Cedar-grove. — Age of the Cedars. — The Glory of 
 Lebanon. — Four Cedar-trees Intertwined and Growing together. — De.an Stanley's 
 Description of Old and Young Trees supporting one another. — Graceful Form and 
 Shape of the Cedar. — Vain Effort to Protect the Young Cedars. — Lebanon could be 
 Covered with Cedars. — Cedars in the Parks and Gardens of Europe. — "Full of 
 Sap." — The Cedar not Used for Building Purposes.— Feast of the Cedars. — Modern 
 Chapel. — Decline of Religious Zeal Page 232 
 
 VIII. 
 
 THE CEDARS TO HURMUL AND B.VALBEK. 
 
 The Summit-level of the Lebanon Range. — The Cedar Mountain.— Jebel Mflkhmal. — 
 Pass over Lebanon Described by Dr. Buchanan. — Ehden.— Paradisus.— Viisuf Karam. 
 — Pass around the West End of Lebanon. — Tripolis.— El Mina. — Small Islands 
 North-west of Tripoli.— The Castle of Tripoli.— Librar>' at Tripoli Burnt during the 
 Crusades. — Burckhardt. — Tarablus esh Sham. — Terminus of the Euphrates Valley 
 Railroad.— Ruwad, Arvad.— Cyclopean Wall.— .-Mexander the Great.— Tartus, Tor- 
 tosa.— Castle and Church at Tartus.— Bombardment of Tartus.— Antaridus.— Ancient 
 Quarries.— Idol-temple. — Remains near 'Ain el Haiyeh.— Sepulchral Monuments.— 
 M. Renan.—Marathus.— Area.— Tell 'Arka.— Temple of Alexander.— The Emperor 
 Severus. — The Holy Lance. — Ruins of Area.— Tunnel. — Fossil Shells.— Exuberant 
 Verdure and Grand Sceneiy. — Nahr el Barid.—Orthosia.— Ruined Temple on llarf 
 es Sphiry.— Dining with the Beg at Sir.- The Man of Uz.— The Sabbatical River. 
 — Fauwar ed Deir.— Intermitting Fountains.— Gray Squirrels and Walnut-trees.— 
 Fountain and Overhanging Cliff.— View from the Pass above Sir.— Cloud-burst. — 
 Homer.— Tydens. — Dislocated Strata. —Wheat and Snow.— Sheepfolds. — '.\in el 
 Beida.— Natives Making Tar.— A Mountain Meadow.— Et Tubban.— Water-shed.— 
 Wady Farah.—" Boundless Contiguity of Shade."— 'Ain el Ayun.— D.ihar el Kudhib. 
 —A Camp-fire on Lebanon.— Personal Incident at 11 uimul.— Local Rebellion.— 
 Hiii-mul. — Woodland Scenery on Lebanon Descril)ed by Van de VeUle. — " The En- 
 trance of Hamath."— Dr. Robinson.— Ribieh.— Pharaoh and Josiah.— Nebuchadnezzar 
 and Zedekiah.— A Dreadful Massacre.— The Camping-ground of Fierce Con<iuerors. 
 — The Hittites.— The Kheta.— Egyptian Inscriptions.— Ramescs II.— M. Ebers.— 
 Battle near Kadesh between the Egyptians and the Kheta.— The "Right Arm" of 
 Rameses IL— Pentaur.— The Iliad of the Egyptians. — " I was alone."— Rameses II. 
 Fighting the Kheta, with Two Lions at his Side.— A Warlike and Powerful People.— 
 The Report of the Spies sent by Moses.— Frequent Communication between Kff,'pt 
 and Syria in Patriarchal Times.— Egyptian Innuence in Syria.— Site of Kelesh.— 
 Kedes.— Laodicea.— Tell Neby Mindau.— Lake <.f Hums or Kedes.— Stone Dam.— 
 Abulfeda.— Canal to Hums. — Rivulets an<l Corn-lKldv— The Fountains of llie Oron-
 
 xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 tes Described by Van de Velde. — Neb'a el 'Asy. — The Orontes. — The Monk's Cavern. 
 — Kamii'a el Hiirmul. — Hunting Scenes Delineated on the Kamu'a. — Outlook over 
 the Plain from the Kamu'a. — The Canal from 'Ain Lebweh to Ka'a. — Perpendicular 
 Banks above Neb'a el 'Asy. — Ras Ba'albek. — Conna. — Wady Flkeh. — El 'Ain. — 
 Ain. — The Water-shed. — A Night in a Bedawin Encampment. — Lebweh. — Lybo. — 
 Saracen and Crusader. — Neb'a Lebweh. — An Oasis in the Desert. — Lake Yemmuneh. 
 — Disappearance of the Water of the Lake. — Ruined Temple at Yemmuneh. — Vil- 
 lages on the Hill-sides, not in the Plain. — Lone Column in the Buka'a. — Ancient 
 Temple and Rock-cut Tombs at Nahleh Page 270 
 
 IX. 
 
 BAALBEK TO DAMASCUS. 
 
 Ba'albek and el Buka'a. — Approach to Ba'albek from the Cedars, and from Zahleh. — 
 Personal Experience. — The Cardinal Points. — Position of Ba'albek. — The Ancient 
 City.— The Old Wall.— Doric Column.— Remains of the Old Town.— Statues.— The 
 Modern Town. — The Acropolis. — Artificial Platform of the Great Temple. — Stairway 
 Leading to the Platform. — The Portico. — Latin Inscription. — Antoninus Pius and Julia 
 Domna. — Massive Square Towers. — Large Stones. — Vaults. — Main Entrance. — The 
 Hexagonal Court. — The Triple Gate. — The Great Court. — Niches, Recesses, and 
 Chambers. — The Eastern, Northern, and Western Sides of the Court. — Raised Plat- 
 form. — The Temple of the Sun. — The Peristyle. — The Six Columns. — The Walls of 
 the Temple Platform. — Cyclopean Stones and Walls. — Trilithon. — The Three Great 
 Stones. — Seven Stones in the West Wall. — Nine Stones Parallel to the North Wall. — 
 Vaults and Galleries under the Platform. — Temple of Jupiter. — The Pantheon at 
 Athens. — Platform of the Temple. — The Portico. — The Peristyle. — The Vestibule. — 
 The Portal. — Mr. David Roberts. — The Hanging Keystone. — The Assyrian Eagle. — 
 Stairway to the Top of the Temple. — The Nave of the Temple. — Fluted Columns and 
 Sculptured Niches. — The Sanctum. — Sacrificial Procession. — Vaulted Chambers. — 
 Moslem Iconoclasts. — Nine Columns on the North Side of the Peristyle. — Entablature 
 and Roof of the Peristyle. — Lieutenant Conder. — Three Columns on the West Side 
 of the Temple. — The Leaning Column on the South Wall of the Temple. — Four 
 Standing Columns. — Fluted Columns of the Portico. — Saracenic Tower. — The Octag- 
 onal Temple. — Columns, Niches, and Festoons. — Ionic and Corinthian Columns 
 around the Interior Walls. — A Christian Church. — Ras el 'Ain. — Coelesyria. — El 
 Buka'a. — The Orontes and the Leontes. — El Berdilny and Nahr 'Anjar. — The Grave 
 of Noah and the Tomb of Seth. — Toi and David. — The Hittites and the Egyptians. 
 — The History of Ba'albek. — Baal-gad. — The Plain of Aven. — Heliopolis. — Julia, 
 Augusta Felix. — The Emperor Trajan. — John of Antioch. — Antoninus Pius and 
 Septimus Severus. — Julia Domna and Heliogabalus. — Venus Worshipped at Ba'al- 
 bek. — The Emperor Constantine. — Muhammedan Vandalism. — Kul'at Ba'albek. — 
 The Quarries. — The Great Stone in the Quarry. — Kubbet Diiris. — The Road to 
 Damascus. — Emirs of Beit Harfiish. — Bereitan. — Khuraibeh. — A Donkey Fallen 
 under its Load. — The Humane Laws of Moses. — Nahr Yahfiifeh. — A Roman Bridge.
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 — Surghaya. — Volcanic Plain. — Tlie Water -shed. — '.\in Hawar. — Ez Zebedany. — 
 The Plain, the Gardens, and the Vineyards. — The Source of the Barada. — The 
 Lofty Range of Anti-Lebanon. — Bliidan. — Wild and Romantic Scenery in Suk Wady 
 Barada. — The Pass. — The Bridge. — Ancient Roadway Cut in the Rock. — Latin In- 
 scriptions. — "Abila of Lysanias." — Rock-hewn Aqueduct and Rock-cut Tombs. — 
 Ancient Quarries. — The Tomb of Abel. — Ruins of a Small Temple. — Plain and \'il- 
 lage of Suk Wady Barada. — A Devout Hermit. — (Jibbon. — Kefr el 'Awamid. — An- 
 cient Temple. — Ride along the Canal. — .\ Succession of Surprises. — "Ain el Fijeh. 
 — The most Copious Source of the Barada. — Massive Remains of Platforms and Tem- 
 ples. — Fever and Ague. — 'Ain el Khudra. — Grand Scenery and Execrable Road. — 
 Tunnel through the Cliff. — Zenobia and Palmyra. — Bessima. — Es Sahra. — French 
 Carriage-road. — Dummar. — Kubbet en NCisr. — First and Finest View of Damascus. — 
 Description of the Scene by Lieutenant Van de Velde and Mr. Addison. — The Barada 
 Described by Dean Stanley. — The Canals and Streams from the Baraila. — The Main 
 Stream. — The Paradise of the Prophet. — The Mountains and the Plain. — Ilcrmon. 
 — Xahr el A'waj, the Pharpar. — Jebel Kasyiin. — .\dam and Abraham. — Cain ant! 
 Abel. — Es Salahiyeh. — Broad Paved Road. — The Tent and the Hotel . Page 317 
 
 X. 
 
 DAMASCUS. 
 
 Damascus and the Manners and Customs of the East. — One of the Oldest Cities in tlie 
 World. — Thebes and Memphis, Babylon and Nineveh. — Damascus the Capital of 
 Syria. — Biblical Histoiy of Damascus. — Abraham and Chedorlaomer. — Hobah. — Dam- 
 mesek, Dimeshk. — Esh Sham.— Damascus Founded l>y the Great Grandson of Noah. 
 — Josephus and Nicolaus. — Abraham Reigned at Damascus. — Eliezer of Damascus. — 
 Abraham's Place of Adoration. — Burzeh. — The Site of Hobah. — David. — The Tribes 
 of Naphtali and Manasseh. — "David put Garrisons in Damascus." — lladad.— Solo- 
 mon. — Rezon. — Abijam King of Judah ; Tabrimon of Syria ; and Baaslia of Israel. — 
 Asa Sends Presents of Silver and Gold. — Invasions of Ben-hadad I., King of Damas- 
 cus. — "Streets in Samaria." — Ben-hadad II. — Ahab.— Invasions of Bcn-liadad II.— 
 Aphek. — Flight of Ben-hadad II.— "Streets in Damascus."— Deatli of Ahal).— 
 
 I Jehoram.— Naaman the Syrian Leper. — "A Little Captive Maid." — Jehoram Rends 
 his Clothes. — Elisha, "a Prophet in Israel." — The Jordan and the " Rivers of Damas- 
 cus." — The "Blessing" of Naaman. — Two Mules' Burden of Eartii.— .\n .\llar to 
 Jehovah in Damascus.— Ben-hadad's Attemjit to Capture Elisha. — Siege of Samaria. 
 — "A Great Famine."— Flight of the Syrian Army.— The Ilillilc Confederacy.— 
 Elijah and Elisha. — Visit of Elisha to Damascus.— Death of Ben-hadad.— Ha/.ael 
 King over Syria. — " Joash Beat Ben-hadad [III.] three times."— Jeroboam II. Re- 
 covers Damascus.— Pekah.—Tiglath-pileser Captures Damascus.— Pattern of an Ali:u 
 sent to Urijah by Ahaz. — Sennaclierib, Nebuchadnezzar, an<l Darius.— Amos and 
 Isaiah.— Jeremiah and Ezekiel.—Zechariah.— Macedonian, Greek, and Roman Con- 
 quests. — Parmenio. — Alexander the Great.— Pompey Receives the Ambas.sadors from 
 Syria, Judica, and Egypt in Damascus. — Sexlus Civsar. — Herod the Cireal.— Saul,
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 called Paul. — Spread of Christianity in Damascus. — John the Baptist.— Muhammedan 
 Conquest of Syria. — Siege of Damascus. — Gibbon. — Massacre of Christians by the 
 "Sword of God." — Damascus the Capital of the Muhammedan Empire. — Baneful 
 Influence of Islam. — Decline of Damascus. — Descendants of Ishmael. — A Hebrew of 
 the Hebrews. — Garments Ancient and Modern. — Hotel at Damascus. — Citron and 
 Lemon, Roses and Jessamine. — Court of the Khalifs of Islam. — The King and Queen 
 of the "Arabian Nights." — The Streets and Bazaars of Damascus. — The Horse-market. 
 —The Hangman's Tree. — Saddlers Street.— Street of the Coppersmiths. — Castle of 
 Damascus. — Ancient Bows and Arrows. — The Fosse. — Street of the Auctioneers. — 
 Siik el Arwam. — Oriental Bargains. — Given Away for Nothing. — Intricacy of the 
 Streets in Eastern Cities. — Donkeys and Camels. — Khan As'ad Pasha. — Caravans 
 from Bagdad and Elsewhere. — Importunate Christians.— Intense Fanaticism. — A Mos- 
 lem Shopkeeper. — Fate, or God's Decree. — The Wiles of Satan. — Sanctimonious 
 Moslems. — Bazaar of the Goldsmiths. — Manufacture of Gold and Silver Filigree. — 
 South Side of the Great Mosk. — Ancient Remains. — Triple Gate. — Greek Inscription. 
 — "Thy Kingdom, O Christ." — Book Bazaar. — Copies of the Koran. — Manuscript 
 Books. — Arch and Pediment of an Ancient Gateway. — Bab el Barid. — Slippers. — 
 "The House of Rimmon."— Greek and Roman Temple. — Church of St. John the 
 Baptist. — A Basilica. — Dimensions of the Great Mosk. — Rows of Columns. — Triple 
 Roof. — Central Dome. — Stained-glass Windows. — Texts from the Koran. — Praying 
 Rugs.— Lamps and Chandeliers. — Praying Niches.— The Head of John the Baptist.— 
 Court of the Great Mosk. — Colonnades. — Ornamented Piers and Arches. — Corinthian 
 Columns. — Saracenic Fountain and Pavilion. — Domes of the Hour, and of the Treas- 
 ure. — Visit to the Great Mosk by a Party of Ladies and Gentlemen.— Photographs. — 
 Minarets of the Great Mosk. — View from the Gallery of Madinet el 'Arus. — Rim- 
 mon. — Baal. — Tombs of Saladin and the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. — Public Baths. 
 — Baths not mentioned in the Bible. — "Pools." — Hot and Cold Water Baths Intro- 
 duced by Herod the Great.— Baths the Resort of Evil .Spirits.— Street Calls and Cries. 
 — "Drink, O Thirsty!" — The Colporteur in Damascus. — " The Bread and Water of 
 Everlasting Life." — Private Houses in Damascus. — The Entrance. — The Court.— The 
 Marble Fountain. — El Lewan. — Reception-rooms. — Panels in the Roofs and Window- 
 shutters Inlaid with Mother-of-pearl. — The Harem.— Coffee-shops along the Banks 
 of the Barada. — Oriental Music and Singing. — The Orchestra. — Musical Instruments. 
 — Greek and Albanian Music. — Biblical Music. — Music in the Time of the Prophets. 
 — Samuel and Saul. — Saul among the Prophets. — Elisha and the Minstrel. — David 
 and Saul. — The Harp and Viol, the Tabret and Pipe. — Ride through the Suburbs of 
 Damascus. — The Gardens.— Canon Tristram. — Flowing Streams and Golden Fruit. — 
 Camping in a Garden. — Canal of et Taurah.— Es Salihiyeh.— Villa of the British 
 Consul.— E.xuberant Vegetation. — The Myrtle. — Fountains and Streams in the Gar- 
 dens, and in the Courts of Public and Private Buildings. — Making Kaif under the 
 Trees. — Nahr el Yezid. — Jebel Kasyun. — The Barada, the Abana. — The A'vvaj, the 
 Pharpar. — Bardines. — The Golden -flowing River. — Chasm of the Barada. — Dams 
 and Canals. — Net-work of Watercourses. — The Main Stream of the Barada. — Lake 
 'Ataibeh. — Cufic Inscription. — Carriage -road. — Mud Walls. — Sun-dried Bricks. — El 
 Merj, the Meadow. — Speeding the Departing, and Welcoming the Coming. — Cara-
 
 CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 vans and Pilgrims. — The Haj.— Et Tekiyeh.— Hospital for Poor Pilgrims. — Mosk of 
 Sultan Selim. — Muhammedan Burj-ing- ground. — Graves of Muhammed's Wives. — 
 Fatimeh. — The Myrtle and the Palm. — Funeral Mourning.— Mary at the Grave. — 
 Hired Mourners. — Biblical References to Mourning. — Esau and Job.— David and 
 Jeremiah.— Floods of Tears. — "Jesus Wept." — Tear Bottles.— Smiting the Thigh.— 
 El Meidan. — Labyrinth of Crooked Lanes. — Bab es Saghir. — Moslem Funeral Pro- 
 cession. — "That Eternal Truth and Necessary Fiction." — Ancient Stones in the 
 City Wall. — Bab Kisan. — Traditional Place of Paul's Escape. — Christian Cemete- 
 ries. — Spot where Paul was Converted. — Bab esh Shurky. — Extensive View from 
 the Top of a Mound. — Throwing Dust in the Eyes of European Commissioners. — 
 Leper Hospital. — House of Naaman the Leper. — Leprosy in Damascus. — Roman 
 Triple Gate. — Saracenic Tower. — Gates of Damascus. — "The Street called Straight." 
 — Double Colonnade Described by Dr. Porter. — Christian Quarter. — Armenian Con- 
 vent. — Syrian and Greek Catholic Churches. — House of Ananias. — The Jews in 
 Damascus, Ancient and Modern. — The Jewish Synagogue. — Paul Preached in the 
 Synagogues at Damascus. — The Orthodox Greek Church. — Massacre of the Christians 
 in i860. — The Moslem Quarter. — Damascus Blades and Damask Silks. — Population 
 of Damascus. — House of Judas. — Locks and Keys. — Key on the Shoulder. — Locks 
 and Keys in the Time of David and Solomon. — Suk el 'Attarin. — Attar of Roses. — 
 Dr. Beke. — Rev. J. Crawford. — Extent of the Damascus Gardens Eastward. — The 
 Eastern Plain Destitute of Trees. — Licorice Plant. — Villages on the Plain. — The 
 Barada. — Harran el 'Awamid. — The Southern Lake. — Bedawin. — Columns of Basalt. 
 — Remains of an Ancient Temple. — Greek Inscription. — The Biblical Haran. — Pur- 
 suit of Jacob by Laban. — Harran el 'Awamid and Mount Gilead. — Tradition of the 
 Jews. — Return to Damascus Page 361 
 
 XL 
 
 DAMASCUS TO EL MUSMEIH. 
 
 Damascus the Capital City of Islam. — The Religion Established by Muhammed. — Life 
 and Character of the Arabian Prophet. — The Caaba. — Khadija. — Muhammcil Asserts 
 his Prophetic Mission. — El Hegira. — The Crescent and the Star. — Conversion of the 
 Inhabitants of Yathreb. — Jewish Colonies. — Inconsistencies in the Character of Mu- 
 hammed Described by Mr. Muir. — "Weeping with them that Wept," yet taking 
 Pleasure in cruel Assassination and Massacre. — Death of Muhammed in Medina, and 
 his Burial in the House of 'Ayesha. — El Haram. — "The Illiterate Prophet." — The 
 Koran Revealed by the Angel Gabriel and Transcribed upon the ShouMer-blades of 
 Camels and Goats. — Compilation and Revision of the Koran. — Muhammedan Rever- 
 ence for the Koran. — The Death Penalty. — The Pentateuch, the Psalms, and tiie 
 Gospels of Jesus. — The Patriarchs Inspired Messengers. — Jesus Mentioned with Re- 
 spect in the Koran. — Muhammed the Last and Best of God's Prophets. — Moslems 
 are Unitarians and Fatalists. — Apostasy Imperils Life. — The Attributes of Goil. — 
 Spiritual Beings. — Worship of Saints. — The Resurrection of the Body. — Judgment 
 at the Last Day. — Paradise. — Wine Prohibited. — Prayer. — Al)hili()ns. — Friday, the 
 Assembly. — Alms-giving. — Bread Tlinjwn to Dogs. — Alms Forbidden to Christians
 
 xviil CONTENTS. 
 
 and Jews.^Rigid Fast during Ramadan. — Necessary Preparations for a Tour through 
 Bashan and Gilead. — Pilgrimage to Mecca. — El Haj. — Damascus the Starting-place 
 of the Syrian Pilgrims. — Emir el Haj. — Departure of the Pilgrims from Damascus.— 
 The Mahmel. — Escort of Bedavvin Mounted on Camels. — Pilgrims on Camels, Horses, 
 and Mules. — Return of the Haj from Mecca. — Forlorn and Woe-begone Appearance 
 
 of the Pilgrims. — Bab Allah. — "Bab el Maut, the Gate of Death." — Burckhardt. 
 
 Pilgrims that now Pass through the Suez Canal. — Mr. Muir's Estimate of the Benefits 
 Conferred upon the World by Islam. — The Continuation of Derb el Haj. — The Ghu- 
 tah. — Abulfeda. — One of the Four Paradises of the Earth. — INIoslem Legend. — The 
 Plain of Damascus Crowded with Villages. — Absence of Important Ruins. — The 
 Merj. — Jebel el Aswad. — Quarries of Basalt. — The Pharpar. — El Kesweh. — El 'Awaj. 
 — The Sabirany. — Wady Barbar. — 'Ain Menbej, an Intermitting Fountain. — Roman 
 Road. — Jebel Mani'a. — Villages. — Jebel esh Sheikh. — Aklim el Bellan. — Kul'at 
 Jendal. — Ascent of Hermon. — Wady el 'Ajam. — Moslem Villages. — Bedawin and 
 Kurds. — Cold Winds. — S'as'a. — Ancient Road. — El Kuneitirah. — Paul's Journey to 
 Damascus. — Juneh. — Deir 'Aly. — Frogs. — Greek Inscriptions. — Leboda. — Marcion. — 
 The Marcionites. — El Jeidur. — Jetur. — The Hagarites. — The Half Tribe of Manas- 
 seh. — The Captivity. — Alexander the Great. — Seleucidze. — Iturea. — Aristobulus. — 
 Philip, Tetrarch of Iturea. — John the Baptist. — El Jaulan. — Golan, a City of Refuge. 
 — Gaulanites. — Elevated Lava Plateaus. — Wuld 'Aly Bedawin. — No Inhabited Vil- 
 lages. — Lava Bowlders. — Robbers. — Ruins of Old Towns and Deserted Villages. — 
 Ez Zughbar. — A World once on Fire. — El Merjany. — Good Water. — Basaltic Soil. — 
 Burckhardt. — Column of the Morning. — Small Temple. — Subterraneous Aqueduct. — 
 Private Habitations at El Burak Described by Dr. Porter. — Stone Walls, Doors, Win- 
 dows, and Roofs. — Stone Gate. — Saltpetre Manufactories. — El Liwa. — Wady Liwa. 
 — Arabs of the Lejah. — Villages and Towns in Ruins. — Cultivation and Winter Tor- 
 rents. — Um ez Zeitian. — Druses. — Hid Treasure. — Ard el Bathanyeh. — Batanis. — 
 M. Waddington. — Inscriptions. — The Ancient Names of Places still Preserved. — 
 Jebel Hauran. — Ard el Bathanyeh Described by Dr. Porter. — Ibrahim Pasha. — El 
 Harrah. — Mr. Cyril C. Graham's Adventurous Tour in the Harrah. — A Desert Waste. 
 — Ancient Wells. — Deserted Places. — Rock Inscriptions. — Himyritic Writing. — Kings 
 of the Himyri. — Dr. J. G. Wetzstein. — The Safah. — Volcanic Soil. — Arabs of the Le- 
 jah. — Nomadic Tribes of the Desert. — The Apostle Paul. — Early Christian Churches 
 East of the Jonlan. — Origin. — "The Region of Argob." — Trachonitis. — Zenodorus. 
 — Robbers' Caverns. — Caesar, Herod, Philip, Agrippa. — El Lejah, an Asylum. — 
 Dr. Porter's Description of the Lejah Page 418 
 
 XII. 
 
 EL MUSMEIH TO EDHRA' AND KUNAWAT. 
 
 Howling Jackals and Barking Dogs. — El Musmeih, Phseno. — Rock -cut Road. — Cis- 
 terns. — Roman Legions. — An Episcopal City. — Temple at el Musmeih. — Shell- 
 shaped Roof. — Columns with Wreaths or Bands. — Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and 
 Lucius Aurelius Verus. — Greek Inscription. — Trachonitis, el Lejah. — Governor's Pal- 
 ace and Bishop's Residence. — Ruins of Private Houses. — Influence of External Nature
 
 CONTENTS. xix 
 
 upon Human Character.— The Border of the Lejah. — Rocky Labyrinths. — Fountains 
 and Streams. — The Egj'ptian Army driven out of the Lej.ih. — Regular Troops of no 
 Avail in the Volcanic Clefts and Chasms of the Lejah. — Shaarah. — Tower, Temple, 
 and Inscription. — Manufacture of Saltpetre. — The Outer and the Inner Lej.ih. — Oozy 
 Black Mud. — Stream from Tibny. — Scarcity of Water. — "Deceitful Brooks" and Job's 
 "Miserable Comforters." — The Guides of Ancient and Modern Caravans "Con- 
 founded and Ashamed." — Personal Experience in the Wilderness of Wandering. — 
 Deserted Villages and Partially Cultivated Plain. — Es Sunamein, the Two Idols. — 
 Mecca Pilgrims. — Acre. — Stone Walls, Doors, Windows, and Roofs. — Towers, Tem- 
 ples, and Inscriptions. — Fortuna, the Goddess of Luck. — Tell Kusweh. — Khub.ib. — 
 Ox Ploughing and Taxation. — Manufacture of Lava Millstones. — A Century Old. — 
 Boys' School. — Desire for Education. — Manners and Customs, Dress and Appearance 
 of the People in the Lejah. — Intemaents in Open Pens of Lava Fragments. — Shuk- 
 rah. — Muddy Causeway. — Melihat Hazkin. — Ruined and Deserted Towers. — Saints' 
 Tomb. — Gray Wolf. — Tibny. — A French Monk. — A Mass of Prostrate Buildings. — 
 Wheat Concealed in Cisterns. — Bedawin Robbers. — Storehouses of Joseph in Egypt. 
 — Luhf el Lejah. — Plain of the Hauran. — Ruins of Ancient Cities. — Ancient Fire- 
 proof Houses. — Houses Burned Down on Lebanon. — Healthy Climate and Extensive 
 Prospects. — El Hauran. — En Nukrah, el Lejah, and el Jebel. — Dr. Eli Smith's List 
 of Two Hundred and Thirty-nine Sites of Towns and Villages. — Moslems, Druses, 
 and Christians. — Greeks and Greek Catholics. — Sites of Seventy-five Villages and An- 
 cient Towns within and around the Lejah. — "Threescore Cities Fenced with High 
 W^alls." — "The Kingdom of Og in Bashan." — Approach to Edhra' through Lava De- 
 files and along a Rock-cut Road. — Site of Edhra'. — Exploits of the Hebrews in the 
 Time of Moses. — M. W'addington. — Edrei. — Zorava. — Der'a. — The Conflict Between 
 Og, King of Bashan, and the Hebrews. — Edhra' identical with the City mentioned by 
 Moses. — Extensive Ruins. — Subterranean Residences. — Description of the Stone 
 Roofs and the Supporting Arches. — Ancient Architects. — Window-shutters and Doors 
 made of Lava Slabs. — The Church of St. Elias. — Greek Inscriptions. — The Church of 
 St. George Described by M. Waddington. — Quadrangular Structure Described by 
 Burckhardt. — Square Tower. — Columns of Green Micaceous Marble. — Ruined Vaults 
 and Prostrate Columns. — Excursion into the Lejah. — Air-bubbles of Hard Rock. — 
 Masses of Lava, and Petrified Waves. — Shivered Hills and Funnel-shaped Pits. — 
 Flocks of Sheep and Goats. — Bedawin Shepherds Professional Robbers. — "All 
 Thieves." — Scarcity of Pasture. — Deterioration of the Lejah. — No Wild .\nimals and 
 but few Birds. —Reservoirs in Caverns. — Native Traditions. — Few Springs and no 
 Never-failing Fountains. — Caverns mentioned by Josephus. — Subterranean Dwellings, 
 Pools of Water and Corn in Granaries. — Herod the Great. — Robbers of Trachonitis 
 and the Bedawin of the Lejah. — Greek, Cufic, and Nabathean Inscriptions. — M. Wad- 
 dington. — Harran. — Blood Feuds. — Law of Revenge. — Burckhardt's Visit to Dama. — 
 Rock-cut Cisterns. — Encampment of Medlej Bedawin. — Tents Concealed in the Crer- 
 ices and Fissures of the Rocks. — Modern Villages and Ancient Sites. — Remarkable 
 Preservation of Ruined Towns and Cities. — Pompeii. — Houses Constructed of Imper- 
 ishable Lava. — Temples and Public Edifices in the Lejah erected before the Christian 
 Era. — Ruins at Nejran.— Church with Two Towers. — Blood-money. — Terei)inlh-oii
 
 XX CONTENTS. 
 
 used instead of Olive-oil. — Disappearance of the old Earthen Lamp. — Petroleum 
 from Pennsylvania. — "The Smoking Flax and the Bruised Reed." — The Servant of 
 the Lord. — Fire out of the Heel, and Ink out of the Mouth. — The Stream in Wady 
 Kunawat. — Shuhba Described by Dr. Porter. — A Roman City. — Streets and Gates, 
 Temples, Baths, and Public Buildings. — Theatre at Shuhba. — M. Waddington and the 
 Count De Voglie. — The Emperor Philip. — Philippopolis. — Shuhba and the Shehab 
 Emirs. — Nur ed Din and Saladin. — The Crusaders. — The Monguls. — The Emir 
 Beshir. — Muhammed Aly. — Civil Wars and the Massacres of i860. — A Long Pedigree, 
 from "the Beginning" to the Present Hour. — Temple at Suleim. — Neapolis. — Cav- 
 ernous Cistern. — Ruins of an Old Town. — The Village School and Native Teacher. — 
 Desire for Education. — Moments lengthened into Hours. — Proverbial Hospitality. — 
 Graeco-Roman Population East of the Jordan. — A Succession of Temples and Public 
 Buildings. — More Greek Inscriptions than in all Syria and Palestine. — Cities of the 
 Decapolis. — "Jesus went through the Borders of the Decapolis." — Roman Road. — 
 Oak Woods. — Approach to Kunawat. — River of Kunawat. — Theatre in Wady Kiina- 
 wat. — Outlook over the Plain of the Hauran to distant Hermon. — Nymphaeum, or 
 Public Bath. — Round Tower. — Cyclopean Walls. — Oldest Ruins of Kenath. — Main 
 Street. — Houses with Sculptured Doors. — A Natural Fortification. — The City Wall. — 
 Paved Area. — Es Serai, or Convent of Job. — Beautiful Door-way. — Sculptured Figures 
 and Clusters of Grapes. — Colonnades. — Heathen Edifices and Christian Churches. — 
 Large Vaulted Cisterns. — Roman Prostyle Temple. — Colossal Head in High-relief. 
 — Heads of Baal and Ashtoreth. — American Palestine Exploration Society. — Worship 
 of Ashtoreth. — Syria Dea. — Ashtoreth Karnaim. — Peripteral Temple. — Dedicated to 
 Helios or the Sun. — Biblical History of Kenath. — Jair, Nobah, Gideon. — Josephus 
 and Herod the Great. — Ptolemy and Pliny. — Eusebius and the Peutinger Table. — 
 Kunawat the Biblical Kenath or Nobah. — M. W^addington. — Greek Inscriptions. — 
 King Agrippa. — Statue of Herod the Great.— Si'a. — Streams at Kunawat. — No Water 
 even for Money. — The Population of the Hauran Increasing. — Primitive School 
 and Venerable School - master. — Boards instead of Books. — Remarkable Zeal for 
 Instruction Page 447 
 
 XIII. 
 
 KUNAWAT TO EL BUSRAH. 
 
 The Druses in the Hauran. — Bedawin Incursions. — Moslem and Christian Villages. — 
 Desire for Education. — Local Feuds. — Oak Woods. — 'Atil. — Temple. — Bilingual In- 
 scription. — Athila. — Greek Inscription. — Emperor Antoninus Pius. — Zenodorus. — 
 Equestrian Statue. — Head of Baal. — Astarte. — Iconoclastic Vandalism. — El Kusr, 
 Ruined Temple. — Impure Water. — Ague. — Column at 'Atil. — Roman Road. — Oak 
 Grove. — Mud and Dust. — Palmyrene Inscription. — Tomb of Chamrate. — Ode- 
 nathus. — Count de Vogiie. — M. Waddington. — Roman Bridge. — Flour-mills. — Es 
 Suweideh. — Large Reservoirs. — Mecca Pilgrims. — Temple. — Triumphal Arch. — Nym- 
 phseum. — Emperor Trajan. — Aqueduct. — Mosk and Temple. — Greek Inscriptions. — 
 Ancient Trading Companies. — A Temple of Minerva. — Church and Monasteiy. — 
 ■ Donkeys Floundering in the Mud. — Theatre. — William of Tyre. — Bildad the
 
 CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 Shuhite. — Job. — Greek Inscriptions. — M. Waddington. — Soada. — Dionysias. — The 
 Capital of Jebel ed Druse. — Square Tower. — Roman Road. — An Agricultural Region. 
 — Megeidel and er Resas. — Nahr *Ary. — Flour-mills. — Kuleib Hauran. — Extinct 
 Volcano. — Burckhardt.— El 'Afineh. — Hebran. — Ancient Aqueduct. — Roman Road. 
 — Heavy Rains and Lively Streams. — El Kureiyeh. — Kerioth. — 'Ary, Ariath. — Isma'il 
 el Atrash. — Burckhardt and Shibly Ibn Hamdan. — Druse Hospitality.— Mujeimir and 
 Wetr. — Deir Zubeir. — Roman Road. — Roman Bridge. — Mosk of el Mebruk. — El 
 Koran. — The Instinct of the Camel. — Incident in the Career of Muhammed. — Ruins 
 at Um el Jemal Described by Dr. Merrill. — Bedawin Encampment. — Hundreds of 
 Camels. — Heavy Robbery. — The Perpetual Desert. — Scores of Ruined Towns. — 
 Swallows and Gazelles. — Ruins at Um el Jemal. — City Gate. — Streets and Avenues. 
 — Private Houses. — Churches and Crosses. — Greek, Latin, and Nabathean Inscrip- 
 tions. — Ninth Dalmatian Horse. — Vexillarii. — Square Tower. — Uriel, Gabriel, and 
 Emmanuel. — Genii of the Cardinal Points. — The God Dusares. — Camels laden with 
 Stones from the Ruins at Um el Jemal. — Deserted for Centuries. — Fragments of 
 Black Pottery. — Beth-gamul. — Plan of the City of Bozrah. — The Castle. — Ci^>terns. — 
 Subterranean Vaults. — Theatre within the Castle. — Outlook from the Seats in the 
 Theatre. — Dr. Porter's Description of the View from the Keep of the Castle. — Roman 
 Highways. — Towns and Villages on the Plain. — " Without Inhabitant and without 
 Man." — Corinthian Columns near the Centre of the City. — Colonnade or Temple. — 
 Ruins of a Bath. — Triumphal Arch. — Julius, Prefect of the Parthian Legion. — 
 Deserted Bazaar. — The Khalif 'Omar. — Mosk at el Busrah. — House of the Jew. — Col- 
 umns of Green Micaceous Marble. — Cufic and Arabic Inscriptions. — Convent and 
 House of Boheira. — Burckhardt's Account of the Monk Boheira. — The Instructor of 
 Muhammed. — Stifling Sirocco. — Bedawin Shepherds and their Flocks. — Cathedral at 
 Busrah. — Sergius, Bacchus, and Leontius. — Archbishop Julianus. — Job. — Leper Hos- 
 pital. — The Emperor Justinian. — Beautiful Cufic Inscription. — Triumphal Arch. — 
 Palace of the Yellow King. — Bab el Hawa. — Roman Guard-house. — 'Aiyun el Mcrj. 
 — Temple. — Antonia Fortuna, Wife of Caesar. — Springs and Fountains. — Large 
 Reservoirs. — Mercantile Caravans. — Masons' Marks. — Aramaic Letters. — History of 
 el Busrah. — Bozrah of Edom. — El Busaireh. — Tophel. — The Judgments of Jeremiah. 
 — "The Line of Confusion and the Stones of Emptiness." — Judas Maccabeus slew 
 all the Males of Bosora. — The City Burned. — Carnaim.— A. Cornelius Palma. — Nova 
 Trajana Bostra. — A Military Colony.— Roman Higli ways. —The Euiihrales and the 
 Persian Gulf.— The Bostrian Era.— Philip the Arabian.— Roman Emperor.— Early 
 Introduction of Christianity into Bozrah. — Origen. — Bishop Beryllus. — Ecclesiastical 
 Councils held at Bozrah. — Trading Caravans. — Visits of Muhammed to el Busrah. — 
 Abu Talib. — The Monk Boheira. — Khadija.— Capture of el Busrah by the Moslems. 
 — Khalid, the Sword of God. — Treachery of Romanus.— Baneful Rule of Isl.im. — 
 Sulkhad.—Salcah.— Moses, Joshua.— Og reigned in Salcah.— The Castle at Sfilkliad 
 Described by Dr. Merrill.— The Crater.— Interior of the Castle.— Inscriptions.- 
 Masons' Marks.— Busts of Animals. — Lions and Palm-tree.— A Frontier Fortress.- 
 The Ancient Town at Siilkhad.— Druses from the Lebanon.— Siilkhad Visited by Dr. 
 Porter. — Deserted Houses and Streets. — View from the Castle. — Bashan, Moab, 
 Arabia. — Thirty Deserted Towns. — "Judgment upon the Plain and the Cities of
 
 XXU CONTENTS. 
 
 Moab, far and near." — El Kureiyeh, Kerioth. — Biblical and Secular History of 
 Kerioth. — Ruins at el Kureiyeh. — Triple Colonnade. — Greek Inscriptions. — Seat of 
 a Bishop. — Burckhardt. — Dr. Porter. — Isma'il el Atrash. — Druse Families . Page 492 
 
 XIV. 
 
 EL BUSRAH TO DER'A AND JERASH. 
 
 The Country between el Busrah and Jerash. — Plain of el Hauran. — Roman Road. — 
 Boundary Line between Gilead and Bashan. — Few Villages. — Volcanic Waste. — 
 Waving Wheat and Barley, — Broken Lava. — Remarkable History of the Hauran. — 
 Migration of Abraham. — The Region West and East of the Jordan. — A Fierce Race. 
 — The Rephaims, Zuzims, Emims, Horites. — The Invasions of Chedorlaomer. — March 
 around the South End of the Dead Sea. — En-misphat. — Amalekites, Amorites. — Defeat 
 of the Five Kings. — Capture of Sodom. — Lot carried away Captive. — Pursuit of Chedor- 
 laomer by Abraham. — Night Attack. — Recovery of Lot and Restoration of the other 
 Captives. — Melchizedek. — Salem, Jerusalem. — A March of about two thousand Miles. 
 — Arrival of the Hebrews led by Moses. — Moabites, Ammonites, Amorites. — Sihon 
 and Og. — Reuben, Gad, and the Half Tribe of Manasseh. — Captives in Mesopotamia. 
 — Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. — Alexander the Great. — The Ptolemies and 
 the Seleucidse. — The Romans. — Byzantines and Muhammedans. — Illustration of the 
 Sacred Record by the Physical Features of the Country and the Manners and Customs 
 of the People. — Ishmael. — The Promise to Hagar wonderfully fulfilled. — Ishmaehtes. 
 — Muhammedanism. — Ishmael the Ancestor of the Moslems. — Divine Predictions con- 
 cerning the Descendants of Abraham. — The River Zeidy. — Ghusam. — Central Parts 
 of Plains destitute of Villages. — Agricultural Hamlets. — Various Native Races. — 
 Nebaioth, Nabatheans. — Caravan Trade between Arabia, India, and Africa. — Petra, 
 Sellah. — The Nabatheans unconquered by the Persians, Greeks, or Romans. — Expedi- 
 tion of yElius Gallus. — Ruin of the Nabatheans by the Abandonment of the Arabian 
 Caravan Lines. — Aretas. — Paul. — Herod Antipas. — John the Baptist. — The Ghas- 
 sanide. — Palmyra. — Zenobia. — Indigenous Tribes. — Roman Bridge over the Zeidy. — 
 Traces of Chariot-wheels. — Et Taiyibeh. — Large Tower. — Um el Meiyadin. — Volcanic 
 Rock and Cretaceous Limestone. — Hill-sides aglow with red Anemones. — Villages. — 
 Ghurs. — Camels carrying Wheat to Acre. — Caravan Route. — Company of Ishmaelites. 
 — Balm of Gilead. — Joseph sold into Egypt. — Fanatical Moslems. — Turkish Firman. — 
 M. Waddington. — The Capital City of Og. — The Hebrew Invasion and the Conquest 
 of Bashan. — Edhr'a, Edrei. — Der'a, Adara. — The Onomasticon and the Pentinger 
 Table. — Eusebius. — Muhammedan Conquest. — Situation of the Ancient Town and the 
 Modern Village of Der'a. — Extensive Cemetery. — Prospect from Tell Kerak. — El 
 Jaulan, Lake Huleh, and Mount Hermon. — Tell 'Ashtarah. — Ashteroth Karnaim. — 
 The principal Divinity of the Phoenicians. — Temple at Carnaim. — The Maccabees. — 
 Atargatis. — Twenty-five Thousand slain at Carnaim. — Josephus. — The Onomasticon. 
 — Eusebius. — Dr. Merrill's Description of Tell 'Ashtarah. — A strongly fortified Place. 
 — Cyclopean Remains. — Massive Entrance. — Timotheus's defeated Army. — Large rock- 
 cut Reservoir. — Roman Baths. — Aqueduct. — Mosk and square Tower. — Sarcophagus
 
 CONTENTS. xxiii 
 
 with Lion's Head. — Church and Monastery. — Remains of an ancient Structure. — 
 Masons' Marks. — Three Cities, one beneath the other. — Dr. Wetzstein's Subterranean 
 Residence of Og. — Crusaders at Der'a. — Ragged Arab Tents. — Bedawin, Gypsies, ami 
 Vagabonds. — Fortune - telling. — Burning Straw. — Romping Children. — Abundant 
 Harvests. — Blasted Plain. — Luxuriant Grass, waving Wheat, and brilliant Flowers. — 
 Mountainous and wooded Region. — Cities of the Decapolis. — The Zeidy. — Cxscades 
 and Rapids. — Country east of the Jordan dotted with Villages, abandoned to the 
 Bedawin. — Dr. Merrill's Search for the ancient Golan. — Wady or Nahr 'Allan. — Beit 
 er Ras, Capitolias. — Roman Road. — Ruins of Public Buildings and great Arches. — 
 Corinthian and Ionic Columns. — Ornamental Work and fine Eagles. — Inscriptions. — 
 Underground City. — Subterranean Dwellings. — Irbid. — Cyclopean Walls described by 
 Dr. Merrill. — Substructures of strong Towers. — Arbela. — Beth-arbel. — Eidiin, Dion. 
 — Haj Road. — Pilgrim Caravan to Mecca. — Burckhardt at Remtheh. — Last inhabited 
 Village of the Hauran. — Cavernous Habitations at Remtheh. — Dr. Merrill's Experi- 
 ence at Remtheh. — No W^ater for Ten Hours. — Migration of the Wulid 'Aly. — "One 
 hundred thousand Camels." — Contrivance for the Comfort of the Sheikhs* Wives. — 
 The Ship of the Desert. — Bedawin Migrations and Hebrew Invasions. — Distress of 
 Moab. — Pasture and Provender for the Camels and Caravans of the Bedawin. — Life 
 of the wandering Ishmaelites. — Contempt for the Fellahin. — The Denizens of the 
 Desert number Hundreds of Thousands. — Wooded Hills. — Ilawarah. — Beautiful and 
 Productive Region. — Tell Husn. — Ruined Castle. — Church and Columns. — Rock-cut 
 Tombs. — El Husn. — No Fountains. — Dry Cisterns. — Greeks, Muhammedans, and 
 Protestants. — No Distinction in Dress and Manners between the different Sects. — 
 Freedom of Speech and Action. — Extensive Forest. — Mahnch. — Canon Tristram. — 
 Biblical References to Mahanaim. — A Levitical City. — The Capital of Ish-boshcth. — 
 The Refuge of David. — The Chamber over the Gate at Mahanaim. — David's Grief 
 at the Death of Absalom. — A Station of Solomon's Purveyors. — Josephus. — Site of 
 Mahanaim described by Modern Writers. — Beisan. — Suggestion of Dr. Porter and 
 Conclusion of Dr. Merrill. — Jegar-sahadutha and Mizpah. — Galecd or Watch-lower. — 
 Josephus. — The Land of Gilead. — Covenant between Laban and Jacob. — False Gods 
 in the Family of Jacob. — The Call of Abraham. — Jacob at Mahanaim. — Jacob hideth 
 the Strange Gods. — Worship of the True God at Beth-el. — Oppressive Heat. — Birket 
 ed Deir. — Thousands of Flowers. — Cultivated Region.— Forest of Oak, Pine, Tere- 
 binth, and Hawthorn. — Urn el Khanzir. — Shepherds, Milk, and fine Flocks. — Ride 
 through the Forest in the Land of Gilead. — Pine-trees. — Forest Fires.— Wheat 
 amongst Blackened Stumps.— Wady ed Deir. — Camp amongst Olive-trees.— N'iilage 
 of es Suf. — Jerash Deserted and Unsafe Page 531 
 
 XV. 
 
 JERASH TO 'AJLUN, AND ES SALT. 
 
 The Sheikh of Suf.— Experience of Canon Tristram and iiis Party.— The 'Adwan levy a 
 Fine on the Sheikh of Suf.— Remains of Anliciuily at Suf.— Stream in Wady e<l Deir. 
 — Olive-trees and Woods of Oak and Pine. — Muzar Abu Bekr.— Old Coins for Sale. —
 
 ^iv CONTENTS. 
 
 Broken Sarcophagi. — Cemetery of Ancient Gerasa. — Entering Jerash through a Breach 
 in the Wall. — General Survey of the City. — Seil Jerash. ^The Site and the City of 
 Jerash. — Remains of Private Houses and Public Buildings beyond the City Gate. — The 
 Triumphal Arch. — The Emperor Trajan. — The Stadium. — Naval Combats. — The City 
 Gate. — Ruins of a beautiful Temple. — Remains of a large Theatre. — Grand Colonnade 
 of the Forum. — Fifty-five Columns still standing. — The Main Street lined with Col- 
 umns. — The Pavement and the Ruts made by Chariot-wheels. — Side Street, Gate in 
 the West Wall, Bridge across the Stream. — Pedestals for Colossal Statues. — Sections of 
 the Colonnade along the Main Street. — The Apse of a Beautiful Building. — Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus. — Side Street and Bridge. — The Propylaeum. — Antoninus Pius. — 
 Temple of Jupiter or of the Sun. — Earthquake Shocks. — Burckhardt. — The City Wall, 
 small Temple, and Church. — Rows of Prostrate Columns and others still standing with 
 their Entablatures. — Square Pedestals covered with a low Dome. — Portico of a Theatre. 
 — Ruined Theatre designed for Gladiatorial Combats. — Northern Gate of the City. — 
 Guard-house. — Street Pavement. — Groups of Columns with Ionic Capitals. — Ruins of 
 a Bath with Columns in Front. — Aqueduct. — 'Ain Jerwan. — Original Site of Jerash. — 
 Great Clumps of Oleander. — Ruins on the Eastern Side of the Stream. — Temple and 
 Church. — Spring and Aqueduct. — Bridge and Bath. — Jerash a City of Columns. — Not 
 mentioned in the Bible and almost unknown to History. — Dr. Porter. — Mahanaim. — 
 Dr. Merrill. — Ramoth-gilead. — Gerasa. — Josephus. — Alexander Jannteus. — A City of 
 the Decapolis. — Gerasa burnt by the Jews and captured by Vespasian. — Gerasa a 
 flourishing City for half a Centuiy. — The Seat of a Bishop. — No Trace of Muhammedan 
 Work or Worship. — William of Tyre. — The Crusaders. — Jerash deserted in the Thit- 
 teenth Centuiy. — Trading Caravans and Mercantile Stations. — Ezion-geber. — Petra. — 
 Palmyra. — A Store-city of Solomon. — The Nabatheans. — Superior Skill and Enterprise 
 of the Greeks and Romans. — Western Civilization and Classic Taste. — The stately 
 Forum and the luxuriant Bath. — Decline of Commerce and Abandonment of the 
 Grseco-Roman Cities East of the Jordan. — Prophecy translated into History. — The 
 Lord's Sacrifice in Bozrah. — Fulfilment of Prophecy. — The Olive Groves of Suf and 
 the Oak Woods of Jebel 'Ajlun. — Dr. Eli Smith. — Luxuriant Pasture and brilliant 
 Wild Flowers. — 'Ain Jenneh. — The W^alnut and Olive. — Great Variety of Fruit-trees. 
 — Large Fountains and Abundance of Water. — Evening Ride through venerable Oak 
 Forests. — Jebel 'Ajlun. — "The Land of Gilead."— Jacob and Laban. — Mizpah and 
 Galeed. — Mahanaim. — Shechem and the Damieh Ford. — Wady 'Ajlun and the Jordan 
 Valley. — A Present of Sheep and Goats, Camels and Cattle for Esau. — Meeting between 
 Esau and Jacob. — Interview between Joseph and his Brethren. — Peniel. — City and 
 Tower at Penuel. — Gideon. — Jeroboam built a Palace at Penuel. — Josephus. — Dr. 
 Merrill locates Penuel at Tellul edh Dhahab. — The Hills of Gold. — Canaan's Ford. — 
 The Wood of Ephraim. — "A Great Oak" with "Thick Boughs." — The Death of 
 Absalom and the Biblical Narrative of the Battle. — Kul'at er Rubiid. — Outlook from 
 the Fortress. — From Hermon to Hebron, and from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, 
 while Jordan rolls between. — Famous Historical Events. — From Chedorlaomer to 
 David. — Elijah and Elisha. — From Judas Maccabeus to Herod the Great. — The Baptist 
 and the Redeemer. — The Moat and Foundations of Kiil'at er Rubiid. — Indications of 
 a more ancient Fortress. — The present Castle. — Saladin. — The Crusaders, — Abulfeda.
 
 CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 —A singular Transposition of Names.— The Village of 'Ajlun.— Modern Chapel and 
 Old Mosk. — Unsafe Region between 'Ajliin and es Salt. — Villages on the I'lain of 
 the Ghor and upon the Hills of Samaria.— Sunken Channel of the Jordan. — Kefronjy. 
 — The Course of the Jabbok through the Plain to the Jordan.— Dr. Merrill.— Succoth 
 and Tell Deir 'Alia. — Jacob encamped in Wady Fari'a. — 'Ain Thaluth. — Khirbet 
 Thaluth. — Indications of former Cultivation. — 'Ain Um el Jalud. — El Khudr, St. George. 
 — Dibbin, et Tekitty, and Reimun. — Um el Jauzeh. — Limestone Strata. — Dense Oak 
 Woods. — Kusr Nejdeh. — Captain Warren. — Tropical Climate. — Eruit - trees and 
 Flowers. — Burmeh. — Olive Groves. — Sandstone Formation. — The Zerka in Spring and 
 Summer. — Luxuriant Wild Oats and thriving Clover. — Impenetrable Thickets of tall 
 Oleander. — The Ford of the Christian Woman. — Visit from the Sheikh of a Bedawin' 
 Encampment. — Bulls of Bashan. — Bedawin Boys and Girls. — Bakhshish. — Gorge of the 
 Zerka. — El Belka and Jebel 'Ajlun. — Sihon and Og. — The Zerka or Blue River. — 
 Wooded Heights and Fertile Plain of the Belka. — Waving Wheat and Barley, and 
 Wild Flowers bright and gay. — Clumps of Oak and Pine trees. — Many Birds and large 
 Coveys of Partridges. — 'Ain 'Allan. — Green Fig-trees. — Khirbet 'Allan. — SIhan. — 
 Khirbet ez Zi. — Neby Osh'a. — Pilgrims and Votive Offerings. — Sacrifice and Feast- 
 ing. — Annual Fair. — Es Salt a Commercial Centre. — The Prophet Hosea. — Elijah 
 and Joshua. — Outlook from Jebel Osh'a described by Dr. Merrill. — From Mount 
 Hermon to the Dead Sea. — Jebel Osh'a and Mount Nebo. — The Spot where Moses 
 stood Page 557 
 
 XVI. 
 
 ES SALT TO 'AMMAN. 
 
 Es Salt. — Situation of the Town. — Capital of the Belka and only Inhabited Place in that 
 District. — Population of es Salt. — Warlike and Independent. — Protestant Church and 
 Schools. — Subterranean Bath. — Es Salt overthrown by Wars and Earthquakes. — Na- 
 tive Houses. — Shops. — The People of es Salt resemble the Arabs of the Desert. — 
 Vineyards and Olive-groves. — Fruit-trees and Vegetable Gardens. — Wheat and Barley. 
 — Products of the Flocks purchased from the Bedawtn. — The Castle of es Salt. — Daher 
 el 'Omar. — Turkish Garrison. — Abundance of Water. — 'Ain Jeidflr. — Ramoth-gilead. 
 — Cities of Refuge. — Levitical City. — One of Solomon's Purveyors. — Gilead and the 
 Region of Argob. — Ahab, Jehoshaphat, and Ben-hadad. — Ahaziah, Joram, and llazael. 
 — Jehu. — Elisha. — "Watchman on the Tower of Jezreel." — " The Driving of Jehu." 
 — Region around es Salt not Adapted to the Use of Chariots. — Ramoth-gilead north 
 of the Jabljok. — Gerasa, Jerash. — Dr. Merrill. — Jerash opposite to Shechem. — No Mar- 
 kets south of es Salt. — 'Adwan Guards and (juides. — Scarcity of Water. — Wady Jeidiir. 
 — Prospect over the Land of Gilead. — Rolling Plain, deej) Valleys, anil Oak Woods. — 
 Fertile Fields and Abundant Harvests. — 'Amman to '.\r;"ik cl Emir. — Roman Bridge. — 
 Large Pool, Source of the Jabbok. — Higli, rolling Plateau. — Bedawin Battle-ground. 
 — Khirbet Sar. — Ancient Jazer. — Wady cs Scir. — Oak Forest. — Rock-tomb or Dwell- 
 ing. — Ca])tain Warren. — Rock-hewn Chamliers at Petra. — Bedawtn Robbers. — Rock- 
 bound Amphitheatre. — 'Arak cl Emir. — Castle of Ilyrcanus described by Josephus. —
 
 xxvi CONTENTS. 
 
 Ruins of the Castle. — "A Lovely Landscape." — Rev. A. E. Northey. — Canon Tris- 
 tram. — Great Stones. — Colossal Lions. — Ionic Cornices and Egyptian Capitals. — Rock 
 Dwellings and Stables excavated in the Limestone Cliffs. — Cisterns, Caves, and Up- 
 right Stones, with Checker Pattern. — Ruins of Public Buildings and Private Dwellings. 
 — Aqueduct and Large Reservoir. — Fossils and Curious Petrifactions. — Oleanders over 
 Thirty Feet high. — The Dead Sea. — Wady Sha'ib. — Bedawin Encampments. — The 
 Stolen Pitchfork and the Christian Guide. — Mukam of Neby Sha'ib. — Votive Offer- 
 ings. — Resentful Wrath of a Moslem Saint. — Abundance of Water and Luxuriant Vege- 
 tation. — Golden Daisies and Wild Lupins. — Heavy Crops of Wheat and Barley. — 
 Flour-mills. — Plain of el Buk'ah. — Favorite Camping -ground of the Bedawin. — El 
 Buk'ah described by Captain Warren. — Flocks of Sheep and Goats. — Khirbet el Basha. 
 — Khirbet es Safut. — The Gate of 'Amman. — Ard el Hemar. — A Rough and Unculti- 
 vated Region. — From Kul'at ez Zerka to Yajuz. — Permanent Fountains of the Zerka. 
 — The Jabbok. — The Strong Border of Ammon. — Kul'at ez Zerka. — The Haj. — En- 
 campment of Bedawin. — Migration in Search of Pasture. — Bedawin Women moving 
 Camp. — Biblical References to taking down and setting up Tents and Tabernacles. — 
 An Uncultivated Region. — Storks and Partridges. — Fine old Oaks. — Extensive Pros- 
 pect. — Hermon, Sulkhad, and Kuleib Hauran. — Shouting Shepherds and Barking Dogs. 
 — Bedawin Encampment. — Forests of Oak and Terebinth Trees. — Yajuz. — Exuberant 
 Pasture. — Fountains and Flocks. — Small Roman Temple. — Great Terebinths. — Large 
 Stone in the Trunk of a Tree. — Open Enclosures with Massive Walls. — Bedawin Ceme- 
 tery. — The Grave of Nimr el 'Adwan. — Ruins at Yajuz. — Large Disc or Millstone. — 
 Extensive Quarries. — Female Statue broken by the 'Adwan. — The Moabite Stone. — 
 Sculptured Eagles and Lions. — Gadda. — El Jebeiha, Jogbehah. — Outlook over Reu- 
 ben, Gad, and Manasseh. — Hermon, Jerash, and el Buk'ah. — Ruins buried beneath the 
 Surface at el Jebeiha. — Highly Cultivated and Densely Populated Region. — Curious 
 Rock Strata. — Wady el Haddadeh. — Noisy Torrent. — Total Desolation and Utter 
 Loneliness at 'Amman. — Rabbath Ammon and the Grseco-Roman City of Philadelphia. 
 — The Site of a Great Capital. — Situation of the City. — Overthrown by Earthquakes. 
 — Corinthian Temple or Tomb. — Large Caravansaiy, Church, and Mosk. — The Basilica. 
 — Imposing Structure. — Roman Bridge. — Banks of the Stream lined with Masonry. — 
 Full of Fish. — Primitive Fishing by the Bedawin. — Ruins of an Old Mill. — The Great 
 Theatre. — Seats for Eight Thousand Spectators. — The Forum. — Colonnade of over 
 Fifty Corinthian Columns. — Odeon. — Northern Wall of the City. — Gate-way of the 
 City. — Remarkable Rock-cut Tomb. — Large Temple. — Main Street lined with Col- 
 umns. — Ruined Houses upon the Steep Declivity of the Hill. — " The Line of Confu- 
 sion, and the Stones of Emptiness." — The Citadel-hill. — Square Watch-tower. — Pe- 
 ripteral Temple within the Citadel. — Greek Inscription in Large Letters. — Beautiful 
 Church or Mosk within the Citadel described by Canon Tristram and Captain Conder. 
 — Massive Walls of the Citadel. — Large and Deep Cisterns. — Underground Reservoir. 
 —Concealed Passage. — Antiochus the Great. — Biblical Interest in Rabbath Ammon. — 
 The Iron Bedstead of Og. — Captain Conder's Suggestion regarding Og's Throne. — In- 
 dependence of Rabbath Ammon. — The Siege of Rabbath by Joab. — Duration of the 
 Siege. — Capture of the City of Waters. — Joab's Message to David. — The Citadel taken 
 by David. — Remarkable Fulfilment of Prophetic Denunciations. — Droves of Camels,
 
 CONTENTS. xxvii 
 
 and Numerous Flocks. — Ammon denounced by the Prophets. — Nothing but Ruins at 
 Rabbath, and Ammon a Perpetual Desolation. — Ptolemy of Egypt. — Philadelphia men- 
 tioned by Greek and Roman Writers and Josephus. — The Citadel besieged and Cap- 
 tured by Antiochus and Herod the Great. — A City of the Decapolis. — Seat of a Bishop. 
 — Sunday amongst the Ruins at 'Amman. — Reproduction of Patriarchal Times. — The 
 Solemn Storks. — Three Sabbaths at 'Amman. — Old Woman and her Daughter. — 
 Grain preserved in the Theatre. — Absence of Trees. — A Plough for Firewood. — Nat- 
 ural Phenomena. — Disappearance and Re-appearance of the Stream between 'Amman 
 and Kul'at ez Zerka Page 589 
 
 XVII. 
 
 'AMMAN TO 'AYUN MUSA. 
 
 Noisy Rooks. — Solemn Storks. — Ascent to the Plain south of 'Amman. — No Roads and 
 no Fences. — The Land of the Ammonites. — Jephlhah's Victorious Campaign. — Aroer 
 to Minnith. — Tyre supplied with Wheat from Minnith. — No Inhabited Place upon the 
 Belka. — Abu Nugla. — Excursion to Mushatta. — The sterile Desert. — Luxuriant Wheat. 
 — Camps of the Beni Sakhr. — Commotion in the Camp. — Uneasy Guides. — Rualla Bed- 
 awin. — Blood Feud.— Haj Road to Mecca. — Route of the Egyptian Haj.— En Nukhl. — 
 " The Wilderness of the Wanderings."— Khan MCishalla.— Massive Enclosing Wall de- 
 fended by Twenty-five Towers.— Octagonal Towers. — The Fa9ade.— Elegant Sculpture, 
 unparalleled by that of any Age or Nation.— Twenty-two Animals and fifty-five Birds 
 carved in Stone. — Entrance Gate-way.— The Middle Division of the Enclosure.— Cham- 
 bers for the Guard and Garrison. — Court.— Triple Gate of the Palace.— Court.— Entrance 
 Gate-way to the Audience-chamber. — The Audience-chamber. — Side Chambers. — Walls, 
 Vaults, and Domes constructed of Brick.— Large Size and Extraordinary Number of the 
 Bricks. — Bedawin Tribal Marks. — Rude Arabic Characters.— Desolate and Lonely Site. 
 — Material and Workmen transported from a Distance. — The wonderful Palace of Mush- 
 atta discovered by Canon Tristram.— Mr. James Fergusson.— Chosroes H. — Shahr Barz. 
 —Dr. Merrill.— Mushatta, a Church and Convent.— Mushatta never finished.— Its Origin 
 and Purpose unknown.— The Wintering Place.— But little Debris and less Destruction. 
 —Dread of the Rualla Bedawin.— The Haj Road and the Advance of the Hebrews 
 along the Eastern Frontiers of Edom and Moab.— Entrance into the Territory of Sihon. 
 —The Amorites and Moabites.— Reuben and Gad.— The Boundaries of Moab and of 
 the Amorites.— A rolling Country.— Green Wheat-fields.— Quails and Gazelles.— The 
 Jackal and the Fox.— Temple and Church at Madcba.— A large Reservoir.— Ziza.— 
 Tanks and Cisterns. — Ruined Houses.— Remains of Temples and Public Buildings.— 
 Roman Suburb at Madeba.— Colonnade.— Biblical History of Medeba.— " The Plain 
 of Medeba."— Great Battle in the Time of David.— Thirty-two thousand Cltariots.— 
 Joab and Abishai defeat the Amorites and Syrians.— Medeba taken by Sihon.— Capt- 
 ured and re-captured by the Ammonites and Moabites.— Secular History of Me.leba.— 
 The Nabatheans.— Slaughter of a Wedding -jjarty near Medelja.— John Maccabeus.- 
 Hyrcanus I. besieged Medeba.— A History of Conquest, Bloodshed, and Sieges.— Me- 
 deba the Seat of a Bishop.— The Besom of Destruction.— Devastating Bedawin.—
 
 XXviii CONTENTS. 
 
 Traces of old Roads. — Ancient Names of Persons and Places well known by the roam- 
 ing Denizens of the Desert. — Monuments of Remote Antiquity. — The Dolmens. — 
 Pillars of Witness and Votive Monuments. — Stone Circles, Menhirs, Disc-stones, and 
 rock-cut Tombs. — Menhirs alluded to in the Bible. — Disc-stones. — Agricultural Capa- 
 bility of the Belka. — The Region between Madeba and Abu Nugla. — The Beni Sakhr. 
 — Thousands of Camels. — The numberless Camels of the Midianites. — Fifty thousand 
 Camels taken from the Hagarites. — Golden Ear-rings of the Ishmaelites. — The Bed- 
 awin Lineal Descendants of the Hagarites. — Oi^naments and Garments similar to those 
 of the Midianites. — The Wheat in the Valleys more luxuriant than on the Plain. — 
 Cretaceous Limestone Ridges. — A double Supply of Rain-water. — Arabic Proverbs 
 and Biblical Utterances. — A high Appreciation of Water. — Surprising Number of 
 Cisterns excavated in the Cretaceous Rock. — The 'Adwan and the Broken Cisterns.^ 
 Extensive View over Ancient Moab. — Kerak. — Dibon. — The Moabite Stone. — King 
 Mesha. — Two hundred thousand Lambs and Rams. — Baal-meon. — Ruins at Ma'in 
 described by Canon Tristram. — Beth-meon. — Biblical History of Beth-meon. — One of 
 the High-places of Baal. — Balak and Balaam. — The Birthplace of Elisha. — Ma'in a 
 shapeless Mass of Ruins. — Threshing-floors. — Bedawin taking Wheat out of a deep 
 Cistern. — Grain concealed from hostile Tribes. — Entrance to a deep Pool of Water 
 reluctantly disclosed. — No Wood to boil the Kettle. — The Zerka Main. — Excursion 
 to Callirrhoe. — Bedawin Encampment. — Camels and Flocks of Sheep and Goats. — 
 Fresh Cheese. — " Houses of Hair." — A pretty Pastoral Scene. — A magnificent View 
 of the Dead Sea. — Changeable Color of the Water. — A hopeless Wilderness. — Tre- 
 mendous Gorge of the Zerka Ma'in. — Lieutenant Conder's Description of the Gorge 
 and the Hot Springs of Callirrhoe. — " The Black Grackle." — The Hot Sulphur Springs 
 of Callirrhoe. — The Stream from the Zerka Main. — Pools full of Fish. — Tunnel 
 through Tufaceous Sulphur. — A thermal Bath at 140° Fahrenheit. — The Mules found 
 by Anah in the Wilderness. — Anah discovers Callirrhoe. — Visit of Herod the Great 
 to Callirrhoe. — Baaras. — Fountains of Hot Water described by Josephus. — Medicinal, 
 and good for Strengthening the Nerves. — " Mines of Sulphur and Alum." — John the 
 Baptist beheaded in the Castle of Machserus. — Herod's Supper, and the Dancing of 
 Herodias's Daughter. — " The Head of John the Baptist in a Charger." — War between 
 Aretas and Herod. — "The Destruction of Herod's Anny a Punishment from God." — 
 Vain Attempt to reach the Shore of the Dead Sea from the Sulphur Springs of Callir- 
 rhoe. — The Ibex. — Stupendous Cliff of Columnar Basalt. — A gigantic Organ. — Kufeir 
 Abu Bedd. — Disc-stones in Moab. — Mensef Abu Zeid. — Two large Wolves. — Shefa 
 Neba, the Crest of Nebo. — Sahl Neba. — Jebel Neba, " the Mountain of Nebo." — 
 Elevated Plateau of the Belka, and great Depression of the Shittim Plain. — Preserva- 
 tion of ancient Biblical Names. — The unchanged Name of Nebo. — View from Jebel 
 Neba. — El Muslubiyeh. — The grassy Ravine between Jebel Neba and Jebel Siaghah. 
 — Ruined Temple on Jebel Siaghah. — The City of Nebo. — View from the Ruins on 
 Jebel Siaghah. — The Headland or Ras of Siaghah. — "The Mountain of Nebo, and 
 the Top of Pisgah." — Here Moses must have stood. — The View of the Promised Land. 
 — The Outlook from Ras Siaghah. — The Names Neba and Siaghah, and Nebo and 
 Pisgah. — Siaghah an Arabic Form of the Hebrew Pisgah. — Descent to 'Ayun Musa. — 
 Approach of the Hebrews to the Land of Promise. — " The Mountains of Abarim." —
 
 CONTENTS. xxix 
 
 Descent of the Israelites to "the Plains of Moab." — Balak and Balaam. — Balaam's 
 Sublime Conceptions regarding the God of Israel. — Thrice seven Altars and twice as 
 many Sacrifices. — Jebel Neba the first Station. — Balaam's Parable. — "The Field of 
 Zophim." — The Grassy Vale between Jebel Nel)a and Jebel Siaghah. — The Parable 
 of Balaam. — "The Top of Peor." — The Summit of Siaghah. — Balaam's Parable. — 
 Wrath of Balak, and Flight of Balaam. — What "the Son of Beor saw and said." — 
 Balaam an Unprincipled Man. — .Slain in Battle fighting against Israel. — Obstinate 
 and Puzzling Questions Page 625 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 THE FOUNTAINS OF MOSES TO THE FORD OF THE JORDAN NEAR 
 
 JERICHO. 
 
 The Fountains of Moses. — The Stream from the Fountains. — Ashdoth-pisgah. — Tul'at 
 es Sufa and the Field of Zophim. — Ascent of Nebo. — The Servant of the Lord and 
 the Land of Promise. — Khurbet Barzeleh. — Grave of Neby 'Abd Allah. — " From the 
 Ancient Times." — Rude Sketches on the Tomb of a Prophet. — A Sanctuary. — The 
 Plain of the Belka and the Plains of Moab. — Heshbon. — Fine Pavement. — Singular 
 Edifice. — Jewish, Roman, and Sai-acenic Architecture. — Cisterns. — Reservoir. — Fish- 
 pools in Heshbon. — Ruined Cities of Moab. — Prophecy and History. — "The Cry of 
 Heshbon." — Biblical History of Heshbon. — Captured by Alexander Jannanis. — 
 Elealeh. — "The Height." — View from el 'Al over the Plain of Moab. — "The Pride 
 of Moab." — Descent to 'Ain Hesban.— Road to Hesban. — The Turkish Government 
 and the Survey of Moab. — "The Land of Giants." — Rephaims and Emims. — The 
 Children of Lot, Moab and Ammon. — The Amorites. — The Hebrews. — The roving 
 Bedawin. — Ancient Biblical Names remaining Unchanged. — Kubalan el Fadil. — A 
 Bedawin Sheikh described by Captain Conder. — The Black Tents of an Arab Encamp- 
 ment. — A Noisy Welcome.— Sheikh 'Ali Diab.— A Patriarchal Scene.— 'Ain Hesban. 
 — Lujcuriant Wheat and Barley. — Flour-mills. — The Stream from the Fountain. — Fish- 
 pools. — The Eyes of the Prince's Daughter.— Captain Conder. — "The Gate in Bcth- 
 rabbim." — Road from 'Ain Hesban to the Jericho Ford.— Canon Tristram.— Northern 
 and Southern Sides of Wady Hesban. — Circle of Dolmens.— The Region between the 
 Mountains and the Plain in the Time of the Hebrews and at the Present Day.— View 
 over the Plain of Abel-shittim. — Valleys and Streams and principal Hills around and 
 upon the Plain.— Beth- jeshimoth.— The little City Zoar.— Beth- haran. — Herod the 
 Great and the Warm Baths at Tell el Hammam.— Tell Kefrein, Abel-shittim.— Tell 
 Nimrtn, Beth- minrah.— Tell el Hammam.— M'hadhar or Um Halhir.— Hubliisa.- 
 Warm Sulphur Springs, Baths, and .Aqueduct at Tell el Hammam.— Clumps of Scraggy 
 Trees. —Apple of .Sodom. —Tell Ektanu and Tell er Ramch. — Betharamphtiia.- 
 Julius or Livias.— The Streams in the Wadies. — Group of Dolmens. — Large Disc-stone. 
 —"The Dish of Abu Zeid."— Flooded Wheat-fields.— Plain of Abel-shittim and the 
 Acacia-trees.— Tell Kefrein and Kirjathaim.— Abel-shittim.— Completion of Deuter- 
 onomy and the Last Address of the Hebrew Law-giver.—" The Favor of Ciod."— The 
 Spies sent to Jericho.— Deserted Condition of the Plain, and Bustling Activity of the
 
 XXX CONTENTS. 
 
 Hebrew Encampment. — The Goodly Tents of Israel. — The Plain of Abel-shittim and 
 the Camp of the Hebrew Nation. — " From Beth-jesimoth unto Abel-shittim." — Ample 
 Space for the Tribes to Encamp. — Route of the Israelites from the Red Sea. — Expe- 
 ditions for the Subjugation of Gilead and Bashan. — " Seeing is Believing." — Testimony 
 of the Land to the Truth of the Book. — Passage of the Children of Israel into the 
 Land of Canaan. — High Bluffs on the Banks of the Jordan. — Dividing of the Waters, 
 and the Passing Over of the People. — The Command of the Lord to Joshua. — Return 
 of the Waters of the Jordan. — The Camp at Gilgal near Jericho. — Under the Palm 
 Groves. — "Jerusalem the Mother of us All." — The Land of the Book . . Page 657
 
 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Damascus of Syria— Dimeshk esh Sham Frontispiece 
 
 SiDON FROM THE NORTH — SaIDA faces page 5 
 
 Druse Princesses from Mount Lebanon ■" 20 
 
 Beirut — Berytus — Mount Lebanon — Jebel SCnnIn " 4^ 
 
 Street of the Auctioneers — Suk ed Dellalin " 74 
 
 Syrian Gentlemen of various Sects " 84 
 
 Syrian Ladies " SS 
 
 The Weir across Nahr el Kei.b " 106 
 
 Fountain and Village of el BarCk " 1S2 
 
 Zahleh " -"" 
 
 Casts of Fossil-shells collected on Lebanon " 223 
 
 Source of the Adonis— Mugharat 'Afka " 242 
 
 The Cedars— El Arz " 264 
 
 Tripoli — Tarabulus " 276 
 
 Ba'albek and Lebanon " 320 
 
 Temple of Jupiter " 33° 
 
 Court and Lew an of a Private House in Damascus " 39« 
 
 Muhammedan Funeral Procession " 4"4 
 
 Palace or Convent of Job— Es Serai ur Deir EvCb " 4S4 
 
 Ruined Temples or Public Edifices " 5'^' 
 
 Forum at Jerash " 5^'-*
 
 XXXU FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Temple of Jupiter or of the Sun faces page 568 
 
 Octagonal Tower at Mushatta " 632 
 
 MAP OF THE LEBANON, CGELESYRIA, ANTI-LEBANON, AND 
 
 THE REGION ABOUT DAMASCUS faces page 5 
 
 MAP OF THE REGION EAST OF THE JORDAN, OR BASHAN, 
 
 GILEAD, AND MOAB between pages 422, 423
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Boats drawn up on the Beach .... 6 
 
 Sidon and its Gardens 7 
 
 The Banana — El Mouz { g 
 
 The Water-wheel — En Na'urah . . i 
 The Bostrenus — El Auwaly . . . . lo 
 Residence of Lady Hester Stanhope — 
 
 Dahar June 14 
 
 Grave of Lady Hester Stanhope . . .15 
 Tomb of Jonah — Neby Viinas . ... 18 
 Tattooed Egyptian Woman . . ■ ( ^^ 
 
 Specimens of Tattooing ^ 
 
 The Tamyras — Ed Damur 25 
 
 One of St. Helena's Towers near Tyre. 31 
 
 Ancient Sarcophagi 32 
 
 Olive-branch 36 
 
 Old Olive-tree 4° 
 
 Ancient Aqueduct over the Beirut River. 50 
 House-tops, showing Roofs and Ijaltle- 
 
 ments . . . . • 53 
 
 Terrace covered with \'ines .... 58 
 
 The Sparrow 59 
 
 The Letter-writer 61 
 
 Writing and Writing Material.-, . . .62 
 Modern Arab Ink-horn . . . .63 
 
 The Call to Prayer — El Muezzin ... 64 
 
 The Mosk — El Jami'a 65 
 
 Moslems at Prayer 66 
 
 Tlie Street— Es Siik 70 
 
 Shaving the Head 72 
 
 l!arber-shop — Auctioneer 73 
 
 Sitting at Meat — Party at Dinner . . 76 
 Stool and Tray — Pitcher and Basin . . 77 
 
 Washing the Hands 7^ 
 
 Pipes, Nargilchs, Coffee-cups, and Tray. 3o 
 C 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Head-dress of a Syrian Lady . . . . S7 
 
 Assyrian Tablet, with Cuneiform In- ] 
 
 • • I 
 
 scnption 
 
 Egyptian Tablet, with Suppo.sed \ 93 
 
 Hieroglyphics 
 
 Hieroglyphics and Figures . . . j 
 
 Map of the Grottoes at Nahr cl Kelt) / ^^^ 
 
 The Screen ' 
 
 Maxwell's Column ( j^j 
 
 The Pantheon ' 
 
 Chaos 103 
 
 Pigeon Island — Er Rousha .... icx) 
 
 The Pines— El Hiirsh 112 
 
 The Sycamore — El Jimais . . . i ^ 
 
 Sycamore Figs ^ 
 
 Seller of Sycamore Fruit 115 
 
 .\nglo-American Church 117 
 
 The Treading — Ed Uouseh . . . • HQ 
 
 The Silk-worm, Cocoon, Butterfly, and 
 
 Chr>-salis 124 
 
 The Palm— En Nukhl 127 
 
 Dates — Thamr I2() 
 
 The Carob— Kl Kharnul) 130 
 
 Carob Pods— The Husks 131 
 
 The Fountain— El "Ain 134 
 
 Dur/.y and Durzieh 152 
 
 Palace at Bteddin ^h"^ 
 
 The Palace of Sa'id Beg Jumblal at el 
 
 Mukhlarah K'2 
 
 Water- fall below jczzin .... 
 
 Saint's Tomb — F.l Mukani . . . 
 
 The Cedar — El .Arz 
 
 Ruined Temple near Kul'al cl Fukra 
 
 The Natural Bridge— Jisr el Hajr . 
 
 105 
 170 
 180 
 225 
 228
 
 XXXIV 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Kul'at el Museilihah 255 
 
 An Aged Cedar of Lebanon .... 267 
 
 Intermitting Fountain 289 
 
 Monument Commemorative of the Chase 
 
 — Kamu'a el Hiirmul 307 
 
 Figures on the East Side .... 1 
 Figures on the North Side . . . |- 308 
 Figures on the West Side . . . . ) 
 Figures on the South Side .... 309 
 Lake on Lebanon — Birket el Yem- 
 
 muneh 314 
 
 Plan of the Courts and Temples at 
 
 Ba'albek 322 
 
 Shell -shaped and Rectangular Niches 
 
 and Semicircular Recess around the 
 
 Great Court 324 
 
 The Six Columns on the South Side of 
 
 the Peristyle 326 
 
 The Three Great Stones in the West 
 
 Wall 327 
 
 Portal and Key-stone of the Temple of 
 
 Jupiter 331 
 
 Interior of the Temple of Jupiter . . 332 
 The Leaning Column on South Wall of 
 
 the Temple 334 
 
 Ruins of the Portico of the Temple of 
 
 Jupiter 335 
 
 The Octagonal Temple 337 
 
 The Great Stone in the Quarry . . . 342 
 
 Kubbet Diiris 343 
 
 Falls of the Barada — The River Abana 349 
 The Barada and the.Fijeh — The Meet- 
 ing of the Waters 353 
 
 Diamond, Pearl, and Gold Ear-rings — 
 
 Diamond Necklace 376 
 
 Arch and Pediment of an Ancient Gate- 
 
 vfc'ay 378 
 
 Church of St. John the Baptist — Jami'a 
 
 es Setyed Yehya 380 
 
 Tomb of St. John the Baptist — Miikam 
 
 es Seiyed Yehya 383 
 
 Ornamented Piers and Arches in the 
 
 Court of the Great Mosk .... 385 
 
 Specimens of Tessellated Pavement . . 389 
 
 Specimens of Wood Panel-work . . . 391 
 
 Mode of Playing the Kanun . . ■ \ n -, 
 
 Mode of Playing the Kamanjeh . . ) 
 
 Tambourine — Deft } „ „ 
 
 I 393 
 Castanets ) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Derbekkeh 39-^ 
 
 Inner Court of a House at Salihiyeh . 397 
 Mosk of Sultan Selim in the Tekiyeh . 400 
 Women Weeping at the Grave . . . 402 
 Lachiymatories, or Tear-bottles . . . 404 
 South Wall of Damascus — Where Paul 
 
 was let down 406 
 
 The East Gate — Bab esh Shiirky . . 408 
 "The Street called Straight" . . . 410 
 
 Lock and Key 413 
 
 Remains of a Temple at Harran el 
 
 'Awamid 416 
 
 Temple at el Musmeih — Phsena . . . 451 
 
 Temple at Suleim 479 
 
 Temple at Kunawat 485 
 
 Antique Head at Kunawat .... 487 
 Peripteral Temple at Kiinawat . . . 488 
 
 Temple at 'Atil 495 
 
 Temple at es Suweideh 499 
 
 Church and Convent at Um el Jemal . 509 
 Theatre within the Castle at el Busrah. 514 
 Cufic Inscription at el Busrah . . . 520 
 Reservoir and Ruined Mosk at el Busrah 522 
 
 Ruins of el Busrah 525 
 
 Castle of Salchah — Kiil'at Siilkhad . . 528 
 
 Triumphal Arch at Jerash 561 
 
 Temple at Jerash 562 
 
 Theatre at Jerash 563 
 
 Section of the Colonnade along the 
 
 Main Street at Jerash 565 
 
 Niches in the Semicircular Recess of 
 
 an Elegant Building 566 
 
 Propylceum of the Temple of the Sun. 567 
 Northern Theatre at Jerash . . . .570 
 Colossal Lions on the Fa9ade of the 
 
 Palace of Hyrcanus 598 
 
 Rock Chambers and Stables excavated 
 
 in the Limestone Cliffs at 'Arak el 
 
 Emir 599 
 
 Ruined Temple or Tomb 609 
 
 Exterior of an Imposing Structure . . 610 
 Interior of an Imposing Structure . .611 
 Roman Bridge, and Banks of the Stream 612 
 Theatre and Odeon at 'Amman . . . 613 
 Rear Wall of a Large Temple . . .615 
 Peripteral Temple within the Citadel . 617 
 Decorated Arches in the Church or 
 
 Mosk on the Citadel-hill . . . .618 
 Khan Mushatta — The Wintering Place. 631
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Palestine, both east and west of the Jordan, may be 
 fairly regarded as the divinely prepared tablet whereon God's 
 messages to men have been graven in ever-living characters. 
 This fact invests even the geography and topography of the 
 Holy Land with special importance. But there are other 
 considerations which impart to it a deeper and more prac- 
 tical interest. From this land we have received that mar- 
 vellous spiritual and figurative nomenclature of the Bible 
 through which nearly all true religious knowledge has been 
 communicated to men. Here it was devised and first used, 
 and here are found its best illustrations. We learn from 
 history that it required fifteen centuries of time, and an 
 endless array of providential arrangements, co - operating 
 with human and superhuman agents and agencies, to bring 
 this medium of intercourse between God and man to the 
 needed perfection. 
 
 Numerous and complicated as were the instrumentali- 
 ties employed, and for so many generations of human his- 
 tory, still they may be all grouped under two fundamental 
 expedients — 
 
 The selecting, training, and governing of a peculiar peo- 
 ple ; and,
 
 2 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 The creating and preparing an appropriate home for 
 them. 
 
 Abraham and Canaan, the Hebrew Nation and the Land 
 of Promise, the long ongoing and outworking of the Mosaic 
 Economy, in conjunction with the people of God and the 
 physical phenomena of their earthly Inheritance — by and 
 through all these did the Spirit of Inspiration evolve and 
 perfect man's religious language. Palestine, fashioned and 
 furnished by the Creator s hand, was the arena, and the He- 
 brew people and the surrounding nations were the actors 
 brought upon it, and made to perform their parts by the 
 Divine Master. When the end and aim had been reached, 
 the spiritual and figurative nomenclature fully developed 
 and matured, the Gospel of Salvation was sent forth on its 
 high mission of mercy amongst the nations of the earth. 
 
 Like other books, the Bible has had a home, a birth- 
 place ; but, beyond all other examples, this birthplace has 
 given form and color to its language. The underlying ba- 
 sis of this wonderful dialect of the kingdom of heaven is 
 found in the land itself. But as in the resurrection " that 
 was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural ; 
 and afterward that which is spiritual," so man's religious 
 language was preceded by and grew out of the natural 
 and the mundane. The material out of which was formed 
 our spiritual dialect was of the earth earthy, requiring to 
 be transformed and transfigured ere it could become a fit 
 medium for things heavenly. 
 
 To study to the best advantage the transfiguration of 
 that language, we must resort to Palestine, where it was first 
 learned and spoken. That land, we repeat, has had an all- 
 pervading influence upon the costume and character of the 
 Bible. Without the former, the latter, as we now have it, 
 could not have been produced. To ascertain this fact, and
 
 INTRODl'CTIOX. ^ 
 
 to notice by what process of analogy and of contrast the 
 physical and the nunidane came to signify and illustrate 
 things spiritual and heavenly, may well occupy much of our 
 attention during this pilgrimage through the Holy Land. 
 
 Let us, therefore, deal reverently with it, walk softly over 
 those acres once trodden by patriarchs, prophets, and poets, 
 and even by the sacred feet of the Son of Ciod himself. 
 Let us put off the soiled sandal of worldliness and sin as 
 we enter this consecrated domain. There is design in this 
 peculiar grouping of mountains and plains, hills and valleys, 
 lakes and rivers, the desert and the sea, all in intimate as- 
 sociation with the marvellous and miraculous incidents and 
 phenomena recorded in the Bible. 
 
 The Land and the Book constitute the all-perfect text 
 of the Word of God, and can be best studied together. To 
 read the one by the light of the other has been the privilege 
 of the author for more than forty years, and the govern- 
 ing purpose in publishing is to furnish additional facilities 
 for this delightful study to those who have not been thus 
 exceptionally favored. 
 
 The sites and scenes described in the work were visited 
 many times during the author's long residence in the coun- 
 try ; and the results, so far as they bear on Biblical illustra- 
 tion, appear in the current narrative. The conversations are 
 held by the way-side, on horseback, in the open country, or 
 in the tent, and the reader is at liberty to regard himselt 
 as the authors travelling companion, in full sympathy with 
 the purpose and aim of this pilgrimage through the Holy 
 Land.
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 SIDON TO BEIRUT. 
 
 Sidon from the North. — Ancient Wall. — Boats drawn up on the Shore. — The Gardens of 
 Sidon. — The Banana-tree. — Na'urah, or Water-wheel. — The Aqueduct. — El Auwaly, 
 the Bostrenus. — The Bridge. — Bridges not Mentioned in the Bible. — Bridges in the 
 Time of the Romans. — The Khan. — Migration of an Arab Tribe. — A Winter Storm. 
 — An Officer of Sa'id Beg. — Personal Experience. — A Bridal-party. — The Road from 
 Sidon to Beiriit. — Dahar June, the Residence of Lady Hester Stanhope. — The Burial 
 of Lady Hester. — Eccentricities of Lady Hester. — Neby Yunas, Tomb of Jonah. — The 
 Mother of Samuel. — " Horned Ladies." — Biblical Allusions to Horns. — The Story of 
 Jonah and the Whale. — Berja. — El Jiyeh, Porphyreon. — Arabs at a Well. — Tattooing. 
 — The Hebrews Forbidden to print Marks upon themselves. — Along the Sandy Beach, 
 and over the Rocky Headlands. — Nukkar es Sa'diat. — Defeat of Ptolemy's Army by 
 Antiochus. — The Shepherd and the Sheep. — Ed Damur, the Tamyras. — The Mulberry 
 Gardens of Mu'allakah. — Sugar and the Sugar-cane. — The Sweet Cane of the Bible. — 
 "The Burnings of Lime." — Lime Mentioned Twice in the Bible. — El Bcll.in, Thorn 
 Bush. — Biblical Allusions to Thorns. — Raw or Burnt. — Pots and Plots. — " The Crack- 
 ling of Thorns under a Pot." — Khan Khulda, Heldua. — Ghiifr en Na'imeh. — One of 
 St. Helena's Towers. — Broken Sarcophagi. — Esh Shuweifat. — Olive-grove. — Beauty 
 of the Olive-tree. — " Oil out of the Flinty Rock." — Oil-presses. — Grafting. — " A Wild 
 Olive-tree." — The Flower of the Olive. — " The Labor of the Olive." — " The Shaking 
 of an Olive-tree." — The Gleaning of the Olive. — "Thy Children shall be like Olive- 
 plants round about thy Table." — Dukkan el Kusis. — "A Sea of Sand." — El Ghiidir. 
 — El Kalabat. — Ibrahim Pasha and the Emir of Shuweifat. — The Goodly Lebanon. — 
 Picturesque Villages. — The Pines. — Arrival at Beirut. 
 
 May 27th. 
 To one riding along the sandy beach, and approaching Sidon 
 from the north, the appearance of the city i.s quite impo.sing. 
 About a quarter of a mile out to sea, and itself not nuich more 
 than tliat in length, lies the Jezireh — a low, rocky island, in the lee 
 of which ships and large coasting craft cast anchor. Nearer the 
 A
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 BOATS DRAWN UP ON THE BEACH. 
 
 shore is the sea cas- 
 
 tle and its bridge of many 
 arches connecting it with the 
 city, which is built upon a 
 promontory that rises gradually southward to the old land castle 
 of St. Louis, which is nearly two hundred feet above the level of 
 the sea. The city itself is seen to the best advantage, however, 
 from the villages on the foot-hills east of the gardens, from where 
 nearly every house is visible. 
 
 Before we turn up to the right, among the gardens, I call your 
 attention to the remains of that ancient wall, and to this sheltered 
 beach, upon which some sailors are repairing their " ships." When 
 the stormy season commences this space will be crowded with 
 Sidon's dismantled fleet. It is the invariable custom to lay up 
 those frail craft for the winter, and that has always been the prac- 
 tice along this coast, I suppose. The Phoenicians rarely had har- 
 bors where ships could ride in safety during the storms of winter, 
 and hence they drew them up on shore. They could thus dispense 
 with harbors, and could and did build towns along the coast, wher- 
 ever there was a bit of sandy beach large enough for their vessels. 
 When the spring opened they probably did just what these modern
 
 SIDON AND ITS GARDENS. 7 
 
 mariners now do — re-pitched, launched, and rigged up their ships, 
 and prosecuted their business until the next winter, when they 
 again dismantled and hauled them on shore. The Greeks did the 
 same even with their war-ships, and Homer's heroes built a forti- 
 fication around their navy to protect it from the Trojans ; and, in- 
 deed, Sidonian ships were there to aid the beleaguered city of Troy. 
 
 Instead of following the ordinary route along the shore to. the 
 mouth of the Auwaly, we will pass through the gardens to the 
 bridge over that river. The ride is much pleasanter, and you will 
 get a better idea of the extent and character of these celebrated 
 gardens — the glory of Sidon, and the source of much of the wealth 
 and prosperity of its present inhabitants. 
 
 We have seen nothing like them in this country except at Jaffa, 
 and in many respects these are more beautiful and larger. Can 
 
 SIDON AND ns CM
 
 8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 anything of the kind be richer or more delightful than those orange 
 and lemon trees, loaded with golden fruit, single or in compact clus- 
 ters, decked with leaves of liveliest green, and spangled all over with 
 snow-white flowers of sweetest fragrance ? With distance to lend 
 enchantment, Sidon's fair daughters gliding through these verdant 
 
 EL MOUZ — THE BANANA. 
 EN NA'URAH — THE WATER-WHEEL. 
 
 bowers might pass for 
 "ladies of the Hesperides," as 
 Milton has it, set to watch 
 those golden apples. Then these banana- trees, with their large 
 bunches of green and ripe fruit, and their extraordinary leaves, a 
 dozen feet long, and drooping like great pendent ears, are exceed- 
 ingly picturesque. 
 
 Commerce has made all the world familiar with the fruit of that 
 
 tree, but as it cannot endure the frost it is never seen in northern 
 
 countries. Here there are thousands of them, and Sidon is justly 
 
 celebrated for the quality as well as the quantity of its bananas. 
 
 The na'urah, or water-wheel, with its ropes of twisted myrtle
 
 THE AQUEDUCT.— BRIDGE OVER THE AUWAl.V. 9 
 
 branches, its dripping buckets, its groaning well -sweep — to which 
 a mule or a camel is harnessed — and its birkch, or reservoir, into 
 which the water raised from the well falls with monotonous splash, 
 is almost exactly like those we saw at Jaffa. 
 
 To these gardens the inhabitants of Sidon come, and around 
 those birkehs they sit and "kaiyef" — eat, drink, smoke, and make- 
 merry — especially in the spring and early summer, when the lettuce 
 is fresh and crisp, or the apricots ripe and luscious. 
 
 When I resided in Sidon, many years ago, one of my favorite 
 walks was along the aqueduct which brings the water from the Au- 
 waly through the gardens and into the city. All this wilderness of 
 fadeless verdure, this paradise of fruits and flowers, derives its life 
 from that aqueduct; and from the many shallow wells which the 
 gardeners dig. The aqueduct not being kept in good repair, a part 
 of the city is deprived of any benefit from it, and a large quantity 
 of water runs to waste in the gardens, and along the road, as we 
 have found to our annoyance during most of this ride. 
 
 Here we are at Jisr el Auwaly, as this picturesque bridge is 
 called. It is a fine stone structure, spanning the river by a single 
 arch, and is said to have been built, more than two hundred and 
 fifty years ago, by an Italian architect in the employ of the Emir 
 Fakhr ed Din, concerning whom we shall have more to say when 
 we visit the region of that chief's exploits on Lebanon. The 
 bridge occupies the site of one more ancient, erected by the Ro- 
 mans, or the Phoenicians, whose builders have left the marks of 
 their handiwork on some of the large bevelled stones in the foun- 
 dation. The Auwaly has been identified by Dr. Robinson with the 
 Bostrenus of the ancient geographers, " described by Dionysius Vc- 
 riegetes as the 'graceful' river upon whose waters 'flowery' Sidon 
 was situated, though it is actually two miles south of it." 
 
 How quietly the river glides, between these green and bushy 
 banks, towards the sea! Is it so deep as to require a bridge? 
 
 Only during the stormy season in winter; but, as often happens 
 
 to many other streams along this coast, the waves of the sea dam 
 
 up their mouths, especially in the summer and autumn, when the 
 
 current is too feeble to keep the channel open, and the ford is 
 
 thus rendered almost impracticable. 
 A*
 
 lO 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Is it not surprising that bridges are not once mentioned in the 
 Bible, not even in the New Testament, at which time there were at 
 least Roman bridges in many parts of this country? 
 
 The Hebrews do not appear to have understood the art of 
 bridge making. When they were commanded by Joshua " to pass 
 
 EL AUWALY — THE BOSTRENUS. 
 
 over Jordan," a way was miraculously opened for them — " the wa- 
 ters which came down from above stood and rose up upon a heap, 
 and those that came down toward the sea, even the salt sea, failed 
 and were cut off: and all the Israelites passed over on dry ground." ' 
 And so late as the reign of David, when he returned from Maha- 
 
 ' Josh. iii. l6, 17.
 
 BRIDGES.— OLD KHAX.— MIGRATION OF AN ARAB TRIBE. n 
 
 naim to the Jordan, "there went over a ferr>' boat to carry over the 
 king's household," which implies that there were then no bridges, 
 and that the main body of his army forded the river.' 
 
 The Romans were the great bridge builders, and it was not 
 till after the conquest of the country by them that bridges were 
 erected. Not long before the birth of Christ, Herod the Great 
 must have thrown across the Tyropoeon that stupendous bridge, 
 now familiarly known as " Robinson's Arch ;" and farther up the 
 valley the grand viaduct, "Wilson's Arch," was probably built 
 about the same time, and by the same architects. Herod was a 
 great builder of castles, temples, theatres, and other public edi- 
 fices, and he, perhaps, constructed or repaired some of the bridges 
 over the Jordan, whose ruins indicate a Roman origin. 
 
 I have passed more than one night at this old khan on our left, 
 and the sight of it revives the memory of other days, and of curious 
 personal experiences. On my way from Beirut to Hasbeiya, many 
 years ago, I arrived at this place about sunset. It was the 3d of 
 December, and a winter-storm was coming on in all its might and 
 majesty. Lightnings blazed along the mountain -tops, and loud 
 thunder echoed through the wadys of the upper Auwaly. As 
 evening deepened into night the wind began to moan amongst 
 the rocks and trees, and volumes of black vapor, rolling in from 
 the sea, settled on the heights of Lebanon like "a horror of 
 great darkness." The long-expected and much-desired rains had 
 commenced, and we were glad to take shelter in that dismal khan. 
 
 When the day dawned, for want of other amusement, I watched 
 the migration of a tribe of Arabs which had been cncampctl on 
 the mountains. They were evidently fleeing from some api)re- 
 hended danger. Ragged boys and girls urged forward droves of 
 cattle, as lean as Pharaoh's types of the seven years of famine; 
 men, riding lank and shaggy mares, hurried onward the slow-paced 
 camels, loaded with tents and the multifarious furniture of their 
 camp; women staggered along with small children on their backs; 
 old people were strapped fast on the loads; and the little babes up 
 there, too, took the pelting rain as merrily as unfledged (lucl<liiigs. 
 Last of all came large flocks of sheep and goats, with their surly 
 
 ' 2 Sam. xi.\. 18.
 
 12 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 canine guards and insolent shepherds. Over the bridge rushed the 
 whole caravan, as if the avenger of blood was behind them. 
 
 A circumstance which occurred the evening before explained 
 the reason of that hasty migration. The chief of a troop of 
 horsemen, a few miles back, had called on me and inquired if my 
 companion could read Arabic, handing to him a letter which con- 
 tained an order frojn Sa'id Beg to capture all the men of a particu- 
 lar Arab encampment, as they were accused of robbing the house 
 of a Maronite priest. The Arabs, however, had got the start of the 
 officer, and by sunrise were on the south side of the Auwaly, and 
 within the jurisdiction of the Governor of Sidon. I was amused at 
 the way in which my companion reproved the sheikh, and, by im- 
 plication, his master. It was thoroughly Arabic. "Why," said he, 
 " can't the keeper of this khan read ? No ! Well, that's a pity. It 
 would be better if every khanjy could read, and then it would not 
 be necessary for an officer of Sa'id Beg to show his letters to any 
 chance traveller that comes along. They might contain things 
 which ought not to be published. I would advise the Beg not to 
 rent any of these khans to one who can't read." " Why," said I, 
 " not tell the officer himself that it was a shame for one in his sta- 
 tion not to know how to read ?" " What ! and insult the officer of 
 Sa'id Beg? Of course, that is what I meant, and he understood it; 
 but it would never do to say all that to his beard." 
 
 Though it rained hard, I pursued my journey to Hasbeiya, for 
 I had no desire to repeat the experiment of the past night in that 
 way-side inn. Our host, with his cats and kittens, his barley and 
 straw, bread and olives, leben and oil, and every other article of his 
 trade, shared with us, and our saddles, baggage, and beds, this one 
 low, dark vault. A few burning brands, or brands that would not 
 burn, enabled us, with a great deal of persuasion, to boil a little wa- 
 ter for tea, with no more serious penalty than that of being nearly 
 blinded by a cloud of pungent smoke. The privacy of our apart- 
 ment was farther invaded by a native bridal-party, who appeared 
 determined, bride and all, to share with us the privileges of our 
 smoky vault. They kept up a violent row with our host until a 
 late hour, when, buying a few piastres' worth of bread, they kin- 
 dled a fire in that field on the other side of the road, and, huddling
 
 SIDON TO BEIRUT.— LADV HESTER STANHOPE'S RESIDENCE. 1 3 
 
 round it, kept up a dismal concert, singing, shouting, and clapping 
 hands, until morning, when, cold, wet, and woe-begone, they set off 
 to find the bishop, not, as it appeared, to be married, but to get 
 unmarried. The young lady had been betrothed, nolens volens, to 
 a man she did not like, and was now, with her friends, going to get 
 his lordship to cancel the espousals. 
 
 It is about twenty-seven miles from Sidon to Beirut, and, owing 
 to the character of the road, it will take nearly eight hours of weary 
 plodding to accomplish that distance. The ride is one of the least 
 interesting and most tedious in the country. The traveller winds 
 along the beach with the noisy surf dashing over the horses' feet 
 and his own, to the discomfort of both ; or he flounders over rocky 
 headlands, or wades through leagues of deep sand. And to pass 
 from one to another of these annoyances in tiresome succession is 
 the wayfarer's only relief. The sea never wearies, and with a mo- 
 notony that varies not wave chases wave towards the shore ; then 
 hesitates, raises its crest and plunges forward,, striking the shore 
 with a heavy thud, and sending the quivering, feathery foam far up 
 the sandy beach. In the clear light of a midsummer moon this 
 ride is not without its charms; but even then utter solitude sad- 
 dens, ceaseless repetition wearies, and one rejoices to escape from 
 the deafening "plunge of the implacable sea" into the narrow 
 alleys and sombre pine groves in the suburbs of Beirut. 
 
 The residence of Lady Hester Stanhope was somewhere on 
 these mountains, above our road, was it not? 
 
 A ride of two hours to the north-east would bring us to Dahar 
 June, a high conical mount, on whose breezy summit her ladyship 
 lived ; and there she died and was buried. 
 
 It would have been an interesting episode in our day's travel to 
 have seen the place of her residence and to have visited her tomb. 
 
 The history of that place is peculiar. It belonged to a wealthy 
 Christian of Damascus, who built the original hou.se, to which Lady 
 Hester added some twenty-five or thirty rooms. At his death, soon 
 after that of Lady Hester, the property was left to an only son, who 
 quickly dissipated it. He then turned Moslem, ami finally hung 
 himself in a neighboring house. His Moslem wife, fearing that the 
 Christians would one day deprive her of the pl,ui\ tore down the
 
 14 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 buildings, and sold the material to the people of June. Thus the 
 destruction has been intentional, rapid, and complete. 
 
 A melancholy change has come over the scene since I first vis- 
 ited it. The garden, with its choice flowers, its shaded walks, and 
 
 
 imi 
 
 DAHAR JUNE — RESIDENCE OF 
 LADY HESTER STANHOPE. 
 
 trellised arbors, is utterly 
 and not one room of all 
 [ester's large establishment re- 
 ire. The tomb also is sadly 
 changed. It w^as then embowered in 
 dense shrubbery, and covered with an 
 arbor of running roses, not a vestige 
 of which now remains, and the stones of the vault itself are broken 
 and displaced. There is no inscription — not a word in any lan- 
 guage — and unless some measures are adopted for its protection 
 the last resting-place of her ladyship will soon be entirely lost. 
 The British consul at Beirut requested me to perform the reli-
 
 BURIAL OF LADY HESTER STANHOPE. 
 
 15 
 
 gious services at the burial of Lady Hester. It was an intensely 
 hot Sabbath in June, 1839. ^Ve started on our melancholy errand 
 at one o'clock, and reached the place about midnight. After a 
 brief examination, the consul decided that the funeral should take 
 place at once. The vault in the garden was hastily opened, and 
 the bones of a French general \vho died there, and was buried by 
 her ladyship in the vault, were taken out and placed at its head. 
 
 The body, in a plain deal box, was carried by the .servants to 
 the grave, followed by a mixed company, with torches and lanterns, 
 to enable them to thread their way through the winding alleys of 
 
 GRAVE OF LADY HKSTER STANHOPE. 
 
 the garden. I took a wTong path, and wandered some time in the 
 mazes of those labyrinths. When at length I entered the arbor 
 the first thing I saw w^ere the bones of the general, in a ghastly 
 heap, with the head on the top, having a lighted taper in either 
 eye-socket — a hideous spectacle. It was difificult to proceed with 
 the service under such circumstances. The consul afterwards re- 
 marked that there were some curious coincidences between that 
 and the burial of Sir John Moore, her ladyship's early love. In si- 
 lence, on the lone mountain at midnight, " our lanterns dimly burn- 
 ing," with the flag of her country around her, she " lay like a war- 
 rior taking his rest," and we left her alone in her glory. There was 
 but one of her own nation present, and his name was Moore. 
 
 The morning after the funeral the consul and I went round the
 
 l6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 premises, and examined thirty- five rooms, which had been sealed 
 up by the vice-consul of Sidon to prevent robbery. One had forty 
 or fifty oil-jars of French manufacture, old, empty, and dusty. An- 
 other was filled with Arab saddles, moth-eaten, tattered, and torn. 
 They had belonged to her mounted guard. Superannuated pipe- 
 stems without bowls were in one room. Two more rooms were 
 devoted to medicines ; and one to books and papers, mostly in 
 boxes and ancient chests. Nothing of much value was found any- 
 where, and the seals were replaced, to await legal action. The 
 crowd of servants and greedy retainers had appropriated to them- 
 selves her most valuable effects. 
 
 She told an acquaintance that once, when she was supposed to 
 be dying of the plague, she could hear the servants breaking open 
 chests, and ripping off the embroidered covers of cushions. " Oh ! 
 didn't I vow," said she, " that if I recovered I would make a scat- 
 tering among them !" and she performed her vow. But each suc- 
 ceeding set, like the flies in the fable of the fox, were as greedy as 
 their predecessors; and when she died nothing valuable escaped 
 their rapacity. What a death ! Without a European attendant — 
 without a friend — alone, on the top of a bleak mountain, her lamp 
 of life grew dimmer and dimmer, until it went quite out in rayless 
 night. Such was the end of the once gay and brilliant niece of Pitt, 
 presiding in the saloons of the master-spirit of Europe, and familiar 
 with the intrigues of kings and cabinets. 
 
 On most subjects Lady Hester was not merely sane, but well- 
 informed and extremely shrewd. She possessed great powers of 
 conversation, and was quite fascinating when she chose to make 
 herself agreeable. With Mr. Abbott, then the British consul, and 
 his lady she would sit talking long into the night over the stir- 
 ring times of the last century and those bf the present with inex- 
 haustless spirit and keen delight. But nothing could tempt her 
 back to England. At length her income was greatly reduced by 
 cancelling numerous debts. But she was unsubdued ; and alone in 
 her mountain retreat she spent the remnant of her days in haughty 
 pride and stubborn independence. 
 
 She was wholly unique. Bold as a lion, she wore the costume of 
 an emir, weapons, pipe, and all ; nor did she fail to rule her servants
 
 ECCENTRICITIES OF LADV HESTER STANHOPE. 1 7 
 
 and her Albanian guards with absolute authority. Now ridini:^ at 
 the head of the Bedawin Arabs, queen of the desert, on a visit to 
 Palmyra; now intriguing with venal pashas and cunning emirs; at 
 one time treating with contempt nobles, generals, and consuls, bid- 
 ding defiance to law, and thrashing the officers sent to her lodge ; 
 at another eluding or confounding her creditors ; to-day charitable 
 and kind to the poor, to-morrow oppressive, selfish, and tyrannical 
 in the extreme. She kept spies in the principal cities and at the 
 residences of pashas and emirs, and knew all that was going on in 
 the country. Her garden of several acres was walled round like a 
 fort ; and crowning the top of the conical hill, with deep wadys on 
 all sides, its appearance from a distance was quite imposing. But 
 the site was badly chosen ; the water was distant, far below, and 
 had to be carried up on mules. She, however, had the English 
 taste for beautiful grounds, and spared neither time, labor, nor ex- 
 pense to convert that barren hill into a maze of shady avenues and 
 a paradise of sweet flowers. 
 
 There was no limit to her eccentricities. In some things she 
 was a devout believer — an unbeliever in many. She read the stars, 
 and calculated nativities and claimed the gift of second -sight, by 
 which she pretended to foretell coming events. She practised al- 
 chemy, and in pursuit of that vain science was often closeted with 
 strange companions. She had a mare whose backbone sank sud- 
 denly down at the shoulders and rose abruptly near the haunches. 
 That deformity her vivid imagination converted into a miraculous 
 saddle, on which she was to ride into Jerusalem as queen by the 
 side of some Messiah, who was to introduce a fancied millennium. 
 Another mare had a part to play in that august pageant, and both 
 were tended with extraordinary care. A lamp was kept burning 
 in their comfortable stables, and they were served with sherbet and 
 other delicacies. Nothing about the premises .so excited my com- 
 passion as those poor pampered animals, upon which I.ady Hester 
 had lavished her affection for the last fourteen years. They were 
 soon after sold at auction, when hard work and low living quickly 
 terminated their miserable existence. 
 
 Lady Hester was a doctor, and most positive in her prescrip- 
 tions to herself, her servants, her horses, and even to her chickens.
 
 l8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and often did serious mischief to all her patients. She had many 
 whimsical tests of character both for man and beast, and, of course, 
 was often deceived by both to her cost. She could be extremely 
 sarcastic, and the margins of some books which I purchased at the 
 auction were " illuminated " with her caustic criticisms. 
 
 Such was Lady Hester in her mountain retreat on Lebanon. 
 Alas! she must have drained to the dregs many a bitter cup. Her 
 sturdy spirit there fought out alone a thousand desperate battles, 
 and lost them all. Let those who are tempted to revolt against 
 society, and war with nature, God, and man, come to Dahar June — 
 sit and moralize on the fragments of that broken tomb, amidst ruins 
 without beauty to charm, or age to make venerable — itself a ruin of 
 yesterday, and fast sinking into oblivion. Will such a melancholy 
 end compensate for such an erratic life ? 
 
 What is that low building on our right, which we are now 
 passing, with its white dome and tall cypress-tree ? 
 
 NEBY YOnAS — TOMB OF JONAH.
 
 NEBY YUNAS.— vows.— " HORNED LADIES." IQ 
 
 Neby Yunas, one of the many shrines dedicated to the prophet 
 Jonah. The mukam en Neby, sanctuary of the prophet, is in that 
 room with the white dome over it. The arched buildinsj; nortli of it 
 is an ordinary way-side inn, so numerous along this coast, having a 
 covered portico in front, back of which are rooms for nati\e tra\el- 
 lers, and stables for their animals. In former times Neby Yunas 
 was much frequented by ^Moslems, and Druses from the mountains, 
 especially by Druse sittat, or princesses, who came with their sor- 
 rows, their prayers, and their vows, for the same blessing which 
 the mother of Samuel sought " in bitterness of soul " to obtain at 
 Shiloh.' The vows of some are made in times of sickness, either 
 of their friends or themselves, and they come here from all parts 
 of the country to fulfil them upon their recovery. 
 
 I have repeatedly pitched my tent on the smooth sandy terrace 
 east of that mukam, and have seen more than one group of "horned 
 ladies" resort to the shrine of the prophet to obtain the interces- 
 sion of the Neby in their behalf, and to fulfil vows which they had 
 made. But such companies are rarely seen now ; the progress of 
 civilization, and the general spread of education in this country, 
 have robbed the prophet of much of his prestige and patronage, 
 and his shrine is now almost deserted. 
 
 Do you imagine that such horns have any connection with 
 those so often alluded to in the Bible? 
 
 No. These tanturs grew, like other horns, from small begin- 
 nings and by slow degrees, and pride nourished them. At first 
 they were merely designed to finish off the head-dress, so as to raise 
 the veil a little from the face. Specimens of that primitive kind 
 arc still found in remote and semi-civilized districts. I have seen 
 them only a few inches long, made even of common pottery. B>- 
 degrees the more fashionable ladies used tin, and lengthened them : 
 then rivalry made them of silver, and still farther prolonged and or- 
 namented them; until finally the princesses of Lebanon antl llcr- 
 mon wore horns of silver and gold, decked with jewels, and .so long 
 —some nearly eighteen inches— that a servant had to spread the 
 veil over them. But the day for those most preposterous appeiul- 
 ages to the female head has passed away. After the wars between 
 
 ' I .Sam. i. lo, ii.
 
 20 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the Maronites and Druses in 1841 and 1845, the Maronite clergy- 
 thundered their excommunications against them, and very few 
 Christians now wear them. Even the Druse women have cast 
 them off, and the "horn," or tantur, has entirely disappeared from 
 the land, and given place to modern fashions, more convenient, 
 perhaps, though far less picturesque. 
 
 I do not suppose that horns like these were worn by the Jews, 
 nor, indeed, by any nation of such antiquity. So remarkable an 
 article of dress, had it been in existence, would certainly have been 
 noticed by authors who enter so minutely into such matters as 
 many did. The horns of animals, where the Creator alone planted 
 them, were their weapons of defence ; and man, who lays all nature 
 under tribute to enrich his store of images and figures, very early 
 made them synonymous with power, and then for what that will 
 always confer upon the possessor. To exalt the- horn, an expres- 
 sion often occurring in the poetic and prophetic parts of the Bible, 
 means to advance in power, honor, and dominion. To defile it in 
 the dust is a figure drawn from the condition of a dying ox or stag, 
 who literally defiles his horn in dust, mingled with his own blood. 
 It is painfully significant of defeat, disgrace, and death, and for a 
 prince like Job it was to be dishonored and utterly overthrown.' 
 
 It is not certainly known why the corners of altars were finished 
 off like horns. Several purposes may have been attained by that 
 custom. Such horns were probably intended to symbolize the ma- 
 jesty and power of the being in whose honor the altar was reared, 
 and to whom the sacrifice was offered ; or the design may have 
 been suggested by the horns of the victims to be slain. As altars 
 early became sanctuaries, it was natural that the suppliant should 
 lay hold of the horns. In fact, there was often nothing else about 
 them which he could grasp with his hand. That natural, signifi- 
 cant, and very expressive act is often mentioned in the Bible. 
 
 The custom of making vows seems to have been prevalent in 
 this country from the earliest times. Thus the devout Psalmist 
 says : " I will pay thee my vows, which my lips have uttered, and my 
 mouth hath spoken, when I was in trouble.'" This he repeats in 
 the one hundred and sixteenth Psalm, with the addition that he 
 
 ' Job xvi. 15. - Psa. Ixvi. 13, 14.
 
 vows ANCIENT AND MODERN. 2 1 
 
 would do SO " in the presence of all his people," and, also, that he 
 would offer the sacrifice of thanksgiving *' in the courts of the 
 Lord's house, in the midst of thee, O Jerusalem." * 
 
 Yes, and long before the time of the Psalmist, Jacob vowed a 
 vow at Bethel, as you remember, which reads very like one of those 
 carefully conditioned contracts, in the drawing up of which his de- 
 scendants have always been so celebrated. Doubtless the custom 
 was far older than the time of Jacob, and it was continued down to 
 that of Paul, who shaved his "head in Cenchrea, for he had a vow," 
 which necessitated the most disastrous journey he ever made ; en- 
 snared him into an ostensible compliance with abrogated rights, dif- 
 ficult to justify; depriving him of liberty; nearly cost him his life, 
 and ultimately sent him, through storm and shipwreck, a prisoner in 
 chains to Rome, there to die. There can be no objection to vows, 
 when made to the proper person, for things lawful and right, and 
 faithfully performed. But few of the vows in this country con- 
 form to the conditions above stated. They are not made directh- 
 to God, but to saints or to their shrines. 
 
 That is true of every Christian sect in the land ; and, what is 
 very surprising, many non-Christians make vows and pilgrimages to 
 Christian shrines. The large convent of Mar Jirjis el Humcira. St. 
 George, near Kul'at el Husn, is largely enriched by the vows of the 
 semi -pagan Nusairiyeh. The Druses, also, who are half atheists, 
 still pay their vows at the shrines of reputed saints, as we have just 
 seen at Neby Yunas. I once saw a large gathering of Bedawin 
 Arabs at Neby Safy, south-east of Sidon, slaughtering victims and 
 performing vows which they had made while in the desert east of 
 the Jordan. In every case such vows are not to God, but to de- 
 parted beings, real or fictitious, whose spirits are supposed to fre- 
 quent certain consecrated shrines. This at once draws a broad line 
 of distinction between vows made by the natives of this country 
 at the present day and those which were sanctioned by Moses, 
 and practised by the people of God in ancient times. 
 
 How do you suppose that the name and the story of Jonah 
 came to be attached to this locality? 
 
 It is possible that in some former age a wh.ile was driven ashore 
 
 ' Psa. cxvi. l8, 19.
 
 22 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 during one of the wild storms which prevail along this coast in win- 
 ter, as happened quite recently not far from Tyre, and something 
 in the attending circumstances may hav^e suggested the experience 
 of that prophet to the people in the neighborhood. Superstition 
 would speedily render the site sacred, and in due time a shrine 
 would be erected to confirm the faith of those who resorted to it. 
 There are many mukams with white -domed vaults all over this 
 Eastern land whose origin is shrouded in equal uncertainty. Not 
 a few of them are evidently ancient ; but when and through w^hat 
 means they were established is now unknown. 
 
 This part of the coast seems to be entirely deserted ; there is 
 not a human habitation in sight. 
 
 On the narrow plain east of the khan there are a few^ houses, 
 and upon the hills above are several villages. One called Berja is 
 celebrated for the sweetest and purest olive -oil in this region — a 
 fact of much importance to the Greeks and Maronites, who are 
 restricted to the use of oil in cooking during their stringent fasts. 
 
 In the Jerusalem Itinerary, Porphyreon is located in this neigh- 
 borhood, and the sand hillocks that extend for some distance north 
 of the khan, towards the village of el Jiyeh, probably cover the 
 remains of that ancient town. Twenty years ago I saw men dig- 
 ging out old building -stones in various places along those sand 
 hills, and shipping them to Beirut, to meet the extraordinary de- 
 mand in that city for such durable material. 
 
 Though abandoned by civilized people, or because thus for- 
 saken, this neighborhood is frequented by remnants of Arab tribes, 
 and there is a group of their tents, and a number of women and 
 children watering their flocks at that well. We will soon be sur- 
 rounded by them, clamoring for bakhshish, and urging us to drink 
 out of their water-bottles. 
 
 They are apparently amongst the very poorest and most de- 
 graded of their race. Their very donkeys and dogs are lean and 
 lank, and seem to be pinched up with hunger. 
 
 They are by no means so poverty-smitten as their appearance 
 would indicate, and you may with a safe conscience button up your 
 pocket and spare your pity. Not only are they importunate beg- 
 gars, but cunning thieves also ; for when passing this way, on a for-
 
 TATTOOING. 
 
 mer occasion, one of those degenerate Bedawin stole our water-bot- 
 tle from which he had just slaked his own real or pretended thirst. 
 
 The desire for personal adornment has prompted these women 
 to tattoo themselves most profusely — forehead, face, lips, chin, chest, 
 arms, hands, and even 
 their feet, with the 
 rude designs and cu- 
 rious figures of that 
 most ancient art. 
 
 The effect is any- 
 thing but agreeable to 
 our taste, yet Orientals 
 have a passion for it. 
 The practice of mark- 
 ing religious signs and 
 tokens upon the hands 
 and the arms is almost 
 universal amongst the 
 Arabs, of all sects and 
 classes. The Christian 
 pilgrim to Jerusalem 
 has the operation per- 
 formed there, as it is 
 the most holy place 
 known to his religion. 
 I have watched the 
 process of tattooing, 
 and it is not a little 
 painful. A number of 
 common needles are 
 bound together in the 
 shape of the desired 
 figure, or so that the 
 
 design can be marked out with sufficient exactness. The skin be- 
 ing punctured in the required pattern, certain mixtures of coloring 
 matter are rubbed in, and the place bound with a tight b.md.p^c 
 Gunpowder, variously prepared, is commonly cmployetl, and it is 
 
 TATTOOED EGYPTIAN WOMAN. 
 
 liil 
 
 ^ 
 
 II 
 
 ® 
 
 iiU 
 
 SPECIMENS OF TATTOOING. 
 
 r 

 
 24 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 that which gives to the tattooing of these Bedawin its bluish 
 tinge. Mr. Lane tells us that in Egypt, where this singular cus- 
 tom is very general, smoke-black mixed with milk is used, and 
 subsequently a paste of fresh-pounded leaves of clover, or white 
 beet, is applied, so as to give a blue color to the marks. 
 
 It is now well ascertained that tattooing prevailed in Egypt 
 even before the time of Moses. In Leviticus the Hebrews were 
 forbidden not only to make any " cuttings " in their flesh for the 
 dead, but also to "print" any marks upon themselves." No doubt 
 those cuttings and prints had an idolatrous signification which 
 Moses desired to condemn. The allusions in Revelation to reli- 
 gious marks are too numerous to be specified. Isaiah, however, has 
 an impressive reference to them, which we may quote, to strengthen 
 our trust in the watchful providence of our heavenly Father: "Can 
 a woman forget her sucking child, that she should not have compas- 
 sion on the son of her womb ? yea, they may forget, yet will I not 
 forget thee. Behold, I have graven thee upon the palms of my 
 hands; thy walls are continually before me.'"" As to these Arabs, 
 whose blue markings started us off upon this digression, we shall 
 have many occasions to notice their strange ways and singular 
 customs when we go amongst them, in their special domain east of 
 the Jordan. Those dingy black objects peeping out of the bushes 
 on the mountain-side are their tents, and they are found spread 
 over the whole country, from Egypt to Mount Taurus. 
 
 This is indeed a tantalizing and wearisome ride. Plodding 
 through the deep sand along the shore one longs for the rocky 
 pathway over the headland ; but once there the ceaseless clatter of 
 our iron-shod horses, as they slip, slide, and stumble along on the 
 smooth stones, makes one quite nervous. 
 
 We shall soon escape from Nukkar es S'adiat, as this low prom- 
 ontory is called. Here, it is supposed, Antiochus the Great de- 
 feated the army of Ptolemy, commanded by his general, Nicolaus. 
 This nukkar is well adapted to be the scene of bloody tragedies, 
 being a difficult pass over one of " the roots of Lebanon," thrust 
 out into the sea and ending there — a strong military position, espe- 
 cially as against an enemy marching from the north. 
 
 ' Levit. xix. 28. " Isa. xlix. 15, 16.
 
 ED DAMUR. THE TAMYRAS.— THE SHEPHERD. 
 
 ^5 
 
 And now for a gallop over this stretch of sand to the river Du- 
 mur, where we will rest for half an hour and take our lunch. 
 
 There is something worth seeing. That shepherd is about to 
 lead his flock through the river; and — as our Lord says of the 
 good shepherd — " he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him : 
 for they know his voice. And a stranger will they not follow." ' 
 
 They follow, but not all in the same manner. Some enter 
 boldly, and come straight across. Those are the favored ones 
 
 ED DAMUR— Til L lA.MVRA.-^ 
 
 of the flock, who keep hard by the footsteps of the shephcnl 
 through green meadows, by the still waters, feeding upon the moun- 
 tains, or resting at noon beneath the shadow of great rocks. And 
 now others enter, but in doubt and alarm. Far from their guide, 
 they miss the ford, and are carried down the river, some farther 
 than others, yet, one by one, they struggle over and make a safe 
 
 ' John X. 4.
 
 25 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 landing. Notice those little lanibs. They refuse to enter, and must 
 be driven into the stream by the shepherd's dog, mentioned by Job 
 in his " parable." Poor things ! how they leap, and plunge, and 
 bleat in terror ! That weak one will be swept quite away, and per- 
 ish in the sea. But the shepherd himself leaps into the stream, lifts 
 it into his bosom, and bears it trembling to the shore. All now are 
 safely over, and how happy they appear ! The lambs frisk and gam- 
 bol about, while the older ones gather round their faithful shepherd, 
 and look up to him in subdued but expressive thankfulness. 
 
 Can you watch such a scene, and not think of that Shepherd 
 who leadeth Joseph like a flock, and of another river which all his 
 sheep must cross? He, too, goes before, and, as in the case of this 
 flock, they who keep near him fear no evil. They hear his encour- 
 aging voice saying, " When thou passest through the waters, I will 
 be with thee ; and through the rivers, they shall not overflow thee." ' 
 With their eyes fastened on him, they scarcely heed the stream, or 
 feel its cold and threatening current. The majority, however, "lin- 
 ger, shivering on the brink, and fear to launch away." They lag 
 behind, look down upon the dark river, and, like Peter on stormy 
 Gennesaret, when faith fails, they begin to sink. Then they cry for 
 help, and not in vain. The good Shepherd hastens to their rescue, 
 and none of all his flock ever perish. Even the weakest lambkins 
 are carried safely over. I once saw flocks crossing the Jordan 
 " to Canaan's fair and happy land," and there the scene was even 
 more striking and impressive. The river was broader, the current 
 stronger, and the flocks larger, while the shepherds were more pict- 
 uresque and their occupation more Biblical. The danger, too, with ' 
 which many poor sheep were threatened — of being swept down 
 into that mysterious Sea of Death which swallows up the Jordan 
 itself — was more certain and suggestive. 
 
 This name, Damur, is a mere variation of the Tamyras of Strabo, 
 the Damouras of Polybius, I suppose. 
 
 Yes, if the variation is not that of the Greeks and Romans, 
 probably Damur is nearer the original name. The main source of 
 this river is near 'Ain Zahelteh, a village five hours to the east, upon 
 the lofty range of Lebanon. Other streams from the north unite 
 
 ' Isa. xliii. 2.
 
 BROKEN BRIDGE.— SCENERY.— MULBERRY GARDENS. 
 
 -/ 
 
 with it at Jisr el Kacly, on the road from Beirut to Deir el Kamar. 
 Below that the river turns to the south-west, and enters the sea just 
 south of the long, straggling village of INIu'allakah. Though not 
 more than twenty -five miles long, yet, from the extent of those 
 high mountains which pour down their floods into its channel, the 
 Damur rises suddenly in winter, and becomes a turbulent, unford- 
 able river. Men and animals have been carried off by it and per- 
 ished at the ford, or were swept away into the sea. 
 
 That broken bridge was built by the Emir Beshir Shehab, some 
 sixty years ago, but it soon gave way before the violence of the 
 stream. The emir erected his on the ruins of one more ancient, 
 built probably by the Romans, and with no better success than 
 they. The river frequentl}^ changes its channel, and though a heavy 
 wall was built running up the stream to confine it to its proper bed. 
 still in winter it sets all bounds at defiance. During great floods 
 it spreads through these gardens, tears up the mulberry-trees, and 
 carries them down to the sea. The scenery around the head of 
 this river is not so wild as in many other places ; but the basins 
 of the different tributaries open out prospects which, when sur- 
 veyed from the lofty declivities of Lebanon, are rarely surpassed 
 for depth, breadth, vastness, and variety. The view from Mutyar 
 Abeih is particularly impressive. 
 
 To escape the deep sand between this and Khan Kluilda wc 
 will pass up the river for a short distance, and then ride through 
 the mulberry gardens of Mu'allakah. 
 
 They appear to be quite extensive, but the branches of the 
 trees have all been cut off, leaving only the glaring and bare 
 trunks, some eight or ten feet high. 
 
 The silk -growers adopt that method in order that the young 
 branches may grow during the summer. They say that next spring 
 the leaves of those branches will contain more glutinous matter — 
 from which sub.stance the silk-worms spin their cocoons — than is 
 found in the leaves growing upon the old branches. 
 
 I noticed hedges of the ordinary reed cane near the river and 
 along the water-courses, and here are fields of genuine sugar-cane. 
 
 It is said that the sugar-cane was originally taken from this 
 coast to Europe during the Crusades; and, after America was dis-
 
 28 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 covered the Spaniards carried it to the West Indies, from where it 
 was introduced into the Southern States. The people of this coun- 
 try, however, do not make any sugar; but during the season the 
 cane is cut and taken in large bundles to the cities, where it is 
 sold, mostly to the lower classes, and especially to children, who 
 chew the stem for its sweet juice — hence its name, Kussab Muss. 
 
 Is this " the sweet cane from a far country " mentioned by the 
 prophet Jeremiah?' 
 
 The sweetness was, probably, not that of taste, but of smell, and 
 may have had reference to the aromatic properties of some root, 
 plant, or leaf, possibly from Arabia or India. The sugar-cane, being 
 a perisliable article, could not have been brought as a luxury from 
 a far country, since it would have withered and decayed on the 
 way, and have lost all its sweetness. 
 
 For what purpose are those people cutting up the thorn-bushes 
 amongst the rocks, with their mattocks and hand scythes, and gath- 
 ering them together into such large bundles? 
 
 To be burnt as fuel in that lime-kiln. We have there a strik- 
 ing illustration of a passage in Isaiah: "And the people shall be 
 as the burnings of lime : as thorns cut up shall they be burned in 
 the fire."° This picture from real life is in curious fidelity with the 
 scene depicted by the prophet, for when the thorns are merely to 
 be destroyed they are not " cut up," but set on fire where they 
 grow, to clear the ground for the plough. 
 
 Does that passage in Isaiah to which you have just referred 
 contain the earliest mention of lime in the Bible? 
 
 The Hebrews were acquainted with lime and its uses in very 
 early times. Moses directs the people of Israel, when they " pass 
 over Jordan," to "set up great stones, and plaister them with plais- 
 ter."^ The word in the Hebrew is the same as that translated lime 
 in Isaiah, and also in Amos ii. i,the only places in the Bible where 
 lime is mentioned — a fact somewhat remarkable, considering the 
 importance of that article, and the many and varied purposes to 
 which it was applied from remote antiquity. And not only was 
 lime itself known from ancient times, but the kiln and the fuel to 
 burn it with were very much like these we have before us. 
 
 ' Jer. vi. 20. - Isa. xx.\iii. 12. ^ Deut. xxvii. 2.
 
 EL BELLAN, THE THORNS.— BIBLICAL ALLUSIONS TO THORNS. 29 
 
 This kind of thorn seems to cover tlie entire face of the moun- 
 tain. What is the name of it? 
 
 It is the Poterium spinosum of the botanist. The Arabs call it 
 bellan, and it abounds in almost every part of Syria and Palestine, 
 and is also to be found in the Wilderness of the Wandering. 
 
 Is it ever mentioned specifically in the Bible? 
 
 Not by its modern Arabic name ; but these thorns are so om- 
 nipresent and obtrusive that they could not have escaped notice, 
 and I suppose they are the same as those, to which " Da\id in 
 his last words " likened " the sons of Belial," which are " as thorns 
 thrust away, because they cannot be taken with hands : but the 
 man that shall touch them must be fenced with iron and the staff 
 of a spear; and they shall be utterly burned with fire in the same 
 place."' The Arabic translation is more specific: "The sons of 
 Belial are all like thorns thrust aside, for they cannot be taken by 
 the hand ; and the man who would touch them must be armed 
 with iron and the staff of a spear. And they shall be burned in 
 the fire in their place." This description applies perfectly to the 
 bellan. Those men first tear them loose from the rocks with their 
 iron mattocks and scythes, and then thrust them away into heaps 
 with a long forked stick. When the purpose is merely to clear the 
 ground for ploughing and sowing the grain, they are simply set fire 
 to on a windy day and "burned in their place." 
 
 David, in the fifty-eighth Psalm, has a curious allusion to thorns. 
 Concerning the wicked, who " go astray as soon as they be born, 
 speaking lies," he says : " Before your pots can feel the thorns, he 
 shall take them away as with a whirlwind, both living, and in his 
 wrath."' Is the allusion there also to this bellan? 
 
 The poetical figure in that passage is tangled somewhat, like the 
 bellan itself, but the reference is to cooking in pots by kindling fires 
 under them, possibly with this thorn-bush. I have often watched 
 the operation with much interest. These thorns burn with a sud- 
 den and intensely hot blaze, but that very vehemence often creates 
 a little whirlwind which whisks the flame from the blazing bush 
 into the air, so that the pots do not " feci the thorns" at all. As 
 suddenly as the wind catches up in its wings the flame of the burn- 
 ' 2 Sam.xxiii.6, 7. " I'-^-a. Kiii. 3. <;■
 
 30 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ing bushes, so suddenly shall the whirlwind of divine indignation 
 drive away those incorrigible sinners. 
 
 Dr. Alexander has some curious remarks in his exposition of 
 the latter part of that passage. " Both living and in his wrath " he 
 translates " whether raw or done," meaning that whether the flesh 
 which is in the pot is cooked or is raw, he will blow it or them 
 away. The Arabic translation reads thus : " Before that your pots 
 feel the thorns, whether raw or burnt, he will scoop them away." 
 In either case the essential elements in the figure are retained, 
 and some of the obscurities are aptly illustrated by the ephemeral 
 flames of the bellan under the pots of Arab peasants. 
 
 The complicated figure in that passage will bear even farther 
 illustration. There is no proverbial metaphor more familiar to Arab 
 ears than one which compares secret plots and machinations to a 
 covered pot on a fire. To intimate that the plot is brewing they 
 say, with a knowing shake of the head, " the pot is boiling," or sim- 
 ply, " it is boiling." Now, the pot is the representative of dark and 
 treacherous schemes; those who kindle the fire and sit round watch- 
 ing it are the wicked plotters, and the Psalmist says that ere the 
 pot can feel the flame, and while the schemes they are concocting 
 are still immature or raw, the Lord in his indignation will blow out 
 and away both the plot and the plotters. David had, no doubt, 
 often seen during his shepherd boyhood, and his exile life and wan- 
 derings, all the circumstances which suggested the complicated fig- 
 ure in that ninth verse of his psalm. To understand it perfectly 
 one must actually witness the process of cooking in the open coun- 
 try — a pot or pan placed upon two or three stones, bellan thorns 
 ignited under it ; the blaze flashing up fiercely, creating or increas- 
 ing the wind which whirls and whisks the flame into the air, and 
 the meat thus left half raw, half burnt, to the utter disgust and dis- 
 appointment of both cook and expectant guests. So will it be with 
 those sons of Belial — their plot defeated and blown away, and they 
 with it, to utter destruction. 
 
 In "the words of the Preacher," "the laughter of the fool" is 
 compared to "the crackling of thorns under a pot."* 
 
 Yes, the laughter of a fool he rightly calls "vanity" — mocking, 
 ' Eccles. i. I ; vii. 6.
 
 KHAN KHULDA.— ST. HELENA'S TOWER. 
 
 31 
 
 tantalizing:, and annoying — just like the blaze of the bcllan which 
 flashes up in the face, burns the hands, blinds the eyes, and dies out 
 suddenly before the pot can feel the heat. The ephemeral charac- 
 ter of the blazing bellan is alluded to by the Psalmist when he says 
 of his enemies, " They compassed me about like bees ; they are 
 quenched as the fire of thorns."' 
 
 The name of this way-side inn, on the left, which we are now 
 approaching is Khan Khulda, and it probably occupies the site of 
 Mutatio Heldua, an unimportant place mentioned in the Jerusalem 
 Itinerary about the fourth century of our era as twelve Roman 
 miles south of Beirut. There is another khan, below the gardens 
 of Mu'allakah, and about a mile south of this one, called Ghufr en 
 
 LENA'S TOWERS NEAR TYKE. 
 
 Na'imeh, which may mark the site of Heldua. However that may 
 be, there are at this place some old foundations and remains of 
 antiquity which we should not pass by without visiting. 
 
 ' Psa. c.wiii. 12.
 
 32 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The debris on the top of that half-natural, half-artificial mound 
 marks the site of one of those signal stations or beacons which St. 
 Helena built along the road from Jerusalem to Constantinople, to 
 convey to her royal son the first tidings of the discovery of the true 
 
 ANCIENT SARCOPHAGI. 
 
 cross, for which 
 she was then searching in the rub- 
 bish of the Holy City. More pro- 
 bably it was one of a system of watch-towers for the defence of 
 the coast, such as are still in use along the shores of Spain and 
 Algiers. Marc Antony spent some time at a fort between Beirut 
 and Sidon, called Dukekome, waiting for Cleopatra. Perhaps this 
 tower-crowned hill marks the spot wdiere those mighty revellers 
 met and feasted. I remember when the tower was destroyed to 
 supply the demand for building material in Beirut. 
 
 The most remarkable relics of past ages are those broken sar- 
 cophagi on the side of the mountain. Their number is surpris- 
 ing, since for ages the inhabitants have been breaking them up for 
 building-stone, or burning them into lime. They are of all sizes : 
 some eight feet long, and in fair proportion, the resting-place of 
 giants ; others were made for small children. Many are hewn in 
 the live rock ; others are single cofifins cut out of separate blocks.
 
 OLIVE GROVES OF ESH SHUWEIFAT. 33 
 
 All had heavy Hds, of various shapes, but with the corners raised. 
 On one is a cherub with wings expanded, as if about to {\y away to 
 the " better land ;" another has a palm branch, emblem of immor- 
 tality ; a large one has three warlike figures, the chosen compan- 
 ions, perhaps, of some ancient hero. They are without inscriptions, 
 and have nothing about them to determine their age or origin; 
 and on none of them is there a single mark or scratch which might 
 indicate that those who made them had an alphabet. They are, no 
 doubt, very ancient. Lift the lid, and the dust within differs not 
 from the surrounding soil from which grows the corn of the current 
 year. And so it was twenty centuries ago, I suppose. 
 
 From Khan Khulda to Beirut is about three hours, and. as the 
 road leaves the sea-coast and follows the border of this little plain, 
 the scene is varied and the ride becomes more interesting. 
 
 What a large village that is on the foot-hills east of us I 
 
 It is esh Shuweifat, one of the most important towns on Leba- 
 non, and its prosperity is mainly due to the extensive olive-groves 
 below and north of it — the largest in the country. This sand de- 
 sert, on our left, interposed between those olive-groves and the sea, 
 extends northward quite to the suburbs of Beirut. 
 
 That forest of olive-trees naturally attracts one's thoughts to 
 them, and to the many Biblical references to the olive, some of 
 which I do not yet fully comprehend. Thus Hosea says, " His 
 beauty shall be as the olive tree."' It is more picturesque than 
 beautiful, but perhaps the eye needs to be educated before it can 
 distinguish properly and decide correctly. 
 
 The olive-tree and its fruit make the face of man to shine in 
 more senses than one, and this noble grove, spreading like a silver 
 sea over the plain and along the base of the hills, and rolling far 
 up their ascending terraces, is beautiful ; and it speaks of peace 
 and plenty, food and gladness. To a stranger it is destitute of 
 pleasing associations; but to me it is delightful and refreshing to 
 ride through it, especially when the trees are bowed down with 
 purple berries, or when the ground is covered with flowers. 
 
 Moses, in that last ode which he taught the children of Israel, 
 speaks of " oil out of the flinty rock;" and I had supposed th.it the 
 
 ' IIos. xiv. 6.
 
 34 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 tree delighted in hard, rocky soil ; but this vast grove spreads over 
 a soft and sandy plain.' 
 
 You were not mistaken — only misled by appearances. The sub- 
 stratum of this plain is chalky marl, abounding in flint, and the sand 
 is merely an intruder blown in from this desert on our left. The 
 olive is found, also, in places where there is no rocky basis ; but it 
 is in soil such as this that the tree flourishes best, both in the plains 
 and upon the mountains. It insinuates its roots into the crevices 
 of this flinty marl, and draws from thence its stores of oil. If the 
 overlying earth is so deep that its roots cannot reach the rock be- 
 neath, I am told that the tree languishes, and its berries are small 
 and sapless. There is, however, another explanation of that figure 
 of Moses. In ancient times generally— and in some places at the 
 present day — the olives were ground to a pulp in large stone basins, 
 * by rolling a heavy stone wheel over them, and the oil was then 
 expressed in stone presses established near by. Frequently those 
 presses, with their floors, gutters, troughs, and cisterns, were all hewn 
 out of solid rock, and thus literally " the rock poured out rivers of 
 oil," as Job affirms in his parable." 
 
 I notice that the branches of some trees have been cut off, and 
 then grafted ; why is that done ? 
 
 The olive, in its natural wild state, bears no berries, or but few, 
 and those small and destitute of oil. 
 
 St. Paul has an extended reference to grafting. He says: "If 
 some of the branches be broken off, and thou, being a wild olive 
 tree, wert graffed in among them, and with them partakest of the 
 root and fatness of the olive tree ; boast not against the branches. 
 But if thou boast, thou bearest not the root, but the root thee." 
 And then, in the twenty-fpurth verse : " For if thou wert cut out 
 of the olive tree, which is wild by nature, and wert grafl'ed contrary 
 to nature into a good olive tree,"' etc. The olive, says the apostle 
 —and so you say — is wild by nature, and it must be grafted by the 
 good before it will bear fruit; but the apostle speaks of grafting 
 the wild into the good, not the good upon the wild. 
 
 True ; but observe, he expressly states that this is " contrary to 
 nature," as it really is. In the kingdom of nature generally, cer- 
 I Deut. xxxii. 13. " Job xxix. 6. ^ Rom. xi. 17, 18, 24.
 
 THE WILD OLIVE-TREE AND THE GOOD OLIVE-TREE. 35 
 
 tainly in the case of the oHve, the process referred to by the apostle 
 never succeeds. Graft the good upon the wild, and, as the Arabs 
 say, " it will conquer the wild," but you cannot reverse the process 
 with success. If you insert a wild graft into a good tree, it will 
 conquer the good. It is only in the kingdom of grace that a pro- 
 cess thus contrary to nature can be successful ; and it is this circum- 
 stance which the apostle has seized upon to magnify the mercy 
 shown to the Gentiles by grafting them, a wild race, contrary to the 
 nature of such operations, into the good olive-tree of the Church, 
 and causing them to flourish there, and bring forth fruit unto eter- 
 nal life. The apostle lived in the land of the olive, and was in no 
 danger of falling into a blunder in founding his argument upon such 
 a circumstance in its cultivation. 
 
 But have all the trees in this vast grove of esh Shuwcifat been 
 reclaimed from a wild state by grafting? 
 
 Certainly not. The apostle himself speaks of the root of the 
 good olive, implying that, by some means or other, it had been 
 changed. As explained by the natives, the process by which that 
 result is reached is quite simple. There are knobs, or large warts, so 
 to speak, on the body of the trees. Cut off one of those which has a 
 branch growing out of it, above the place where it has been grafted ; 
 plant it in good soil, water it carefully, and it will strike out roots 
 and grow. It is now a good tree from the root, and all scions taken 
 from it are also good by nature. But if the knob be taken below 
 the grafting, the tree grows wild again. The greater part of this 
 grove is now " good " from the root. I am told, however, that 
 there is a tendency to degenerate, and that it is often an improve- 
 ment to graft even " a good olive tree " with one that is still better. 
 
 Eliphaz says of the wicked man, " He shall cast off his flower as 
 the olive."' What is there in the casting off of olive-flowers which 
 can illustrate the rejection and ruin of those who trust in vanity, 
 for which purpose the figure was emi)loyed .'' 
 
 The olive is the most prodigal of all fruit-bearing trees in flow- 
 ers. It bends under the weight of them. But then not one in a 
 hundred comes to maturity. The tree casts them off as if they 
 were of no more value than flakes of snow, which they closel)- 
 
 ' Jol) XV. 33.
 
 ^6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 resemble. So it will be with those who put their trust in vanity : 
 " for vanity shall be their recompense. They shall be cut off before 
 their time, and their branch shall not be green." ' Cast off, they 
 disappear, and no one asks after them ; so the olive seems to throw 
 off in contempt the flowers that signify nothing, and turns all its 
 fatness to those which will mature into good and fruitful berries 
 at the end of the season, when the owners and olive-gatherers go 
 forth to shake their trees after the rains in the autumn. 
 
 The olive-tree is of slow growth, and the husbandman must have 
 long patience. Except under circumstances peculiarly favorable, it 
 bears no berries until the seventh year, nor is the crop worth much 
 until the tree is ten or fifteen years old ; but then " the labor of the 
 
 olive " is very pro- 
 fitable, although it 
 sometimes " fails," as 
 implied in the prayer 
 of Habakkuk,^ and 
 it will continue to 
 yield its fruit to ex- 
 treme old age, like the 
 excellent of the earth. So long 
 as there is a mere fragment re- 
 maining, though externally the tree looks as dry as a post, yet it 
 continues to yield its oily berries, and for twenty generations the 
 owners gather fruit from the faithful old patriarch. The tree also 
 requires but little care, and will revive again when the ground is 
 dug or ploughed, and begin afresh to yield as before. Vineyards 
 forsaken die out almost immediately, and mulberry orchards ne- 
 glected run rapidly to ruin, but not so the olive. I saw the deso- 
 
 ' Job XV. 31, 32. ^ Hab. iii. 17. 
 
 OLIVE-BRANCH.
 
 LONG LIFE AND UNFAILING PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE OLIVE. 37 
 
 late hills of Jebel el A'alah, above Antioch, covered with such gro\es, 
 although no one had paid attention to them for half a century. 
 
 Is it upon this tenacity of life in the olive that Job bases his 
 affecting comparison in regard to the frailty of man : " There is 
 hope of a tree, if it be cut down, that it will sprout again, and that 
 the tender branch thereof will not cease. Though the root thereof 
 wax old in the earth, and the stock thereof die in the ground ; yet 
 through the scent of water it will bud, and bring forth boughs like 
 a plant. But man dieth, and wasteth away : yea, man giveth up 
 the ghost, and where is he?"' 
 
 It is very likely that it was the olive-tree which the patient 
 man of Uz had in mind ; for although the facts mentioned apply to 
 other trees in this country, yet they are particularly appropriate to 
 the olive. That tree will thus revive ''through the scent of water" 
 after the root has waxed old in the earth, and the stock, to all 
 appearance, become entirely dead. I have seen olive trees which 
 seemed to have neither green wood nor live bark revive and bear a 
 crop of olives when properly cultivated. The next verses in Job's 
 entreaty refer to other facts equally striking and common in this 
 Eastern land : " As the waters fail from the sea, and the flood drieth 
 up ; so man lieth down, and riseth not ; till the heavens be no more, 
 they shall not wake, nor be raised out of their sleep." No one will 
 reside long in this country without becoming more or less familiar 
 with some of the phenomena referred to. The waters fail from 
 the sea, and the clouds bring no refreshing rain ; the Hoods dry up. 
 the land is parched, and eveiy green thing languishes : famine stalks 
 abroad, and pestilence follows in her footsteps ; then men lie down 
 and die, nor will they rise up again till the heavens be no more. 
 
 If the olive bore every year its value would be doubled ; but, 
 like most other trees, it yields only every alternate year. Even 
 with this deduction it is amongst the most valuable species of 
 property in the country. Large trees, in a good season, will yield 
 from ten to fifteen gallons of oil. and the olive crop from an acre 
 of such trees is worth at least one hundred dollars. 
 
 The value of this tree is enhanced by the fact that its fruit 
 is indispensable to the comfort, and almost the existence, of the 
 
 -Job xiv. 7-10.
 
 38 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 poorer classes of the community. The BibHcal references to that 
 subject are not exaggerated. The berry, pickled, forms the general 
 relish to the farmer's dry bread. He goes forth to his work in the 
 field at early dawn, or sets out on a journey, with no other provi- 
 sion than olives wrapped up in tough paper-like loaves, and with 
 that he is contented. Then almost every dish is cooked in oil, and 
 without it the good-wife would be confounded ; and when the oil 
 fails the lamp in the dwelling of the poor expires. Moreover, the 
 entire supply of soap made in this country is from the produce of 
 the olive. Habakkuk, therefore, gives a very striking attestation of 
 his faith in God when he says, " Although the labour of the olive 
 shall fail, yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of 
 my salvation." ' 
 
 Isaiah thus refers to the gathering of the olive : " Yet glean- 
 ing grapes shall be left in it, as the shaking of an olive tree, two or 
 three berries in the top of the uppermost bough, four or five in the 
 outmost fruitful branches thereof."^ Have you noticed the circum- 
 stances alluded to by the prophet? 
 
 Very often ; and it is the language of familiar acquaintance with 
 the subject. As you may never have an opportunity to watch the 
 process, I will describe it as it occurs in such places as Hasbeiya. 
 Early in autumn the berries begin to drop of themselves, or are 
 shaken off by the wind. They are allowed to remain under the 
 trees for some time, guarded by the watchmen of the town. Then 
 a proclamation is made by the governor that all who have olive- 
 trees should go out and pick what has fallen. Previous to that, not 
 even the owners are allowed to gather olives in the groves. The 
 proclamation is repeated once or twice, according to the season. 
 In November comes the general and final summons, which sends 
 forth all Hasbeiya. No olives are then safe unless the owner looks 
 after them, for the watchmen are removed, and the groves are alive 
 with men, women, and children. Everywhere the people are in the 
 trees " shaking " them to bring down the fruit. 
 
 That is what the prophet had in mind. The effort is to make 
 a clear sweep of the whole crop ; but, in spite of shaking and beat- 
 ing, there is always a gleaning left : " two or three berries in the 
 ' Hab. iii. 17, 18. '•' Isa. xvii. 6.
 
 THE "SHAKING OF THE OLIVE." 39 
 
 top of the uppermost bough, four or five in the outmost fruitful 
 branches." Those are afterwards gleaned by the very poor, who 
 have no trees of their own, in seeming accordance with the com- 
 mand, " When thou beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go o\'er 
 the boughs again : it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and 
 for the widow ;" ' and they gather enough to keep a lamp in their 
 habitation during the dismal nights of winter, and to cook their 
 mess of pottage and bitter herbs. 
 
 The " shaking of the olive " is the severest operation in Syrian 
 husbandry, particularly in mountainous regions. When the procla- 
 mation goes forth to " shake," there can be no postponement. The 
 rainy season has already set in ; the trees are dripping with the last 
 shower, or bowing under a load of moist snow ; but the owners 
 must shake them, drenching themselves and those below with an 
 artificial storm of rain, snow, and olives. No matter how piercing 
 the wind, or how blinding the rain, that work must go on from earl)' 
 dawn to dark night ; and then the weary laborer must carry on his 
 aching back a heavy load of dripping berries two or three miles, it 
 may be, up the mountain to his home. The olive-groves are mostly 
 held in common — not owned in common, but planted on the same 
 general tract of land, without hedges, fences, or walls, and the trees 
 are like those in a natural forest. This tree belongs to Zeid, that 
 to 'Abeid, as they say, and so on through the whole grove. This 
 vast grove below Shuwcifat, along which we have been riding for 
 the last hour, has many owners, and in "shaking time " every one 
 must look sharply after his own. There is a great confounding of 
 meum and tuum in the average conscience of olive-gatherers. 
 
 To what particular circumstance docs the Psalmist refer in the 
 one hundred and twenty-eighth Psalm, where he says, " Thy chil- 
 dren shall be like olive plants round about thy table ?" 
 
 Follow mc into the grove, and I will show you what ma)- h.ivc 
 suggested the comparison. This aged and decayed tree is sur- 
 rounded, as you see, by several young and thrifty shoots, which 
 spring from the root of the venerable parent. They seem to up- 
 hold and protect it. Thus do good and affectionate children gatlur 
 round the table of the righteous. Each contributes something to 
 
 ' Dcut. xxiv. 20.
 
 40 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the common welfare of the whole — a beautiful sight, with which 
 may God refresh the eyes of all our friends. 
 
 OLD OLIVE-TREE. 
 
 What a magnificent tree that is which we have just passed! 
 
 It is, indeed, a grand old sycamore, under whose grateful shade 
 many a weary traveller seeks protection from the burning sand and 
 the scorching sun. There he dismounts to rest, to drink a cup of 
 coffee, and smoke a nargileh, which the khanji at Dukkan el Kusis 
 is always ready to supply. 
 
 Here we leave this pleasant grove for that singular sea of sand, 
 which rolls quite back to the gardens of Beirut. Geologists tell us 
 that this sand has travelled long and far before it reached its pre-
 
 A DREARY DESERT OF DRIFTIN'G SEA. 41 
 
 sent resting-place. That, in fact, its original home was in the great 
 African desert, and, during the countless ages of the past, it has 
 been drifted first by the wind into the sea, and then by the current 
 along the northern coast past Egypt, and around the head of the 
 sea, until, stopped by the Cape of Beirut, it has been thrown out b\' 
 the waves on to this plain. Others say that it is the sand of the 
 Nile transported hither by the northern current in this part of the 
 Mediterranean. I believe that we need look no farther than the 
 immediate neighborhood for the origin of this desert. The rock on 
 the shore is a soft sandstone, which is continually disintegrating b\" 
 the action of wind and wave. The loose sand is cast up upon the 
 beach, and the strong south-west winds which blow across the plain 
 are constantly spreading it inward under our very eyes. 
 
 No doubt the Damur and the Ghudir — the latter just ahead of 
 us — bring down a great amount of sand during the winter rains, 
 which is also thrown on shore by the sea. This sand is continualK- 
 driven in upon these fields like another deluge. Entire mulberry 
 gardens about Beirut, with their trees and houses, have been thus 
 overwhelmed since I came to the country; and the day is not dis- 
 tant when it will have swept over the cape to the bay on the north 
 of the city, unless its course can be arrested. I never take this ride 
 without watching, with weary interest, this ever- changing desert. 
 Upon the great sand-waves, which swell up from twenty to fifty 
 feet high, the west wind makes small but well-defined wavelets, the 
 counterpart in miniature of those it has just left on yonder noisy 
 sea. Should these ripples be caught and fixed by some tranquil- 
 lizing and indurating agency, we would there have a vast forma- 
 tion of wavy sandstone the origin of which might puzzle the 
 student of earth's rocky mysteries to explain. 
 
 These sandy invasions are not found to an\' injurious extent 
 north of Beirut, but as one goes south they become broader ami 
 more continuous. They .spread far inland round the Bay of Acre. 
 They begin again at Caesarea, and reach to the river 'Aujeh ; and 
 then south of Jaffa, past Askelon and Gaza, they roll in their deso- 
 lating waves wider and still wider, until the}- subside in the great 
 desert that lies between Arabia and Africa. Let us ride up to the 
 crest of that bold sand-wave, and take a look at this prosjiect. so
 
 42 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 eminently Syrian. The local name of this desert of shifting sand 
 is el Kalabat. Ibrahim Pacha told the Emir of Shuweifat that he 
 had three different seas beneath his feet — the blue Mediterranean, 
 this yellow Kalabat, and the silvery sea of that olive Sahra. All he 
 saw is before us ; with the goodly Lebanon for the background, ris- 
 ing range above range, up to where Sunnin lifts his snowy head to 
 the blue firmament of heaven. Picturesque villages sleep at his 
 feet, cling to his sides, or stand out in bold relief upon his ample 
 shoulders, giving variety and interest to the scene. 
 
 We have now reached the extensive pine-groves in the suburbs 
 of Beirut ; but, instead of passing through them, let us continue our 
 course over the sands, and in half an hour we will reach the western 
 part of the town, and our weary ride will be ended.
 
 THE MOST BEAUTIFUL AND PROSPEROUS CITY OF SYRIA. 43 
 
 II. 
 BEIRUT, 
 
 Beirut and its Surroundings. — The Plain of Beirut. — Goodly Lebanon. — Beirut from the 
 Sea. — Beirut not a Biblical City. — History of Beinlt. — Colonia Augusta Felix Julia, 
 Berytus. — Herod the Great. — Agrippa. — Titus. — Law School. — Earthquake. — Theo- 
 prosopon. — The Crusaders. — The Saracens. — Miracle of the Holy Cross. — Palace and 
 Gardens of Fakhr ed Din. — The Saraya. — Muhaninied 'Aly. — Bombardment of Bei- 
 rut. — Population of Beirut. — Railroad. — Antiquities about Beirut. — Ancient Aque- 
 duct. — Tunnel. — The Wife of Haroun er Raschid. — Ruined Temple at Deir el Ku- 
 I'ah. — "The Smell of Lebanon." — Magnificent Prospect. — Roofs with Battlements. 
 — The Holy Land and the Holy Book. — House-tops. — Samuel and Saul. — David's 
 Palace. — The Inhabitants of Jerusalem upon the House-tops. — Proclamations from 
 the House-tops. — The Year of Jubilee. — Peter Praying upon the House-top. — House- 
 tops in the Time of Christ. — The .Sparrow upon the House-top. — In the Streets of 
 Beirut. — Coffee and Coffee - shops. — Shopkeepers. — Pipe - stems. — Cigarettes. — The 
 Letter -writer. — Writing and Writing Materials. — The Open Letter. — Seal Rings. — 
 The Call to Prayer. — Moslems Praying in the Mosk. — Hypocrisy. — The Pilgrimage to 
 Mecca. — Praying Seven Times a Day. — The Sanctimonious Judge. — Praying towards 
 Mecca and Jerusalem. — Shops and Streets. — The Crowded Street. — Hewers of Wood 
 and Drawers of Water. — The Gibeonites. — Shaving the Head. — Paul at Cenchrea. — 
 Barbers' Shops. — Street of the Auctioneers. — No Provision for Lighting the Streets. 
 — Bidding the Guests to the Supper. — Dining amongst the Orientals. — Silting at 
 Meat. — Rice, Stews, and Meats. — Etiquette at Meals. — Washing the Hands. — Elijah 
 and Elisha. — Ceremonial Etiquette. — Pipes, Nargilehs, and Coffee-cups. — Talking to 
 be Heard. — Garments, Ancient and Modern. — Elijah's Mantle. — Joseph's Coat of 
 Many Colors. — Rending the Clothes.— Linen, Woollen, Cotton, and Silk. — Manners 
 and Customs. — Boots and Shoes. — Putting off the Shoes. — The Head and the Feet. — 
 Costume of the Women. — Domestic Relations. — The Harem. — Naming the Father 
 after his Eldest Son. ^Significant Names, Ancient and Modern. — Sleeping without 
 Change of Garments. — Co-operative House-keeping. — "Saving your Reverence." — 
 Matrimony. — Sons and Daughters. — Marriage with Slaves. 
 
 May 2Sth. 
 
 Beirt!>t i.s .said to be not only the most prcspcrous city of 
 Syria, but also the most beautiful; and as we escaped from the 
 deep sand, and rode along the broad macadamized lanes in the 
 southern suburbs of the town last ni"ht, with fine houses and well-
 
 44 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 patronized shops on either side, and busy crowds of well-dressed 
 natives, I could see ample corroboration of that statement. 
 
 The city itself and the surroundings possess that natural beauty 
 and picturesqueness which never wearies, and is always remembered 
 with delight, even by those who make but a short stay here. 
 
 That I can readily believe, and no wonder, for the scenery is on 
 a scale so grand and so varied ; but it is almost impossible to get 
 an adequate idea of the whole. 
 
 Follow me, then, to the terrace of our house, for it commands 
 the entire prospect of the sea, the city, and the mountains. 
 
 The Bay of Beirut is truly magnificent, and the city is even 
 more extensive and beautiful than I had imagined. How clear 
 and transparent is the atmosphere, and how sharply defined are 
 the hills and valleys, the villages, the houses, and even the rocks 
 and trees on lofty Lebanon ! 
 
 That snow on its summit is thirty miles away, and yet you 
 could almost read your own name if written with a bold hand on 
 its calm, cold brow. You perceive that the city and its suburbs are 
 situated on the northern slope of a triangular plain, whose base-line 
 is the shore, from Ras Beirut southward to Nahr el Yabis, some six 
 miles distant on the road to Sidon. The perpendicular line runs in 
 eastward from the Ras about five miles to the foot of Sunnin, at 
 the end of St. George's Bay. The hypothenuse is the long line of 
 the mountains from north-east to south-west. The entire plain is 
 a projection seaward from the general direction of the coast, and 
 along the base of the hills it is so low as to appear like an island 
 to one sailing up from Sidon. The surface rises gradually from the 
 south to the immediate vicinity of the city, where in some places 
 it is about three hundred feet above the sea, and it falls rapidly 
 down towards the roadstead on the north by a succession of 
 broad and irregular terraces. It is that feature which imparts 
 such variety and beauty to Beirut and its environs. 
 
 The substratum of the plain — a white marl, passing into com- 
 pact limestone, and enclosing nodules of flint and thin seams of 
 chert — is similar to that of the adjoining hills of Lebanon. Upon 
 that rests a very large formation of arenaceous, unstratified stone, 
 which is easily wrought, and hence has been used from time imme-
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF BEIRUT AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. 45 
 
 morial for building purposes. It is mixed with comminuted shells 
 and corals, and is very porous, absorbing water with great rapidity. 
 This, indeed, is almost the only defect in that otherwise admirable 
 building stone, for it renders the houses very damp in winter. The 
 quarries are to the south-west of the city, and from them a broad 
 belt of loose, movable sand stretches inward from the shore, quite 
 down to the point at Nahr el Vabis. The south-eastern part of the 
 plain is covered with a dense olive-grove, one of the largest and 
 most productive in Syria, while in the centre are beautiful pine 
 forests, planted, or rather sowed, by successive governors at differ- 
 ent times, from the famous Druse chief, Fakhr cd Din, two hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago, to the recent representative of the Sublime 
 Porte at Beirut. In the suburbs, where they can be irrigated, there 
 are gardens of orange and lemon trees: fig, almond, and apricot 
 trees abound, and the mulberry-tree is found everywhere ; and here 
 and there 
 
 The palm-tree rears his stalely head on high, 
 And spreads his feathery plume along the sky ; 
 
 while the kharnub. sycamore, prickly oak, and many a bush and 
 shrub of humbler name, cast abroad their grateful shade, and draw 
 their green mantles over the lovely scene. 
 
 The view of the city from the roadstead on the north is the 
 most impressive, I believe? 
 
 In that I entirely concur. Coming into the harbor at earl\- 
 dawn, the scenery is grand, and even sublime. Goodl)' Lebanon, 
 towering to a height of over eight thousand feet, with a diadem 
 of stars around his snowy brow, with his head in heaven antl his 
 feet upon the sea, looks like some august monarch of the universe, 
 to be saluted with profound admiration and respect. And as morn- 
 ing brightens to glorious day, what a magnificent panorama is re- 
 vealed all around the city! The mountains of el Metn and tlic 
 Kesravvan, on the east and north -cast, rugged, steep, and lofty, 
 shaded with pine -forests, and dotted with villages, churches, and 
 convents; the wild gorge of the Dog River, with snowy Sunnin 
 beyond and above; the deep Bay of St. George sweeping around 
 the base of the hills; the sandy ridge of Brummana, and Deir el 
 Kul'ahjWith the deep ravine of Nahr Beirut; the hills of el GIhuI).
 
 46 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 bold and bright against the southern sky, extending from Aleih to 
 Abeih, with villages, hamlets, and factories, and terraced vineyards 
 and fruitful gardens ; and the city itself, with its white houses 
 facing seaward, some seated on overhanging cliffs, others grouped 
 on verdant terraces and commanding hill -tops, or stowed away 
 along retiring glens, half revealed, now quite concealed by mul- 
 berry and China trees, and waving festoons of vines and cunning 
 creepers of many colors — such is Beirut, under a bright and pure 
 sky, with the glorious Mediterranean around it, and ships and boats 
 of various nations sailing in and out or lying at anchor in the bay. 
 
 Is it probable that the Berothai of 2 Samuel viii. 8, from which 
 "King David took exceeding much brass," was Beirut? 
 
 I think not ; nor is it likely that the Berothah mentioned in 
 Ezekiel xlvii. i6, as one of the places in the northern boundary of 
 the land of Israel, was this city. From the similarity of names, and 
 the geographical position of both, Ezekiel's Berothah and Samuel's 
 Berothai were probably identical, and, of course, neither of them 
 was Beirut. Some go still farther back and assert that it was 
 founded by the Giblites, or " stone-squarers," mentioned by Joshua, 
 and also in the fifth chapter of i Kings.' 
 
 Since Beirut is not mentioned in the Bible, we must look else- 
 where, I suppose, for evidences of its antiquity. 
 
 Nor are those altogether wanting. Stephanus of Byzantium 
 ascribes the foundation of the city to Kronos, the harvest god, an 
 origin, of course, mythical, but indicating the general belief in its 
 extreme antiquity. Others claim for Beirut the distinction of be- 
 ing one of the oldest of Phoenician towns. It was not, however, 
 until the second century of our era that this place is mentioned, 
 under its Greek name of Berytus, by Strabo, who relates that it was 
 destroyed by Tryphon of Syria, and afterwards rebuilt by the Ro- 
 mans. They established a colony here during the reign of Augus- 
 tus, and it was called Colonia Augusta Felix Julia, Berytus. 
 
 Here, on the advice of Augustus, Herod the Great appeared in 
 
 court as the accuser of his two sons, whom he afterwards sent to 
 
 Sebaste, Samaria, where they were strangled. Herod Agrippa II. 
 
 adorned and beautified Berytus with colonnades, porticoes, theatres, 
 
 ' Josh. xiii. 5 ; i Kings v. i8.
 
 GLADIATORIAL SHOWS.— DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKE. 47 
 
 baths, and other pubhc buildings, and their remains are scattered 
 over the gardens, and buried beneath the rubbish of the ancient 
 city. It was in the theatres of Agrippa, I suppose, that Titus cele- 
 brated his own victories over Jerusalem, and his father's birthday, 
 by gladiatorial shows, in which the miserable captives of Zion per- 
 ished in great numbers, fighting with wild beasts and with one 
 another, as Josephus informs us. 
 
 Though none of the apostles appear to have visited Beirut, yet 
 Ciiristianity was early established here, and this city became the 
 seat of a bishopric. Under the Christian emperors of Constantino- 
 ple it continued to prosper down to the reign of Justinian. It was 
 then one of the most celebrated seats of learning in the empire, and 
 its law-school, which flourished for a period of over three centuries, 
 was frequented by youth from the first families in the state, and 
 by graduates of the schools of Athens and Alexandria. Then, as 
 now, was the golden age of Beirut's literary fame, and then, as 
 now, it was the most beautiful city on this coast. But its decline 
 commenced under the reign of that emperor. 
 
 On the 9th of July, A.D. 551, one of those awful earthquakes, 
 which repeatedly shook the Roman world in the time of Justinian, 
 seems to have entirely destroyed Beirut, overthrown her colleges, 
 churches, temples, theatres, and palaces, and buried multitudes of 
 the inhabitants beneath the ruins; and, although the city was re- 
 built, it nev^er regained its former magnificence. You can scarcely 
 walk through the gardens or dig a foundation for a house without 
 coming upon the memorials of that dreadful calamity. It is amaz- 
 ing to see how deeply some of those ruins are entombed, suggest- 
 ing the idea that the very terraces on which such costl)' structures 
 stood were upheaved and precipitated on those below. And this 
 corresponds with the history of that fearful time. We are told that 
 "enormous chasms were opened, huge and heavy bodies were dis- 
 charged into the air, the sea alternately advanced and retreateil be- 
 yond its ordinary bounds," and a mountain was torn from that bold 
 promontory — then called Theoprosopon, the face of God. and now 
 ■ Ras-esh Shukkah — and cast into the sea, where it formed a mole for 
 the harbor of Batrun. Perhaps its Arabic name, implying the cape 
 of the split or cleft open, may be a witness of that catastrophe.
 
 48 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Beirut shared in all the troubles and revolutions which accompa- 
 nied and grew out of the conquest of this country by the Muham- 
 medans. In the time of the Crusades, it was taken by Baldwin 
 in 1 1 lo, and, during the two hundred years of Frank rule on this 
 coast, it was several times captured and recaptured by Saracen and 
 Christian. Since the close of the thirteenth century few signal 
 events have happened to vary the monotony of its story. But in 
 the eighth century an illustrious miracle spread the name and fame 
 of this city far and wide. Some image-hating Hebrews, in scorn 
 and mockery, attempted, it is said, to go through the acts of the 
 Crucifixion upon a holy image and cross ; when, as they thrust a 
 spear into its side, to their confusion and horror, a large quantity 
 of blood and water gushed forth. Without resorting to supernatu- 
 ral interference, a little manoeuvring, or a little money, could have 
 set either real or spurious Jews at work to bring about the miracle. 
 But Beirut has no need of such doubtful claims to immortality. 
 Judging from the scanty and indefinite notices by the pilgrims of 
 the mediaeval ages, the number of its inhabitants varied from five 
 to ten thousand, engaged in commerce and in the manufacture 
 of olive oil and soap, and the culture of silk, which for several cen- 
 turies continued to be the staple productions of this region. 
 
 In the early part of the seventeenth century the famous Druse 
 emir, Fakhr ed Din, " the glory of religion," established himself in 
 Beirut. He is said to have filled up the port to prevent the land- 
 ing of pirates; and to have planted the extensive pine -groves in 
 the vicinity of the city. He built a large palace in the north-east- 
 ern part of the town, and, after his return from Italy, he adorned 
 it with ample gardens. That palace, though in a very dilapidated 
 condition, is now the Saraya, or official residence of the Pasha, but 
 the gardens have long since disappeared. 
 
 When Muhammed 'Aly wrested Syria from the Sultan, in 1830- 
 '31, he made Beirut the chief quarantine station on the coast, and 
 obliged all ships to come to this port. But during the month of 
 September, 1840, the combined English and Austrian fleet bom- 
 barded the castles and fortifications, and compelled the Egyptian 
 troops, under Suleiman Pasha, to evacuate the place. Beirut was 
 restored to the Turk ; and as European merchants were already set-
 
 POPULATION OF BEIRUT.— ANCIENT AQUEDUCT. 49 
 
 tied here, and the foreign consuls had selected it for their residence, 
 that Government made it the capital of the country. Forty years 
 ago, when I came to Beirut, there was scarcely a house outside of 
 the walls fit to live in ; now hundreds of convenient dwellings, and 
 not a few large and noble mansions, adorn its beautiful suburbs, 
 and two-thirds of the population reside in the gardens. The mas- 
 sacres of i860 led many of the inhabitants of Damascus, the Leba- 
 non, and elsewhere, to settle in Beirut, which added largel)' to its 
 inhabitants, and many of the public buildings that attract the no- 
 tice of visitors now have been erected since that deplorable event. 
 
 The population is now estimated at eighty thousand, more than 
 one -half of which is made up of the various Christian sects and 
 denominations. No city in Syria, perhaps none in the Turkisii 
 Empire, has had so rapid an expansion. And it must continue to 
 grow and prosper, with but one pro\'iso to cast a shade of doubt 
 upon its bright future. Should a railroad ever connect the head 
 of this sea with the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, that A\ill in- 
 evitably dictate where the emporium of Syria is to be. If Beirut 
 can attract that line of trade and travel to its door, it will rank 
 amongst the important cities of the world ; if it cannot, then must 
 it wane before some other rival queen of the East. 
 
 Are there many antiquities about Beirut? 
 
 There are columns and sarcophagi in abundance, and some of 
 them have inscriptions which tell their own stor\'. .An ancient 
 aqueduct has been discovered, cut through the rock, and passing 
 beneath the city at Bab Y'akob. It must either have had a more 
 permanent supply of water than at present, which fails in dry 
 weather, when it is most needed, or have been connected wilJi the 
 ancient aqueduct which brought water from Lebanon to Ber)-tus. 
 
 Are the existing remains of that ancient work extensive? 
 
 More so than most travellers, or even natives, are aware of. 
 The supply of water for that aqueduct came from a fountain in the 
 bed of the Beirut River, below Deir el Kul'ah. The aqueduct from 
 it was conducted along the hill-side above the north bank of the 
 river for a mile or more. It was then carried over the river upon 
 a series of lofty arches. The first and lowest tier hat! onl\- two 
 arches, the second three. The next tier above had fifteen, and the 
 D
 
 50 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ANCIENT AQUEDUCT OVER 
 THE BEIRUT RIVER. 
 
 ■ ' \ fourth or highest tier had 
 
 twenty- five arches, and the canal upon 
 them was about one hundred and sixty- 
 feet above the bed of the river. The 
 wall of the aqueduct was twenty feet broad, and was built of 
 well-cut stone, and the entire structure must have presented a 
 grand and very imposing appearance. 
 
 Though carried over the river at so great an elevation, the ca- 
 nal, on the Beirut or west bank, met with perpendicular cliffs, and 
 passed directly into them by a tunnel cut in the solid rock. I once 
 crept into it a distance of a few feet, beyond which it is now choked 
 up with rubbish. The tunnel, excavated along and within the face 
 of the cliff, was conducted in a direction nearly north for a con- 
 siderable distance, and at intervals of a few rods shafts were sunk 
 from the top and covered over with massive arches, to prevent the
 
 ANCIENT AQUEDUCT.— TEMPLE AT DEIK El. KULAM. 51 
 
 debris from the cliff falling into and choking up the canal. They 
 are still quite perfect, and are amongst the best specimens of an- 
 cient vaults. The great elevation of the aqueduct over the ri\er 
 shows that the design was to carry the water to the highest terraces 
 in the suburbs of Beirut, and that this was actually done is demon- 
 strated by many channels which have been discovered in the gar- 
 dens to the west and south of the city. 
 
 Descending to the margin of the plain, the canal was led along 
 the base of the hills southward, past Khan esh Shiah, and thence 
 westward to the vicinity of Beirut, and the water was distributed 
 through many pipes to various parts of the city. As the plain west 
 of esh Shiah is quite low, the canal had to be elevated by a long 
 line of arches, erected upon a broad and massi\'c wall. It was built 
 solid throughout, of large, well-squared stone, and was about fort\- • 
 feet wide at the base. No traces of the arches now exist, but 
 masses of tufaceous deposit remain formed by the trickling of the 
 water through the aqueduct, similar to those along the ancient 
 canals of Tyre and Acre. The wall itself, however, was nearly en- 
 tire when I first came to this country ; but the rapid growth of 
 Beirut created such a demand for building-stone that the greater 
 part of it has been quarried and brought to the city. In that pro- 
 cess, palm and olive trees, which had grown old upon the top, were 
 undermined and thrown away; and where the work of quarrying 
 has been completed, and the ground levelled, mulberry -trees are 
 now flourishing upon it. The Arabs, as a matter of course, ascribe 
 the building of that aqueduct to Sit Zebeideh, the wife of Ha- 
 roun er Raschid ; but, whether constructed by Phoenicians, Greeks, 
 or Romans, it was an admirable work, and a great blessing to the 
 inhabitants of ancient Berytus. 
 
 What place is Deir el Kul'ah? 
 
 Deir el Kul'ah is the name of a Maronite convent situated on 
 the southern termination of that bold ridge of Lebanon east of 
 Beirut. It occupies the site of an ancient temjile, the walls of 
 which have been thrown down to the very foundation, either by 
 over- zealous Christians of early days, or b\' fanatical Moslems of 
 later times. This must have been no easy achievement, for the 
 walls were built with great blocks of hard breccia marljlc, from
 
 52 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 eight to fourteen feet long, four broad, and five thick, resting on 
 the everlasting rock of the mountain ; and it is evident that nei- 
 ther earthquake nor any other known natural agency could have 
 effected such an overthrow. With the single exception of Ba'al- 
 bek, it must have been the largest and most splendid temple on or 
 amongst these mountains. The body of the edifice was one hundred 
 and six feet long and fifty-four wide, having a grand portico thirty 
 feet broad on the west end, making the entire length from south- 
 east to north-west one hundred and thirty-six feet. The portico 
 was supported by a double row of columns, four in each row. The 
 lower parts of four or five of these still stand upon their original 
 bases, and are nearly six feet in diameter. There were no columns 
 either on the east end or along the sides, but the portico must have 
 presented a magnificent appearance. 
 
 Though fronting north-west instead of to the east, that temple 
 was no doubt dedicated to Baal, like many others on and around 
 Lebanon and Hermon. This is confirmed by Greek and Latin 
 inscriptions found mostly built into the walls of the convent. In 
 common with other visitors I have repeatedly transcribed them, 
 and about a dozen have been discovered, copied and deciphered. 
 One inscription in the kitchen of the convent, " being interpreted," 
 reads: " Balmarkos, Sovereign, Lord of Sports." It is pleasant to 
 find that his Sovereign Lordship assumed a character so amiable in 
 presence of this beautiful city. It must have been a favorite resort 
 of the Beiruteens for making " kaif," sport, and there I have found 
 the aromatic "smell of Lebanon" exceedingly grateful, and the 
 glorious prospect most exhilarating. 
 
 Seated on the very last ledge of that lofty headland overhang- 
 ing the gorge on three sides, with the Beirut River two thousand 
 feet below% the eye w^anders mountainward up two tremendous ra- 
 vines to snowy Sunnin, over eight thousand feet high, on the north- 
 east, and to Jebel Keniseh, more than six thousand feet high, on 
 the south-east — a wilderness of gigantic cliffs and well -wooded 
 ridges, where nestle many picturesque hamlets under oak-groves or 
 amongst dark forests of fragrant pine. Southward, and westward, 
 and northward lies the whole plain, with the city beyond, and the 
 view has no other limit than the utmost horizon along the van-
 
 HOUSE-TOrS.— ROOFS.— BATTLEMENTS. 
 
 DJ 
 
 ishing verge of the " great and wide sea." Such panoramic scenes 
 can neither be painted nor described, they must be seen and felt. 
 On the north of that site are the remains of an ancient town now 
 covered and concealed by a thick grove of young oak-trees. To 
 that town and to the temple at Deir el Kul'ah an aqueduct brought 
 the cool water from its distant source north-east of Brummana. 
 
 HOUSE-TOrS, SHOWING ROOFS AND BATTLEMENTS. 
 
 The flat roofs of these Beirut houses afford such a delightful 
 promenade, and the prospect is so beautiful, that one can scarcely 
 keep away from them by day or night. So absorbed was I just now 
 in gazing about and listening to your peroration, that, if it had not 
 been for the parapet, I should have walked (juitc off the terrace, 
 and then found myself on the ground below with a broken limb.
 
 54 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 A very practical illustration, that, of the wisdom and humanity 
 of the command in Deuteronomy xxii. 8 : " When thou buildest a 
 new house, then thou shalt make a battlement for thy roof, that 
 thou bring not blood upon thine house, if any man fall from 
 thence." That ordinance ought to be enforced by law wherever 
 the roofs are flat, and resorted to for relaxation, for sleeping, or for 
 business. . Roofs were appropriated to similar purposes at a very 
 early age. Rahab had evidently placed her flax on the roof of 
 her house, at Jericho, to preserve it ; and when the Hebrew spies 
 were sought for by the men of that city, she " brought them up 
 to the roof of the house, and hid them with the stalks of flax, 
 which she had laid in order upon the roof."' 
 
 Ordinary houses have no other place where the inmates can 
 either " smell the air," dry the clothes, set out their flower-pors, or 
 do numberless other things essential to their health and comfort. 
 This is particularly true within the city walls ; and in villages the 
 roof is very useful. There the farmer suns his wheat for the mill, 
 and the flour when brought home, and dries his figs, raisins, and 
 other fruits in safety both from animals and from thieves. 
 
 Though we may have travelled beyond the limits of the Holy 
 Land, I see abundant evidence that we are still surrounded by 
 scenes and scenery that aptly illustrate the Holy Book ; and I am 
 glad that it is so, for it is this that imparts the greatest interest to 
 our rambles, and constitutes their chief value. 
 
 This land of Syria and Palestine — these mountains and valleys, 
 hills and plains, rivers and lakes, the sea and the sky — claims no 
 inherent attractions over other countries, and, the Bible left out, 
 other parts of the world may surpass it in interest and importance. 
 We must, therefore, ever keep in view the purpose and aim of our 
 travels. Nor will that be difficult, for we shall continually be re- 
 minded of it by many and varied incidents and experiences. This 
 subject of house-tops is a very Biblical one, and will bear farther 
 illustration by the actual habits of the people at this day. 
 
 For a great part of the year the roof, or " house-top," is the 
 most agreeable place about the house, especially in the morning 
 and evening. There many sleep during the summer, both in the 
 
 ' Josh. ii. 6.
 
 SAMUEL AND SAUL.— DAVID'S PALACE.— HOUSE-TOPS. 55 
 
 city and the country, and in all places where malaria does not ren- 
 der it dangerous. This custom is very ancient. Though, according 
 to our translation of i Samuel ix. 25, 26, Samuel calls Saul to the 
 top of the house, that he might send him away, instead of from 
 it, yet, taking the whole passage together, there can be no doubt 
 but that the process should be reversed. The Arabic has it thus : 
 Samuel " conversed with Saul upon the roof ; and early at the dawn 
 Samuel called Saul from the roof," etc., etc. This is natural, and 
 doubtless the correct history of the case. Saul, young, vigorous, 
 but weary with his long search, would desire no better place to 
 sleep than on the roof. But there should always be battlements, 
 and they should be kept in proper repair. The Moslems generally 
 build very high parapets, in order to screen their harem from ob- 
 servation ; but the Christians are very negligent, and do bring blood 
 upon their houses by a disregard of that law of Moses. 
 
 Your remark about the Moslems suggests the thought that if 
 Uriah's house had been thus protected, David might have been 
 saved from a series of crimes, and Israel from dreadful calamity. 
 
 True ; but then the roof of David's palace was probably so high 
 that he could look directly down into the courts of the neighboring 
 houses. There are such in most cities, and one can scarce!}' com- 
 mit a greater offence than to frequent a terrace which thus com- 
 mands the interior of other people's dwellings. 
 
 Isaiah has a reference to house-tops in the twenty-second chap- 
 ter which I do not quite understand. He says, verse first, " What 
 aileth thee now, that thou art wholly gone up to the house-tops?" 
 For what purpose did the inhabitants of Jerusalem go there? 
 
 That is a remarkable passage. Verse second goes on to say, 
 "Thou art full of stirs, a tumultuous city, a joyous city;" from 
 which one might suppose that the people had gone to the roofs to 
 eat, drink, clap hands, and sing, as the Arabs delight to do in the 
 mild summer evenings. But, from verses fifth to seventh, it is plain 
 that it was a time of " trouble, and of treading down, and of per- 
 plexity ;" which naturally suggests the idea that the inhabitants 
 had rushed to the tops of the houses to get a sight of those chari- 
 ots and horsemen of Elam and Kir, with whom their choice \'allcys 
 were full, and who were thundering against the gates of the city.
 
 ^6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 And, as Oriental houses have no windows looking into the streets, 
 or, if there are such, they are closely latticed, there is no place 
 but the roof from whence to obtain a view of what is going on 
 without. When, therefore, anything extraordinary occurs in the 
 streets the people rush to the roofs and look over the battlements. 
 
 The inhabitants of Jerusalem, at the time of that Assyrian in- 
 vasion, were probably seized with frenzy and madness, as they 
 were centuries after, when the city was besieged b}^ the Roman 
 legions under Titus. Then, according to Josephus, some revelled in 
 drunken feasts, and kept the place in alarm by their stirs and tu- 
 mults ; some were engaged in plunder and murder; some wept bit- 
 terly, because of the spoiling of the daughter of God's people. It 
 was a day of universal and utter confusion. Nobody could sit still, 
 but all hurried to the house-tops, either to join in untimely riots 
 of fanaticism and drunken despair, or to watch with fear and trem- 
 bling the assault upon their walls and gates. 
 
 Was it not customary in the time of our Saviour to make public 
 proclamations from the tops of the houses? 
 
 Such an inference may be drawn from Matthew x. 27, and Luke 
 xii. 3. Our Lord spent most of his life in villages, and accordingly 
 the reference there probably was to a custom observed only in such 
 places, never in cities. At the present day local governors in coun- 
 try districts cause their commands thus to be published. Their 
 proclamations are generally made in the evening, after the people 
 have returned from their labors in the field. The public crier as- 
 cends the highest roof at hand, and in a long-drawn call admonishes 
 all faithful subjects of the Prophet, within the hearing of his voice, 
 to pray to him. He then proceeds with the announcement in a set 
 form, and demands obedience thereto. 
 
 It w^as somewhat in this manner, I suppose, that the year of 
 Jubilee was proclaimed throughout the land, according to the com- 
 mand in Leviticus, twenty-fifth chapter and tenth verse. 
 
 The proclamation of that ordinance, so unique and unparal- 
 leled in the legislation of the world, was to be made with trumpets. 
 Whether straight, like those seen on the Arch of Titus, at Rome, 
 or crooked, like those rams' horns with which the walls of Jericho 
 were blown down, is not known. That joyful proclamation was
 
 THE YEAR OF JUBILEE.— rRAVING UTON THE IIOUSE-TOr. 57 
 
 to be made by the priests, in the first instance ; but as it was to 
 be made " throughout all the land," on one and the same day, 
 the great day of atonement, it is scarcely possible that there were 
 priests enough furnished with "trumpets" to sound the news in 
 every village or hamlet, and in ever}' city and town in all their bor- 
 ders. Maimonides tells us that every Hebrew at the Jubilee blew 
 nine blasts, so as to make the trumpet literally sound throughout 
 the land. Accustomed as I have been to proclamations made from 
 house-tops by the human voice, I can fanc}* that the sound of the 
 Jubilee trumpets from the Temple of the Lord would be instantly 
 caught up and heralded abroad from ever}'' hill-top and mountain 
 height, even to the utmost border of the land. The expectant 
 and joyful nation would then neither need nor wait for the mere 
 sound of trumpets and rams' horns, but the people themselves 
 with their own glad voices would proclaim aloud the acceptable 
 year of the Lord : 
 
 The year of Jubilee is come : 
 Return, ye ransomed captives, home. 
 
 It is plain that the roofs were resorted to for worship, both true 
 and idolatrous. We read, in Zephaniah i. 5, of "them that worship 
 the host of heaven upon the house-tops ;" and from Acts x. 9 w'e 
 learn that at Joppa " Peter went up upon the house-top to pray 
 about the sixth hour," before the arri\al of the men from Caesarea. 
 
 All this is very natural. The Sabeans of Chaldea and Persia 
 could find no more appropriate place for the performance of their 
 idolatrous worship of the heavenly bodies than the open terraces, 
 with the stars shining down upon them so kindly. And as few, if 
 any, ancient dwellings had closets into which the devout could re- 
 tire for prayer, I suppose Peter was obliged to resort to the roof of 
 Simon's house for that purpose; and when surrounded with battle- 
 ments, and shaded by vines trained over them, like those of the 
 present day, they would afford a very agreeable retreat, even at " the 
 sixth hour," or about noon — the time when Peter w'as favored witii 
 that singular vision, by which the kingdom of heaven was throw 11 
 open to the entire Gentile world. 
 
 Our Lord says, " Let him which is on the house-top not come
 
 58 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 TERRACE COVERED WITH VINES. 
 
 down to take any thing out of his house," ' Is it a correct inference 
 from this that the stairway landed on the outside of the house? 
 
 Probably outside of the house, but within the exterior court. 
 It would be neither agreeable nor safe to have the stairs land out- 
 side the enclosure altogether, and it is rarely done, except in moun- 
 tain villages, and where roofs are but little used. They not unfre- 
 quently end at the lewan, but more commonly in some part of the 
 lower court. The urgency of the flight recommended by our Lord 
 is enhanced by the fact that the stairs probably did lead dou'ii into 
 the court or lewan. He in effect says, though you must pass by 
 the very door of your room, do not enter; escape for your life, 
 without a moment's hesitation or delay. 
 
 ' Matt. xxiv. 17.
 
 THE SPARROW UPON THE HOUSE-TOP.— DIVINE PROVIDENCE. 59 
 
 No traveller in Syria will need an introduction to the sparrow 
 on the house-top. They are a tame, troublesome, vivacious, and 
 impertinent generation, and nestle just where they are not wanted. 
 They stop up the stoves-pipes and water-gutters with their rubbish, 
 build nests in the windows and under the beams in the roof, and 
 would stuff your hat full of stubble if they found it hanging in a 
 place to suit them. They are extremely pertinacious in asserting 
 their right of possession, and have not the least reverence for any- 
 place or thing. David alludes to these characteristics of the spar- 
 row in the eighty-fourth Psalm, when he complains that they had 
 
 THE SPARROW, 
 
 appropriated even the altars of God for their nests. Concerning 
 himself, he says, " I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the 
 house-top."' When one of them has lost its mate — a matter of 
 every-day occurrence — he will sit on the house-top alone, and 
 lament by the hour his sad bereavement. As these birds are not 
 much relished for food, five sparrows may still be sold for " two 
 farthings ;" and when we sec the eagerness with which they are 
 destroyed as a worthless nuisance, we can appreciate the assurance 
 that our heavenly Father, who takes care of them, so that not one 
 can fall to the ground without his notice, will surely take care of 
 us, who "are of more value than many s[)arrows."' 
 
 ' Psa, cii. 7. '■' Matt. x. 29, 31 ; Luke .\ii, 6, 7.
 
 6o THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Let US now descend from the house-top, and visit some of the 
 shops and streets in the city. 
 
 A stroll through an Oriental town is always either amusing or 
 instructiv'e ; and in no other way, I suppose, can a stranger gain so 
 rapid an insight into the manners and customs of the people. We 
 hav^e already passed several coffee-shops, with picturesque groups 
 of natives, seated on low stools, or upon large mats, sipping black 
 coffee from tiny porcelain cups, and sending forth clouds of smoke 
 from long pipes, or from those wonderfully contrived and bubbling 
 nargilehs. 
 
 You may regard the custom of frequenting coffee-shops with 
 the greater satisfaction, because that mode of spending time and 
 obtaining rest and refreshment is free from the degrading and 
 ruinous vices attending saloons and dram-shops in other countries. 
 I do not mean that everything indulged in by the frequenters of 
 Oriental cafes is innocent. Many of them waste much time at 
 card-playing and other methods of gambling. But even in those 
 matters the stakes are insignificant, and the consequences not very 
 mischievous. Until something better can take their place, we may 
 pass on and leave the Oriental in peaceful possession of his cafe, 
 and its cheap and harmless attractions. 
 
 Here is a shopkeeper whose small stock in trade consists en- 
 tirely of coffee-cups, pipes, and tobacco. 
 
 As in other lands so it is here : many of the occupations of 
 the middle classes have reference to the necessities and habits of 
 the people. Next to him is another who has in his shop a small 
 turning -lathe, by means of which he perforates long pipe -stems, 
 and then fits them with bowls of colored clay, and mouth-pieces 
 of glass, bone, or amber. The amount of capital invested in that 
 business, and the gain accruing, is extremely small ; but those who 
 follow such avocations are simple in their habits and frugal in their 
 mode of life. 
 
 In the matter of smoking, as in others far more important, 
 the people of Beirut have departed greatly from former customs. 
 Amongst native Christians especially, the cigarette has taken the 
 place of the more luxurious pipe, and the elegant and complicated 
 nargileh. Still, there is quite a display of them in many houses.
 
 THE LETTER -WRITER. 
 
 6i 
 
 THE LETTKR-WRITKR. 
 
 Here on our right is something sufficiently Oriental, I suppose, 
 though there is no mention of such a custom in BibHcal times. 
 
 That old man sitting by the mosk is a letter-writer. He has his 
 paper near him, and his scissors to trim it to the required shape and
 
 62 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 size. And now he takes the ink-horn, or what answers to that very- 
 ancient article of the " scribes," from his girdle, and points one of 
 those " reeds " so often mentioned by the sacred writers. All this 
 seems Biblical enough. But there comes a woman, veiled from 
 head to foot, and takes her station by his side. See, she is whis- 
 pering from behind her veil the desired message. That is suffi- 
 
 WRITING AND WRITING MATERIALS.
 
 LETTER-WRITING.— INK-HORN.— ORIENTAL LETTERS. 63 
 
 cient, the introduction consisting of complimentary phrases ; the 
 salams, etc., go in according to rule, and to all alike. 
 
 Why, it is a kind of Moslem confessional, and that aged head 
 must be full of the secrets and the scandal of half the city. 
 
 I suppose, like other confessors, he keeps the faith, and may be 
 trusted. Still, letter-writing is not a thriving business in this coun- 
 try, since even Moslem women are now learning to write. 
 
 The writing materials are very curious, and the mode of using 
 them is peculiar, to say the least. 
 
 They do not carry ink-horns now, as the prophets and scribes 
 of old did, but have a metal or ebony case for their reed pens, with 
 a bulb of the same material, attached to the upper end, for the ink. 
 That case they thrust through the girdle, and carry with them at 
 all times. When they are to write a letter, for example, they open 
 the lid of the ink -bulb, draw out a long reed pen from the case, 
 
 MODERN ARAB INK-HORN. 
 
 double over the paper, and begin from the right side, holding the 
 paper in the hand, without any other support. To be very respect- 
 ful, they take a large sheet, and the lines should incline upward 
 towards the left corner of the paper. They have formal introduc- 
 tions expressing sentiments of the highest regard and esteem, no 
 matter to whom they are writing, friend or enemy. After that, 
 which, if it have any meaning, is egregious flattery, they make an 
 epitome of the letter they are to answer, repeating it, word for 
 word, as we often find done in the Bible. They date at the top, 
 but mention of the place is not always considered essential ; and 
 I have often been at a loss to discover where to address my reply. 
 The letter should be folded long, like documents on file, placed
 
 64 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 within an envelope made for the 
 occasion, and the address written 
 across it. It must be sealed. The 
 " open letter," therefore, or paper 
 sent by Sanballat to Nehemiah, was 
 an insult.' Nearly ev- 
 erybody wears a seal- 
 ring, either on the fin- 
 ger, suspended from his 
 watch-chain, or attach- 
 ed to his purse, hav- 
 ing his name engraven 
 upon it ; and this he 
 affixes to all important 
 letters and documents 
 — another Biblical cus- 
 tom preserved in its 
 fullest extent." Ara- 
 bic books begin where 
 ours end, their first 
 page being our last. 
 
 EL MUEZZIN — THE CALL TO PRAYER. 
 
 It is now quite time to turn our steps homeward. The muez- 
 zin calls " the faithful " to sunset prayers, from that tall and slen- 
 der minaret ; and dinner will be waiting. Rich and poor, all sects 
 and classes in the East, generally dine when the day's work is 
 done, as was the custom in ancient Biblical times. 
 
 See those men in that mosk. One has spread his cloak, and 
 others their Persian rugs, towards the south. They are preparing 
 • Neh. vi. 5. 2 I Kings xxi. 8.
 
 INTERIOR OF A MOSK.-MOSLE.MS AT PRAYER. 65 
 
 to say prayers— perform them, rather— in this most pubhc place, 
 and in the midst of all this noise and confusion. 
 
 That man, standing with his face towards Mecca, raises his open 
 hands till the thumbs touch the ears, exclaiming aloud, Allah hu 
 
 EI, JAMI A — THE MOSK.
 
 66 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 akbar — " God is most great." After uttering mentally a few short 
 petitions, the hands are brought down, and folded together near the 
 
 girdle, while he recites the first 
 chapter of the Koran, and two or 
 three other brief passages from 
 the same book. And now he 
 bends forward, 
 rests both hands 
 upon his knees, 
 and repeats three 
 times a formula 
 of praise to "God 
 the most great." 
 Then, standing 
 up erect, he cries 
 
 Allah hu akbar, as at the 
 beginning. He then 
 drops upon his knees, 
 and bends forward until 
 his forehead touches the 
 ground, between his ex- 
 panded hands. This he 
 does three times, mutter- 
 ing all the while short 
 formulas of prayer and 
 praise. The next move- 
 ment will bring him to 
 his knees, and then, set- 
 tling ' back upon his 
 heels, he mumbles over 
 various small petitions, 
 with sundry exclama- 
 tions, according to form and custom. He has now gone through 
 one regular Rekah ; and, standing up as at the first, and on the 
 
 MOSLEMS AT PRAYER.
 
 PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.— NUMBER OF DAILY rKAVERS. 67 
 
 same spot, he will perform a second, and, if specially devout, even 
 a third, with the same genuflections. 
 
 They seem to be wholly absorbed in their devotions, and mani- 
 fest a power of isolation and abstraction quite surprising. 
 
 That is the result of habit and education ; small children imi- 
 tate it to perfection. There is certainly an air of great solemnity 
 in their mode of worship, and, when performed by a large assembly 
 in the mosks, or by a detachment of soldiers in concert, guided in 
 their genuflections by an imam or dervish, chanting the service, it is 
 quite impressive. I have seen it enacted by moonlight, on the wild 
 banks of the Orontes, in the plain of Hamath, and the scene was 
 something more than romantic. But, alas ! it was by as villanous 
 a set of robbers as could be found, even in that lawless region. 
 
 You think, then, that this solemn ceremony is mere hollow- 
 hearted hypocrisy? 
 
 Not exactly that ; at least not necessarily so, nor in all cases. 
 I would be glad to believe there was ordinarily any corresponding 
 moral and religious feeling connected with this exterior manifesta- 
 tion of devotion. The Moslems themselves, however, have no such 
 idea. They are rather afraid of any one who is especially sancti- 
 monious and given to prayer — their prayers, I mean. They have 
 a proverb to this effect: "If your neighbor has made the pilgrim- 
 age to Mecca once, watch him ; if twice, avoid his society ; if three 
 times, move into another street." And, certainly, no one acquainted 
 with the people will feel his confidence in an individual increased 
 by the fact that he is particularly devout. 
 
 How often, during the day and night, do the orthodox Mu- 
 hammedans perform their regular prayers ? 
 
 The orthodox number is five; the first at sunset, called salat 
 el mugrib, because, according to Oriental usage, the day com- 
 mences at that time. The second is about an hour and a half 
 later, and is called salat el 'eshe. The third is at the dawn, and 
 the fourth is at noon, called respectively, salat cs subh and salat 
 ed duhr. The fifth, which is salat el 'asr, comes midway be- 
 tween noon and sunset. Those who are especially devout observe 
 two additional seasons, one soon after midnight, and the other 
 about an hour before daybreak, seven in all. and to some such
 
 68 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 custom in Biblical times there seems to be an allusion in Psalm 
 cxix. 164: "Seven times a day do I praise thee, because of thy 
 righteous judgments." But the times most scrupulously observed 
 are three — at sunset, in the morning, and at noon. In this, also, 
 they apparently conform to the seasons of devotion mentioned 
 by David in Psalm Iv. 17: "Evening, and morning, and at noon, 
 will I pray, and call aloud : and he shall hear my voice." 
 
 It is, to say the least, interesting and suggestive to notice these 
 correspondencies between the periods of prayer amongst the Mos- 
 lems and those of the Hebrews in the olden times. 
 
 Many of these people are ostentatiously devout when abroad, 
 somewhat after the fashion of the Pharisees, I suppose. Look at 
 that fine, portly man, for instance, walking slowly and a little in 
 advance of his retainers and servants. He is the judge, or kady, 
 returning from the mehkameh, or court of justice. That is his 
 "walk" before the public, whatever his "conversation" or behavior 
 may be at home. No matter what dark schemes he may have 
 been cogitating to sell justice at the highest available price, no 
 sooner does he leave his door and make his appearance abroad than 
 he subsides into serenest gravity. With an austere and sanctimo- 
 nious air he passes along, a mesbahah, or string of beads, in his 
 hand, his eyes half closed, and his lips moving incessantly in pious 
 ejaculations — brief prayers and citations from the Koran. In all 
 this there is no appearance of affectation. Habit, from his early 
 childhood, has made it natural, and let us hope that he himself is 
 scarcely conscious of acting the hypocrite. 
 
 When in the mehkameh he will pause at the call of the muez- 
 zin, rise from his divan, and, with an attitude and air of the utmost 
 devotion, betake himself to his carpet and prayers, in the presence 
 of the entire court, and of the victims, too, of his legal villanies. 
 This kady is neither exceptional nor exaggerated, and alas! his 
 kind of piety is associated with the most tiger-hearted fanaticism. 
 Just such men planned and guided those diabolical butcheries and 
 massacres in i860, and those which have, in by-gone days, shocked 
 and horrified the civilized world ; nor will they hesitate to repeat 
 such atrocities whenever and wherever the opportunity offers. 
 There is something so terrible in this phase of human nature that
 
 MUHAMMEDAN KIIiLEH.— MECCA AND JERUSALEM. 69 
 
 no mantle of charity is sufficiently ample to hide its inexpressible 
 ugliness and fiendish crueltx'. 
 
 What opposite conclusions different persons can and do draw 
 from the same premises ! One who looks merely at the surface, or 
 who is ver>' " liberal," or very indifferent, may connect out-of-door 
 or formal praying towards Mecca with the venerable custom of the 
 pious Israelite turning towards the Temple in Jerusalem, when, like 
 Daniel in Babylon, " he prayed and gave thanks before his God." ' 
 
 I think it probable that Muhammed, or the Arabs before him, 
 borrowed that custom from the Jews; and, to this extent, there is 
 a relation between them. He did not need to originate the idea 
 of a Kibleh — south. That was an ancient custom. He, however, 
 changed his Kibleh more than once before success enabled him to 
 fix it permanently in Mecca, towards Beit Allah, where the Black 
 Stone is, and the well Zemzem. It seems evident, from the way 
 in which Solomon mentions praying towards the Temple, at the 
 very dedication of it, that it had been the custom of the children 
 of Israel from remote antiquity to direct their faces in prayer to- 
 wards the place where the ark and the altar were located. They 
 being permanently established in Jerusalem by David, the ceremo- 
 nious Jew had already learned to turn in his devotions towards the 
 Holy City chosen by Jehovah for his special dwelling-place.'' 
 
 The enlightened Christian, who has learned that "neither in this 
 mountain, nor yet at Jerusalem," shall men worship the Father, who 
 is a Spirit, and must be worshipped "in spirit and in truth "^ — such 
 a one will be reminded by the praying Moslem in the street and 
 at the mosk of those who " love to pray standing in the synagogues 
 and in the corners of the streets, that they may be seen of men." 
 And he will remember with solemnity the admonition of our Lord, 
 " When thou prayest, thou shalt not be as the hypocrites are " — 
 either as to place, attitude, motive, or form — in public to be seen of 
 men, using " vain repetitions," as these Moslems still do.' They are 
 obliged to repeat some expressions thirty times ; others many hun- 
 dred times. Would that these remarks did not apply to nominal 
 Christians in this land as well as to Moslems ! 
 
 Some of these crooked, narrow streets, with gutters in the mid- 
 ' Dan. vi. 10, 11. '^ i Kings viii. 44, 48. •' Jolin iv. 21, 24. ' Matt. vi. 5, 7.
 
 70 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 die, and no sidewalks ; with these closet -h'ke shops, whose raised 
 platforms extend so far into the thoroughfare ; with low vaulted 
 
 ES SUK — THE STREET. 
 
 arches overhead, upon which houses appear to be built, and with 
 kiosks and latticed windows almost meeting from the opposite 
 sides, are anything but cheerful and convenient. 
 
 Especially the latter, when the street is crowded with men.
 
 "DRAWERS OF WATER. •—SlIAVIXCi THE HEAD. 71 
 
 women, and children, horses, camels, donkeys, and dogs — all con- 
 tributing to the noise and confusion, shouting, calling, crj'ing, growl- 
 ing, braying, barking, biting, and fighting. This man warns the 
 throng to be careful lest they get their clothes wet by coming in 
 contact with his burden — a water-bottle made out of the whole 
 skin of an ox. Those boys are shouting, at the top of their voices, 
 " Your back ! your face !" admonishing the crowd to look sharply 
 before and behind, or they may be knocked down, run over, crushed 
 against the wall ; or have their clothes torn, and their faces lace- 
 rated by the sticks of wood on the backs of the donkeys : a very 
 necessary admonition. 
 
 That I perceive well enough, and both the donkey-boys and the 
 water-carrier remind me of that Biblical expression, now passed into 
 a proverb — " Hewers of wood and drawers of water." 
 
 Their occupation is one of slavish toil, and they are to be en- 
 countered everywhere — at the entrance to private houses, in the 
 crooked streets, on the broad carriage -roads, and in the narrow 
 lanes in the suburbs of the town. Beirut still depends largely upon 
 hewers of wood and drawers of water, and they are a necessity here 
 to-day, as were the Gibeonites when they wxre employed in the 
 same service about the sanctuary.' 
 
 Well, that is a strange sight, and one which I did not expect 
 to .see in a civilized city like Beirut. This barber has established 
 himself on the flag-stones in that sheltered corner, and is plying 
 his art upon the head of that muleteer seated on the mat in front 
 of him, and meekly holding the basin under his own chin. He is 
 actually shaving the man's head as bare as the palm of my hand I 
 Are we to suppose that Paul submitted to an operation like that 
 when he shaved his head at Cenchrea, and again at Jerusalem?' 
 
 I see no reason to doubt it. Then, as now, it may have been 
 the custom to shave the head in the public street. The poor, and 
 especially the laboring classes amongst the Christians, get shaved 
 anywhere — on the roadside, beneath the shade of some patriarchal 
 tree, at the khan or way-side inn, and in villages and towns, on the 
 thoroughfares, or in the streets. 
 
 Ignorant and fanatical Moslems reserve a lock of hair on the 
 ' Josh. ix. 23, 27. * .\cts xviii. iS ; xxi. 24.
 
 72 • THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 top of the head, not only to distinguish them from Christians, but 
 also, if they fall in battle against " the unbelievers," to allow of the 
 head being carried by it, when severed from the body. Otherwise 
 the impure hand of "the infidel" would be inserted into the mouth 
 of " the believer," and thus defile it. There are barber -shops for 
 
 SHAVING THE HEAD. 
 
 the well-to-do and intelligent Moslems, like this one on our left ; 
 and others fitted up in European style, and patronized by foreign 
 residents, travellers, and the better class amongst the Christians. 
 
 What a Babel of discordant sounds ! and yet what a perfect 
 paradise for the relic hunter, the antiquarian, and the artist these 
 old curiosity shops are, crammed full with such an extraordinary 
 collection of Oriental articles of every shape and description ! 
 
 We are now in " the street of the auctioneers," and these men, 
 besetting us on every side, and jabbering at us so incoherently, are 
 the dellalin, or auctioneers. They wear swords round their waists, 
 daggers and pistols stuck into their girdles, carry guns on their 
 shoulders, and cast-off finery on their arms, from the embroidered 
 and spangled veil to the elegant cloth jacket gleaming in purple 
 and gold, and from a praying-rug to a red fez cap or a green tur- 
 ban — all " going, going, gone," to the highest bidder. 
 
 No wonder that " the buyer," in Solomon's time, if he ever ex-
 
 BARBER-SHOP.— AUCTIONEER. 
 
 71 
 
 BARBER-SHOP — Al'CTIONEF.R. 
 
 pcrienccd any such ordeal as this, should exclaim, in order to 
 escape from their importunities, " It is naught, it is naught: but 
 when he is gone his way, then he boastcth." ' 
 
 ' I'rov. XX. 14.
 
 74 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Already the shades of evening fall heavily along these gloomy 
 streets, and I see no provision for lighting them. 
 
 There is none ; and you observe that the shopkeepers are shut- 
 ting up, and leaving for home. Thenceforward until morning the 
 streets are deserted and silent, with only here and there a company 
 returning from a visit, with a servant carrying a lantern before them. 
 The city guard creeps softly about in darkness, and apprehends 
 all found walking the streets without a light. Beirut is gradually 
 departing from many of these customs, and some of the shops 
 in the suburbs are patronized until a late hour ; still enough of 
 them remain to afford a type of all that can be seen elsewhere, 
 except at Damascus. That city is wholly different, and carries one 
 back to the age of the Caliphs and the creations of the " Thou- 
 sand and One Nights." 
 
 May 31st. 
 
 The friend at whose house we dined last evening sent a ser- 
 vant to call us when dinner was ready. Is this custom strictly 
 observed by all classes in the community, at the present day? 
 
 Not very generally amongst the common people, nor in cities, 
 where European manners have greatly modified the Oriental ; but 
 on Lebanon it still piievails. If a sheikh, beg, or emir invites, he 
 sends a servant at the proper time. This servant often repeats the 
 formula mentioned in Luke xiv. 17: "Come; for all things are now 
 ready," or the supper is ready. The fact that this custom is mainly 
 confined to the wealthy and to the nobility is in agreement with 
 the same parable, where the certain man "who made a great sup- 
 per, and bade many," was presumably of that class.' It is true 
 now, as then, that to refuse is an affront to the maker of the feast, 
 nor would such excuses as those in the parable be more acceptable 
 to a Druse emir than they were to the lord of that " great supper ;" 
 very few, however, would manifest their displeasure by sending 
 servants into the highways and hedges after the poor, the maimed, 
 the halt, and the blind. All those characters are found in the 
 streets, and I have known rich men who exemplified the parable 
 even in that particular; it was, however, as matter of ostentation, 
 to show the extent of their benevolence, or the depth of their 
 
 ' Luke xiv. i6.
 
 ORIENTAL DINNERS. 75 
 
 humility and condescension. Nevertheless, it is pleasant to find 
 enough of that parable still practised to show that originally it was, 
 in its details, in close conformity to the customs of this country. 
 
 Orientals certainly are far behind the day in almost every 
 branch of domestic economy ; especially is this noticeable in the 
 absence of a dining-room, in the deficiency of their tabic furni- 
 ture, and their primitive mode of eating. 
 
 The common custom, even of the better class, is to bring a 
 polygon stool, about fourteen inches high, into the general sitting- 
 room. On this is placed a tray of basket-work or of copper, upon 
 which the food is arranged. The bread lies on the mat or upon 
 the tray, and a cruise of water stands near by, from which all drink- 
 as they have need. On formal occasions this is held in the hand 
 by a servant, who waits upon the guests. Around this stool and 
 tray the guests gather, sitting on the floor. The rich have knives 
 and forks, and even silver spoons; but they rarely use them. 
 
 This is a very meagre set-out, certainly. 
 
 It is all they want, and more convenient than our custom, and 
 less expensive. High tables and chairs would not only be out of 
 place, but in the way at all times. They do not have a dining- 
 room, and hence they want furniture that can be easil)- brought in 
 and removed. They eat out of the same dish, for it is within the 
 reach of all. The dishes are composed generally of rice and stews, 
 of beans, cracked wheat, or other vegetables, with leben or curdled 
 milk, or salads, as the case may be, in deep dishes or bowls. Some 
 use wooden or metal spoons for their boiled rice and thick stews, 
 but the most common mode is to double up bits of the thin bread, 
 and dip them into the dish. There is frequent reference to this 
 custom in some of the most interesting and solemn scenes of the 
 Bible. As the meat is always cut up in the stews, or else cooked 
 until it is ready to fall to pieces, knives and forks are not neces- 
 sary ; and when they have chicken the flesh is easily torn to jiieces 
 with the fingers. Nor do they see any vulgarity in this. Polite 
 Orientals will tear off the best bits, and either lay them on the 
 guest's plate, or insist u[)on putting them into his mouth. I ha\e 
 had this done to me by fingers not particularl\- fair, or even clean. 
 
 Their customs demand much less labor than ours. If our s\-s-
 
 76 
 
 liiiiii'r^ 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ^ Jll 
 
 SITTING AT MEAT — PARTY AT DINNER. 
 
 tern was introduced, and the females of the family — who do all the 
 work — were required to carry it out, their labor would be increased 
 tenfold. Not only must the dining-room be provided, but also en- 
 tirely new furniture procured, and the table, table-linen, and chairs 
 be kept clean and bright. Indeed, an entirely new and foreign
 
 IMITATING EUROPEAN MANNERS. 
 
 // 
 
 department must be instituted, and maintained under every dis- 
 advantage. Where this has been attempted in the native famiHes, 
 imitating European manners, it has generally proved a failure. 
 The kni\es, forks, and spoons are rusty; the plates, dishes, and 
 glasses ill assorted, dirty, badly arranged, and not sufficient in num- 
 bers ; and the chairs and the table are rickety, and the cooking is 
 the worst of all. The Arabs should retain their own dietetic regu- 
 lations, at least until they arc better prepared for a change. For 
 their own needs their cooking is good, and their set-out respectable. 
 
 la i::/Ji/^IE-h^J*i^' 
 
 STOOL AND TRAY — riTCHER AND BASIN.
 
 78 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 After such a meal as we have described, washing the hands is 
 indispensable. The pitcher and basin are brought in, and the ser- 
 vant pours water over the hands of the guests, who dry them upon 
 a napkin placed for the purpose on his shoulder. 
 
 If there is no servant, they perform this ofifice for each other. 
 Great men have those about them whose duty it is to pour water 
 
 WASHING THE HANDS. 
 
 on their hands. Thus it was in ancient times. One of the servants 
 said to Jehoshaphat, " Here is Elisha the son of Shaphat, which 
 poured water on the hands of Elijah."' It was a pitcher and basin 
 
 ' 2 Kincs iii. ii.
 
 SOCIAL REUNIONS.— COFFEE AND PIPES. 79 
 
 somewhat like the tusht and ibrick of this day, I suppose, that our 
 Lord used at the close of the last supper with his disciples, w^hen 
 he girded himself with a napkin, and Avashed, not their hands, but 
 their feet, and thus gave the most affecting lesson on humility the 
 world has ever seen or heard.' 
 
 The invited friends of our host, who came in after dinner to 
 spend the evening, belonged to some of the most intelligent and 
 wealthy families of Beirut. 
 
 I begin to understand their " reunions," and have been much 
 impressed with the graceful politeness observed even between inti- 
 mate friends on such occasions. When one enters the room all 
 rise to their feet, and stand steadfast and straight as palm-trees to 
 receive him. The formal salams are given and taken all round the 
 room with the dignity of princes and the gravity of a court; and 
 when the new-comer reaches his seat the ceremony is repeated, all 
 sitting, in precisely the same words. In one of their full divans, 
 therefore, a man gives and receives about fifty salams before he is 
 fairly seated and at his ease. 
 
 Then comes the formality of coffee-drinking and the social cus- 
 tom of smoking. Some use the extemporaneous cigarette. Others 
 have pipes with long stems of cherry or other w^ood, ornamented 
 with amber mouth -pieces of considerable value. The nargileh, 
 however, wnth its flexible tube of various-colored leather, seems to 
 be the greatest favorite. The tube of the one brought to me the 
 other evening was at least twelve feet long, of crimson leather, 
 corded w^ith silver wire ; the bottle, with its plate, was very large, 
 of thick cut-glass, inlaid with gold, really rich and beautiful. I, 
 however, could produce no effect upon the water in the bottle. 
 One needs a deep chest and great powers of inspiration to entice 
 the smoke of the burning timbek down the tube, through the 
 water, and along the coiled sinuosities of the snake -like nabridj ; 
 and yet I saw a lad make the water in the glass bubble like a 
 boiling caldron without any apparent effort. The sipping of black 
 coffee, from tiny cups, set in holders of china, brass, or silver and 
 gold filigree, I like wcU enough, but not the fumigation. A cloud 
 soon fills the room so dense that one can scarcely see, and I was 
 
 ' John xiii. 4, 5.
 
 8o 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 PIPES, NARGILEHS, COFFEE-CUPS, AND TRAYS. 
 
 driven to the open court to escape suffocation. Another thing 
 which surprises me is the vehemence of the speakers. Head and 
 shoulders, hands and feet, the whole body, in fact, is wrought into 
 violent action to emphasize their meaning. When fairly roused, 
 all talk together at the top of their voices, and above anything of
 
 GARMENTS, ORIENTAL AND OCCIDENTAL. 8 1 
 
 the kind I have ever heard. Noticing my surprise, one said to 
 me, " You talk as if you were afraid to be heard, and we as if we 
 feared we should not be." I wonder how you can distinguish the 
 words or comprehend a single sentence. 
 
 We are used to it ; and, unless a stranger calls attention to that 
 which has confounded you, we hardly notice it. I wish you could 
 have understood the discussions the other evening, for they em- 
 braced some of those grand and impressive themes which can and 
 ought to stir the deepest fountains of feeling in the human breast. 
 The Arabs delight in such subjects. 
 
 My two young friends, who spoke English, kept me informed 
 of the leading topics, and I was able to appreciate some of the re- 
 marks which so interested the company. We finally took a corner 
 to ourselves, and compared Oriental and Occidental manners and 
 customs. They maintained that we had invented and shaped ours 
 on purpose to contradict theirs— theirs, the original ; ours, copies 
 reversed or caricatured. Of course, the weighty questions about 
 beards, and mustaches, and shaved heads were duly discussed with 
 respect to appearance, convenience, cleanliness, and health. 
 
 Escaping from the tangle of the beard, we fell into another 
 about garments, long and short, tight and loose ; and there they 
 were confident of victory. Our clothes seem to them uncomforta- 
 ble and inconvenient ; and that is true, if we must sit as the Ori- 
 entals do ; but with chairs and sofas their objection has but little 
 force, while for active life our fashions are far the best. Long, 
 loose clothes are ever in the way, working, walking, or riding ; and 
 I suspect that they aid materially in producing that comparative 
 inactivity which distinguishes Orientals from Occidentals. As to 
 the mere matter of picturesqucness, we may admit their claim to 
 some apparent superiority. The masters of the brush and the 
 chisel, and the sons of song in every age and country, have so 
 decreed, and it is vain to deny. 
 
 These matters of dress and costume have a certain Biblical in- 
 terest, and therefore form a necessary part of our study. The gar- 
 ments of our first parents, in addition to their primary intention, 
 had, as I believe, a typical significance. The skins with which those 
 two sinners, penitent and reconciled, were clothed were, probably,
 
 82 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 those of lambs offered in sacrifice, and they not obscurely sym- 
 bolized the robes of righteousness purchased for penitent believers 
 by the sacrifice of the Lamb of God on Calvary. And in many sub- 
 sequent religious incidents and institutions garments are invested 
 with a typical signification. 
 
 Such facts elevate the subject far above the category of mere 
 trivialities. And, indeed, that cannot be a matter of indifference to 
 the Christian student and philosopher in which all men, all women, 
 all children, of every age and country, have felt, do, and will ever 
 continue to feel, an absorbing interest, and upon which is expended 
 an infinite amount of time, money, and labor. It would be a curi- 
 ous exercise of ingenuity to trace out the very gradual development 
 of human costume, from the first fig-leaves and coats of skins to the 
 complicated toilets of a highly-civilized society. 
 
 We, however, must restrict ourselves to the Bible. The list of 
 garments is not extensive until the times of the later prophets — 
 aprons of fig-leaves, man's first vain invention to hide the naked- 
 ness of sin. Coats of skin, given in mercy by our heavenly Father 
 — cloaks, mantles, shirts, breeches, girdles, bonnets, and sandals, in- 
 vented at various dates, and most of them consecrated to religious 
 purposes by Moses in the garments of the Hebrew priesthood. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact, that after the first mention of coats in 
 Genesis iii. 21, we hear no more about garments of any kind for 
 sixteen or eighteen hundred years. Shem and Japheth, after the 
 Deluge, had a garment so large that they laid it on their shoulders, 
 in order to cover their father. Several hundred years later — in 
 Abraham's day — we read of shoes, and of raiment presented to Re- 
 bekah ; and she covered herself with a veil when Isaac met her. 
 Later in life, she had goodly raiment of her son Esau with her in 
 the house. Then comes the coat of many colors, the occasion of 
 sad calamities to Joseph ; Reuben, not finding the lad in the pit, 
 rent his clothes — the first time this action is mentioned. Jacob 
 also rent his; and, in after- ages, this expression of grief becomes 
 common, and is so to this day, as the fabrics out of which the gar- 
 ments were made became of a finer texture, and more easily torn. 
 
 The materials first used were skins of animals, and some people 
 are clothed with them at this day. Afterwards coarse cloth woven
 
 GARMENTS, ANXIENT AND MODERN. 83 
 
 from the hair of goats and camels was used, and Hnen, woollen, and 
 cotton fabrics were introduced. Silk is mentioned in Genesis xli. 
 42, margin ; Proverbs xxxi. 22, and in Ezekiel xvi. 10, 13, but I sup- 
 pose " fine linen " was meant. There is no reason to believe that 
 Solomon's "virtuous wife" was acquainted with the manufacture 
 of silk; nor was cotton, probably, known to the Jews until the 
 Captivity. The Egyptians, and of course the Hebrews, were early 
 skilled in embroidery with tissue of silver and gold ; and Orientals 
 are still extravagantly fond of embroidered garments. The favorite 
 colors, as every reader of the Bible knows, were blue, and purple, 
 and scarlet, and the same taste prevails in Syria, and in Oriental 
 countries generally, to this day. 
 
 The whole subject of garments and fabrics, shape and color, is 
 much more obscure than most people suppose. The ancient He- 
 brew costume is thought to have resembled, more or less closely, 
 the Oriental dress of our day. But which? We shall select that 
 of the Syrian Arab and Bedawin of the desert, which in all pro- 
 bability do approach nearest to that of the Hebrews ; and by 
 describing the various articles, as well as the ordinary mode of 
 wearing them, their use will be sufficiently apparent. You need 
 not attempt to remember, or even pronounce, the Arabic names ; 
 but it is difficult to talk about nameless things, and therefore we 
 cannot dispense with these hard words. 
 
 LIST OF GARMENTS WORN BV SYRIAN ARABS AND BEDAWIX. 
 
 Kumis, a long shirt of cotton, linen, or silk. yeh, overlapping in front, has pockets for 
 
 Those of the Bedawin are made of cot- purse and handkerchief. 
 
 ton, the most important item in their Gumbaz, an open gown of cotton, silk, or 
 
 wardrobe. cloth, with long sleeves, overlapping in 
 
 Libas, drawers of cotton. front, girded tightly about the loins by 
 
 Shintian, or Sherwal, very full, loose trousers the zunn.ir. 
 
 of cotton, linen, or cloth. Zunnar, girdle of leather, cotton, silk, wool- 
 
 Dikky, a cord or sash of cotton or silk, with len, or camel's hair shawl. 
 
 which the trousers are gathered and tied Sulta, an outer jacket worn over the gumbaz. 
 
 round the waist. Kubran, a heavy jacket of cotton, linen, or 
 
 Suderiyeh, a waistcoat, without sleeves, l)ut- cloth, with open or slashed sleeves fasteneil 
 
 toned up to the neck, of cotton, linen, by buttons. 
 
 cloth, silk, or velvet. Jibl)eh, a long loose mantle of cotton or clolii, 
 
 Mintian, a jacket of cotton, linen, or cloth, very full. 
 
 with long sleeves, worn over the suderi- '.\ba, 'Abaiyeh, Mashlah, a cloak, of various
 
 84 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 forms and materials. It is often richly or- Tlie Bedawin wear the keffiyeh only, a par- 
 
 namented with gold and silver thread in- ty-colored handkerchief, woven with gold 
 
 woven with the cloth. The most common tissue, thrown over the head, and confined 
 
 is made long and full, of wool, goats' or there by a twisted rope of goats' or camels' 
 
 camels' hair, so that the owner wraps him- hair, called 'akal. This is a picturesque 
 
 self in it to sleep. and very distinctive article in the costume 
 
 Burnus, long loose cloak of white wool, with of an Arab of the Desert. 
 
 a hood to cover the head. For the feet there is, first — 
 
 For the head there is, first, the Jerabat and Kalsat, socks and stockings of 
 
 Arkiyeh and Takiyeh, a cotton cap, fitting every variety, and of all colors. 
 
 closely to the head, whether shaven or not. Kalshin, a slipper of soft morocco leather, 
 
 If the head is shaved, a soft felt cap is red, yellow, or black. 
 
 often worn under the takiyeh. Babuje, a half slipper, answering in part to 
 
 Tarbiash, or Fez, a thick red felt cap. The the ancient sandal, which is not now used 
 
 best come from Algiers. except by the Bedawin of the desert. 
 
 Laffeh, the Turban, a shawl of wool, cotton, Surmaiyeh, a shoe, commonly of red mo- 
 or silk, wound around the tarbush. The rocco. Christian priests wear black shoes, 
 Turks now wear nothing but the fez, and but with Moslem sheikhs the favorite color 
 many Arabs only the tarbush, with its long is yellow. 
 
 tassel. Others have a small colored hand- Jezmah, a boot of red morocco, stout and 
 
 kerchief or mandeil tied round the tarbush. clumsy. 
 
 There are variations and additions to this Hst in different regions 
 inhabited by the Arab race ; being, however, only sHght departures 
 from existing types and patterns, they need not be described. 
 
 To the BibHcal student, these matters are interesting so far only 
 as they throw light on the sacred Scriptures ; and this they do in 
 many passages. For example, it w^as the 'aba or mashlah, I sup- 
 pose, with which Shem and Japheth covered their father.' Joseph's 
 " coat of many colours " may have been the kumis, or shirt, and is 
 thus translated in the Arabic Bible." It was the jibbeh, probably, 
 that he left in the hands of the wife of Potiphar.' The 'Aba, or 
 Mashlah, may represent the mantle which fell from Elijah, and was 
 taken up by Elisha, or the cloak, in the precept, " If any man will 
 sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak 
 also."* It was possibly the jibbeh that our Saviour laid aside when 
 he washed the feet of the disciples." It can be so worn or taken 
 off, and, like the suderiyeh, or waistcoat, rent in grief or rage, as to 
 correspond with every allusion to such matters in the Bible. The 
 same applies to the zunnar or girdle, to the surmaiyeh and babuj 
 
 ' Gen. ix. 23. '^ Gen. xxxvii. 3, 23, 31. ^ Gen. xxxix. 12. 
 
 * 2 Kings ii. 8, 13 ; Matt. v. 40. ^ John xiii. 4, 5.
 
 rUilIXG OFF THE SHOES.— COVERING THE HEAD. 85 
 
 — the shoes and slippers — and, in fact, to all other articles of dress 
 which we have described. 
 
 Let us turn philosophers while we look farther into Oriental 
 manners, customs, and costumes. Search deep enough, and I be- 
 lieve you will generally find that the customs of a people are the 
 result of two causes — necessity and compensation. The Oriental 
 costume, for example, is light and loose, because the climate is 
 warm. The natives do not sit on chairs, because they are hard 
 and uncomfortable, and in this country a recumbent posture is 
 required to insure rest and comfort. Under these circumstances, 
 tight garments are very inconvenient and incongruous. 
 
 Then, as you observe, they scrupulously drop their boots, shoes, 
 or slippers at the door when they enter a room, and keep on their 
 head-dress. This seems strange to us, but it is necessary. As 
 they sit on the mat, rug, or divan, with their feet under them, shoes 
 would soil both couch and clothes, and, besides, would make a very 
 uncomfortable seat. The demands of propriety and comfort in- 
 troduced and enforced the custom of dropping the shoes at the 
 entrance into the sitting-room, and it was thence extended to every 
 place entitled to respect. From this to the idea of defilement from 
 the shoe was but a step, and certain to be taken. Hence the strict 
 requisition to put it ofT on entering sacred places of every kind. 
 Muhammedans have preserved this idea in all its force, and none 
 can enter their mosks or holy shrines with shoes on. This custom 
 was probably established in Egypt before Moses was born, and he 
 was trained up to regard it as obligatory. When, therefore, God 
 appeared to him in the burning bush, he needed only to be re- 
 minded that the place whereon he stood was holy ground, to make 
 the direction to put off his shoes at once intelligible and reasonable.' 
 
 Then the people keep their head-dress on, both because the 
 shaven head requires to be concealed, and also for the sake of 
 health. Always covered and closely shaved, the head becomes ten- 
 der, and liable to colds on the least exposure. The shaving of the 
 head, I suppose, had reference, originally, to cleanliness, and to avoid 
 scab and other cutaneous diseases, which are generally prevalent, 
 and difficult to cure. It is undoubtedly better to keep the head 
 
 ' E.xod. iii. 5.
 
 86 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 clean and cool, and accustomed to bear change of temperature, with 
 only the beautiful covering which God has spread over it. It is 
 also best and most becoming to keep the feet covered and warm. 
 But in this climate people do not often suffer from cold feet, and 
 the requirements of decency are secured by concealing them under 
 their loose garments. The ablutions which Muhammed required 
 before public worship have as much reference to propriety as to 
 spiritual or ceremonial purity. Becomingly dressed in loose, flowing 
 robes, and thoroughly cleansed hands, feet, and face, their prayers 
 are not only proper, but striking and solemn. 
 
 In the time of Moses "garments," I presume, had attained 
 nearly their present form and shape amongst tribes purely Ori- 
 ental ; I mean as to pattern, not as to the number, nature, and 
 quality of the materials. Those have greatly multiplied and im- 
 proved, both in variety, skilful workmanship, fineness of fabric, and 
 in the combination of brilliant colors. 
 
 The costume of the women corresponded in most respects, I 
 suppose, to that of the men, with, of course, certain additions. As 
 was to be expected, it developed faster than the other. Even 
 during the life of Jacob there were garments appropriate to maid- 
 ens, others to married women, and others again for widows. That 
 implies a great variety in female attire ; and it went on enlarging, 
 until their toilets became as complicated and mysterious in Jerusa- 
 lem as they now are in the capitals of Europe and America. In 
 the third chapter of Isaiah we have a catalogue, about as intelligi- 
 ble to the English reader as the Hebrew seems to have been to our 
 translators : " Cauls, round tires like the moon, chains or sweet balls, 
 mufflers or spangled ornaments, tablets or houses of the soul," ' etc. 
 
 The female costume of the present day differs from that of the 
 men mostly in the veils and in the head-dress, which, with the tar- 
 bush for the basis, is complicated by an endless variety of jewels 
 and other ornamental appendages ; these, however, you will not 
 easily get permission to inspect, and to request it would be, in 
 most cases, a serious affront. 
 
 The dress of Oriental women is not so complicated as that 
 of European ladies, and shows more the shape of the person, and 
 
 ' Isa. iii. 18-23.
 
 SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC CUSTOMS. 
 
 S? 
 
 they are not expected or allowed to mix in society with men, 
 nor to be seen by them. Their in-door dress is not contrived to 
 meet the demands of a public thoroughfare, and when the)- go 
 abroad they are closely veiled from 
 head to foot. The reasons — and 
 such there are — for confining the 
 women very much to their homes, 
 and of closely veiling them when 
 abroad, are found in the character 
 and customs of Oriental people ; 
 and the veils cannot be safely 
 abolisljied, nor their domestic regu- 
 lations relaxed, until a pure and 
 enlightened Christianity has pre- 
 pared the way. When, therefore, 
 you find few ladies to welcome and 
 entertain you at your calls, .and 
 rarely see them in social gather- 
 ings, you may moderate your re- 
 gret by the reflection that this is 
 the result of a great moral neces- 
 sity. The same necessity forbids 
 an Arab to walk arm-in-arm with 
 his wife. Neither does a man eat 
 with his wife and daughters in 
 many families, because the meal is 
 in the public room, and often be- 
 fore strange men. So, also, the ladies are accommodated in church 
 with a part railed off, and latticed, to shield them from public gaze. 
 Moslem women seldom join in the prayers at the mosks. 
 
 These customs are often carried to extremes by pride antl jeal- 
 ousy, and then they are not only absurd, but unreasonable. i'Dr 
 example, a Druse sheikh or wealthy Moslem, when he calls a ph\- 
 sician for any of his harem, makes a great mystery of the matter. 
 The patient is closely veiled, and if the doctor insists upon seeing 
 her tongue, there is much cautious manccuvriiig to avoid exposing 
 the face. I have known cases where the tons/ue was thrust through 
 
 HEAD-DRESS OF A SYRIAN LADY.
 
 88 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 a rent in the veil made for the purpose. This is sufficiently absurd, 
 and yet I am acquainted with sheikhs who carry these jealous pre- 
 cautions to a still more ridiculous extreme. They never allow their 
 wives to go out of the harem, or women's apartments, except at 
 night, and not even then until servants are sent in advance to 
 clear the roads, and forbid any man to approach. 
 
 The reluctance of even enlightened Christian men to speak of 
 the females of their families is amusing to us, and certainly not very 
 complimentary to the ladies. For example, according to the genu- 
 ine old regime, a man, when absent from home, never writes to his 
 wife, but to his son, if he have one, though not a month old ; and 
 often he addresses his letter to a fictitious son, whom, according to 
 precedent, he imagines he has or ought to have. 
 
 This has its origin in the odd custom, that, when a man is 
 married and has no son, the world gives him one by a courtesy 
 peculiarly Oriental, and then calls him by his supposed son's name. 
 Even unmarried men are often dignified by the honorable title of 
 Abu somebody or other, the name bestowed being decided by that 
 which he previously bore. Elias becomes Abu Nasif, Butrus is 
 called Abu Salim, and so on, according to the established custom 
 of naming first-born sons. Thus Tannus, the father of the infant 
 Besharah, for example, is no longer Tannus, but Abu Besharah, and 
 this not merely on all occasions, but also in legal documents. It 
 is, in fact, noTonger respectful to call him Tannus. So, also, the 
 mother is ever afterwards called Um Besharah, mother of Besharah. 
 Nearly all Bible names were significant, and were conferred with 
 reference to some circumstance connected with the birth of the 
 child. Leah called her first-born Reuben— behold a son—" for she 
 said. Surely the Lord hath looked upon my affliction ;" the second 
 was named Simeon— hearing— for the Lord had heard her prayer ; 
 and thus it was with Rachel in the case of her sons.' 
 
 That custom is still observed amongst the Arabs, and they have 
 other names to which they are very partial. All sects join the 
 name of God to one of his attributes or qualities, in order to give 
 appropriate and significant names to their children. Thus, Fudle 
 Allah— God's bounty ; 'Abd Allah— servant of God. So the word 
 
 ' Gen. xxix. 32, 33.
 
 SIGNIFICANT NAMES.— GARMENTS AND SLEEPING. 89 
 
 din — religion — enters into many favorite names, as Amin ed Din — 
 faithful in religion ; Shems ed Din — sun of religion ; Salah ed Din 
 — goodness of religion, contracted by us into Saladin, the antago- 
 nist of England's lion-hearted Richard, and the terror of Crusaders. 
 And as the parents assume the names of their eldest son, we hear 
 them addressed as the father or the mother of God's bounty, Abu 
 or Um Fudle Allah, and the mother of the servant or slave of God, 
 Um 'Abd Allah, or Um 'Abd el Kadir. 
 
 For their daughters, the Arabs are fond of flowery and poetic 
 names. We have all about us, amongst the rich and the poor, suns, 
 stars, and moons, roses, lilies, and jessamines, diamonds and pearls, 
 and other beautiful epithets ; but the parents do not assume the 
 names of their daughters. 
 
 There are many minor matters in which the East and the West 
 are as far apart socially as they are geographically. For example, 
 a whole family, parents, children, and servants, sleep in the same 
 room, and with slight change of garments, or no change at all. 
 Such customs are alluded to in the Bible. The latter is implied in 
 the reason assigned by Moses for the return of a garment taken in 
 pledge from a poor man before the sun goes down : " It is his rai- 
 ment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep?'" and the former in the 
 plea of the lazy man in the parable about importunity : " My chil- 
 dren are with me in bed ; I cannot arise and give thee."^ The long, 
 loose garments worn by these people remove, or at least mitigate, 
 the impropriety of this practice ; but, still, it is objectionable. So, 
 also, a whole family continue to reside under the same roof, father, 
 sons, and grandsons, in one common household. This also is an- 
 cient ; but it is repugnant to our ideas, and has many disadvantages. 
 Nor does the fact that they can live cheaper by such " co-opera- 
 tive " house -keeping compensate for the confusion and want of 
 family government occasioned by the system. There never can 
 be well-regulated households until this custom is so modified as to 
 call forth greater personal responsibility and independence in the 
 younger branches of the family. 
 
 Such customs we can excuse, but there are others which admit 
 of no apology. They are degrading to both sexes. The Arabs 
 
 ' Exod. xxii. 27. ' Luke xi. 5-3.
 
 90 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 have a word — " ajellack," an equivalent to " saving your reverence" 
 — with which they preface the mention of anything offensive or 
 unclean. Thus, ajellack a donkey, or a dog, or my shoes ; so, when 
 compelled to speak of their wives, they say, " ajellack my wife is so 
 and so." These and similar expressions enable us to understand 
 why it is that acquaintance before marriage is ordinarily out of the 
 question. It could not be secured without revolutionizing an ex- 
 tended system of domestic regulations and compensations. There- 
 fore the present plan of arranging matters matrimonial through the 
 intervention of friends and relatives, as it was in times most remote, 
 will be continued, with all its evils, until a change is brought about 
 in the condition of the women. This can only be effected by a 
 Christian education, and the deviation of the marriage relation. 
 
 Amongst both Moslems and Christians the birth of a son is 
 always a joyful event in a family, but that of a daughter is often 
 looked upon as a calamity. The father sometimes refuses to see 
 his child, or speak to the mother ; and the friends and relatives con- 
 dole with the unfortunate husband. In those communities where 
 divorce is permitted, that is often the only reason assigned by the 
 husband for sending away his wife. This accounts for the desire 
 which many wives manifest to become the mother of sons, not a 
 whit less vehement than that of Rachel.' They make vows, as 
 did Samuel's mother in Shiloh, when she was in bitterness of soul, 
 and wept sore, and vowed a vow unto the Lord, and they also go 
 on pilgrimages to shrines that have obtained a reputation in those 
 matters."* The circumstance mentioned in Genesis xvi. 4, which 
 made Hagar insolent towards her mistress, has the same effect now ; 
 and the devices which produced such heart-burnings in the families 
 of the patriarchs, are equally mischievous at the present day. If 
 the first wife has no children, the husband marries another or takes 
 a slave. And it not unfrequently happens that the fortunate slave, 
 when the mother of a son, is promoted to the post of honor and 
 authority, and, of course, she becomes insolent towards her mistress. 
 ' Gen. XXX. i. ' i Sam. i. 10, 11.
 
 THE DOG RIVER.— THE SUBURBS OF BEH^lUT. 9I 
 
 III. 
 
 THE DOG RIVER, AND THE SUBURBS OF BEIRUT. 
 
 Excursion to the Dog River.— Eastern Suburbs of Beirut.— The View from Mar Mitr.— 
 The Reservoirs.— Chapel of St. George.— St. George and the Dragon.— The Quaran- 
 tine.— The Beirut River.— Jebel Keniseh and Sunnin.— Bridge over Nahr Beirut.— 
 Emir Fukhr ed Din.— The Mulberry Gardens.- St. George's Bay.— Ride along the 
 Beach.— The River of Death.— Ant Elias.— Narrow Plain.— Fountain and River of Ant 
 Elias.— Beirut Water- works.— The Tunnel.— The Promontory of Nahr el Kelb.— The 
 Ancient Road.— View from the Summit of the Pass.— A Roman Mile-stone.— Sculptured 
 Tablets.— Eg>'ptian Tablets Described by Wilkinson.— Layard's Opinion of the Assyrian 
 Tablets.— Dr. Robinson's Observations on the Antiquity of the Tablets.— Greek Inscrip- 
 tions.— Professor J. A. Paine.— Cuneiform Inscription.— Napoleon III.— The Dog, and 
 the Rock in the Sea.— Inscription of Marcus Antoninus.— The Greek "Wolf" and 
 the Arab " Dog."— Inscription of Sultan Salim.— Scenery of Nahr el Kelb.— A Wild 
 Cabbage.— Bone and Flint Deposits.— Canon Tristram.— Mr. Dawkins.— Fossil Teeth 
 and Arrow-heads.— Prehistoric Savages.— Lebanon aljounds in Caverns, Fossils, and 
 Minerals.— Visit to the Caverns of Nahr el Kelb in 1836.— The Caverns Explored by 
 Mr. Maxwell and Mr. Huxley in 1873.— Description of the Caverns of the Dog River. 
 —The Screen.— Professor Robertson's Account.— The Cathedral.— Maxwell's Column. 
 —The Hermit's Pillar.— The Gallery.— The Dome.— Willow-point and Light-house. 
 —The Elephant's Cave.— Bliss's Straits.— The Draperies.— The Pantheon.— Clayton's 
 Passage.— The Styx.— Rustum Pasha's Chandelier.— Chaos.— Huxley and Brigstocke's 
 Rapids.— Personal Incident.— Attempt to Explore the Caverns above the Rapids De- 
 scribed by Professor Robertson.— Temperature of the Air and Water in the Caverns. 
 — Depth of the Water. — The Caves of Nahr ei Kelb compared wiili Celebrated 
 Caverns in other Countries. — Ride up the River Gorge.— The Aqueduct. — Gran.l 
 and Picturesque Scenery.— The Weir.— The Road over the Tunnel and to the Sea. 
 —Ride around the Western Suburbs of Beirut.— The Barracks and Hospital.— The 
 Capuchin Monastery and Church.— Institute of the Deaconesses.— German Church. 
 —Khan Antun Beg.— Ottoman Bank.— Consulates.— Post-ofifices.— Moslem Cemetery. 
 —Hotels.— Remains of Ancient Baths.— Modern Bathing-houses.— Minat el Husn.— 
 Sponge Divers.— Petroleum Warehouses.— Ship-l)uil<ling Yard.— Potteries and Tan- 
 neries.— Inhabited Well.— The Hospital of St. John.— The Medical Hall.— Syrian 
 Protestant College.— Lee Observatory.— Unequalled Site and Magnificent Prospect.— 
 Jackals and Hyenas.— The Light-house.— Exlende.l Outlook.— French Company.— 
 Numerous Inlets.- Deep Caverns.— Seals or Sea-cows.— The Rousha.— Perpendicul.nr
 
 92 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Cliffs. — Ibrahim Pasha. — The Conscription. — Refugees. — Fugitives in the Caves and 
 on the Rousha. — The Rousha in a Winter Storm. — Petrified Echini in the Rocks. — 
 The Sand Sea. — Gardens and Houses Overwhelmed by the Sand. — Woe-begone Don- 
 keys. — The Quarries. — Narrow Lanes. — Prickly-pear Hedges. — Fruit of the Prickly- 
 pear. — Pine-groves. — Sowing the Pine. — Venerable Pine-trees Planted by Fukhr ed 
 Din. — The Sycamore. — Zaccheus. — Sycamore Figs. — Gatherers of Sycamore Fruit. — 
 The Power of Faith Illustrated by the Sycamore. — The Black Mulberry. — The Syca- 
 more in Egypt. — Biblical References to the Sycamore. — 'Assur. — The Cemetery. — 
 The Press. — The Bible Warehouse. — Anglo-American Church. — Female Seminary. — 
 Mecca Pilgrims. — Fanatical Moslem Dervishes and the Priest of Baal. — The Douseh. 
 — Riding over Prostrate Men and Boys. 
 
 June 2d. 
 
 The cool breeze from the sea this morning renders our ride to 
 the Dog River very pleasant. 
 
 We have been passing for half an hour through the eastern sub- 
 urbs of Beirut, and appear to be still within the limits of the town. 
 
 From the top of that hill, called Mar Mitr, the very best view 
 of the city, the surroundings, and the boundless sea to the north 
 and west, is obtained. Early in the morning, and late in the after- 
 noon, that beautiful prospect is seen to the best advantage. At 
 the foot of the hill is the main reservoir which receives the water 
 brought to the city from the Dog River, a distance of about ten 
 miles. The water is also forced up a steep incline to the top of the 
 hill, where there is another reservoir, and from that it is distributed 
 through the suburbs and about the city. 
 
 These fragments of old buttresses on the roadside are said to 
 be the remains of the traditional chapel of St. George, the tutelary 
 saint of England, and they are associated with that fabulous ex- 
 ploit of his which gave to Beirut its greatest glory in the days 
 of legendary lore. Here it is believed that St. George washed his 
 hands after slaying the dragon, and the deep bay of St. George 
 down yonder owes its name to that contest on its shores. There 
 it was that St. George killed the dragon ; exactly when, or what 
 particular dragon, is not known, but he must have killed him, for 
 he has not been seen since, and all agree that he is dead. In the 
 gardens, to the north-east of those old buttresses, near a dilapidated 
 mosk, probably built on the actual site of the chapel, is an old pit 
 or well, into which the slain monster was cast. The place is now 
 in the hands of the Moslems.
 
 THE QUARANTINE.— XAHR BEIRUT.— ST. GEORGE'S BAY. 93 
 
 Those extensive buildings covering that rocky promontor)-, 
 whose cHffs descend almost perpendicularly into the sea, belong 
 to the Quarantine department. I have a vivid recollection of the 
 dangers and discomforts of repeated imprisonments there with 
 plague-stricken patients in alarming proximity. The plague has 
 long since been extirpated, and the quarantine buildings are now 
 rarely used except for militar}' purposes. 
 
 This is the Beirut River, I suppose, which you liave mentioned 
 in connection with the ruined aqueduct? 
 
 It is also the ancient Magoras, and its main permanent source 
 is a remitting fountain in the bed of the stream below Deir el 
 Kul'ah. The river drains a portion of the plain, and tliat magnifi- 
 cent sweep of lofty mountains, including Jebel Keniseh and Sunnin 
 — a wild and wooded region abounding in scenery of great natu- 
 ral beauty. Nahr Beirut, as you see, has a wide channel, requir- 
 ing this long bridge of seven arches, with broad and massive piers, 
 to cross it. The bridge is said to have been built by the Emir 
 Fakhr ed Din, but he probably only repaired a more ancient one. 
 The amount of water is now very small, but in the rainy season 
 the shallow stream is swollen to a broad and turbid river, sweep- 
 ing everything before it, and giving to the water of the bay for 
 miles out to sea a pale red color. 
 
 A ride of nearly half an hour, through the most flourishing. mul- 
 berry gardens we have yet seen, has brought us out upon the sandy 
 shore, near this dismantled wreck. 
 
 St. George's Bay affords comparative shelter to vessels, and is 
 the safest anchorage for ships on this coast, from Egypt to Asia 
 Minor. Still, many foreign vessels, and untold numbers of native 
 craft, have been cast high and dry upon this beach during excep- 
 tionally severe storms in winter. 
 
 For an hour or more we can ride along the beach, with these 
 noisy wavelets tumbling over the feet of the horses, and the light 
 surf occasionally wetting our own. But both they and we prefer 
 the dull, unchanging monotony of this restless sea to the weary 
 plodding through the deep sand just above the shore. 
 
 That ravine on our right is the dry bed of Nahr el Maut, the 
 River of Death. Its source is in those mountains below the vil-
 
 Q4 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 lage of Brummana, and, descending to the plain, it has hardly the 
 strength to force its way through the sand to the sea ; hence this 
 stagnant and unhealthy region near its mouth, and thence, also, its 
 very significant and ominous name. 
 
 This village straggling along the foot-hills of Lebanon is Ant 
 Elias ; and the narrow stretch of plain between it and the sea is 
 covered with mulberry and vegetable gardens, and even fruit-trees. 
 The fountain of this river of Ant Elias, which we are now crossing, 
 bursts forth from the roots of the mountain, but not at a sufficient 
 elevation to carry its life-giving contributions to all parts of the 
 plain. As it is a never-failing fountain, and very copious, its waters 
 drive a number of mills, where most of the wheat is ground that 
 supplies the flour dealers of Beirut. 
 
 It is a grateful change to see those green and waving wheat- 
 fields, and to leave the deep, tiresome sand and the deafening surf, 
 and tread the firm earth once more. 
 
 These low buildings, on our right, were erected a few years ago 
 by the Beirut Water-works Company ; and there is the machinery 
 which forces the water around the bay, under the Beirut River, 
 and up to the reservoir on Mar Mitr — a distance of over six miles. 
 The water from the Dog River is brought through the mountain 
 ridge by a tunnel half a mile long, and that portion of it which is 
 used to drive the machinery runs uselessly away into the sea be- 
 low. I was present when the water was turned on, and witnessed 
 the first revolution of the wheels that now force it through so 
 many miles of iron pipe up to the reservoir. 
 
 Over that rocky promontory ahead of us, which juts out into 
 the sea for about half a mile, is the famous pass of Nahr el Kelb, 
 cut in the rock at an elevation of more than a hundred feet above 
 the water. The pavement of this ancient road is so execrable that 
 timid riders prefer to walk. Our nerves, however, are sufficiently 
 educated to allow us to retain our place in the saddle even when 
 descending to the river on the other side of the pass, where the 
 winding way — a succession of broad, rough, and slippery steps — is 
 really dangerous to the horse and his rider. 
 
 We are now on the summit of the pass, and can rest a while, 
 and enjoy this extensive and varied prospect of rugged mountains
 
 ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN TABLETS. 
 
 95 
 
 and fruitful pla-ins, the river gorge, 
 the crescent- shaped bay, the dis- 
 tant city, and the boundless ex- 
 panse of this great and wide sea. 
 Here, by the roadside, on this 
 fragment of a granite column, pro- 
 bably a Roman mile-stone, is a 
 brief, half -defaced Latin inscrip- 
 tion, and there are others, still 
 more obliterated, cut into the 
 limestone rock of the cliff. The 
 most ancient roadway was much 
 higher up the pass than the pre- 
 sent one, and in the face of the 
 rock above it are those remarkable 
 sculptured tablets of the Egyp- 
 tians and Assyrians, probably com- 
 memorating their presence here, 
 and their passage over this for- 
 midable and rocky promontory. 
 
 The Egyptian tablets are so 
 worn away by time that they are not easily decipherable. The 
 
 Assyrian warriors are life §ize, and re- 
 presented in military costume. They 
 are in better preservation, and a con- 
 siderable part of one of them is cov- 
 ered with a long cuneiform inscription, 
 enough of which remains legible to 
 enable the expert in such matters to 
 form an opinion of its general tenor. 
 
 Regarding the 
 Egyptian sculp- 
 tured tablets. Sir 
 J. G. Wilkinson 
 supposes that the 
 stela; seen by He- 
 rodotus in Syria 
 
 ASSYRIAN TAHLET, WITH CUNEIFORM 
 INSCRIPTION. 
 
 EGYPTIAN TARl.ET, WITH SIP- 
 POSKI) IllKK(i(;i.Vl'll!( S. 
 
 iiii;K()(;i.Yi'in(s anu 
 
 I'TGUKKS.
 
 ^6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 were doubtless those on the rock near Berytus [Beirut], at the 
 mouth of the Lycus [Dog River], engraved by Rameses II. [Sesos- 
 tris].' One is dedicated to Ra, another to Ammon, and a third 
 to Phtha. Almost the only hieroglyphics now traceable are on the 
 jambs of the tablets, which have one of the usual formulas : *' The 
 good god [Pharaoh], the powerful king of kings, Rameses; to whom 
 life has been given like the sun." But the lines below the figure 
 of the king, who slays the foreign chiefs before the god, and which 
 should contain the mention of his victories, are too indistinct, and 
 so greatly defaced as to be entirely illegible. 
 
 The Assyrian tablets Mr. Layard regards as all referring to Sen- 
 nacherib, the king who built the palace at Kouyunjik, and whose 
 army of one hundred and eighty-five thousand men was smitten in 
 the night by " the angel of the Lord."' 
 
 Altogether there are three Egyptian tablets, and six Assyrian. 
 " Looking back from our day," says Dr. Robinson, " the Assyrian 
 tablets have continued to commemorate the progress of the As- 
 syrian hosts for more than five -and -twenty centuries; while the 
 Egyptian, if proceeding from Sesostris, have celebrated his prowess 
 for thirty-one centuries. They reach back to hoary antiquity, even 
 to the earliest days of the Judges of Israel, before Jerusalem was 
 known."' Certainly a very interesting and impressive statement. 
 
 Professor J. A. Paine, of the American Palestine Exploration 
 Society, *' discovered three Greek inscriptions, one on a stone in a 
 Roman wall, and two cut in the rock." According to his interpre- 
 tation it would appear that the Phoenicians first made this road, 
 and that the Romans afterwards repaired portions of it. Across 
 the river, on the face of the cliff, above the road, and below the 
 canal that conducts the water to the mills, a long cuneiform in- 
 scription has been discovered recently by Mr. J. Loytved, Danish 
 vice-consul, but its purport has not yet been ascertained. We must 
 not forget to mention that the Emperor Napoleon III. appropri- 
 ated one of the Egyptian tablets, and caused to be engraved there- 
 on an inscription commemorating the occupation of the Lebanon 
 district by a French army in i860, after the massacres of that year. 
 
 ' Notes on Herodotus, vol. ii., p. 15S. - 2 Kings xix. 35, 36. 
 
 ^ Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 622.
 
 THE DOG RIVER.— INSCRIPTIONS.— BONE DEPOSITS. 97 
 
 Let us now descend to the khan at the foot of the pass, where 
 we can lunch and admire at our leisure the extraordinary scenery 
 of this imposing gorge or deep chasm between the mountains. 
 
 That rock, lying in the sea below us, and constantly washed 
 by the waves, has a fanciful resemblance to the body of a dog, and 
 native tradition ascribes to it the origin of the name Nahr el Kelb, 
 the Dog River. It is supposed to be the image of a dog that once 
 stood upon a pedestal at the head of the pass. On the face of 
 this rock, above the road to our right, is the Latin inscription of 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. From which it appears that, in the 
 latter part of the second century, at the time when the Roman 
 Emperor made or mended this road, the river was called Lycus. 
 Account for it as we may, it is certain that since then the Greek 
 "Wolf" has disappeared and given place to the Arab " Dog." 
 
 On these low cliffs above the road, near the bridge, is a much 
 defaced Saracen inscription. The caligraphy of what remains is so 
 involved that not even the most skilful native scholars can de- 
 cipher more than that Sultan Selim repaired this bridge. 
 
 This scene is altogether unique — the perpendicular cliffs on 
 either side towering to the sky, with the river and the bridge be- 
 tween ; those ancient roadways, overhanging the sea, and winding 
 zigzag up the rocky pass ; the remarkable tablets, with their un- 
 solved hieroglyphics, and stern warriors clad in coats of mail — all 
 these fascinate the imagination, and, with the lofty mountains, the 
 running stream, the rolling sea, and the fleeting clouds, form a 
 vision as wild as it is picturesque and romantic. 
 
 I once attempted to ascend to the top of the cliffs on the 
 southern side, but failed, and was obliged to descend — a much more 
 difficult feat. I was not altogether unrewarded, for I found a verita- 
 ble cabbage bush, growing out of a crevice in the rock, half-way up 
 the pas.s. Leaf, color, smell, and taste were unmistakably cabbage; 
 but the stalk was slender and woody, and about three feet high. 
 
 Several bone and flint deposits have been found on this pro- 
 montory. The bones are embedded in two different formations; 
 one a soft, tufaceous deposit, along the cliffs on the west side of 
 the pass, and just before the ascent begins; the other a hard, sta- 
 lagmitic floor, probably of an old cavern, on the top and over the
 
 q3 the land and the book. 
 
 centre of the pass. Canon Tristram, who first discovered the for- 
 mation, submitted specimens of the deposit to W. B. Dawkins, Esq., 
 of the Geological Survey of England, who determined the teeth of 
 an ox resembling the Bos primigenius, and others were assigned to 
 the reindeer and elk. Such are the facts, briefly stated. 
 
 That they are the teeth and bones of animals is certain, and 
 they were probably brought there gradually, during the ages in 
 which those deposits were forming, for they are mingled with flint 
 chippings. The flint chips are innumerable, and vary in size from 
 a finger-nail to an average hand. I picked up a well-shaped spear- 
 head, and found flints which seem to have been intended for ar- 
 row-heads. They were, however, far less perfect than Indian arrow- 
 heads. I have collected hundreds of those specimens in America. 
 Those flints present a most obscure problem to solve connected 
 with this locality. We may imagine that prehistoric savages se- 
 lected this easily defended cape for their permanent home, and 
 that they pointed their spears and arrows with flint ; and conse- 
 quently there would be brought to this locality great quantities 
 to be manufactured into weapons. Whether this be so or not, it 
 is certain that the Lebanon abounds in caverns, fossils, and minerals 
 of various kinds, and will well repay m^ore thorough and scientific 
 exploration than has hitherto been bestowed upon it. I have 
 been told that there are other bone deposits higher up in the river 
 ^^oree, and also that bones have been discovered in the caves out 
 of which the river itself flows. 
 
 How far are those caves from this bridge? 
 
 About four miles. I have been there several times; and, while 
 seated in this cool shade, I will give you a description of them. 
 My first visit was made in September, in the year 1836. Having 
 heard from the natives vague accounts of those caverns, I deter- 
 mined to find and explore them. Mr. Hebard was my companion : 
 and as we were to penetrate into regions then unknown, the. excur- 
 sion had all the excitement of first discovery. 
 
 Where the river gorge turns to the south the ravine becomes 
 too narrow, wild, and rocky for any but a goat-path, and the road 
 to the caves leads over the steep shoulder of the mountain on the 
 north side for an hour and a half. It then descends by a very
 
 THE GROTTOES OF NAUR EL KELB. 99 
 
 slippery track to the river, in the immediate vicinity of the caves. 
 There are three of them, and all on the north side of the ravine. 
 Out of the first gushes a large part of the river, but without a boat 
 it cannot be explored. A few rods farther up the valley is the 
 second cave. It runs under the mountain in a straight line for 
 eighty paces, and then descends into an abyss of water. On the 
 west side of the main entrance is a passage parallel to the cave, 
 and of about the same dimensions, with which it communicates by 
 a large aperture. This tunnel trends round to the west, and unites 
 with the first or lower cave near its mouth. Strike or jump on the 
 floor of the passage, and one is startled b)- a dull, hollow sound 
 beneath, and inclined to walk softly over such unknown depths. 
 
 About forty rods higher up the ravine is the third and largest 
 cave. The entrance to it is a wide and low opening in the face 
 . of the rock, and is so concealed by large rocks that one might pass 
 within a few feet of it without suspecting its existence. Soon the 
 passage becomes high enough to walk erect, and turns round to- 
 wards the west. Torches are necessary, as the interior of the cave 
 is utterly dark. A gallery runs round three sides of it, and the 
 river, which crosses the lower part of the cavern, disappears at the 
 north-west corner with a loud noise. At the north-east, where it 
 enters the cave, there is a pool of water, clear and smooth as a mir- 
 ror, and deliciously cool. How far the cavern extended under the 
 mountain I had no means of ascertaining. I fired a gun there ; the 
 echoes were loud and oft-repeated. That cave abounds in stalac- 
 tites and stalagmites, some of which are of great size, reaching from 
 the roof to the floor, and were grooved like fluted columns. They 
 also hang like inverted candles from the roof above the pool. I 
 longed for a boat to explore the mysteries of those dark and wa- 
 tery labyrinths, and to discover the hidden sources of the river itself. 
 
 This, in brief, is what I saw in those caverns, about forty- fi\'e 
 years ago. Long after that I had my desire gratified to examine 
 them more carefully. In September, 187;:^, Messrs. Maxwell and 
 Huxley, agents and engineers of the comjjany organized in London 
 to supply Beirut with water from the Dog River, resolved to e.x- 
 • plore the caves, and, after overcoming many difficulties, the)- fmalh' 
 succeeded. They had small boats, or rafts, made in the lower cave,
 
 lOO 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and by their aid soon became familiar with its intricacies. I was 
 invited to accompany the party, consisting of Mr. Huxley, Dr. 
 Brigstocke, and Mr. Park- 
 er, on one of their explor- 
 ing excursions. bbss- straits 
 We reached the '^■'"^ 
 
 MAP OF THE GROTTOES. 
 
 entrance of the cavern at ten o'clock, 
 and descending to the river, which crosses 
 the cave, as described in the account of 
 my first visit, we were quickly paddled, 
 in a low boat, up to the rock called the 
 Screen. The Screen is one mass of 
 rock, that appears to have fallen from the roof above, and com- 
 pletely blocks up the narrow passage of the river, allowing the 
 water to pass beneath it. It is about fifteen feet high, smooth 
 and slippery, and it was 
 with some difficulty that 
 we climbed to the top, and 
 descended on the other 
 side to where the boats 
 were in which our excur- 
 sion was to be made. 
 
 Up to the Screen there 
 was nothing very striking 
 to be observed, except the 
 grand vault that spanned 
 the deep and still waters 
 of the Dark Lake, as the ex- 
 plorers call it. Numerous 
 stalactites hung from the 
 roof of. the vault, and the 
 cool and clear water was 
 
 THK SCREF.N.
 
 PROF. ROBERTSON'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROTTOES. lOI 
 
 twenty feet deep on the lower side of the Screen. Above the 
 Screen a great cavern extends in the same general direction, nearly 
 north-east, farther than our lamps and candles enabled us to see. 
 This was called the Cathedral by those who first discovered it — a 
 party consisting of Mr. Maxwell and Mr. Huxley, of the Water- 
 works Company ; Dr. Bliss, President of the Syrian Protestant Col- 
 lege ; and Dr. Brigstocke, formerly of the Royal Navy. 
 
 In a description of those caverns, written by Professor James 
 Robertson, of the University, Glasgow, he says: "These four, to 
 use their own words, ' bound themselves in a solemn league that 
 they would either explore some of the mysteries mentioned by 
 Dr. Thomson, or show that no other man could.' " When the 
 party had, with great difficulty, scaled the top of the Screen, they 
 " could discern, by the dim light of their candles, that they were 
 in the presence of a continuation of the cavern, of much vaster 
 proportions than they could have anticipated. Groping his way 
 along the lofty ledge, Mr. Maxwell reached a projecting point at 
 the farther end ; and as he fixed his candle, and took out his note- 
 book and compass for observation, his position at once suggested 
 to his companions the pulpit in a great cathedral, the screen of 
 which was the barrier of rock w^hich they had just surmounted." 
 
 " A magnesium wire was ignited, and the beauties of this sub- 
 terranean temple of Nature's w^orkmanship burst upon their view. 
 The floor was a lake of purest water, whose reflection intensified 
 the brightness of a roof and walls glistening and sparkling as with 
 a million of gems. In the words of one of the party, 'from the 
 lofty vaulted roof and precipitous sides hung massive stalactites, 
 between which the rocks were studded with others of a more slen- 
 der and graceful shape, while from below shot up in wild profu- 
 sion stalagmites which towered aloft, in some cases almost reaching 
 their pendent companions.' " ' 
 
 From the Cathedral onwards the cavern has an average widlli 
 of forty feet ; but the roof was too high, in most places, to be 
 seen by the aid of our brightest lights. There are many strangely 
 shaped galleries on either side, and stalactites and stalagmites of 
 every possible hue, from jet black to pure white, and of every size, 
 
 ' Good WonK, November, ii^75, pp. 770, 771.
 
 102 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK 
 
 MAXWELL S COLUMN. 
 
 from that of a candle up to 
 Maxwell's Column, which is 
 fifty-five feet in circumfer- 
 ence, and rises over sixty 
 feet to the lofty vault above. 
 That splendid column, 
 " standing out in bold re- 
 lief, with fine fluted front, 
 and continued to the rear 
 in a mass of pendent dra- 
 pery, like a great curtain 
 let down in graceful folds 
 from the roof," is an emi- 
 nently appropriate monu- 
 ment to the leader of that 
 exploring party. It is four 
 hundred yards from the 
 Pulpit, and between them 
 is the Hermit's Pillar, and 
 on the opposite side is the Hermit's Gallery. The lofty roof is 
 called the Dome. Then follows Willow Point, a wonderful sta- 
 lactite group resembling the 
 
 drooping branches of that 
 tree ; and near to it is Wil- 
 low Point Light - house. 
 About two hundred yards 
 farther on is the Elephant's 
 Cave, beyond which is Bliss' 
 Straits, the narrowest and 
 most intricate part of the 
 cavern. Some three hun- 
 dred yards farther eastward 
 is an extraordinary display 
 of pendent stalactites called 
 the Draperies. 
 
 " Still another two hun- 
 dred yards, and the explor- the pantheon.
 
 THE GROTTOES OF NAUR EL KELB. 
 
 lO: 
 
 ers, now more than half a mile under Ljround. find themselves in 
 a spacious cavern, whose roof is lost in the gloom. Under this 
 dome, standing out clear as alabaster in the midst of the darkness, 
 is one of the most beautiful stalagmite formations of the grottoes, 
 which, from its resemblance to the Pantheon, has been distin- 
 guished by that name." Not far from it, where the cavern is nar- 
 row, and the roof very low, is Clayton's Passage. " Instead of the 
 former dazzling whiteness, the walls of the cavern now presented 
 a dull, dark appearance, as if coated over with pitch, and suggested 
 for the waters the name of 
 the Styx." A peculiar clus- 
 ter of stalactites is called 
 Rustum Pasha's Chande- 
 lier, in honor of the Gover- 
 nor-general of Lebanon. 
 
 Above the place where 
 the water shoals, and the 
 boat was brought to land, 
 there were bowlders and 
 large fragments of rock, as 
 black as Erebus, piled up 
 in one confused mass ; 
 hence the name Chaos. 
 Through that debris the 
 river finds its way from 
 above, but how it enters 
 the pool, or the Styx, we 
 could not discover. 
 
 After lunch wc climbed up the slippery rocks of Chaos with 
 great caution, each of us having a long stick in one hand, to steady 
 ourselves by, and a lighted candle in the other, to show where wc 
 could safely plant our feet. Finally, we came to Huxley and Brig- 
 stocke's Rapids, where the river rushes down to and amongst the 
 chaotic mass of rocks below. We groped our way with difificulty, 
 some on one side, some on the other. The stream is there very 
 narrow, and, in attempting to leap to the opposite bank, I fell in 
 and had to swim out. Though we reached a point where the river
 
 104 ^^^ LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 again expands into an upper lake, there was no practicable passage 
 along its banks, and we were obliged to retrace our steps to our 
 boats at the lower end of Chaos. 
 
 The mystery of the upper lake and cavern remains yet to be 
 solved. Professor Robertson informs us that " in the autumn of 
 the following year [1874] three of the party attempted to find out 
 what lay beyond, and for this purpose provided themselves with a 
 small boat, which they carried in pieces, and put together on the 
 rocks at the foot of the cataract. But, owing to a severe winter, 
 the water was found running at double the speed of the previous 
 year, and it was evident their frail craft could not live in such a 
 torrent. All they could do, by scrambling a few yards along the 
 slippery face of the rock, was to observe that there was smooth 
 water and no sound on the other side ; but future explorers must 
 have the credit of making known what lies beyond Huxley and 
 Brigstocke's Rapids." ' 
 
 The temperature of the atmosphere in the cave was sixty-two 
 degrees, the air pure and sweet, and that of the water sixty de- 
 grees. In some places, where the cavern is broad, the water is 
 not more than two feet deep ; in other parts the depth is twenty, 
 or even thirty feet. Though I was for several hours in clothes wet 
 as water could make them, I experienced no inconvenience. We 
 emerged from the mouth of the cavern after sunset, having been 
 underground about eight hours. 
 
 Professor Robertson closes his account of the grottoes of Nahr 
 el Kelb with the remark that, " though for size not to be men- 
 tioned in the same breath with the Kentucky Caves, they possess 
 features resembling those of that immense labyrinth. And though 
 devoid of animal remains, they will bear comparison with any of 
 the bone caves in the gorgeousness of their draperies and the 
 grandeur of their stalactites. The caves of Derbyshire will bear 
 no comparison with them. Adelsberg has been explored to a 
 greater length ; but the distinctive feature of the Dog River caves 
 is that the river itself has been followed three-fourths of a mile 
 underground ; for from Thomson's Cavern to the Rapids there was 
 no perceptible increase or diminution of the waters."" 
 
 > Good Words, November, 1875, p. 773. "' Good Words, November, 1S75, p. 773.
 
 THE AQUEDUCT.— THE WEIR. IO5 
 
 Instead of returning to Beirut by the way we came, we will 
 pass up the river to the Weir, constructed by the Water-works 
 Company to turn so. much of the stream as was needed into their 
 aqueduct. This detour will afford a good view of the wild, rocky 
 scenery in one of the most striking specimens of a picturesque 
 river gorge to be found even on goodly Lebanon. 
 
 That aqueduct, on the other side of the river, appears to be 
 carried along the very face of the perpendicular rock overhanging 
 the north bank of the stream ; and the oleander bushes that border 
 its course, the feathery tufts of the waving cane, and the festoons of 
 pendent creepers that fringe its winding way are all very beautiful. 
 
 It conveys the water of the river to the mills both above and 
 below the bridge. From a point a short distance beyond this the 
 view westward of the aqueduct and the mills, the river and the 
 bridge, the rocky roadway zigzagging over the pass, and the far- 
 off sea, presents a picture of more than ordinary attractions to the 
 tourist and the artist. As we advance up the glen the cliffs on 
 either side become more lofty and imposing ; pine-groves creep up 
 the mountain-side, and here and there a Maronite convent crowns 
 the summit of the gray crags. The admirer of grand and roman- 
 tic scenery will be amply rewarded for the loss of time, and the 
 trouble it will cost in order to reach the Weir. 
 
 The magnificent mountain scenery above and around this weir 
 makes it the most picturesque dam we have seen in the country, 
 and the strongest and best built. 
 
 The engineers of the Water-works Company desired to take the 
 water direct from the caverns, but the land there belongs to the 
 owners of the mills below the mouth of the f^rst cave. They would 
 not sell their rights upon any terms, and the present aqueduct was 
 necessarily commenced much lower down the river. The engineers 
 found great difficulty in constructing a dam capable of resisting the 
 winter floods, but they have succeeded, and Beirut is now provided 
 from here with the pure water of the Dog River. 
 
 We must return for some distance by the same watery way, 
 along the bank and through the river, until we can turn out of the 
 bed of the stream into the road over the promontory of Nahr el 
 Kclb made by the engineers of the company. It follows the line
 
 Io6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 of the tunnel through the mountain, and there are shafts sunk at 
 intervals to the water below. We will reach the sea near the works 
 which they constructed to force the water thrpugh the iron pipes 
 up to the reservoir on the top of Mar Mitr, that hill above the 
 road which we noticed in passing this morning. 
 
 And now that we are by the sad sea waves once more we may 
 vary the monotony of this tedious ride by a long canter over the 
 beach ; and a brisk pace through the mulberry gardens will bring 
 us to our home about sunset, in the cool of the evening. 
 
 June 5th. 
 
 Beirut has spread so extensively in every direction over the' 
 Ras, or cape, and through the mulberry gardens, that one must 
 ride around it before he can form any adequate idea of the place. 
 Our horses are ready, and this morning we will descend directly to 
 the sea-shore by the French road that passes along the west side 
 of the old town, near the line of the ancient wall. 
 
 These extensive buildings on our left are the Government bar- 
 racks and the hospital ; and this edifice across the way is the Capu- 
 chin monastery and church, built against a portion of the former 
 land castle of Beirut in this vicinity. 
 
 The broad road on our left leads westward along the ridge to 
 Ras Beirut, and that large establishment on the north side of it, 
 surrounded by a high wall, and embowered in trees, is the institute 
 and high school of the Prussian Deaconesses of Kaiserwerth, and 
 there also is the German church. 
 
 A short distance down that narrow street is Khan Antun Beg, 
 the most attractive public building in Beirut. Private families oc- 
 cupy the upper stories, and merchants have of^ces and warehouses 
 in the lower portions. The Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Con- 
 sulates and post-offices of several foreign countries are also located 
 there. Here on the right is a Moslem cemetery, occupying an ex- 
 ceedingly valuable site for business purposes ; and there, above the 
 sea and the road, and commanding a fine prospect of the bay and 
 the mountains, are some of the principal hotels of the place. 
 
 The shore, I perceive, is quite irregular, rocky and precipitous 
 in some parts, having numerous coves and indentations which may 
 have been utilized as harbors in ancient times.
 
 THE WKIK ACROSS NAUR EL KELlJ.
 
 THE SUBURBS OF BEIRUT. 10/ 
 
 They, no doubt, were ; and this rubble-work, these old founda- 
 tions, and those excavations in the rock are, probably, the remains 
 of ancient baths, and places of public resort. . They must have been 
 as generally frequented as their miserable successors, constructed 
 of wood and covered over with mats, are at this day. 
 
 This inlet, larger and better protected than the rest, is Minat 
 Husein, commonly called Minat el Husn, "the beautiful harbor;" 
 but the water is not deep enough for ships, and its accommoda- 
 tions are very limited. Even these picturesque Greek sloops, or 
 " sponge divers," as they are styled, now riding at anchor so closely 
 and quietly there, would be dashed to pieces during the winter 
 storms. These low warehouses are mainly used for the storage of 
 cargoes of petroleum from America, or of coal for the steamers. 
 And on the point opposite that coffee-shop is the ship-building 
 yard, where vessels of small tonnage are repaired, and new ones con- 
 structed after the model and rig of the old-fashioned bomb-ketch. 
 
 Here are the potteries and tanneries, but as we have seen the 
 same industries at Jaffa, Gaza, and elsewhere we need not turn 
 aside to examine them. These steps cut in the rock lead down, 
 as you perceive, to the water in this well. It is " inhabited " by a 
 saint or a demon, I am not certain which. At any rate, either the 
 well or the spirit, or both, are " possessed " of healing virtues, for 
 the walls are sometimes dimly illuminated with burning rag-wicks 
 in small oil-lamps, votive offerings to the genius of the place. 
 
 That building on the hill is the Hospital of St. John, and is in 
 charge of the Prussian Deaconesses of Kaiserwerth. These on the 
 ridge above us are, first, the Medical Hall of the Syrian Protestant 
 College ; then the College itself, and next to it is the house of the 
 President. Beyond that, and advantageously situated on a project- 
 ing spur of the main ridge, which descends steeply to the sea, is 
 the Lee Observatory, erected in part by the gift of the Hon. Henry 
 Lee, M.P., of Manchester, England. 
 
 They occupy a conspicuous position, and must command a' 
 magnificent prospect far out to sea, over the city, across the bay, 
 and up to the lofty summit of Lebanon. 
 
 There is no site equal to it at the head of the Mediterranean, 
 and the extensive grounds are becoming more attractive. Fine
 
 I08 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 houses are being built in this neighborhood, the residences mostly 
 of Europeans and Americans. When I first came to this country 
 there was not a house on all the cape above us. I have seen not 
 only foxes and jackals but hyenas also prowling about amongst 
 the rocks. The former have almost entirely withdrawn to the 
 mountains, and are now rarely seen or heard in this region, and 
 the latter have long since disappeared. 
 
 We will continue our ride westward for half an hour, along 
 the shore, to Ras Beirut, at the extreme end of the cape. 
 
 There is the light-house, I suppose, so welcome to the eyes of 
 sailors approaching this cape on a dark and stormy night ? 
 
 It is called el Fanar, and it commands an extended outlook 
 over the sea — north as far as Ras esh Shukah, or Theoprosopon, 
 and southward down to the Ladder of Tyre, a distance of more 
 than eighty miles ; while the outlook westward over this " great 
 and wide sea" is boundless. The light-house system on this coast 
 is in the hands of a French company. 
 
 These numerous inlets are quite peculiar, and seem as though 
 made specially to enable fishermen to reach the land along this 
 rocky shore, as appears from these small boats anchored in them. 
 
 Some of them lead into extensive caverns. I have often 
 brought my boat into the inlet above which we are now standing, 
 and landed in the deep and dark cave beneath our feet. There are 
 several other caverns in these bold and precipitous cliffs, which can 
 be easily entered and explored in a boat when the water is calm. 
 Aside, however, from the fact that they have been formed by the 
 action of the waves, there is nothing within them of special inte- 
 rest to see or to discover. Pigeons and swallows are generally seen 
 flying in or out of these caves, and on one occasion I was startled 
 and astonished by the floundering past me of two seals, or sea-cows, 
 as they are called by the natives. They must have entirely lost 
 their reckoning and been driven upon these shores by the winter 
 storms, and had taken refuge in one of the caves. Some fisher- 
 men subsequently caught one of them, and it was exhibited to 
 wondering crowds in the market-place of the city. 
 
 There is the Rousha. Those two gigantic and weather-beaten 
 crags, the last remnant of the old coast line, stand out alone in grim
 
 ER ROUSHA— PIGEON ISLAND. 
 
 109 
 
 ER ROUSHA — PIGEON ISLAND. 
 
 isolation, as if in defiance of the elements that have overthrown and 
 swept away all that once rose above this tumultuous sea, and con- 
 nected them with the main-land. The rock of which they are com- 
 posed, being harder and more compact, has resisted the action of 
 the water, while all east of them has been washed away, and the 
 waves now break against the perpendicular cliffs in wild commo- 
 tion. It is possible that this semicircular and rock-bound bay at 
 our feet was once covered by a series of deep and lofty caverns, 
 the superincumbent roof of wiiich was shaken down by earth- 
 quakes, and the fallen rubbish has been carried out to sea b)' 
 storms and tempests during the long ages of the past.
 
 no THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, after the conquest of this country by the Egyp- 
 tians, enforced a sweeping conscription amongst the Moslems, in 
 order to recruit his army then marching northward against the 
 Sultan. The people regarded such a conscription with abhorrence, 
 and to escape from it young and old sought the protection of the 
 European consuls, merchants, and foreign residents. Our houses 
 were crowded with refugees. Many fled to the mountains ; others 
 hid in old wells, empty cisterns, and caves. A few, pursued by 
 the Egyptian soldiers, fled to this place ; and while some vainly 
 endeavored to conceal themselves in the caverns below, others 
 threw themselves into the sea, and, swimming to the Rousha, 
 climbed to the top of those rocky pinnacles. There they were 
 besieged, however, and fired upon by the soldiers, and finally hun- 
 ger and thirst compelled them to surrender. 
 
 These perpendicular cliffs rise to a height of about two hun- 
 dred feet above the sea, and the Rousha towers still higher. 
 During the winter storms it is sometimes dangerous to stand here. 
 Creeping up to the edge and looking down, the scene is weird and 
 wild beyond description. Far as the eye can follow tumultuous 
 " white caps " advance rank on rank. The fierceness of the gale, 
 the dashing of the great waves high up the cliffs, and the deafen- 
 ing roar, are but features in the great struggle below; and the 
 Rousha, swept by the waves, and half- concealed by the flying 
 spray, presents an appearance as grand as it is sublime. 
 
 In the chalky rocks some distance to the south of this are 
 numerous petrified echini, in admirable preservation, like those in 
 the cliffs below Burj el Musheirifeh, at the south-western extremity 
 of the Ladder of Tyre. I have collected many specimens of them. 
 
 We will now ride over the sandy desert, south-eastward to the 
 quarries, from which' the building-stone of Beirut is taken. 
 
 This sand-sea is the same which spreads southward for several 
 miles, I suppose, that we crossed in coming from Sidon ? 
 
 Its origin was probably in this vicinity, and its billow^s, some 
 twenty, some forty, and some even sixty feet high, have rolled in- 
 wards and spread themselves far and wide for miles over the plain. 
 Were it not for the modern residences and broad streets on Ras 
 Beirut, this sea of sand would sweep over the cape northward and
 
 QUARRIES.— CACTUS HEDGES.— THE PINES. I I 1 
 
 reach the sea at IMinat el Husn. It has already overwhelmed most 
 of the mulberry gardens, and half-buried many of the low houses 
 on the outskirts of the city in that direction. 
 
 These long lines of stolid, woe-bcgone donkeys, toiling through 
 this deep sand with such heavy loads of rough stone upon their 
 backs, are evidently coming from the quarries. 
 
 All the houses of Beirut have thus been upon the backs of 
 donkeys. The quarriers not only dig down these high ridges on 
 our right, but penetrate through the superincumbent soil to a 
 considerable depth, until the formation gives out, or becomes so 
 friable as to be useless. This entire south-western part of the 
 plain has been thus ransacked, and the mulberry-trees which you 
 now see 'growing above quarries were planted there after they 
 had been worked out, and the soil replaced over them. 
 
 We will now have a pleasant ramble eastward, through nar- 
 row lanes with low walls, surmounted by impenetrable prickly-pear 
 hedges, an example of what all the pathways around the city were 
 like fifty years ago. These cactus hedges grow to a very large 
 size here, and the prickly pears are arranged upon the thorny 
 leaves as closely as they can be packed. I have counted upwards 
 of fifty " pears " on a single leaf. When the thorny rind of the 
 fruit is removed the "core" is a mass of seeds and pulp, about the 
 size of a hen's egg. In July and August great quantities of prickly 
 pears are eaten, not only by the natives but also by foreigners, who 
 soon become extremely fond of them. Eaten in the morning, after 
 they have lain in cold water over night, they are delicious. 
 
 We are now passing along the pine-groves south-west of Beirut 
 which we saw on our way from Sidon. 
 
 They are all alike, with no mixture of any other kind of tree, 
 and quite the feature in this neighborhood. 
 
 They were sown just as wheat or corn would be. The pine 
 seeds, brought from the forests on Lebanon, were scattered over 
 the sandy soil, and ploughed under during the rainy season. The 
 young plants were, of course, too close together, and were gradu- 
 ally thinned out, and the rest pruned as they grew uj). I saw this 
 grove thus sown in the winter of 1846, by Mahmiid Beg, the Egyp- 
 tian Governor of Beirut. Farther south are extensive groves of
 
 112 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 EL hOrSH — THE PINES. 
 
 these trees only a few years old. Above that dense forest of larger 
 trees to the eastward towered many splendid old pines, which were 
 said to have been sown by Fakhr ed Din, the famous Druse emir. 
 They rose without a limb to a height of seventy or eighty feet, and 
 then spread out their branches like an immense parasol, covered
 
 THE SVCAMORE-TREE.— THE TROPHET AMOS. II3 
 
 over with green leaves. They added greatly to the picturesque 
 appearance of that grove ; but year after year one or more of them 
 was struck by lightning and killed, or thrown down by the wind, 
 and now but few of those venerable patriarchs remain. 
 
 I am always expecting to look upon sights and scenes that 
 suggest topics of Biblical interest, and here is one. This large old 
 tree is a striking specimen of the Syrian sycamore. I once heard 
 an itinerant preacher in the " backwoods " puzzle himself ajid his 
 hearers with a doubtful criticism about the tree into which Zac- 
 cheus climbed to see Jesus.' He and his audience were familiar 
 only with the sycamores of our flat river bottoms, tall as a steeple, 
 and smooth as hypocrisy. " Why," said the orator, " a squirrel 
 can't climb them." The conclusion reached was that the syca- 
 more must have been a mulberry-tree. 
 
 Nothing is easier than to climb these sycamores ; and, in fact, 
 boys and girls are often seen in them. The sycamore is found 
 by the way-side, and in open spaces where several roads meet, just 
 where Zaccheus found it ; and as its giant branches stretch quite 
 across the roadway, those on them can look directly down upon the 
 crowd passing beneath. It is admirably adapted to the purpose 
 for which he selected it. It is a remarkable tree. It not only bears 
 more than one crop of figs during the year, but the fruit grows 
 on short stems along the trunk and large branches, and not at the 
 end of twigs, as in other fruit-bearing trees. The figs are small, 
 and of a yellow color. At Gaza and Askelon they are of a purple 
 tinge, and much larger than in this part of the country. They are 
 carried to market in great quantities, and aj pear to be more valued 
 there than here. Still, they are, at best, very insipid, and only the 
 poorer classes gather sycamore figs and eat them. This agrees 
 with and explains the allusion of Amos. He had aroused the 
 wrath of Jeroboam by the severity of his rebukes, and. being 
 advised to flee for his life, excuses himself by a statement which 
 implies that he belonged to the humblest class of the community: 
 " I was no prophet, neither was I a prophet's son ; but I was an 
 herdman, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit."' 
 
 The sycamore is easily propagated merely by planting a stout 
 
 ' Luke xix. 1-6. '•' Amos vii. 14. See illustralion on page 115.
 
 114 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 EL JIMAIS — THE SYCAMORE. 
 
 branch in the ground, and watering it until it has struck out roots, 
 which it does with great rapidity, and in every direction. It was 
 probably with reference to this latter fact that our blessed Lord 
 selected it to illustrate the power of faith. 
 " If ye had faith as a grain of mustard seed, 
 ye might say unto this sycamine tree. Be 
 thou plucked up by the root, and be thou 
 planted in the sea; and it should obey you."' 
 Now, look at this tree — its ample girth, its 
 widespread limbs, branching off from the 
 trunk only a few feet above the ground ; 
 then examine its roots, almost as thick, as 
 numerous, and as wide-spread into the deep 
 soil as the branches extend into the air— a very type of invincible 
 steadfastness. What power can pluck up such a tree? Heaven's 
 
 ' Luke xvii. 6. 
 
 SYCAMORE FIGS.
 
 THE POWER OF FAITH.— THE SYCAMINE -TREE. 
 
 I I 
 
 thunder-bolt may strike it down, the wild tornado may tear it to 
 fragments, but nothing short of miraculous power can fairly pluck 
 up these Syrian sycamores by the roots. 
 
 I have but faint ideas of a faith that could pluck up and plant 
 in the sea such a tree as that ; and these facts certainly add creat 
 
 SELLER OF SYCAMORE FRUIT. 
 
 emphasis to the " parable of our Lord." You arc doubtless aware, 
 however, that most critics maintain that tlic s)xaniinc-trce men- 
 tioned in the New Testament was the black mulberry. 
 
 I have ventured to adopt the rendering of the Arabic Bible,
 
 Il6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 where the sycamine is translated sycamore, believing that there is 
 no certain evidence that the mulberry was known in this country 
 in Biblical times, although our translators have mentioned it in one 
 or more places. The mulberry, whether black or white, is more 
 easily plucked up by the roots than other trees of the same size 
 in the country, and that is oftener done. Hundreds of them are 
 uprooted every year in this vicinity and brought to the city, where 
 the trunks are sold to carpenters, and the roots and branches are 
 used for firewood. Many are also undermined by the winter tor- 
 rents and swept away into the sea. It is not probable that He 
 who spoke as " never man spake " would select a mulberry-tree, 
 even if it existed at that time, with its short, feeble roots, to illus- 
 trate the irresistible power of faith. 
 
 In regard to the sycamore, it may be well to notice that in the 
 dry, hot climate of Egypt the wood was very durable, and was ex- 
 tensively used for boxes, idols, and mummy cases. In this country 
 neither the wood nor the fruit are of much value, and the tree caiv 
 not bear the cold. A sharp frost will kill it ; and this agrees with 
 the fact that they were so killed in Egypt. Amongst the wonders 
 wrought by the Lord " in the field of Zoan," David says, " He de- 
 stroyed their vines with hail, and their sycamore trees with frost." ' 
 A frost keen enough to kill the sycamores would be a great 
 "wonder" at the present day in that same field of Zoan. 
 
 The sycamore flourishes best in sandy plains and warm vales. 
 In the time of David they appear to have been planted in groves, 
 like the olive, for we read that he appointed an overseer " over the 
 olive trees and the sycamore trees that were in the low plains."^ 
 They must have been esteemed of little value in the days of Solo- 
 mon, for, when even silver was nothing accounted of in Jerusalem, 
 he made " cedars to be as the sycamore trees that are in the vale, 
 for abundance."' In the time of the prophet Isaiah the cedar 
 takes the place of the sycamore, and " Ephraim and the inhabitants 
 of Samaria say, in pride and stoutness of heart, the sycamores are 
 cut down, but Ave will change them into cedars."* 
 
 Our road has brought us into 'Assur, as this sandy open space 
 just south of the old wall of the city is called. It was formerly 
 
 ' Psa. Ixxviii. 43, 47. ^ I Chron. xxvii. 2S. ^ I Kings x. 27. ■• Isa. ix. 9, 10.
 
 THE PROTESTANT CEMETERY. — THE MISSION PREMISES. II7 
 
 much larger than now, and shaded by a number of wide-spreading 
 sycamore-trees, but they have nearly all disappeared. 
 
 The Protestant Cemetery, where rest in peace many who were 
 greatly beloved in their day and generation, even by the natives 
 of every class and creed, and whose memory is revered by all, is 
 directly above the west end of 'Assur. The printing establishment 
 of the American Mission overlooks the cemetery, and adjoining it 
 is the Bible House. The Anglo-American church edifice is far- 
 ther up, on the same premises, and back of that is the large and 
 flourishing Female Seminary of the Mission. 
 
 ANGLO-AMERICAN CHURCH. 
 
 I am reminded by the locality of a most extraordinary scene 
 which I saw enacted in this 'Assur. Early on the morning of May 
 9th, 1847, tl'^c people of Beirut were seen hurrying along the road 
 towards Sidon, evidently to participate in some great pageant. I 
 soon ascertained that two venerated pilgrims were returning from 
 Mecca, and that the dervishes and their sheikhs, who make some 
 bold attempts at supernatural manifestations, and sometimes with
 
 llS THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 singular success, were to perform extraordinary feats on that occa- 
 sion. The whole city, male and female, rushed along the road to 
 meet the pilgrims, with banners, tambourines, cymbals, and other 
 musical instruments, singing, dancing, and clapping their hands. 
 In about an hour they returned. The crowd was now very large, 
 and the countenances of many exhibited signs of the most intense 
 excitement and eager expectation. 
 
 In front of the procession which now appeared came four flags, 
 green, yellow, white, and black, the staffs being surmounted with 
 a double crescent of metal. Behind these were a number of der- 
 vishes from a distance, dancing with all their might, and performing 
 their most fantastic and fanatical feats of legerdemain. They were 
 naked to the waist, wore tall, conical caps of felt, and were the 
 vilest and most savage -looking creatures I ever saw. Some of 
 them carried short iron pikes, the heads of which were balls as 
 large as oranges, with many spikes and chains attached to them. 
 The sharp end of these instruments they struck with great vio- 
 lence into their cheeks and about their eyes, and so deeply that 
 they hung suspended without being held by the hand. I do not 
 know how this is performed, though I have seen it done since, and 
 have examined the instrument. Others had long, spindle-like spikes 
 thrust through from cheek to cheek. I saw that done also by a 
 dervish in my house ; but he had long before made holes in his 
 cheeks, which had healed up, like those through the ears for rings. 
 These his bushy beard completely concealed. 
 
 The frantic behavior of the officiating fanatics in that ceremony 
 reminded me of the conduct of the priests of Baal on Mount Car- 
 mel, who leaped upon the altar and " cried aloud, and cut them- 
 selves after their manner with knives and lancets, till the blood 
 gushed out upon them.'" I have seen the blood streaming from 
 wounds self-inflicted by Moslem dervishes and fanatical sheikhs. 
 
 After those dervishes came four more flags ; then two very holy 
 sheikhs, riding on small horses. They pretended to be altogether 
 absorbed and wrapped up in devotion, prayed incessantly, with their 
 eyes closed, and took no notice of the large and tumultuous crowd 
 around them. The frantic people prostrated themselves on the 
 
 ' I Kings xviii. 26, 2S.
 
 THE DOUSEH UPON 'ASSUR. 
 
 119 
 
 ground before them, kissed their broad stirrups or the flags, but 
 most of all the two pilgrims from Mecca, who now made their ap- 
 pearance, and seemed to be tired out, and in danger of being kissed 
 to death by relatives, friends, and acquaintances. 
 
 Just at the entrance into 'Assur a long pavement of men and 
 boys was formed in the following manner: the first lay on his face, 
 with his head to the south ; the next with feet to the south, and so 
 on, heads and feet, to the end of this living corduroy causeway, the 
 
 ED DOUSEH — THE TREADING. 
 
 people crowding them along the line as close to one another as 
 possible. A dense mass of spectators on either side formed a lane, 
 along which the two sheikhs actually rode, from end to end, on top 
 of the men and boys. I stood on a terrace directly above them, 
 and witnessed the whole performance, and saw the men and boys 
 jump up again apparently unhurt. My Moslem servant was one of 
 them, and he assured me that the sheikhs' horses were not heavier
 
 I20 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 than cats. The thing is not difficult to explain. The men and 
 boys were close together, the ground soft and sandy, the horses 
 small, their shoes flat and smooth, and they walked as if treading 
 on eggs ; and yet many of the lads were really bruised, and some 
 seriously injured. The whole scene, however, was demoniacal in 
 the extreme. It is called ed Douseh, the treading, and is accom- 
 panied with many superstitious ceremonies. 
 
 We have completed the circuit of that part of Beirut and its 
 suburbs lying west of the Damascus road, and have now returned 
 to the gate of our house from whence we started this morning.
 
 MOVING TO THE MOUNTAINS. 121 
 
 IV. 
 
 BEIRUT TO SHEMLAN. 
 
 A Mountain House. — Moving to the Mountains. — Modern Summer Residences. — Leba- 
 non a Favorite Summer Retreat. — Dames de Nazareth. — The Sisters of Charity. — 
 Silk Factory. — Cocoons. — Export of Silk. — The Pines. — The Damascus Road. — No 
 Trace of an Ancient Highway over Lebanon. — 'Areiya. — El Miighiteh. — Jebel el 
 Keniseh. — El Buka'a. — Shtora. — Mejdel 'Anjar. — Anti-Lebanon. — Diligences. — Bag- 
 gage-wagons. — The Carriage-drive. — Canals. — Rustem Pasha's Bridge. — Khan el Has- 
 miyeh. — The Plain. — The Palm-tree. — Phoenicia. — Hebrew Women Named after the 
 Palm-tree. — Biblical Allusions to the Palm-tree. — Palm-branches an Emblem of Re- 
 joicing. — Bethany, the House of Dates. — Clusters of Dates. — El Hadeth. — Shehab 
 Emirs. — As'ad esh Shediak. — History of Lebanon. — B'abda. — Geodes of Quartz. — 
 Blind Beggar by the Way-side. — The Carob-tree. — St. John's Bread. — "The Husks." 
 — Syrup. — Dukkan el Wurwar. — Nahr el Ghudir. — Wady Shahrur. — Kefr Shima. — 
 Terraced Hill-sides. — Sarcophagi. — Protestant Chapel. — Soap. — Ascent of the Moun- 
 tain. — Deir el Kurkufeh. — Anemones and Cyclamens. — Pine-grove. — Sandstone For- 
 mation. — Road to Aitath. — 'Ain Bsaba. — Mountain Sceneiy. — 'Ain 'Anoub. — Village 
 Fountain. — Road to Shemlan. — Summer Eve on Lebanon. — Shemlan. — Lebanon a 
 Range of Mountains. — Dean Stanley. — "The White Mountain." — Rains and Snows 
 on Lebanon. — Geological Characteristics of Lebanon. — Conspicuous Summits of Leb- 
 anon. — The Rivers of Lebanon. — The Natural Bridge. — Temple of Venus. — Birth- 
 place of Adonis. — Cedar-groves. — Convent of Kanobin. — Orthosia. — The Seaward 
 Face of Lebanon. — The Orontes. — The Eastern Side of Lebanon. — El Berduny.— 
 Fountains at Meshghurah. — Villages on Lebanon. — Biblical Allusions to Lebanon. — 
 Moses, David, Solomon, Isaiah. — Goodly Lebanon. — The Province of Tripoli and that 
 of Sidon. — Districts of Lebanon. — Emir Beshir Shebah. — Ibrahim Pasha. — The Allied 
 Powers. — Civil Wars and Massacres. — The Present Form of Government. — Population 
 of Lebanon. — The Muhammedans and Metawileh. — The Greeks and Greek Catholics. 
 — The Maronites and Druses. 
 
 July 2d. 
 
 We move to our summer residence on the mountains to-day, 
 and the confusion brings to mind the way such removals were ac- 
 compHshed half a century ago, and, indeed, until quite recently. In 
 1836 I rented a house in Brummana for the small sum of one dollar 
 and a half a month. It had three rooms, such as they were, with 
 I
 
 122 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 but one door, and a small window without glass, in each room. 
 The low roofs were black with smoke, festooned with dusty cob- 
 webs, and infested with a lively colony of fleas. The rooms were 
 u.sed for raising silk-worms, and possession of them could not be 
 obtained until the cocoons had been removed, which was done 
 about the ist of July. The earthen floors were then covered with 
 a thin coating of clay, and rubbed smooth with a large pebble. 
 The walls were roughly " whitewashed" with clay, but without lime, 
 and then the premises were pronounced ready for occupation. It 
 is needless to add that all the work was done by the women of 
 the family, who appear to be natural adepts in such occupations. 
 
 Every article needed for keeping house, bedding and bedsteads, 
 tables and chairs, miscellaneous furniture, kitchen utensils, stores of 
 provisions, and the many et caeteras which our mode of life on the 
 mountains renders necessary, had to be transported on donkeys, 
 mules, or camels, and sad havoc of such articles was always made 
 in the transfer. Broken dishes, dislocated chairs, and crippled ta- 
 bles rendered " moving to the mountains " not only an aggravation, 
 but also a source of considerable expense. Of course the tables 
 and chairs soon made large holes in the soft earthen floors, not- 
 withstanding the protection of mats and carpets, and they had to 
 be frequently repaired, not merely to mend the broken places, but 
 also to expel the fleas that increased in almost countless numbers 
 and found a congenial element in the fine clay dust. 
 
 All these things have now passed away. As the number of 
 families seeking summer quarters increased the villagers began to 
 improve their houses, in order to obtain higher rents. New houses 
 were also built. Earthen floors gave place to concrete cement 
 or polished marble, and glass windows became common. Quite re- 
 cently commodious residences have been constructed in the larger 
 villages, such as Bhamdun, 'Aleih, Suk el Ghurb, 'Aitath, Shemlan. 
 'Abeih, and some others. Not a few foreign residents of Beirut 
 now possess commodious dwellings, and gather about them all that 
 is required to render their summer residences both comfortable 
 and attractive. Good roads have also been made by the Governor- 
 general of the Lebanon, and families can now reach their mountain 
 homes in private carriages or in those hired in the city.
 
 LEBANON A FAVORITE SUMMER RESORT. 1 23 
 
 These improvements have, of course, largely increased the cost 
 of living, during the summer months, on Lebanon ; but the benefit 
 to health and personal enjoyment abundantly compensate those 
 who are able to afford the expense. This is emphatically true of 
 families with small children. In many instances moving to the 
 mountains is the only means left to save the lives of the little ones 
 when they have been attacked by those fatal summer complaints 
 which sometimes defy all medical skill. It is surprising to see how 
 speedily the cool, invigorating air of the mountains will revive not 
 only the little sufferers, but also the emaciated victims of the ma- 
 lignant Syrian fevers. Lebanon is destined to become erelong a 
 favorite summer retreat for invalids and for those who occupy the 
 sultry^ valley of the Nile, the sea-board, and the hot plains around 
 the eastern end of the Mediterranean. 
 
 But it is time to start. Salim has taken the tents and our per- 
 sonal baggage, with all the necessary supplies for the table and the 
 kitchen, in one of the wagons belonging to the Damascus Road 
 Company ; and when we arrive at our summer home in Shemlan 
 we shall find everything comfortably arranged for our reception 
 and convenience. We, however, will keep to the saddle, not only 
 because I prefer this mode of travelling to any other in the land, 
 but also because in that way we shall see more of the country and 
 its productions than if shut up in a carriage. 
 
 What is the distance to Shemlan ? 
 
 About ten miles, and, at our usual rate of travel, it will take us 
 three hours. The elevation of the village above the sea is a little 
 more than two thousand feet, which gives an average temperature 
 considerably below that of the plain and the city. 
 
 This road is leading us through a part of the suburbs of Beirut 
 which we have not seen before. That large establishment on the 
 hill east of us occupies a very conspicuous position. 
 
 It is the French educational institution for girls, and belongs to 
 the Dames de Nazareth. It is not as large, nor does it accommo- 
 date as many pupils, as the extensive buildings of the Sisters of 
 Charity, which we noticed just before passing Canon Scpiare ; but 
 the well-kept grounds and the beautiful garden testify to their skill 
 and good taste in horticultural pursuits.
 
 124 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 That bustling and crowded establishment on the roadside is one 
 of the many silk-reeling factories which have sprung up recently 
 
 in this vici- 
 nity. This 
 is the busy 
 time of the 
 year, and, 
 as you see, 
 the factory 
 has a very 
 animated, 
 picturesque 
 and emi- 
 nently Ori- 
 ental appearance — groups of men, wom- 
 en, and children weighing, bargaining, and 
 selling cocoons ; horses, mules, and donkeys 
 loaded with cocoons ; boxes, sacks, and bags 
 filled with cocoons. There are great heaps of 
 cocoons, white and golden, protected by awnings, 
 and thousands of cocoons spread out, tier above 
 tier, in those large temporary drying-houses, open 
 to the breeze on all sides. Indeed, the very at- 
 mosphere is permeated 
 \\ ith a strong odor of 
 cocoons, and it is any- 
 thing but faint and 
 delicate. 
 
 The people come 
 from all parts of 
 the plain, and from 
 distant villages on 
 these mountains, 
 brineine their co- 
 
 THE SILK-WORM, COCOON, BUTTERFLY, AND CHRYSALIS. 
 
 coons to the factories. Many cocoons are merely " stifled " in a 
 furnace or " steamed " in large quantities, to kill the grub, and are 
 then shipped to Europe. Most of them are taken to Lyons to be
 
 THE CARRIAGE-ROAD TO DAMASCUS. 125 
 
 reeled, and the silk manufactured there is then exported to Lon- 
 don and New York. In fact, it is sent over the world, and even 
 returns to its native land to deck out in gay colors these very 
 people who are so anxious now to rid themselves of it for the 
 French gold with which they must ultimately buy it again. Silk- 
 culture is the great and absorbing industry of this part of Syria, 
 and in a favorable season the crop is very remunerative. 
 
 Here, on our right, is el Hursh, or the pines — a part of the 
 same grove which we saw the other day ; but the trees are many 
 years older and much larger than those on the western side of the 
 forest. There is a young grove a short distance farther on which 
 I remember to have seen sown some twenty years ago. 
 
 This French road to Damascus, which we are now following, is 
 certainly well made, and kept in excellent repair. 
 
 It is all that, and as good as any in France itself. Not only 
 was it the first carriage-road of importance in this country, but also 
 it is the only one ever constructed over Lebanon. There is no- 
 where the slightest indication of an ancient highway of this kind 
 to be seen on the mountains. After passing by the eastern border 
 of " the pines," it stretches in a straight line across the plain, rising 
 gradually till it reaches the foot-hills of Lebanon at Khan el Has- 
 miyeh, from thence it winds up the steep declivities of the moun- 
 tain to the pretty little village of 'Areiya. It then passes above 
 the southern cliffs of the Beirut River to the last wild ascent over 
 the pass of el Mugheiteh, about five thousand feet above the sea, 
 having below it, on the north, the magnificent scenery around the 
 head -waters of that picturesque river, dominated by the exalted 
 majesty of Jebcl el Kcniseh. From the top of the Mugheiteh the 
 road descends steeply to the Bukaa, and then stretches across the 
 plain from Shtora to Mejdel 'Anjar. Thenceforward the grading is 
 less difficult, and the ascent over Anti-Lebanon is comparatively 
 easy. The distance from Beirut to Damascus is about seventy 
 miles, and is accomplished in twelve or thirteen hours. Diligences 
 run daily between the two cities, and long lines of baggage-wagons 
 are constantly seen passing to and fro along this broad highway. 
 
 This long and sloping stretch of road across the plain and up 
 to the foot-hills of Lebanon appears to be the fashionable carriage-
 
 126 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 driv^e from the city, and I am surprised to see so many of those 
 vehicles evidently owned by natives. 
 
 Carriages made their first appearance in Beirut with the comple- 
 tion of this road to Damascus, and already they are as common as 
 in many European cities of the same size. There are quite a num- 
 ber of coffee-shops along this drive and on the bank of the Beirut 
 River, to our left ; and every evening they are frequented by the 
 elite of the city, who spend a passing hour discussing the news and 
 gossip of the day, smoking cigarettes and nargilehs, sipping black 
 coffee, and drinking 'arak and sherbet. 
 
 These canals convey the water from the river at different eleva- 
 tions, and by them the whole plain west of us is irrigated. Rustem 
 Pasha, Governor-general of the Lebanon, has recently constructed 
 a fine bridge over the river in this vicinity by which to reach his 
 large and attractive garden. He has also made a drive on the op- 
 posite bank down to the bridge on the road to the Dog River. 
 That new bridge is a great convenience to the people of this neigh- 
 borhood during the floods of winter. 
 
 This place to which we are now coming is Khan el Hasmiyeh, 
 and here most of the carriages stop and then return to the city. 
 Here, also, the road to Damascus begins to wind up the mountain- 
 side, and other roads turn off in different directions. 
 
 We will now keep along the base of the mountains to the 
 south, having in full view, below us on the right, the entire plain, 
 or as Sahil, and the olive-groves westward to the Mediterranean. 
 
 What a sea of variegated verdure stretches away to the south- 
 west far as the eye can follow ! 
 
 This is one of the richest plains in the country — a perfect wil- 
 derness of mulberry and fruit trees ; and beyond spread the vast 
 olive-groves of Shuweifat. There is nothing on the Syrian coast 
 equal to it. It lies between the mountains and the far-off sea, pro- 
 tected by the city and the pine-forests, and hedged in by the dis- 
 tant sand-hills. Its climate and fruits are almost tropical, and one 
 never wearies gazing upon its varied beauties, or riding along its 
 shady lanes and through its green alleys. 
 
 Those palm-trees — the loftiest and most stately we have seen — 
 add much to the beauty of the prospect. They stand here and
 
 HEBREW WOMEN NAMED AFTER THE PALM-TREE. 
 
 127 
 
 there over the plain 
 like sentinels, with 
 feathery plumes wav- 
 ing gracefully upon 
 their proud heads. 
 
 This part of Syria 
 was called Phoenicia, 
 "the land of palms," 
 by the Greeks ; and 
 in the time of the 
 Romans, the medal 
 of Vespasian, com- 
 memorating the cap- 
 ture of Jerusalem, represents Judea as a woman mourning under a 
 palm-tree. As the tree is tall, slender, and graceful, the daughters 
 of the Hebrews were sometimes named after it. The wife of Er, 
 the firstborn son of Judah ; the daughter of David, and the only 
 daughter of Absalom — both remarkable for their beauty — were all 
 called Tamar; and the name is still not uncommon in the country. 
 Erect as rectitude itself, the palm-tree suggests to the Arab poets 
 many a symbol for their lady-love; and Solomon, long before 
 
 EN nOKHL — THK PALM.
 
 128 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 them, has sung, " How fair and how pleasant art thou, O love, for 
 delights! This thy stature is like to a palm-tree.'" 
 
 Yes : and Solomon's father says, " The righteous shall flourish 
 like the palm-tree. Those that be planted in the house of the Lord 
 shall flourish in the courts of our God. They shall still bring forth 
 fruit in old age. They shall be fat and flourishing."^ 
 
 The royal poet derived that illustration with which he adorns 
 his sacred ode from the habits of this tree. The palm grows slowly, 
 but steadily, from generation to generation, uninfluenced by those 
 alternations of the seasons which affect other trees. It does not 
 rejoice overmuch in winter's copious rain, nor does it droop under 
 the drought and the burning sun of summer. Neither heavy 
 weights which men place upon its head, nor the importunate 
 urgency of the wind, can sway it aside from uprightness. There 
 it stands, looking calmly down upon the world below, and patiently 
 yielding its large clusters of golden fruit from season to season. 
 They still bring forth fruit in old age. 
 
 The allusion to those planted in the house of the Lord was pro- 
 bably due to the custom of planting beautiful and long-lived trees 
 in the courts of temples and palaces, and in all " high places " used 
 for worship. This is still common ; nearly every palace, and mosk, 
 and convent in the country has such trees in the courts, and, being 
 well protected there, they flourish exceedingly. Solomon covered 
 all the walls of the Temple " round about with carved figures of 
 cherubim and palm-trees and open flowers, within and without.'" 
 Their presence there was not only ornamental, but appropriate and 
 highly suggestive. The Jews used palm-branches as emblems of 
 rejoicing during the feast of ingathering and of tabernacles.'' Chris- 
 tians do the same on Palm Sunday, in commemoration of our Sa- 
 viour's triumphal entry into Jerusalem from Bethany; for we read, 
 in John xii. 12, 13, that "much people," on that occasion, "took 
 branches of palm trees, and went forth to meet" Jesus. Dean 
 Stanley supposes that Bethany, " the house of dates," derived its 
 name from the palm-trees that grew on Olivet.' Palm branches 
 are often woven into an arch and placed over the head of the 
 
 1 Song vii. 6, 7. '^ Psa. xcii. 12-14. ^ i Kings vi. 29. 
 
 ^ Lev. xxiii. 40 ; Neh. viii. 15. ^ Sinai and Palestine, p. 143.
 
 CLUSTERS OF DATES.— EL HADETH.— AS'AD ESH SHEDL\K. 1 29 
 
 bier \vhich carries man to his long home, emblematic not only of 
 patience in well-doing, but of the rewards of the righteous — a 
 flourishing old age and a glorious immortality. 
 
 In this country the fruit of the palm-tree is neither so abun- 
 dant nor so sweet and luscious as in Arabia, Egypt, and some other 
 regions. But I have seen very large clusters of dates on many of 
 
 
 THAMR — DATES. 
 
 the tallest of these trees; and the owners protect the fruit from 
 hornets and birds by fastening round the clusters parts of old 
 garments and rice baskets made from the palm-leaf itself. 
 
 That village stretching along the foot of the hills for a mile or 
 more is called el Hadeth. It was the residence of a branch of the 
 family of Shehab emirs. When I first came to this country I was 
 acquainted with one of the emirs whose eyes had been put out by 
 order of his relative, the Emir Beshir of Bteddin. El Hadeth was 
 also the home of As'ad esh Shediak, the learned and able writer, 
 and the first Protestant martyr. His brother Yusuf was also one 
 of the few native scholars of those days, and his history of Leba- 
 non and its feudal families contains much valuable information. 
 
 Directly above and east of el Hadeth is B'abda, a large and
 
 no 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 flourishing village. An old palace, picturesquely situated on a hill 
 west of the village, about eight hundred feet above the sea, is now 
 occupied as a winter residence by the Government of the Lebanon, 
 to escape the severe cold of Bteddin. The cretaceous hills east of 
 B'abda abound in geodes of quartz, whose interior is thickly stud- 
 ded with perfect and brilliant crystals. Some of them are very 
 large, and when first broken open the pointed crystals sparkle like 
 diamonds, and are so intensely hard as to cut glass. 
 
 EL KHARNUB— THE CAROB. 
 
 There is a blind beggar "sitting by the highway side begging.'" 
 The tree under which he sits is called the Blindman's Tree, and 
 on the ridge above us are many such kharnub-trees, loaded with 
 
 ' Mark x. 46.
 
 ST. JOHN'S BREAD.— "THE HUSKS."— XAHR EL GHUDH^. 13I 
 
 long flat husks or pods. It is an evergreen, and casts a most 
 delio-htful and refreshing shade over the weary traveller. In this 
 country the kharnub-trees do not yield very large crops, but in 
 Cyprus, Asia Minor, and the Grecian Islands full-grown trees bend 
 under half a ton of green pods. 
 
 The kharnub is sometimes called St. John's Bread, and also 
 Locust-tree, from a mistaken tradition concerning the food of the 
 Baptist in the wilderness. Its botanical name is Ceratonia Siliqua, 
 and there is no reason to 
 doubt that it was the tree 
 which bore " the husks that 
 the swine did eat," and with 
 which the poor prodigal 
 " would fain have filled his 
 belly.'" The "husks" — a 
 misnomer — are fleshy pods 
 somewhat like those of the 
 locust-tree, from six to ten 
 inches long, containing seve- 
 ral seeds, and lined with a 
 gelatinous substance, sweet 
 and pleasant to the taste 
 when thoroughly ripe. I 
 have seen large gardens of 
 kharnub-trees in Cyprus, 
 where it is still the food that 
 the swine do eat. In Syria, 
 where there are no swine, or 
 next to none, the pods are 
 
 ground up and a syrup expressed, which is much used in mak- 
 ing certain kinds of sweetmeats and refreshing beverages. 
 
 Dukkan el Wurwar, which we arc now approaching, is one of 
 those "shops" along the way-side, where coffee and refreshments, 
 food and fodder, can be obtained. It is pleasantly situated above 
 the valley of Nahr el Ghudir, a small stream which comes down 
 from Wady Shahrur, and finds its way to the sea through the olive- 
 
 ' Luke XV. 16. 
 
 CAROB PODS — THE HUSKS.
 
 132 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 groves below Shuweifat. That large village on the foot-hills to the 
 south-west, and directly across the valley, is Kefr Shima. To the 
 east of it the mountain declivities rise with great regularity ; and, 
 owing to the character of the soil and the abundant supply of 
 water, the entire hill -sides are terraced tier above tier, presenting 
 to the view, in every direction, a varied expanse of olive-groves, fig- 
 orchards, mulberry- gardens, and vineyards, seldom seen to better 
 advantage, even on this " goodly Lebanon." 
 
 Before turning down the hill -side and crossing the Ghudir, I 
 wish to point out a place here on our right, where many years ago 
 I saw uncovered a number of ancient tombs, excavated in the soft 
 cretaceous rock. In each tomb there was a sarcophagus made, 
 like common pottery, of baked clay. Those sarcophagi were of all 
 sizes, from two to six feet in length. There were no inscriptions 
 on any of them ; and as they appeared to be of no value to the 
 owners of the field they were destroyed, and the mulberry-trees 
 that now cover the hill-side were planted in their place. 
 
 Here on our right is a small Protestant chapel, one of many 
 which are now seen all over this part of Lebanon. The inhabitants 
 of Kefr Shima, Shuweifat, and other neighboring villages are chiefly 
 engaged in agricultural pursuits and the manufacture of soap from 
 the oil produced by the extensive olive-groves in this region. 
 
 From here the ascent commences, and we must address our- 
 selves in earnest to this steep and steady climb up the mountain for 
 about an hour. The path winds round and up the eastern side of 
 that bold rocky promontory, the summit of which is covered with 
 a small pine-grove, and crowning the very top is the picturesque 
 Convent or Deir of Mar Antanus el Kurkufeh. In early spring 
 the rude stone walls that sustain these terraces are almost con- 
 cealed under the green leaves and beautiful flowers of scarlet ane- 
 mones and pink and white cyclamens. 
 
 We have risen above the hard limestone rock, over which our 
 horses have been stumbling ; and here, at this dukkan, we may rest 
 for a few moments, and refresh ourselves with the cool breeze that 
 is wafted up the valley from the distant sea. 
 
 This pine-grove, through which we are now riding, grows upon 
 a soft, many-colored sandstone, curiously worn and cut up b}- the
 
 •AIN BSABA.— MOUNTAIN SCENERY.— 'AIN 'ANOUB. 1 33 
 
 winter rains. It is a fair specimen of the pine-forests all over Leba- 
 non ; and it is interesting to notice that wherever on these moun- 
 tains there is a pine-grove, there, also, the formation is sandstone. 
 
 The road up the mountain to 'Aitath, and thence to Shemlan, 
 has always been considered the shortest, but it is rough and unin- 
 teresting. We will take this path that turns off here to the right, 
 and go by the way of 'Ain 'Anoub. That road winds round val- 
 leys and hills, and up the mountain-side, and the view is eminently 
 characteristic of Lebanon and its scenery. 
 
 Let us water our thirsty horses at this fountain. I have taken 
 many a lunch and quiet rest beneath that magnificent oak-tree 
 above the birkeh, or reservoir, into which the water is gathered that 
 irrigates those vegetable gardens below the road. 'Ain Bsaba is 
 one of those delicious fountains of cold water for which Lebanon is 
 so justly celebrated; and like some of them it has its dark legends 
 of highway robbery and even murder. 
 
 The boundless expanse of that beautiful sea ever widens as we 
 rise higher and higher, until it seems as if the sea and the sky met 
 in one unbroken line, from the far north to the distant south. 
 
 There are hundreds of such limitless prospects on Lebanon, 
 and others far more imposing and sublime. The character of the 
 scenery varies with the scene ; sometimes it is historic, at other 
 times romantic, but always impressive even to fascination. 
 
 Opposite to us, across this profound valley, is 'Ain 'Anoub, seen 
 in profile against the sky. Its houses, clinging one above the other 
 to the mountain-side, are half concealed by the dense foliage of the 
 oak. the olive, and the green leaves of the mulberry and the vine; 
 while of fruit trees the apple, the apricot, the peach, and even the 
 orange and lemon, are found growing in sheltered nooks. 
 
 Although this is the first village fountain I have seen on Leba- 
 non, my horse seems to be well acquainted with its main purpose, 
 so far, at least, as he is concerned. 
 
 Hereafter it may be well for you to consider your associates at 
 such fountains, or, in the impetuous rush for the water-trough, you 
 and your horse will get too warm a welcome from some friendly 
 mule, which both of you will soon regret and long remember. 
 
 Passing through 'Ain 'Anoub, we will take the path that climbs
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 EL AIN — THE FOUNTAIN. 
 
 the ridge above the village, instead of following the longer road, 
 through the olive-groves, and which zigzags up the rocky cliffs 
 below Shemlan. The distance is not over twenty minutes. 
 
 This may be the shortest road ; but it is very steep, and these 
 broken and rocky steps are not only extremely worn and slippery, 
 but actually dangerous to life and limb.
 
 AX ORIENTAL SUMMER EVE.— LEBANON A MOUNTAIN-RANGE. 1 35 
 
 It has always been so, and the numberless attempts to mend it 
 have only aggravated the evil. But the worst is past, and we are 
 coming near the lower part of the village, and will soon reach our 
 house on the hill-side above the fountain. 
 
 The varied sounds and scenes of a summer eve on Lebanon are 
 strangely impressive. Birds are singing in the highest branches 
 of the bushes and the trees, and shepherds call to their flocks on 
 the rock\- hill-sides, and hurry them towards the fold. Boys and 
 girls are driving the cattle homeward from the field ; and men and 
 women are on the house-tops, protecting the wheat that was ex- 
 posed to the sunlight during the day from the dew by night. 
 And over the hills and across the valleys the deep, rich tones 
 of the convent bells at Deir el Kurkufeh are wafted, vibrating 
 through the air. 
 
 The glorious sun is setting in the far west, 
 
 And its golden rays are gleaming across the silver sea ; 
 And as the mountain shadows lengthen, and the sunlight dies away, 
 The purple haze in the valley deepens, and night succeeds the day. 
 
 July 29th. 
 
 I am delighted with the commanding situation of this village 
 and the simplicity of our mountain life; it has all the freedom and 
 independence of tent-life, without many of its uncertainties. 
 
 Certainly it is a happy escape from the blazing sun and blinding 
 glare of the city and the plain. I love the mountains, all of them, 
 and most of all these noble mountains of " goodly Lebanon," with 
 which I have been familiar for more than half a lifetime. Over 
 their rugged ranges I have rambled and scrambled b\' day and by 
 night, until I can recall at will each peak and crag, their shapes 
 and features, and give to each its special name. 
 
 I anticipate both pleasure and profit from our sojourn on this 
 mountain, which Moses so longed to see, but could not ; and I am 
 impatient to begin our rambles over " sainted Lebanon ;" but first 
 of all I should like to obtain a comprehensive description of it. 
 
 You are aware that Mount Lebanon is a misnomer, and conveys 
 an erroneous impression. It is not a single mount at all, but a lofty 
 range, or chain, of mountains. Commencing in the rolling hills of
 
 136 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Belad Besharah, and rising higher and higher, the ridge extends for 
 about one hundred miles, from Jebel er Rihan, south-east of Sidon, 
 to a profound cHff east of Sir, in the district of ed Dunniyeh, a 
 day's ride north of the Cedars. Beyond that are the lower but 
 rugged ridges and wild ravines of Jebel 'Akkar. The average 
 breadth of Lebanon, from the Mediterranean to the plain of el 
 Buka'a, Ca;lesyria, is not more than twenty-five miles. 
 
 According to Dean Stanley, White, or Snow Mountain, " is the 
 natural and almost uniform name of the highest mountains in all 
 countries." ' The ancient Hebrew name, Lebanon, and the modern 
 Arabic one, Jebel Libnan — White Mountain — was, probably, sug- 
 gested by the magnificent appearance of this mountain-range when 
 covered with the snows of winter, rather than by the whitish aspect 
 of its limestone formation, as some have supposed. 
 
 Lebanon is so situated relatively to ''this great and wide sea" 
 as to attract to itself the moist winds from the Mediterranean in 
 winter, and the balmy breezes from the sunny South in early 
 spring. During half the year copious rains water its terraced 
 sides, and its lofty summits and profound ravines are then buried 
 under deep snow, which remains there to cool the air of summer, 
 and sustain, the countless fountains that give life and beauty to 
 the valleys and fields below. 
 
 The geological, as well as the physical, characteristics of this 
 mountain contribute essentially to its beauty and fertility. Were 
 the rocks stern granite, barren sandstone, or lifeless gypsum, no 
 amount of rain and soft breezes would make them fertile. But the 
 great mass of Lebanon is cretaceous limestone, soft and highly fos- 
 siliferous, with just enough of friable sandstone and volcanic rock 
 here and there to mingle with and modify the soil. 
 
 The range of Lebanon has a number of conspicuous summits, 
 the most remarkable of which are Taumat Niha, above Jezzin, five 
 thousand six hundred feet high ; Jebel el Keniseh, east of Beirut, 
 six thousand six hundred feet high ; Sunnin, farther north, eight 
 thousand five hundred feet high ; Fum el Mizab, nine thousand 
 nine hundred feet high ; and Dahar el Kudhib, above Tripoli and 
 north of the Cedars, over ten thousand feet high. 
 ' Sinai and Palestine, Note 5, pp. 399, 400.
 
 THE RIVERS ON THE WESTERN SIDE OF LEBANON. 1 37 
 
 The rivers of Lebanon, beginning at the south, are ez Zahera- 
 ny. which rises at the south-western end of Jcbel er Rihan, and 
 reaches the sea between Sarepta and Sidon ; The Auwaly, the an- 
 cient Bostrenus, has two main branches ; the southern proceeds 
 from the fountain of Jezzin, and the stream plunges over a preci- 
 pice below the town nearly two hundred and fifty feet in perpen- 
 dicular height. The northern branch comes from the fountains, 
 above the village, of el Baruk, north-east of el Mukhtarah. The 
 Auwaly enters the sea two miles north of Sidon. The Damur, the 
 Tamyras or Damuras of the ancients, also has two branches ; but 
 its main permanent source is below 'Ain Zahalteh. It empties into 
 the sea midway between Sidon and Beirut. The river of Beirut, 
 the ancient Magoras, drains the western slopes of Jebel el Keniseh 
 and the southern end of Sunnin, and enters St. George's Bay. 
 
 North of Beirut is the Dog River, the Lycus, famous for the 
 ancient tablets in the cliffs over the pass near its mouth, and for 
 the marvellous caverns out of which it flows. Above the caves it 
 has two large fountains, which burst out directly under the snows 
 of Sunnin. The Natural Bridge spans the deep chasm of Neb'a 
 el Leben, the most southern of those fountains. Nahr Ibrahim, 
 the Adonis, flows out of the cavern at 'Afka, near which are the 
 ruins of the temple dedicated to Venus. That river enters the 
 sea a few miles south of Jebeil, the Biblical Gebal, or Byblus, of 
 the Greeks, said to be the birthplace of Adonis. 
 
 Several smaller streams reach the sea north of Jebeil, but they 
 need not be described. Nahr el Jauzeh descends from Tannurin 
 el Foka, between which and el Hadith there are groves of cedars. 
 That stream reaches the sea near cl Batrun, south of the con- 
 spicuous cape anciently called Theoprosopon, the face of God, and 
 now Ras esh Shukah. The next river is the Kadisha, the holy, 
 because it comes down from near the sacred grove of the Cedars. 
 It is pre-eminently distinguished for the gigantic cliffs of its gorge 
 below Bsherreh. Clinging to one of them, about four hundred feet 
 above the river, is the historical Convent of Kanobin, the chief seat 
 of the Maronite patriarch. The Kadisha, augmented by its main 
 tributary, the Abu 'Aly, passes through the city and the luxuriant 
 gardens of Tripoli, and enters the bay north of it. 
 K
 
 138 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Nahr el Barid descends from the highest ridges of Lebanon, 
 above the village of Sir, through a region of wild and magnificent 
 scenery, and empties into the bay or Jun of 'Akkar, about ten 
 miles north of Tripoli. It forms the southern boundary of the dis- 
 trict of 'Akkar, and on its left bank are the remains of a large city, 
 probably the ancient Orthosia. It is these numerous rivers, with 
 their countless tributaries and their magnificent gorges, that impart 
 such variety, beauty, and life to the western, or seaward, face of 
 Lebanon. " He sendeth the springs into the valleys, which run 
 among the hills. They give drink to every beast of the field," 
 and " by them shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, 
 which sing among the branches." * 
 
 At the north-eastern base of Lebanon Nahr el 'Asy, or the 
 Orontes, flows out from the great fountain beneath the cliffs near 
 Mugharat er Rahib, and passing northward by Ribleh, the Riblah 
 of the Old Testament, it waters the great plain of the Biblical 
 kingdom of Hamath. The eastern sides of the mountain are far 
 less imposing than the western and northern slopes. The range 
 descends abruptly to the plain of el Buka'a, and is comparatively 
 destitute of brooks and streams of any considerable size ; but along 
 the south-eastern parts there are some noble fountains and many 
 flourishing villages. A considerable stream, called el Berduny, 
 descends from Sunnin, and passing through the town of Zahleh, it 
 enriches the central portions of the Buka'a. And the large foun- 
 tains at Meshghurah, south of Taumat Niha, send their noisy 
 brooks to the Litany, in the valley below. These complete the 
 list of brooks, streams, and rivers around the entire circuit of this 
 goodly mountain ; and it is to be noted that nearly all of them are 
 on the seaward side. There, too, are situated most of the villages 
 seen from the Mediterranean as one approaches this coast. 
 
 The earliest mention of this mountain in the Bible implies that 
 Lebanon was then considered exceptionally beautiful. It was the 
 one name mentioned in the earnest prayer of Moses : " I pray thee, 
 let me go over, and see the good land that is beyond Jordan, that 
 goodly mountain, and Lebanon.'"' Moses had, no doubt, heard of 
 its " glory," in Egypt, for we know that long before his day this 
 ' Psa. civ. 10-12. ^ Deut. iii. 25.
 
 DISTRICTS OF LEBANON.— NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 1 39 
 
 country had been traversed by Egyptian armies, the records of 
 whose expeditions are even now read by learned Egyptologists. 
 
 Lebanon is also mentioned by David, Solomon, Isaiah, and other 
 sacred poets and prophets, who refer to its most striking features 
 and characteristics. They speak of the head, the countenance, the 
 sides, the roots of Lebanon ; and of the snow, and the streams that 
 run amongst the valleys. They sing of the glory of Lebanon, and 
 the smell of its forests — the cedar, the fir, the pine, and the box 
 together; and of the birds that sing amongst the branches. To 
 the ancient seer, poet, and prophet Lebanon was a goodly moun- 
 tain, which they delighted to praise ; and goodly is still its most 
 appropriate title of distinction. The Arabs say that Lebanon bears 
 winter on his head, spring on his shoulders, and autumn in his lap, 
 while summer lies at his feet. 
 
 Lebanon has been divided into two provinces, generally recog- 
 nized as such by the Turkish Government. They are named 
 Mu'amalet Tarablus and Mu'amalet Saida, from the respective cities 
 of Tripoli and Sidon. The dividing line, commencing at the north- 
 eastern end of the Bay of Juneh, is carried up a ravine called 
 Mu'amaltein eastward, over the mountains to the Buka'a. Of those 
 provinces the southern, that of Sidon, is far the largest and most 
 important. Both are subdivided into districts of very unequal size 
 called mukata'at, or akalim. The northern division has eight, and 
 the southern sixteen of those districts; and the population of the 
 latter is fully double that of the former. In the absence of an 
 accurate government census it is impossible to ascertain the exact 
 number of the inhabitants, but the province of Tripoli is supposed 
 to contain about one hundred and twenty-five thousand, and that 
 of Sidon one hundred and fifty thousand, or, in all, nearly three 
 hundred thousand for the entire population of Lebanon. 
 
 Very little change has been attempted in the old divisions and 
 subdivisions of these mountains. The inhabitants cling to them 
 with tenacity, and for' the administration of government they are 
 convenient and even necessary. But the various sects have often 
 asserted and maintained a semi-independence, and the actual rulers 
 then regulated the affairs of this region to suit their own conve- 
 nience. Such was the case during the long rule of the Emir Be-
 
 I40 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 shir, of the Shehab family. In i830-'3i Ibrahim Pasha, the warlike 
 son of Muhammed 'Aly of Egypt, subdued the whole of Syria; but 
 he continued the Emir Beshir in his government of the Lebanon. 
 
 The Allied Powers restored Syria to the Sultan in 1840, who 
 banished the emir, and he died in exile. Since that time the 
 civil government of these mountains has undergone some modi- 
 fications, mainly brought about through the intervention of the 
 European governments, and consequent upon the calamitous wars 
 between the Maronites and the Druses. The existing regime was 
 established by the same foreign interference after the massacres of 
 i860, and the temporary occupation of this country by the French. 
 It has succeeded admirably, and comparative peace and prosperity 
 are assured to this long distracted region. 
 
 Religiously, the people of Lebanon are divided into Muham- 
 medans and Metavvileh, Christians and Druses. The two first are 
 found in both the provinces, chiefly at the northern and southern 
 extremities of each, and may exceed thirty-five thousand in num- 
 ber. The Christians of various denominations reside in all parts of 
 Lebanon, and constitute the great body of the inhabitants. The 
 Greeks and Greek Catholics are found mostly in the province of 
 Sidon, and in the district or aklim of el Kurah, near Tripoli. They 
 number about seventy-five thousand. The Maronites are by far 
 the most numerous of the Christian sects — over one hundred and 
 twenty-five thousand — and occupy almost exclusively the northern 
 half of Lebanon. Their great stronghold is Aklim el Kesrawan. 
 The Druses are intermingled with the Christians of all denomina- 
 tions in the southern half of these mountains, and they do not 
 number more than forty thousand.
 
 SOUTHERN LEBANON. I4I 
 
 V. 
 
 TOUR THROUGH SOUTHERN LEBANON. 
 
 Southern Lebanon.— The Bells of the Mules, and the Song of the Muleteers.— Wander- 
 ing about the Mountains.— 'Ainab.— Natural Tells.— Perpendicular Strata.— Dukkan 
 'Ainab.— Beit Tulhuk.— Original Inhabitants of Lebanon.— The Phcenicians.— Rock- 
 cut Tombs.— 'Ain Kesur.— The Wady below 'Abeih.— 'Abeih.— Old Palaces.— Burn- 
 ing of 'Abeih in 1845.— Escape of the Christians in 1S60.— Mutaiyar 'Abeih.— Mag- 
 nificent Prospect.— Kefr Metta.— Villages and Houses on Lebanon.— Beit el Kady. 
 —El Fuzur.— Traces of Glacial Action.— Tropical Climate and Fruits.— Cloud-bursts. 
 — Jisr el Kady.— Mills.— Nahr el Gabun and Nahr el Kady.— Villages Inhabited by 
 Druses and Maronites.— Bridges, Ancient and Modem.— Adventure with a Panther. 
 — Wild Beasts in the Holy Land in Bible Times. — Bshetfin. — Stagnation of the 
 Druses and Enterprise of the Christians.— Luxuriant and Fertile Fields.— Deir el 
 Kamar.— The Massacres of 1S60.— A Border Land of Antagonistic Tribes.— Revenge- 
 ful Spirit of the Maronites.— Beit Abu Nakad.— Bteddin.— The Emir Beshir.— Beit 
 Shehab.— Palace at Bteddin.— B'aklin.-Simekaniyeh.-Battle-field of the Druses.— 
 Esh Shuf.— Civil Wars.— Description of the Scenery and Geology of Lebanon by Dr. 
 Anderson.— El Judeideh.— Beit Jumblat.— Sheikh Beshir.— Palaces at Mukhtareh.— 
 Vicissitudes of Fortune.— Sa'id Beg Jumblat.— 'Ammalur.— Gray Squirrels.— Oak- 
 grove and Fountain of Bathir.— Fountains and Cliffs between Bathir and Jezzin.— 
 The Auwaly.— Merj Bisry.— Ruins of an Ancient Temple.— Emir Fakhr ed Din Be- 
 sieged and Captured in a Cavern.— Cascade below Jezzin.— The Ambassador and his 
 Family.— Jeba'ah.—Neby Safy.— Jerju'a.— Neby Sijud.— Jermuk.— Jebel er Riham. 
 — Gloljular Iron-ore.— High-places, Ancient and Modern.— Jezzin.— Hunting-ground 
 of the Shehab Emirs.— Taumat Niha.— Ancient Highway from Sidon to Damascus. 
 —Kefr Huneh.— Smuggling Tobacco.— Circular Lake.— Descent to the Litany.— Jisr 
 Burghuz.— Magnificent Prospects.— Meshghurah.— Villages upon the South-eastern 
 Slopes of Lebanon.— Rapid Restoration to Prosperity after Civil Wars.— Schools.— 
 Jisr Kur'un.— Geodes.— The Biika'a originally a Lake.— Kamid el Lauz.— Luz.— 
 Sughbin.— Jisr Jubb Jenin.— Geodes of Chalcedony and Agate.— Vineyards.— Ascent 
 of Lebanon. — View over the Buka'a. — Manna. — The Cedars of el Baruk and cl 
 Ma'asir.— Hiram and Solomon.— Fountains of el Baruk.— Aqueduct of Sheikh Be- 
 shir.— Description of Wady el Fureidis and Wady "Ain Zahalteh by Dr. Anderxm. 
 —Scenery around 'Ain Zahalteh.— Fountains of Nahr el Kady.— Avalanche at Kefr 
 Nebrakh.— Burj el 'Amad.- Beit el 'Amad.— Sheikh Khuttar.— Cedars at 'Ain Za- 
 halleh.— Sources of the Damur and tlic Auwaly. — Problem of Fountains.— Sandstone
 
 142 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Formation and Pine-groves. — Btathir. — Beit 'Abd el Melek. — Silk Factories. — Vine- 
 yards. — Bhamdun during the Civil Wars. — Fossils. — Wady el Ghabiin. — Bhauwarah, 
 the Resic^ence of Colonel Churchill. — Churchill's History of Lebanon. — A Glorious 
 
 Prospect. 
 
 August nth. 
 
 As yet we have seen only a small part of this goodly moun- 
 tain, while Northern Lebanon, Coelesyria, Anti-Lebanon, Damascus, 
 and the regions "beyond Jordan," eastward, remain to be traversed. 
 
 Southern Lebanon does not lie within the line of our travels, 
 but we will make a short preliminary excursion through that sec- 
 tion. The ride will lead us over mountain scenery of great beauty 
 and fertility seldom visited by travellers, and that will add greatly 
 to the charm of the present tour. 
 
 It is pleasant to listen again to the tinkling bells of the mules 
 and the echoing song of the muleteers, and to hear their familiar 
 call of encouragement or caution to the loaded animals, as they 
 wind, one after the other, in Indian file, up and down the rough 
 mountain-paths. There is a peculiar fascination, also, in wandering 
 about these grand mountains, now climbing perilous heights, now 
 descending into profound depths; at one time looking into dark 
 ravines from giddy pinnacles, and at another clinging to the sides 
 of narrow wadies dominated by frowning cliffs, with just enough 
 of the uncertain or the dangerous to keep one upon the alert. 
 
 We have, at the very outset of our trip, a striking example of 
 Lebanon scenery. In front and above us is Mutaiyar 'Ainab, three 
 thousand feet high, with the pretty village of 'Ainab rising, house 
 above house, up the mountain-side, and half concealed in verdure. 
 On our right are gigantic cliffs, descending abruptly to the high- 
 way below us, while on every side are terraces of the vine, the fig, 
 and the olive extending from the very summit of the mountains 
 far down to those long, rolling ridges, clothed with groves of the 
 silvery olive, and dotted here and there with villages nearly hidden 
 away amongst the trees, and beyond them is the boundless expanse 
 of that bright and beautiful sea. 
 
 Are those singular mounds, stretching northwards parallel to 
 the sea-shore, natural or artificial ? 
 
 They are natural tells ; and if you examined the one opposite 
 to us, that has upon its summit a dilapidated Druse chapel, or
 
 ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF LEBANON. 143 
 
 khuhvch, you would discover that the rock strata stand perpen- 
 dicular to the horizon, suggesting the idea that, when the central 
 ridge of the mountain was raised up from below, that part of it 
 was broken off and thrust out seawards, turning the strata per- 
 pendicular in the mighty upheaval. 
 
 We have now reached the Sikeh Sultaneh, or regular road from 
 Beirut to Deir el Kamar, the largest IMaronite village of Lebanon ; 
 and this dukkan of 'Ainab is the half-way coffee-shop, where the 
 wayfarers generally rest and lunch. The water of the village foun- 
 tain is pure and deliciously cold. 
 
 There seem to be remains of ancient buildings, both below the 
 road and upon the cliffs above the village. 
 
 They may be of any age, and are certainly not modern, 'Ainab 
 belonged to the Druse sheikhs of the Tulhuk family, who were the 
 feudal chiefs of the upper Ghurb. It has escaped pillage and con- 
 flagration during the civil wars that so often desolated Southern 
 Lebanon, owing to the protection afforded it by those sheikhs. 
 
 Who are supposed to have been the inhabitants of these moun- 
 tains at the time of the Hebrew conquest? 
 
 Under one name or another, various tribes of Canaanites occu- 
 pied the northern parts of Palestine, including Hermon, and in all 
 probability the southern part of Lebanon, which was generally 
 associated with Hermon. When Joshua overthrew the army of 
 the confederate kings, gathered from all those tribes " by the wa- 
 ters of Merom," it is highly probable that many of the fugitives 
 escaped to these mountains, and established themselves here per- 
 manently ; for there is no evidence that the Hebrews ever again 
 interfered with them, or attempted to penetrate into this region.' 
 The western face of Lebanon, overlooking, as it does, the plain 
 and the sea-board, and in close connection with them, may have 
 been governed by the Phoenicians in ancient times, and, in part, 
 at least, inhabited by them. Many of them were wealthy and 
 refined, and such would naturally resort to these mountains to 
 escape the heat of summer, and for reasons of health, just as the 
 present inhabitants of the coast do now. 
 
 The Phoenicians held possession of the seaboard for, perhaps, 
 
 ' Josh. xi. i-i3.
 
 144 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 two thousand years, but of their sojourn on these beautiful moun- 
 tains they have left no trace. Like the Hebrews, they seldom in- 
 scribed any record upon their monuments or tombs. The sarco- 
 phagus of Ashmanezer, found at Sidon, had a long inscription ; but 
 that tomb was evidently of Egyptian origin, and neither before nor 
 since its discovery have I seen a single word on any sarcophagus or 
 tomb made by the Phoenicians. The Greeks and Romans, on the 
 contrary, placed a record upon almost everything they constructed. 
 So did the Saracens, and especially the Arabs. 
 
 Almost the only indications of former inhabitants on these 
 mountains are the ancient rock- cut tombs, and even those are 
 comparatively few and very rude. They are simply graves cut in 
 the horizontal face of the cliffs, or hewn out of detached blocks, or 
 sunk into the flat surface of single rocks. They are from five to 
 seven feet long, two feet broad, and eighteen inches deep, and were 
 originally covered with heavy stone lids, about eight feet long, three 
 feet broad, and two feet thick, having the corners raised more or 
 less. Generally those rock-cut tombs are found in groups. There 
 is such a group above Shemlan, and another near the road between 
 it and 'Aitath ; but none of them have any ornamentation, nor are 
 there any inscriptions. Hence it is impossible to discover anything 
 in regard to those who made them. The present inhabitants of 
 Lebanon are a mingled race of uncertain origin — Maronites, Greeks, 
 Druses, and Metawileh — and none amongst them can tell who were 
 their ancestors or from whence they came. 
 
 That hamlet of 'Ain Kesur, with its small church, which we are 
 approaching, is literally founded on the rock, being built upon the 
 exposed surface of an unbroken layer of limestone which underlies 
 the entire village. The church occupies an ancient site, and below 
 it are several of those rock-cut tombs already described. Along the 
 road between this and 'Aramon, in the valley west of us, are some 
 larger graves, hewn out of isolated blocks, all empty, of course. 
 
 This long wady below 'Abeih, around which we have been rid- 
 ing, with its well-cultivated terraces rising, rank above rank, from 
 depths a thousand feet and more quite up to the village, forms 
 one of Nature's striking and beautiful amphitheatres, and chal- 
 lenges the admiration of the beholder from every point of view.
 
 'ABEIH.— OLD PALACES.— VIEW FROM THE MUTAIVAR. 145 
 
 It does indeed, and I seldom pass this way without stopping, 
 now and then, to enjoy the prospect. It is seen to the best advan- 
 tage late in the day, when evening verges towards night. Then the 
 whole valley is filled with the golden light of the setting sun, and 
 as the darkness deepens the little pools far below in the terraced 
 vineyards and gardens gleam " like stars on the sea." The village 
 of 'Abeih itself is quite pretty, with its large, attractive houses 
 and curious old palaces. It is situated on the northern side of 
 the mountain, and commands a noble outlook over valley, hill, 
 and plain and the wide, wide sea, sweeping round to Beirut, and 
 extending towards Tripoli far as the eye can follow. 
 
 Those old palaces were mainly erected b\' the Emir Nusr ed 
 Din in 13 15, but have been several times partially destroyed and 
 again rebuilt. Many tragedies have been enacted in and around 
 them during the five or six centuries of their existence. In 1845 
 the Druses under Sheikh Hammud Abu Nakad attacked 'Abeih in 
 force, and quickly set on fire the houses of the Maronites who had 
 fled into the palaces, killing those of the men who were not able 
 to escape in time. An officer of the Pasha, who was then in the 
 Lebanon, came to 'Abeih, and finally put an end to the fight just 
 in time to save from indiscriminate slaughter the whole Maronite 
 population. I was in the village at the time, an unwilling witness to 
 that shocking scene. During the massacres of i860 the Christians 
 of this place fled to the plain, and escaped to Beirut, where they 
 found an asylum in the houses of native and foreign residents. 
 
 It is quiet and peaceful enough at present, and had we the time 
 we might visit the Druse High-school here, on the left, the Ameri- 
 can Mission Seminary, the old palaces, and other places of interest. 
 We will pass through the village to 'Ain 'Ali, as the fountain is 
 called, and from there ascend the mountain-ridge to the celebrated 
 outlook near a ruined Khuhveh, on the top of Mutaiyar 'iVbeih. 
 
 It is, indeed, well worth the climb to stand upon this overhang- 
 ing cliff and gaze upon that wonderful prospect ! Notwithstand- 
 ing your repeated allusions to it, I am taken wholly by surprise, 
 and give up the attempt to comi)rehend depths so profovind, and 
 scenery so vast and so varied. One can see down to the banks 
 of the Damur, and faintly hear the roar of that foaming river; and
 
 146 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 then that sublime assemblage of mountains, and wadys, and ravines, 
 of gorges, and chasms, and cliffs, who can describe it ! In winter, 
 when the entire range of Lebanon is buried under the deep snow, 
 this prospect must be magnificent. 
 
 Mutaiyar 'Abeih is more than three thousand feet above yon- 
 der sea, and commands a panorama of almost unequal extent in 
 this region, and also of great historical interest. Not to dwell upon 
 the mighty sweep of that beautiful sea on the west, and of the 
 magnificent mountain scenery of the Lebanon range on the east, 
 extending from the far south to the distant north, and culmina- 
 ting in Jebel el Keniseh and Sunnin, nearly the entire seaboard of 
 ancient Phoenicia lies outstretched before the beholder. Though 
 Tyre itself is hidden from view by a projecting point of land, the 
 Ladder of Tyre, south of it, is clearly seen ; while old Sidon ap- 
 pears surprisingly near. To the north are the plain and the city 
 of Beirut, the coast of Jebeil and el Batrun, the ancient Gebal and 
 Botrys, and the bold promontory of Theoprosopon, beyond which 
 is the city of Tripoli, with its spacious bay; and farther still is the 
 island of Ruad, the famous seat of the Arvadites. I have counted 
 more than sixty villages and towns from this lofty stand-point. 
 
 But we cannot linger here, and must proceed on our way. 
 Lead your horse carefully along the edge of the cliff, and down 
 these low terraces, and in half an hour we shall reach the village 
 of Kefr Metta, on the southern slope of the ridge, and from there 
 a steep and winding descent through groves of pine will bring us, 
 in about an hour, to the Damur, at Jisr el Kady. There we will 
 lunch near one of those khans and dukkans, found everywhere, at 
 convenient stopping places, along the roads in these mountains. 
 
 With the difference in size and situation the villages on Leba- 
 non are very much alike, and, I should suppose, that distance 
 always lends enchantment to their appearance. 
 
 They are naturally built around the fountain as a centre, and to 
 it all roads and paths converge. The houses are low, square, and 
 solidly built, rarely of more than one story, and seldom exceeding 
 three rooms, with one door and two windows to each. The roofs 
 are flat and covered with earth, which is " rolled " in winter, to make 
 it water-proof. Such houses are as much a part of the mountain
 
 BEIT EL KADV.— EL FUZUR. 147 
 
 as the terraced fields, vineyards, and cliffs by which they are sur- 
 rounded, and upon which they are built ; and it is this grouping 
 together of house and vine, terrace and cliff, that gives to these 
 mountain villages and the magnificent scenery which they com- 
 mand their peculiar beauty and special attractiveness. 
 
 Kefr Metta has long been the home of Beit el Kady, a family 
 that has furnished most of the judges for the Druse nation on 
 Lebanon. I have been acquainted with several of those judges, 
 some of whom were learned and dignified, and their legal record 
 was an honor to their position and their people. The younger 
 branches of the family, who lived in Kefr Metta in i860, were said 
 to have participated in the massacres of the Christians at Deir el 
 Kamar, and were obliged to leave the country to escape condign 
 punishment for their part in that horrible tragedy. 
 
 About an hour's ride below this village there is a remarkable 
 group of cliffs and fissures, on the right bank of the river gorge, 
 called el Fuzur, which is well worth visiting. The ride from Kefr 
 Metta down to the Fuzur is interesting, particularly to geological 
 students of Lebanon. Passing on the west side of the village, and 
 descending by a rough path for half a mile, one comes upon a large 
 formation of amorphous trap and globular basalt. That formation 
 extends northward under the limestone ridges upon which are situ- 
 ated Kefr Metta, 'Abeih, 'Ain Kesur, 'Ainab, Shemlan, 'Aitath, Suk 
 el Ghurb, and other villages. It is at least one hundred feet thick ; 
 above it is limestone, and below it generally sandstone, which rests 
 upon limestone. Through that lower limestone, which is very hard 
 and compact, the Damur has worn its way ; and in the cliffs on the 
 north side are the fissures of el Fuzur, near the bottom of the river 
 valley, and about five miles above its entrance into the sea. 
 
 The Fuzur itself is a great rift, extending down southward 
 through the cliff. At the upper end the perpendicular sides are 
 about twenty -five feet apart; but they gradually approach each 
 other, in the descent, until they are only five feet asunder at the 
 lower end. The fissure is about three hundred feet long and nearly 
 one hundred feet high. The descent, through the fissure, down 
 which the path winds to the mill, which is some two hundred feet 
 above the bed of the river, is exceedingly steep. The water is
 
 148 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 brought from the river to the mill by a canal, which winds pictu- 
 resquely along perpendicular cliffs for half a mile. A little to 
 the south of the main fissure just described is another, paral- 
 lel to it, but in no place are the sides more than six feet apart. 
 Unlike the other, it narrows upwards, and the sides meet above. 
 Rocks have, at some time, fallen into it, upon which one can pene- 
 trate the chasm for thirty or forty feet ; and a stone dropped into 
 the abyss is heard for some seconds rolling away far below. Be- 
 sides these two fissures there are others running transversely, and 
 descending directly south towards the river. 
 
 Although that labyrinth of rocks and clefts is interesting in 
 itself, yet it would not on that account alone be entitled to special 
 notice. It is what certain parts of the Fuzur indicate and suggest 
 that imparts to it peculiar interest. The sides of the main fissure, 
 throughout its entire length and from top to bottom, have been 
 polished by the action, as I believe, of a glacier. In that process 
 the polishing body, during its passage through the fissure, has 
 drawn lines and scratches and fine striae with surprising regularity, 
 descending with the descent of the cleft itself. As the fissure nar- 
 rows downwards towards the lower end, where it opens out on to 
 the river-bed, the glacier would necessarily assume the shape and 
 form of a huge wedge. That would render its passage through the 
 cleft very slow and regular, which accounts for the beauty of the 
 polish and the regularity of the striae. 
 
 The rock, being intensely hard and unstratified, received a uni- 
 form polish; and, being protected by a remarkable curve of the 
 cliff on the upper side, like the moulding of an immense cornice, 
 by which the fissure was overarched and sheltered from the sun, 
 the polish would remain as long as the everlasting mountain itself. 
 In certain places below that natural cornice water has trickled 
 down, on the upper side of the fissure, coating the surface with a 
 stalagmitic incrustation, whose lines are nearly perpendicular to 
 the strise of the polished surface. Where that incrustation has 
 peeled off the striae are shown in unbroken continuity. 
 
 During my rambles over Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon I had not 
 discovered any traces of the action of glaciers which appeared dis- 
 tinct and unmistakable. I had not seen the Fuzur, with its po-
 
 INDICATIONS OF GLACIAL ACTION ON LEBANON. I49 
 
 lished surfaces, more perfect and extensive than an}' I had visited 
 either in Europe or America. It is this glacial action which im- 
 parts special interest to that locality, and which is corroborated by 
 the appearance of the parallel fissure. That one is widest at the 
 bottom, and narrowest at the top, where it is also so covered over 
 by rocks that no glacier could have possibly entered it. Hence 
 its sides are as rough as when first split apart. The same is true 
 of all the neighboring fissures, where glacial action was equally im- 
 possible. If we have there sufficient proof that, in some former 
 period in the earth's history, el Fuzur was filled with a glacier, the 
 conclusion is certain that at that time the greater part, if not the 
 whole, of Lebanon, down to the sea itself, was buried under enor- 
 mous accumulations of snow and ice. 
 
 El Fuzur is in the secluded and sheltered gorge of the river, 
 and but five hundred feet above the sea-shore. In the immediate 
 neighborhood are two or three houses and the mill. The place is 
 known as el Muwafukah, or the fortunate. The climate in that 
 sheltered nook being almost tropical, everything planted there 
 grows with surprising luxuriance, and is well watered by the canal 
 which turns the mill. In the present condition of our earth nei- 
 ther frost nor snow ever invade that spot, and the orange-tree and 
 the taro-plant flourish all the year round in the open air. If these 
 mountains have been covered with thick ice since the cliffs of el 
 Fuzur were rent asunder, the geological phenomena and features 
 of Lebanon, as well as its natural history and productions, present 
 a most interesting problem for science to solve. Apparently, it 
 has required a great extent of time and many physical convulsions 
 to bring hills, ridges, valleys, and plains to their present fertile con- 
 dition ; and during those countless ages the forces of nature have 
 accomplished an amount of abrasion, excavation, and degradation 
 which astonishes even the imagination. 
 
 Careful search may yet discover other indications of the action 
 of glaciers in these mountains ; but, from the nature of the rock, 
 they will be found only in places protected from the frost, snow, 
 rain, and sun. The cliffs of Lebanon are continually adding to the 
 accumulations of debris along their bases by the breaking off of 
 large masses of rock and rubbish ; and thus all traces of glacial
 
 150 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 action are obliterated from their sides or buried deep by the talus 
 at the base. There is also another agency constantly operating in 
 this country to obliterate all traces of glaciers. The extraordinary 
 cloud-burst, called sell by the Arabs, sweeps away everything that 
 opposes its overwhelming floods. I have often examined the tracks 
 of those cloud-bursts, and been appalled at the wild havoc they 
 make. As hardly a season now passes without some part of the 
 mountains being swept by them, they would, in the long lapse of 
 ages since glaciers disappeared from Lebanon, have either washed 
 away or buried up all traces of terminal moraines. 
 
 But here we are at Jisr el Kady, which, I suppose, derives its 
 name from one of the family of el Kady, by whom it was built. 
 We will see what kind of refreshments the dukkanjy has to offer, 
 while we take our noonday rest, with the noisy river at our feet, 
 and those clattering mills on either side of us. We have now 
 returned to the regular road between Beirut and Deir el Kamar. 
 
 The two main branches of the Damur here unite ; Nahr el 
 Ghabiin comes from the north-east, Nahr el Kady from the east, 
 augmented by the streams from the region around Btathir and 
 'Ain Dara. The great fountains of Nahr el Kady below 'Ain 
 Zahalteh are, however, the true permanent source of this river. 
 
 Those valleys, with their tributaries, are studded with villages, 
 clinging to the declivities on both sides, and embowered in vine- 
 yards and mulberry-gardens. They enhance the beauty and inte- 
 rest of this wild and picturesque scenery. 
 
 They are inhabited by Druses and Maronites, the former being 
 in the majority ; and it is owing to that fact that, during civil 
 wars, the Druses get the upper hand and commit atrocious crimes 
 upon the Christians, as exemplified in the massacres of i860. 
 
 It is time for us to leave this cool and refreshing retreat, above 
 the noisy, rushing river, and commence the steep ascent of the 
 mountain. We have nearly three hours yet to ride before reach- 
 ing our tents pitched in the western suburb of Deir el Kamar. 
 
 Jisr el Kady is not likely to be swept away by any torrents 
 with which the Damur can assault it, for its buttresses, on either 
 side, are founded upon the everlasting rock. 
 
 Substantial as it is, and high above the foaming river that now
 
 ROMAN BRIDGE-BUILDERS.— WILD BEASTS OX LEBAXOX. 151 
 
 darts down the smooth and worn channel below its ample arches, 
 there have been times, even within my experience, when the Da- 
 mur overflowed the topmost stone on the parapet of that bridge. 
 To resist such winter floods and summer cloud-bursts, or seils, 
 bridges, in this mountainous country, must not only be solidly 
 built, but the arches, also, must be wide and high. The Roman 
 bridge-builders were aware of this necessity, and hence the strong 
 and lofty arches which they constructed over even insignificant 
 streams, specimens of which are still to be seen at Nahr Abu el 
 Aswad, between Tyre and Sidon, and at Mu'amaltcin, north of the 
 Bay of Juneh, on the road to Tripoli. 
 
 That group of rocky pinnacles, on the right of our path, recalls 
 a curious incident which occurred in this vicinity a few years ago. 
 Passing this way to Deir el Damar with her servant, one of the 
 American missionary ladies w^as astonished to see a nimr, or pan- 
 ther, stretched out upon a rock not far from the road. Not de- 
 siring a closer interview, they did not disturb the quiet of his 
 rest, and were glad to pass on unmolested. 
 
 It is surprising that such wild animals can hold their own in a 
 region so thickly populated as this. 
 
 They are still found in a few places, and occasionally shot and 
 killed by parties who go out in pursuit of them. When Ibrahim 
 Pasha disarmed the inhabitants of this country, the wild beasts be- 
 came so numerous and destructive in certain districts that he was 
 obliged to restore arms to those who were specially exposed to 
 their depredations. Such facts serve to illustrate the divine pro- 
 mise to the Hebrews: "I will not drive them [the Canaanites] out 
 from before thee in one year ; lest the land become desolate, and 
 the beasts of the field multiply against thee." ' They also render 
 altogether credible the Biblical accounts of the presence of wild 
 beasts in Palestine in ancient times, when the people had no more 
 formidable weapons than the bow, the sword, and the spear. 
 
 Formerly this road was very rough and the ascent fatiguing, 
 but Rustum Pasha, the Governor- general of the Lebanon, has 
 greatly improved it, and before long carriages will he able to drive 
 all the way from Beirut to Deir el Kamar and Bteddin. 
 
 ' Exud. xxiii. 2ij.
 
 152 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 There can scarcely be finer scenery on Lebanon than this — 
 above, around, and far below us — the mountains, the wadys, the 
 Damur valley, and the distant sea. 
 
 The prospect is, indeed, as grand as it is beautiful, and as varied 
 as it is verdant ; but your progress through the Lebanon will be a 
 continual advance from glory to glory, and you will find it difficult 
 to decide which is the most beautiful view. 
 
 DURZY AND DURZIEH. 
 
 That small Druse village, called Bshetfin, which we have just 
 passed through, remains in appearance just what it was when I 
 came to this country. It has not increased in size nor advanced 
 in any degree. If half the inhabitants had gone to sleep fifty years
 
 DRUSE STAGNATION.— CHRISTIAN ENTERPRISE. I 53 
 
 ago and awoke up to-day. they would have noticed but Httle change 
 about the place since they began their long slumber. Even the 
 picturesque oak-trees that surround the village do not appear to 
 have grown much in half a century. 
 
 In these respects Bshetfhi is a fair representative of many other 
 Druse villages. They are stagnant, and make very little progress 
 in any direction. Some of them have declined both in population 
 and property. That may be ascribed, in part, to the social and 
 religious customs of the people, and partly to those civil wars and 
 massacres which desolated Lebanon at different times from 1842 
 to i860. Many Druses became deeply implicated in those ruinous 
 conflicts, and found it necessary to emigrate to the Hauran to 
 escape punishment for their crimes. Not a few villages were thus 
 almost deserted, and the Druse population of this part of Leba- 
 non is probably not greater now than it was fifty years ago. Their 
 feudal sheikhs and emirs have also lost their ancient position and 
 power, and can no longer protect and support the numerous rela- 
 tives, retainers, and servants that formerly depended upon them. 
 
 The Druses will not become artisans, and few of them learn any 
 mechanical trade ; neither will they " open shops " in the markets. 
 Their one occupation is agriculture, and that on a small scale. 
 Hence they have become poor, while the native Christians eagerly 
 pursue every kind of profitable occupation, and are rapidly growing 
 in wealth, intelligence, and numbers. 
 
 We have now reached the top of this long ascent from Jisr el 
 Kady, and turning eastward we will ride through mulberry, fig, and 
 olive gardens for half an hour along the north side of this deep val- 
 ley. Our tents are awaiting us in an enclosed field at the west end 
 of Dcir el Kamar, where I have often pitched on former occasions. 
 
 Nowhere in all Palestine have we seen such luxuriant and fer- 
 tile fields, or such carefully cultivated terraces. 
 
 That is due to the abundance of water, brought from a con- 
 siderable distance, whose little rills come foaming down the ter- 
 races like miniature cascades, and irrigate every available spot 
 where a tree, a vine, or a vegetable can be made to grow. We 
 shall soon come in sight of the palaces at Btcddin, situated across 
 
 the wady, and higher up the mountain-side. 
 L
 
 154 '^^^ LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 August nth. Evening. 
 
 Your friend, Mu'alim Daud, kindly accompanied me through the 
 town, in the cool of the evening, and during our walk he gave me a 
 graphic account of the varied fortunes of his family in connection 
 with the civil wars, conflagrations, and massacres which have oc- 
 curred in Deir el Kamar within the last forty years. I was sur- 
 prised at the appearance of the town, and could hardly believe that 
 the houses, churches, and convents had all been burnt so recently 
 and again rebuilt. Mu'alim Daud, however, informed me that the 
 stone of which they were constructed was of a kind which suffered 
 very little from fire, so that the walls were generally left standing. 
 
 That is true of nearly all the houses on these mountains, and 
 hence the work of reconstruction is greatly- facilitated. Deir el 
 Kamar was rebuilt, after the massacres of i860, at the expense of 
 the Turkish Government, and the houses are now about as good 
 as ever. But the population is much reduced; a large proportion 
 of men and boys were murdered in i860, and of those who escaped 
 not a few have settled elsewhere, nor will they again make Deir 
 el Kamar their home. Who can wonder at that, in view of the 
 terrible calamities which have befallen them and their families? 
 
 Mu'alim Daud estimated the present inhabitants at six thou- 
 sand, which he said was considerably less than what it was before 
 the massacre. That seemed to me below the actual number, for 
 the town extends more than a mile along the southern slope of the 
 mountain. But the Mu'alim said that some of the houses were 
 still uninhabited. Pointing to a broad terrace overlooking the val- 
 ley, he assured me that, in the summer of i860, over five hundred 
 of his fellow-townsmen were slaughtered in cold blood in one of 
 the large houses there, and their bodies thrown into the yard be- 
 low. The number of the Christians that were killed by the Druses, 
 in Deir el Kamar alone, Mu'alim Daud said, was over one thousand. 
 It is evident, from all I learned of the massacre, that it w^as the de- 
 termined purpose of the Druses to exterminate the male popula- 
 tion of the town ; and the details of that ferocious butchery, given 
 on the spot by an eye-witness, recalled to my mind some of the 
 accounts in the Bible of similar slaughter, often recurring in the 
 history of this strange country in ancient times.
 
 A BORDER-LAND.— CIVIL WARS.— PALACES AT DEIR EL KAMAR. I 55 
 
 This has always been a border-land, and peopled by many an- 
 tagonistic tribes, now dwelling amicably together, now engaged in 
 bloody feuds, subjugating, expelling, or exterminating one another 
 in endless succession. And it is to be feared that the massacre of 
 i860 was not the last enacted on these mountains. 
 
 So I apprehend ; for even my kind guide — when showing me 
 the Druse quarter, elevated above the rest of the town, and now 
 covered with shapeless ruins — said: "There is all that remains of 
 the habitations of our enemies. Thank God, no Druse can now put 
 his foot in Deir el Kamar, and, if God will, we shall yet have far 
 greater revenge for our kindred and the desolation of our homes." 
 
 Such, no doubt, is the cherished hope of all his co-religionists ; 
 and the realization of it will be left to their children, as a family 
 legacy never to be forgotten. But all their attempts hitherto have 
 proved failures. Three times have I seen the effort to subjugate 
 or annihilate the Druses set all the Lebanon in a blaze, and each 
 succeeding defeat of the Maronites was more crushing and disas- 
 trous than the one before it. Had it not been for the timely inter- 
 vention of the European Powers, and the occupation of the country 
 by the French after the massacres of i860, not only the Maronites, 
 but the Christian population of these mountains, would have been 
 nearly annihilated by the Druses and Moslems, assisted, as they 
 were, by the Turkish Government. Let us hope that a better re- 
 ligion, better education, and a better government will ultimately 
 eradicate these fierce passions, so that Druse and Maronitc may 
 dwell together in harmony and peace on this goodly mountain. 
 
 Amongst the ruins you saw were those of the houses and pal- 
 aces of the sheikhs and begs of Beit Abu Nakad, an ancient family 
 from the Hejaz that aided in the conquest of Egypt and the north 
 of Africa in the seventh century. From thence they emigrated to 
 the south of Lebanon about the twelfth century; but they are 
 rarely mentioned in the confused annals of the mountains until 
 about two hundred years ago. From that time onward they fig- 
 ure largely in all the wars which desolated Lebanon. They have 
 been a fierce and turbulent "family," and their story is a perpet- 
 ual repetition of bloody feuds, in which they have often been 
 nearly exterminated. Their residences in Deir el Kamar have been
 
 156 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 burnt several times and their property destroyed. Owing to the 
 leading part which they took in the recent massacres, they have 
 been forbidden to enter the town, their habitations were levelled 
 with the ground, and the very materials carried away to rebuild 
 the houses of their enemies. 
 
 August 1 2th. 
 
 Instead of passing through the town we will take the road 
 below it, which leads along the base of the hill, and then across 
 the valley and up the mountain to the famous palace of the Emir 
 Beshir at Bteddin. The smaller palace which he built for his 
 mother is seen in the mulberry-gardens, and that of his eldest son 
 is higher up the hill to the south-west. The only thing worthy 
 of notice near them is the canal which supplies the palaces and 
 the surrounding gardens with water brought from the fountains at 
 'Ain Zahalteh, about eight miles to the north-east of Bteddin. 
 
 The Emir Beshir resided at Bteddin in great dignity and state, 
 and for many years governed all Lebanon as an independent prince. 
 He ruled with a strong will and an iron hand, but was expelled 
 from the country in 1840, when Syria was restored to the Sultan 
 by the allied powers of Europe, and he died an exile in Constanti- 
 nople. He was the last of a long line of governing emirs of the 
 Shehab family. Their genealogical record extends through more 
 than forty generations. But their day is over, and their glory has 
 departed ; nor is there any probability that another Shehab will 
 ever again rise to power either in Lebanon, in Wady et Teim, or 
 in the Hauran, where they originally dwelt, and from whence they 
 long ago passed over into these mountains. 
 
 Forty generations ! Do the Shehab emirs carry up their pedi- 
 gree to an antiquity so high as that ? 
 
 There are other things about Lebanon besides magnificent sce- 
 nery quite worthy of attention. Not the least remarkable is the 
 history and the character of its inhabitants. There were no less 
 than twenty-four feudal, families in these mountains, and some of 
 them boasted of a pedigree which, for antiquity, puts to the blush 
 that of the most aristocratic dynasties in Europe. The emir who 
 called on us in Shemlan traces his genealogical tree to Paradise, 
 where its roots were nourished. He claims direct descent from the
 
 THE SHEHAB PKIN'CES.— PALACE AT BTEDDIX. I 57 
 
 Prophet; and from Muhammed any Moslem chronologer will carry 
 the line up to Ishmael, from whence to Adam in Mdcn they follow 
 the Biblical list. The accuracy with which such lont; chronologies 
 and pedigrees are kept not only illustrates Biblical genealogies, but 
 increases our confidence in their reliability. 
 
 And thus the chronicles of the Shehab family run through 
 forty-one successive generations of governing emirs to the death of 
 the Emir Beshir. There are several points of resemblance between 
 those emirs and the judges and kings of Judah and Israel. Some 
 were good and wise ; others were wicked and did evil in the sight 
 of the Lord, and were punished. There were family feuds, rival- 
 ries, and murders not a few; and there were various incidents, acci- 
 dents, and anecdotes to diversify the uniformity of their history. 
 As amongst the Hebrews, there was, at first, but one line of princes; 
 afterwards the Shehab family was divided into two, and finally 
 three branches — one in Upper Wady et Teim at Rasheiya, another 
 in Lower Wady et Teim at Hasbeiya, and the third on Lebanon. 
 The governing families of the Hebrews passed away long ago, but 
 the Shehabs are still in the land, though greatly impoverished and 
 fallen from their former position of dignity and power. 
 
 This esplanade, or medan, as you call it, presents some idea of 
 the wealth and power of the Emir Beshir ; and the view is not only 
 grand, it is magnificent. The palace occupied one side, covered 
 arcades, retainers' and servants' rooms, kitchens and stables the 
 other two, and it is open towards the valley, Deir el Kamar, and 
 the distant sea on the fourth side. The palace is built upon the 
 cliff, and is about two hundred and fifty feet above the valley, and 
 three thousand feet above the Mediterranean. Below it the de- 
 clivities of the mountain sink down to the bottom of the wady 
 which lies between Bteddin and Deir el Kamar. The decorations 
 about the palace, its carved doors and windows, its marble floors 
 and halls, its inlaid walls and painted ceilings, its courts, fountains, 
 and baths, retain the mere semblance of their former glory. The 
 palace was used by the Government for many years as a barracks, 
 and most of the fine marble has been carried away by the officers, 
 and the whole establishment was allowed to go to ruin. Since the 
 massacres of i860 it has become the summer residence of the Gov-
 
 158 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 PALACE AT BTEDDIN. 
 
 ernor-general, and it has been repaired and enlarged. The water 
 from the canal supplies the palace and the gardens, and then 
 plunges down the cliff into the valley — a foaming, noisy cataract. 
 
 Mukhtarah is the next place we are to visit this morning. 
 Being two hours distant, it is time we were on our way there.
 
 DISTRICT OF ESH SHUF.— BATTLE-FIELD OF THE DRUSES. 1 59 
 
 That beautifully wooded village of B'aklin, some fwo miles west 
 of Bteddin, is the stronghold of the Druses, in the Shuf, as this dis- 
 trict is called ; and there many a battle has been fought in the past, 
 between the rival sheikhs and emirs of Lebanon, A short distance 
 ahead of us is another celebrated battle-field, near the small hamlet 
 of es Simekaniyeh. There seems to be no reason why that region 
 should have been the chosen theatre of so many contests, except 
 that it is situated nearly midway between el Mukhtarah and Bted- 
 din ; and yet several fights have occurred there during the present 
 generation. Indeed, we are surrounded with battle-fields, and nearly 
 every hamlet and village has its tragic story. 
 
 Native historians speak of long periods in which this district of 
 esh Shuf was reduced to a howling wilderness by the contests for 
 its possession between rival chiefs of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. 
 Not only were the villages burnt, and the people butchered or 
 driven away, but the olive -groves, the mulberry fields, and other 
 species of property were purposely destroyed. And it is one of 
 the best possible proofs of the natural fertility of this part of the 
 mountain that it recovered so rapidly from those ruinous visita- 
 tions. Most of these picturesque villages, with their olive and 
 mulberry plantations, their fig and walnut trees, their poplar and 
 oak groves, their vine -clad terraces climbing to the clouds, have 
 been desolated by the fires of civil war more than once since I first 
 saw them. And yet that wide expanse of mountain and valley, 
 drained by the river Auwaly from the fountains at el Baruk, on the 
 north, to Jezzin, on the south, is about the best wooded, most popu- 
 lous, and the most flourishing on Lebanon. 
 
 Dr. H. J. Anderson, of Lieutenant Lynch's Expedition to the 
 Dead Sea, thus speaks of the scenery which now opens out before 
 us: "After passing es Simekaniyeh the country assumes an aspect 
 of grandeur not surpassed in any part of the Libanus. The noble 
 scenery of el Mukhtarah now presents itself, with its vast masses 
 and startling contrasts, its turreted cliffs and dark defiles, its sud- 
 den barriers and winding outlets, conducting the traveller gradu- 
 ally down into the singular valley of Nahr cl H.'iruk." And of the 
 geology of this region, which we are to traverse for the next five 
 hours, he says: "Vertical sections of the mountain-side show an
 
 l6o THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 alternation of massive and stratified limestone, resembling at first 
 view the successive deposits, sometimes so difficult to account for, 
 in the distribution of materials derived from the detritus of plu- 
 tonic rocks. In the neighborhood of el Judeideh the plough of the 
 husbandman frequently turns up casts of enormous Strombi and 
 Naticae. In general it may be said of the Lebanine groups between 
 Deir el Kamar and Jezzin that they possess every variety of appear- 
 ance, from the most porous to the most compact, and from the most 
 thoroughly silicified to the most completely disintegrated and bro- 
 ken down. The colors are as various as the consistence, running 
 from a pale yellow to a dark blue and purplish black."' 
 
 Dr. Anderson found this vicinity exceptionally rich in casts of 
 a great variety of fossils ; and here, above the road, you see them 
 protruding from the perpendicular bank in countless numbers. 
 The strombi are extremely compact, and I have collected speci- 
 mens weighing several pounds. These geological phenomena form 
 but one of the many attractions for the traveller through this mag- 
 nificent region of Southern Lebanon. 
 
 The long descent from el Judeideh, through olive-groves and 
 under walnut-trees, down to this bridge over the Baruk River, is 
 very picturesque ; and so is the bridge, with its noisy cascades 
 above and below, while all around it is embowered and nearly con- 
 cealed by a forest of waving silver poplar and wide-spreading syca- 
 more, and the stream is almost hidden from view by thick bushes 
 and twining vines. Not having expected a scene so romantic, I 
 gaze upon it with as much delight as though I was the first to dis- 
 cover it. Shall we ride up to that conspicuous palace of the Jumb- 
 lats, so beautifully situated in this wild valley? 
 
 By no means. We should not be able to decline the hospita- 
 lity of the young begs without positive rudeness. I have spent 
 more than one agreeable night there, and if time permitted we 
 might pass a pleasant week with the present representatives of 
 Beit Jumblat, who now occupy that palace at el Mukhtarah. 
 
 Beit Jumblat was the most wealthy and influential "house" 
 amongst the Druses ; and, with the single exception of the Emir 
 Fakhr ed Din Ma'an, Sheikh Beshir Jumblat was the most illustri- 
 
 • Ex. to the Dead Sea, pp. 92, 94.
 
 PALACES AT MUKIITARAII.— FORTUNES OF BEIT JUMBLAT. l6l 
 
 ous prince of that singular people. Though the Jumblats were 
 celebrated for many generations in the region about Aleppo and 
 Killis, and, subsequently, at Ma'arret en N'aman and Jebel el A'alah, 
 they were not known on Lebanon until about 1630; nor did the 
 family rise to great distinction before the close of the last century. 
 Then Sheikh Beshir became the most powerful leader in these 
 mountains. The old palaces in el Mukhtiirah were built by him, 
 and he brought the water to them from the great fountain of the 
 river Auwaly, at el Baruk, six miles to the north-east of this place, 
 and at great labor and expense, the canal being cut through hard 
 rock along perpendicular cliffs for a considerable part of the dis- 
 tance. But Sheikh Beshir was the wealthiest prince in Syria, and 
 his possessions were scattered far and wide, over mountain and 
 valley, hill and plain, yielding, according to native report, the fabu- 
 lous income of fifty thousand pounds. 
 
 For many years he was the ally, then the rival, and finally the 
 declared enemy, of the Emir Beshir Shehab, the recognized prince 
 of the mountains by the Turkish Government. The Emir's party 
 ultimately triumphed ; and Sheikh Beshir Jumblat, defeated and 
 driven out of Lebanon, was beheaded in 1825 by the Pasha of 
 Acre, at the instigation, it is said, of Muhammed 'Aly, Governor 
 of Egypt. The palace at el Mukhtarah was plundered and burnt, 
 and the estates of Beit Jumblat were confiscated. But when Emir 
 Beshir Shehab was himself expelled from the country in 1840 by 
 the Allied Powers, and Syria was restored to the Sultan, the sons 
 of Sheikh Beshir Jumblat were allowed to return to their homes, 
 and much of their ancient estate w^as given back to them. 
 
 In the revolutions of those days the palace of the Emir Beshir 
 Shehab at Bteddin — built in part of marble, and adorned with 
 columns taken from the palace at el IMukhtarah— was in turn plun- 
 dered and burnt by the Druses of the Jumblat faction. These are 
 only examples of numberless similar revolts, triumphs, and reverses 
 of the ruling families of the Lebanon, without alluding to the 
 treachery, torture, assassination, and murder that preceded, accom- 
 panied, and followed them. Indeed, the history of these moun- 
 tains is little else than a chronicle of such retributive tragedies. 
 Most of the present palace was built by Sa'id Beg, the son of
 
 1 62 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 THE PALACE OF SA'iD BEG JUMBLAT AT EL MUKHTARAH. 
 
 Sheikh Beshir Jumblat ; and his story runs sadly through a period 
 of forty years, during which civil wars often desolated Lebanon, 
 and he was frequently accused of treachery and cruelty by his ene- 
 mies. Involved, willingly or otherwise, in the massacres of i860, 
 Sa'id Beg Jumblat was taken prisoner by the Turkish Government, 
 tried in Beirut, and barely escaped with his life, owing to the pow- 
 erful influence of the British Commissioner. He was, however, far 
 gone in consumption, and was removed from prison to a private
 
 GROVES OF 'AMMATCr.— WATER-FALLS AND CLIFFS. 163 
 
 house only to die. The famih^ has been, and is still, in a certain 
 sense, under the protection of the British Government ; and I have 
 felt a deep interest in their troubled history and declining fortunes. 
 
 We are now entering the beautiful groves of 'Ammatur, the 
 pride and boast of this region. 
 
 A veritable paradise of fruitful trees, dense bushes, trailing 
 vines, and blooming flowers ; vocal with the song of birds, the 
 hum of bees, and the murmur of running water. Nowhere else 
 have we found such noble walnut-trees; and here, too, I see, for 
 the first time in the East, genuine gray squirrels, leaping from 
 branch to branch as nimbly as they do in the far West. 
 
 They are not so large, but in all other respects they appear to 
 be the same, and are found wherever there are walnut-trees like 
 these. But, notwithstanding the peaceful attractions of this earth- 
 ly paradise, with its trees and flowers, birds and fountains, and even 
 squirrels, the inhabitants of 'Ammatur, mostly Druses, are divided 
 into hostile factions, and are constantly quarrelling, and sometimes 
 murdering each other. We shall ride through this wilderness of 
 verdure and beauty for more than half an hour. 
 
 The road now makes a long bend inwards to pass around a 
 deep chasm on our right, beyond which is the noble oak-grove of 
 Bathir. There we will lunch near a large fountain which flows 
 out from under perpendicular cliffs that tower upwards to the 
 clouds. A path winds as best it can up those stupendous ram- 
 parts to Niha, B'adaran, and other villages situated some two thou- 
 sand feet higher up on the mountains. The stream goes bravely 
 to work from its very source; drives a mill directly below it; then 
 another, and still another, which seem to hang on the very edge of 
 the precipice down which the sturdy young brook plunges in noisy 
 cascades, a hundred feet high and more, in its eagerness to join the 
 rushing river of el Baruk in the valley far below. 
 
 There are other brooks farther on whose fountains are hitklcn 
 away in the upper regions of Lebanon, from whence their streams 
 come tumbling down the cliffs high overhead, as though falling from 
 the clear blue sky. In fact, the entire ride from here to Jezzin is 
 extremely romantic ; nor is the magnificent scenery of this region 
 destitute of historical incidents and thrilling adventures.
 
 164 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 I am constantly surprised at the endless variety in the appear- 
 ance of these cliffs. They do not present one uniform and monoto- 
 nous wall perpendicular to the horizon, but massive buttresses are 
 pushed out here and there to the fore-front, high above the deep 
 o-oro-e of the river, and then the line of cliffs retreats behind 
 castellated peaks, and recedes far into the mountain, protected by 
 rocky turrets and flanked by unassailable bastions. 
 
 Those extraordinary and nearly Alpine proportions, these fan- 
 tastic shapes, those inaccessible heights, and these profound depths, 
 are all mainly the result of a remarkable disintegration. Immense 
 masses of rock, great blocks, bowlders, and slabs have been split 
 off, or rolled down from the mountain, and lie at the bottom of 
 the cliffs in wild confusion, and far below runs the Jezzin branch 
 of the river Auwaly. The profound gorge of that river trends 
 sharply round to the west, and through it the Auwaly finds its 
 way to the sea, between gigantic cliffs of gray limestone. 
 
 At the turning-point, where the stream from Jezzin unites with 
 the river of el Baruk, and the two combined form the Auwaly, is 
 a pretty little plain called Merj Bisry, covered with fertile fields 
 and cultivated gardens, and bordered along the banks of the river 
 w'ith oleander and myrtle bushes. On that quiet and secluded 
 "meadow" of Bisry, as the name implies, are some remains of an 
 ancient temple, nearly buried beneath the debris of the overhang- 
 ing mountain, and further concealed by thickets and thorn bushes. 
 There are no inscriptions, and but three or four columns, probably 
 of Egyptian origin, and brought there by the Phoenicians. There, 
 too, one is reminded of the warlike and revengeful nature of the 
 Druses, for Merj Bisry is celebrated for many a bloody skirmish in 
 former times between rival families in this part of Lebanon. 
 
 It was amidst this grand scenery that the celebrated Druse chief- 
 tain, Fakhr ed Din, terminated a long career of rebellion against 
 the Sultan. High in the face of that limestone cliff, called Kul'at 
 Niha, some distance to the east of Merj Bisry, and apparently inac- 
 cessible from above or below, is Mugharat Niha, a cavern in which 
 the Emir Fakhr ed Din is said to have been besieged for some 
 years. When compelled to forsake that unassailable retreat by the 
 poisoning of his w'ater supply, he took refuge in a cave under the
 
 EMIR FAKHR ED DIX.— WATER-FALL BELOW JEZZIX. 
 
 l6: 
 
 cascade of Jezzin. There he remained until the cave was sapped 
 from below. As the story relates, the sturdy old rebel calmly 
 
 smoked his pipe 
 until the sap- 
 per's chisel was driven 
 up through the rug on 
 which he was reclin- 
 ing. Then he surren- 
 dered, and was taken 
 to Constantinople, and 
 there beheaded — the fate 
 of many another rebel 
 against the Grand Turk. 
 
 Instead of passing on 
 to Jezzin we will take 
 this path on the right, 
 which will lead us to the 
 cascade below the village. 
 
 Here it is, but the cav- 
 ern is not visible. The 
 stream from the fountain 
 
 of Jezzin plunges down this perpendicular cliff for about two 
 hundred and fifty feet. I have spent several hours, first and last, 
 at this cataract, and have stood upon the brink and dropped 
 
 WATliR-FAl.I. HKIAUV JKZZl.N.
 
 l56 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 my line for more than t\vo hundred and forty feet without touch- 
 ing the sides of the diff. Descending into the deep chasm, on the 
 western side, I have filled my cup from the vapor of the water at 
 its base, as it fell in misty rain from seeming clouds above. This 
 water-fall is the most magnificent spectacle of the kind in Syria. 
 During the winter the rush of the water and the roar of the cata- 
 ract are quite deafening; but in summer most of the stream is 
 exhausted by irrigation. At present you see but a small stream of 
 water tumbling over the precipice, with its silvery spray swaying 
 hither and thither at the will of the breeze produced by its descent 
 down the face of the cliff. 
 
 The approach of night amidst such scenes is strangely fasci- 
 nating. There is a sudden quiet all around — a stillness as of ex- 
 pectancy pervades the atmosphere ; the birds are silent, and only 
 the rippling water, gliding onwards and over the profound abyss, 
 sounds distinct and clear like the accompaniment of a song when 
 the words have ceased ; and the desire is " to sit on rocks," and " to 
 muse o'er flood and fell." 
 
 All very true ; but, before darkness overtakes us, we had bet- 
 ter seek our tents, which are pitched in a beautiful grove of walnut- 
 trees west of the village of Jezzin. 
 
 August 1 2th. Evening. 
 
 We are spending a delightful evening under the friendly shelter 
 of these trees with their wide-spreading branches ; and the air is 
 decidedly cooler than at Shemlan. 
 
 Jezzin is nearly three thousand feet above the Mediterranean, 
 and is higher and farther removed from the warm air of the sea 
 and the plain than that village. We pitched once on this camping- 
 ground with our Ambassador to Constantinople and his family. 
 
 How came they to be in this unfrequented part of Lebanon ? 
 
 They had delayed their tour through the Holy Land until the 
 middle of summer, and while exposed to the heat and malarial 
 influences of the plain of Gennesaret — where, long ago, " Peter's 
 wife's mother lay sick of a fever" — several of the party were 
 prostrated by that dangerous malady.' Being informed of their 
 condition by a letter from an Episcopal clergyman then in Naza- 
 
 ' Luke iv. 38.
 
 THE AMBASSADOR.— INVALIDS.— TOrR OF PALESTINE. 167 
 
 reth, Dr. Van Dyck and I went to their assistance. We found 
 them at Safed, and the Doctor decided that it was necessary to 
 remove them from that neighborhood, even if they had to be car- 
 ried. Some of the invaHds had so far recovered as to be able to 
 ride, so extemporizing a sort of palanquin for the Ambassador and 
 one for his wife, we were ready to start. The American Vice- 
 consul of Sidon, who had accompanied us. summoned, through the 
 aid of the local authorities, forty fellahin to act as porters. As 
 they had never been trained to carry people, sick or well, our pro- 
 gress was exceedingly slow, owing to the many changes amongst 
 the bearers, and very uncomfortable for the invalids. 
 
 To avoid the heat on the sea-coast we kept upon the moun- 
 tains, passing Kedes, the Kedesh of Naphtali, Hunin, the Chateau 
 Neuf of the Crusaders, and Deir Mimas. We crossed the Litany 
 below Kul'at esh Shukef, Castle Belfort, and ascended the south- 
 western slopes of Lebanon through the shady valley of " the flow- 
 ery " Zaherany to JerjiVa, and thence along Jebel er Rihan to 
 Jeba'ah, "the beautiful." We reached this walnut-grove at the 
 end of the fourth day from Safed. The invalids were soon bene- 
 fited by the change of air, and, greatly enjoying the variety and 
 magnificence of the scenery, were able to continue their journey 
 by way of el Mukhtarah and Deir el Kamar to Abeih. After a 
 few days' rest there, they went down to Beirut, and then took the 
 steamer for Constantinople. .Their experience emphasizes the warn- 
 ing to all who intend to travel through this land not to make the 
 tour of Palestine during the hot months of summer. 
 
 You have spoken of Jeba'ah before with special admiration ; 
 why is it considered so beautiful a village? 
 
 Three things, to the Arab mind, constitute natural beauty — 
 good water, a cool breeze, and abundance of verdure — and Jeba'ah, 
 owing to its situation and the surrounding mountains, has all of 
 those. Did it fall in with our arrangements for the future prose- 
 cution of our travels, the ride around the extreme south-western 
 end of Lebanon would lead us through some of the wildest, well- 
 wooded, and most picturesque scenery in this region. 
 
 The distance from here to Jeba'ah is only about three hours, 
 and before descending to the village the road skirts the grandest
 
 1 58 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 old forest in all Lebanon. Through that dense wood a guide would 
 lead us up to Neby Safy, a solitary shrine on the highest pinnacle 
 of Jebel er Rihan, commanding views of vast extent and great va- 
 riety. That muzar is frequented by Metawileh, and Bedawin Arabs 
 from the Huleh and elsewhere. The village of Jeba'ah, one thou- 
 sand feet directly below Neby Safy, has the best-watered and most 
 verdant fields, vineyards, and gardens in Southern Lebanon. I have 
 spent more than one summer, with my family, in the castle and the 
 village. The ride thence, southward, along the mountain -side, to 
 Jerju'a and the well-wooded gorge of the Zaherany, and beyond it 
 to the beautiful plain of Jermuk, is delightful. 
 
 Jerju'a is about an hour south of Jeba'ah, and above that vil- 
 lage is a conical peak, similar to Neby Safy, covered by an oak 
 grove, and crowned with the white dome of a muzar, called Neby 
 Sijud, The native Jews of this country occasionally make pil- 
 grimages to that shrine, although it is now the tomb of a Moslem 
 saint. From the village of Jermuk I once went up and over the 
 wild mountains of Jebel er Rihan, as the southern end of Lebanon 
 is called, to Kefr Huneh. For a considerable distance there was 
 no road whatever, and the only inhabitants were the tent-dwelling 
 Bedawin. Taking two of them as guides, we forced our way for 
 miles through tangled bushes and under low trees, winding upwards 
 as best we could. For the first hour the rock was limestone, but 
 before reaching the squalid hamlet of Rihan it had given place to 
 amorphous trap. The only thing the people of Rihan seemed to 
 cultivate was their tobacco, which is celebrated throughout that 
 region, and of that there were large fields all around the village. 
 
 Rihan is the Arabic for myrtle, and both the mountain and the 
 village are rightly named from it ; for I never saw elsewhere such 
 masses of flowering myrtle, and the rills in the ravines were bor- 
 dered with dark -green oleander -bushes, whose flowers, red and 
 white, were in full bloom and in prodigal profusion. For several 
 miles the path was literally covered with bullet-shaped pebbles. 
 They were of all sizes, from a pea to that of an orange, and were 
 perfectly round, but not water-worn. I suppose they are globular 
 iron-ore. We will find them in some other localities, generally in 
 connection with the sandstone formation, and especially where it
 
 ASCENT OF LEBANON.— ANCIENT HIGH PLACES. 169 
 
 lies in contact with amorphous trap-rock. Higher and higher up 
 the mountain -path we ascended, until the entire valley of the 
 Litany, the region around the upper Jordan, Lake Huleh, and the 
 mountains of Bashan and Gilead beyond, were brought within the 
 ever -widening horizon. That whole region of Lebanon is wild, 
 wooded, and strangely broken up with towering peaks of every 
 shape and size. There are several cones so like the craters of ex- 
 tinct volcanoes that one not aware that they are composed of 
 compact limestone would inevitably be deceived. The summits of 
 some of them are crowned with white-domed muzars, like that of 
 Neby Safy. There is the place to hunt wild-boar, wolves, and pan- 
 thers, in the tangled bushes and thickets, and through the pro- 
 found gorges which descend to the Litany, on the south-east. The 
 ride over that part of Lebanon is rarely taken by the traveller ; 
 but it is well worth the trouble and fatigue, the scratches and the 
 rents to face, hands, and garments which must be endured in the 
 achievement. It took me seven hours to reach Kefr Huneh. 
 
 We read in Deuteronomy xii. 2, " Ye shall utterly destroy all 
 the places, wherein the nations which ye shall possess served their 
 gods, upon the high mountains, and upon the hills, and under every 
 green tree." May not the origin of those muzars upon high hills 
 and lonely mountain summits be traced back to the time when 
 the Canaanites occupied these mountains, and performed at such 
 shrines those heathenish abominations so often mentioned in the 
 Bible with utter abhorrence and stern denunciation, and on ac- 
 count of which they were condemned to extermination ? 
 
 The white domes of the Neby, the Wcly, the Muzar, or the 
 Mukam are to be seen from one end of this countr}' to the other; 
 and yet no one knows when, by whom, or for what special reason 
 they first became consecrated shrines. Many of them arc dedicated 
 to the patriarchs and prophets; a few to Jesus and the apostles; 
 some bear the name of traditionary heroes, and others appear to 
 honor persons, places, and incidents of merely local interest. 
 
 Many of these "high places" have probably come down from 
 remote ages, through all the mutations of dynasties and religions, 
 unchanged to the present day. We can believe this the more rea- 
 dily because some of them are now frequented by the oldest com- 
 M
 
 I70 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 munities in the country, and those most opposed to each other — 
 Arabs of the desert, Muhammedans, Metawileh, Druses, Christians, 
 and even Jews. We may have, therefore, in those "high places 
 under every green tree upon the high mountains and upon the 
 
 MUKAM — SAINT S TOMB. 
 
 hills," not only sites of the ver}^ highest antiquity, but existing 
 monuments, \\ith their groves and domes, of man's ancient supersti- 
 tions ; and if that does not add to our veneration, it will greatly 
 increase the interest with which we examine them. 
 
 There is one of these " high places," v.'ith its groves of venerable 
 oak-trees, on the summit of Lebanon, east of this village of Jezzin. 
 The top of the mountain is of an oval shape, and the grove was
 
 JEZZIN.— MASSACRE.— SAID BEG JUMBLAT.— FOUNTAIN". ijl 
 
 planted regularly around it. When I stood w ithin that mystic cir- 
 cle of mighty oaks, and looked across the vast plain of Coelesyria. 
 northward to the temple of Ba'albek, and then southward ovcr 
 the mountains to ancient Tyre, I fancied that it had been a con- 
 necting point between the two great temples of Baal and Belus. 
 The first rays of the "God of Day" would glance from the altar 
 in Ba'albek to that high place, and thence into the grand portal 
 of the temple of Belus at Tyre. 
 
 August 13th. 
 
 The houses in Jezzin are well-built, and it appears to be a 
 thrifty and prosperous place. 
 
 It gives name to a large district, of which it is the centre and 
 the capital. Here are the shops — shoemakers', saddlers', black- 
 smiths', carpenters', tailors' — and there are the mills for the sur- 
 rounding villages ; and hence the appearance of life and business 
 in and about the village. The inhabitants are also occupied with 
 the care of their vineyards and mulberry-fields, and in the culture 
 of silk. Jezzin was under the jurisdiction of the Jumblat famil\' 
 of Mukhtarah ; and amongst the charges against Sa'id Beg was one 
 that he caused this village to be burnt during the civil war in i860. 
 Perhaps he could not prevent it, since the destruction of the place 
 was a great pecuniary loss to him. The inhabitants being all Ma- 
 ronites and Greek Catholics, every house was burnt ; and when I 
 visited the place soon after it presented a most melancholy and 
 deserted appearance. But the men were not massacred, as were 
 those in Deir el Kamar ; and on the restoration of peace nearly all 
 the families returned, and speedily repaired their dwellings. The 
 population is, probably, as numerous now as it ever was; and, being 
 entirely liberated from Druse dominion, the people are more pros- 
 perous and secure than formerly. 
 
 As we have a steep ascent to climb, \\-e will water our horses 
 from Jezzin's noble fountain. Like the one at Bathir, it is utilized 
 from its very source, and drives those mills below it at the least 
 possible expense. All the luxuriant verdure that clothes the entire 
 valley is also the gift of this never-failing dispenser of fertility and 
 life; and the inhabitants may well be proud of their copious vil- 
 lage fountain and their si)lendi<l groves of walnut-trees.
 
 J -2 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Jezzin is singularly sheltered by these high and rocky cliffs, and 
 the mountain on the east of it rises steeply to a great elevation. 
 The prospect from its summit must be very extensive. 
 
 A rouo-hly-hewn pathway winds up that eastern mountain, and 
 leads to a wide plateau, which stretches for several miles to the 
 north-east. It was the favorite hunting-ground, with falcon and 
 pointer, of the Shehab emirs, in the days of their power and glory. 
 I once spent a morning rambling over it, in search of ancient re- 
 mains reported to have been seen there. But, as so often happens, 
 I found such native traditions worthless. There are no ruins of 
 any importance in that entire region. 
 
 We have been steadily climbing up the mountain since we left 
 the fountain, and have reached a great height, as is evident not 
 only from the ever-widening prospect, but also from the cool and 
 bracing breeze that is so refreshing to the weary traveller. 
 
 It comes from the far west, over the wide expanse of that dis- 
 tant sea, and is the prevailing wind, both in summer and winter, 
 along the entire coast of Syria and Palestine. 
 
 Those two peaks towering above us are more than five thou- 
 sand six hundred feet high, and are visible for a great distance in 
 every direction. They are the twins, or Taumat of Niha. In a 
 cloudless night they are distinctly seen far out to sea, rising like 
 pyramids against the sky, from the long, dark outline of the Leba- 
 non range, and to the mariner, approaching. from the west, they are 
 important landmarks. 
 
 We have now reached the highest point on our route to-day ; 
 and here the road from Sidon over Lebanon crosses the path and 
 descends eastward to Meshghurah. In former times, when Sidon 
 was the seaport most frequented by European ships, this road was 
 the highway upon which merchant caravans travelled between 
 it and Damascus. All that trade and travel, however, has been 
 transferred to Beirut, and this route, once so thronged, is nearly 
 deserted. In another hour we shall reach Kefr Huneh, the last 
 and most elevated village on the south end of Lebanon, and the 
 limit of our excursion in that direction. 
 
 The road to it along the dry bed of this watercourse is about 
 the roughest we have yet ventured upon. Our horses have been
 
 KEFR hCnEH.— TOBACCO.— CIRCULAR LAKE.— JISR BCRGHOZ. I 73 
 
 constantly slipping and sliding for the last half hour over the 
 smooth surface of broad rocks lying at every possible angle, and 
 mine has become quite discouraged and dismayed. 
 
 Not any more so than his rider, I suppose; but the worst is over, 
 and we will soon see Kefr Huneh wedged in amongst great blocks of 
 gray limestone, and more than half concealed by them. We need 
 not devote much time to that straggling and unimportant village. 
 As at the hamlet of Rihan, these large and well-cultivated fields 
 indicate that tobacco is the chief product of the place. There is, 
 or was, a custom-house officer stationed here to collect the mir}-, 
 or tax, upon the tobacco grown in this part of Lebanon, and to 
 prevent smuggling. I was here once when there occurred a violent 
 Arab row between that officer and a band of smugglers, who were' 
 caught with several loaded mules concealed in the thick woods to 
 the south-west of the village. 
 
 These wide-spreading walnut-trees amongst the houses contrast 
 very effectively with the tall and slender poplars bordering the 
 tiny brook which runs eastward through that rocky region. 
 
 Following the course of that stream lies our path, for three or 
 four miles, to a lake, nearly circular in shape, about three hundred 
 yards in diameter, and, to all appearances, occupying the mouth 
 of an extinct volcano. There are no indications of volcanic action 
 about it, however, though large masses of trap-rock are seen higher 
 up the mountain-side, to the north-west. 
 
 The road from Kefr Huneh, which has led us on to the lake, 
 descends eastward to the Litany, through a long ravine which be- 
 comes more and more precipitous, until near the end the traveller 
 is hurried, nolens volens, down the cliffs to the very bank of the 
 roaring river, half a mile below Jisr Burghuz. I have frequentK' 
 crossed the river on that bridge, in going and returning from Has- 
 beiya, and always stopped to admire the scenery of the Litany, and 
 to watch the contest of the river with the mountain for a passage 
 through the chasm and on towards the sea. Below the bridge 
 the course of the river is between gigantic mountain cliffs, rising 
 on either side a thousand feet high and more. 
 
 At the lake we leave the road from Kefr Hunch to the Litany, 
 and must now wander over a desolate region, to the north-east,
 
 174 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 in search of Meshghurah. For much of the distance — nearly two 
 hours — we shall have no road, and may roam at our free will over 
 this lofty plateau. The ride is none the less interesting on that 
 account, and from many points the outlook commands an extended 
 and magnificent prospect over mountain and plain far as the eye 
 can follow southward. Directly to the south-east of us the sub- 
 lime majesty of Hermon rises heavenward in solemn grandeur, and, 
 though apparently quite near, in reality the gorge of the Litany 
 and the wild regions of the Upper Jordan lie between us. 
 
 We have yet a long descent around the base of the southern 
 twin, or Taum of Niha, to Meshghurah, where we are to spend the 
 night ; and, as the road is rough and rocky, I prefer to dismount 
 and walk. Our tents are to be pitched just below a ledge of shelv- 
 ing rocks, from beneath which a number of copious fountains gush 
 out. Uniting with other springs equally large, they form a brawling 
 brook, which rushes down eastward into the Litany, watering on its 
 way extensive gardens and well-cultivated fields. 
 
 August 13th. Evening. 
 
 My evening walk through this straggling place and amongst 
 the mulberry gardens revealed little that could suggest or justify 
 its claim to be one of the oldest villages on Lebanon. 
 
 Five centuries ago Meshghurah was mentioned and praised in 
 such important geographical works as that of the Emir Abu el 
 Feda [Abulfeda] ; and the inhabitants claim for their village far 
 greater antiquity. Some of the houses certainly have an antique 
 appearance, and may be of almost any age ; but there is nothing 
 to distinguish the place from other agricultural villages, except the 
 great extent of the mulberry-gardens which spread far down east- 
 ward to the gorge of the Litany. They depend, for their life and 
 extraordinary production, upon the abundant irrigation furnished 
 by the copious fountains of the place. Such fountains, in a posi- 
 tion so advantageous, must always have made Meshghurah a desira- 
 ble and valuable possession. Formerly it was an important station 
 on the caravan route between Sidon and Damascus ; and what lit- 
 tle direct trade and travel there is at present between those two 
 cities still passes through it, and here those coming from Sidon 
 expect to spend their first night.
 
 REBUILDING OF VILLAGES.— DRUSES AND MARONITKS. 175 
 
 W'e are now in a thickly populated and very productive part 
 of this mountain; but all the villages along these south-eastern 
 slopes of Lebanon have been repeatedly destroyed since I first 
 passed through this region. Being inhabited mostly b}^ Maronites, 
 and peculiarly exposed to warlike incursions from the neighbor- 
 ing Druses and those of Wady et Teim and the Hauran, and from 
 the Moslems of the Buka'a, they suffered greater calamities during 
 the civil wars than many villages in other parts of the country. 
 The Christians from Zahleh and adjacent places repeatedly came 
 down the Buka'a, and attempted to penetrate into the Shuf and 
 other Druse districts through these valleys and mountain-passes; 
 and in that way those villages were involved in the fiercest and 
 most ruinous conflicts. Each party in turn burnt, plundered, and 
 destroyed as the varying fortunes of the war afforded opportunity. 
 
 And now I suppose those villages have all been rebuilt, and 
 have recovered their former prosperity. 
 
 As the walls are generally left standing, the houses are easily 
 re -roofed; and the abundance of poplar and other trees furnish 
 unusual facilities for that purpose. The banks of the Litany, and 
 those of the numerous brooks that descend to it, are lined with 
 them ; and as the mulberry-trees were not cut down, a few years 
 of active effort was suf^cient to restore the villages to their ave- 
 rage state of prosperity. But for the last six hundred years at 
 least this part of Lebanon has been the theatre of innumerable 
 tragedies, and the history of the ruling families during that period 
 of confusion and anarchy is written in blood. 
 
 Conspiracy, treachery, murder, war — those constitute the staple 
 with which the chronicle is woven throughout. So runs the story 
 of all the Druse and Maronite emirs, and the mind revolts at the 
 endless repetition of the same crimes. The only mitigating reflec- 
 tion is that, bad as the atrocities committed in our day have been, 
 they certainly are no worse than those of former times, while the 
 condition of the people is rapidly improving. They are increasing 
 in numbers and intelligence; they build better houses; wear bet- 
 ter clothes ; have more and better food, more schools, more books, 
 and far more personal liberty than during the days of anarchy and 
 oppression. But the old feudal families, especially amongst the
 
 1^6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Druses, are sinking hopelessly into the sea of oblivion, and from 
 thence no hand will be outstretched to save them. 
 
 August 14th. 
 
 We have visited the last village on this south end of Lebanon, 
 and now we will return to Shemlan along a route quite different 
 from the one by which we came. 
 
 Where are we to find our tents at the end of this day's ride? 
 
 At 'Ain Zahalteh, a village directly above the main source of 
 the river Damur; and, as much of the road is mountainous and 
 difificult, we have taken an early start. There are more ways than 
 one to reach 'Ain Zahalteh. We might turn to the left and follow 
 the path along the base of Taumat Niha, passing by 'Aithenit, and 
 then, crossing over Lebanon by Thughrat Bab Mari'a, descend on 
 the west side to B'aderan, Niha, and Ma'asir to Mukhtarah ; or we 
 might keep higher up the mountain by taking the road that would 
 lead us to el Baruk, and thence to 'Ain Zahalteh. As that route, 
 however, would be very rough and fatiguing, with but little of in- 
 terest along it to repay us for the toil, we will pass down to the 
 Litany, and, crossing over, follow the east bank of the river to 
 Jubb Jenin, at the lower end of the Buka'a. 
 
 We have been listening for the past half-hour to a sound ris- 
 ing upward from the valley and pervading the quiet morning 
 atmosphere — a sound as of many waters. 
 
 It is the eternal anthem of the Litany — "evening, morning, and 
 at noon" — as it glides onwards over the rocks, and sweeps past 
 those stupendous cliffs in the gorge farther to the south. And now 
 the road leads down the steep declivity to the bridge on which we 
 are to cross to the eastern side of the river. It derives its name 
 of Jisr Kur'un from a village some distance below it. I have often 
 passed over the road below that village, and ascended, along a 
 rocky ravine, the mountain-range called ed Dahar, to the well-pre- 
 served ruins of the temple at Telthatha. They are on the very 
 summit of the Dahar, and it is four hours from there to Hasbeiya 
 through the long vaUey of upper Wady et Teim. 
 
 One object in selecting this route is to let you see the remarka- 
 ble collection of geodes between Jisr Kur'un and Jubb Jenin, so we 
 will now turn up through the fields on our right. In many places
 
 GEODES.— THE BUKAA A LAKE.— THE LITANY. 1 77 
 
 the entire surface of the ground is covered with them, and they are 
 of all sizes, from that of a marble to a melon, which the larger 
 ones amongst them closely resemble in shape. 
 
 How do you account for the presence of these geodes in such 
 great numbers in this locality? 
 
 They have been washed out from the hard clay bluffs of the 
 ridge above them on the east. There they are embedded in num- 
 bers numberless, and are dislodged and spread over the plain by 
 the winter torrents. I once crossed over those bluffs on my way 
 to Rasheiyet el Wady, at the northern base of Hermon, and was 
 surprised to find the road, for many miles, literally paved with large 
 bowlders of trap-rock. That obtrusion of trap, I suppose, occurred 
 at the time when the range of ed Dahar was thrown up across the 
 southern end of the Buka'a between Lebanon and Hermon. 
 
 This beautiful and fertile plain seems to be nowhere more than 
 two or three miles wide, and appears as flat and level as though 
 once the actual bed of a lake. The river meanders through it from 
 side to side, as if reluctant to leave this peaceful and verdant region. 
 
 When buried under deep snow, as it often is, the outlook over 
 this part of Coelesyria is anything but cheerful. In great winter 
 storms I have seen the plain above Jisr Jubb Jenin covered with 
 water, and then it becomes an impassable marsh. It has been sug- 
 gested that the Buka'a was originally the bed of a lake, and that 
 the upheaval of the range of ed Dahar cut off the connection with 
 the Jordan valley, to which it naturally belonged ; and thus the 
 Litany, that now drains the Buka'a, was forced to find, a passage 
 for itself westward, through Lebanon, to the Mediterranean. It is 
 worth while visiting that locality merely to see the contest for the 
 right of way between the river and the mountains. 
 
 The banks of the river, as it winds through the plain to the 
 north of us, are marked out by groups of tall silver-leafed poplars, 
 which more than half conceal the villages beyond them, and those 
 on the mountain-slopes above them. 
 
 They are all on the west side of the Litany, and are well pro- 
 tected from the winter's storm and cold by the lofty range of Leba- 
 non immediately above them. They have enjoyed peace and com- 
 parative safety for the last quarter of a century, and have become
 
 178 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 quite prosperous. In Sughbin, and sev^eral other villages, there are 
 now Protestant communities and well-conducted schools, to the 
 manifest improvement of the people in every respect. 
 
 At the extreme south-east corner of the plain is a village called 
 Kamid el Lauz, and that it occupies an ancient site seems evident 
 from the extensive quarries along the base of the mountain. Luz 
 was the original name of Beth-el, as appears from Judges i. 22-26, 
 where it is also stated that the man who showed the children of Jo- 
 seph " the entrance into the city " was allowed to depart in safety: 
 "and the man went into the land of the Hittites, and built a city, 
 and called the name thereof Luz : which is the name thereof unto 
 this day." The Buka'a, and the region connected with it on the 
 north, was probably in the land of the Hittites, who at one time 
 were sufficiently powerful to engage in battle w^ith the Egyptians. 
 Possibly that village of Kamid el Lauz may mark the site of the 
 city which the treacherous inhabitant of Beth-el built for himself 
 " and all his family." I have not been able to find the name Luz 
 or Lauz, which has the same significance in Arabic that it has in 
 the Hebrew, attached to any other ancient site in this country. 
 
 We will lunch and rest at Jisr Jubb Jenin yonder, where you 
 see a group of poplar-trees. They will afford us, at least, a partial 
 shade from the hot sun. The bridge takes its name from Jubb 
 Jenin, that village on our right. It is mostly inhabited by fanatical 
 Moslems, but we have no occasion to pass through it. 
 
 We must here cross over, on this bridge of Jubb Jenin, to the 
 western side of the river, and, as the base of the mountain is not 
 far distant, we shall soon be climbing up the Lebanon, which rises 
 for several thousand feet above this plain of the Buka'a. 
 
 We have again come upon another collection of geodes, but 
 they seem to have all been broken open by former travellers. 
 
 They were exactly in the same condition the first time I passed 
 this way, and the idea occurred to me that they were purposely 
 broken, as the interior lining of chalcedony furnished the best 
 specimens of that mineral to be found in this region. Amongst 
 these numberless fragments I have also found specimens of agate, 
 which may have added greater value to them in the estimation of 
 engravers on precious stones in a former age.
 
 VINEYARDS.— ASCENT OF LEBANON.— MENN. OR M.VNNA. 179 
 
 As we approach the foot of the mountain I see that the vnics 
 in those terraced fields are still loaded with grapes. 
 
 Owing to the sheltered position of the vineyards, their exposure 
 to the sun, and the dryness of the air on this side of the mountain, 
 the grapes are allowed to remain on the vines much longer than 
 upon the west or seaward side of Lebanon. This prolongs the 
 grape crop ; and the markets of Beirut and Sidon, and those of 
 the principal villages in the neighborhood, are supplied from such 
 localities until late in December. I have even seen vinexards half 
 buried in snow with the grapes still upon the vines. 
 
 We must now address ourselves in good earnest to the long 
 and tortuous ascent of Lebanon by the village of Kefareiya, to the 
 top of the mountain range that overlooks the valley of el Baruk. 
 The climb is a long and fatiguing one ; but the ever-widening view 
 — eastward across the plain of Coelesyria and over the mountains 
 of Anti-Lebanon; northward as far as " the entrance of Hamath ;" 
 and southward to Mount Hermon and the Jordan valley — will 
 amply compensate for the toil. 
 
 The road, by its ceaseless windings amongst the oak-trees, 
 affords prospects from many projecting spurs over the great plain 
 — with its checkered surface and long, broad belts of fallow land — 
 of ever-varying beauty and great fertility. I notice that the rocks 
 under the oak-trees are saturated with an oily substance, as though 
 a jar of oil had been actually emptied upon them. 
 
 The natives will tell you that it is not oil, but menn, or manna. 
 It is caused by an insect that punctures the leaves, and thus the 
 flowing sap produces this distillation which stains the rocks and 
 stones under the trees. I have seen it in many other places, and 
 have been told by persons from the mountains of Armenia that, in 
 certain localities there, it congeals, and is collected by the peasants 
 and used like honey. The manna which the monks of Mount 
 Sinai gather under the tamari.sk-trees, and sell to pilgrims, is doubt- 
 less produced in the same way. I purchased small skins of it when 
 in the Convent of St. Catherine. It was .so nau.seous that no other 
 evidence was needed to show that the monkish manna held no 
 possible relation to that "angels' food" which the children of Israel 
 did gather in the wilderness, when God commanded the clouds from
 
 i8o 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 EL ARZ — THE CEDAR. 
 
 above, and opened the doors of heaven, and " rained down manna 
 upon them to cat, and had given them of the corn of heaven." ' 
 
 We may rest our tired horses for a while on this high ridge of 
 Lebanon, nearly six thousand feet above the sea. As for myself, I 
 shall dismount and walk down the steep and rough pathway that 
 will lead us to the famous fountains of el Baruk. 
 
 These old trees around us, and most of those on the highest 
 
 ' Psa. Ixxviii. 23-25 ; Exod. xvi. 4-36.
 
 THE CEDARS OF EL BAROk AND EL MA'ASIR. l8l 
 
 ridges of the mountain extending for sc\'cral miles to the south, 
 towards the village of el Ma'asir, are genuine representatives of 
 Lebanon's most ancient groves of cedar. There need be no hesi- 
 tation in regarding them as the surviving descendants of those 
 forests from whence Hiram's skilled hewers of timber cut down 
 cedar-trees for Solomon to use in building and beautifying the 
 Temple of the Lord at Jerusalem. They have not died out, or 
 been replanted by man, since that distant day, and some of them 
 are amongst the oldest specimens of cedar-trees in this land. 
 
 To the Biblical student, and, indeed, to all travellers, it is 
 deeply interesting to find them occupying this position on the 
 mountains, and not far from the coasts of Tyre and Sidon. 
 
 It is not probable that Hiram resorted for cedar- trees to the 
 distant groves at the north end of Lebanon, when the sides of these 
 mountains near his own capital were covered with those noble 
 trees. When wandering through the grove above el Ma'asir, I 
 felt assured, from the large size and apparent great age of some 
 of the trees, that the sound of the ax^ of Tyre's sturdy fellers of 
 timber had once echoed amongst them. The crash of falling trees 
 had often startled the oppressive and solemn silence of those lofty 
 mountain ridges, and from there, in all probability, the timber was 
 carried down to the coast, and conveyed by sea in floats to Jaffa, 
 and from thence carried up to Jerusalem.' 
 
 The descent on this western side of Lebanon is not so steep as 
 that on the eastern side of the mountain, and it has taken us about 
 an hour to reach these fountains of el Baruk. 
 
 They well up from their hidden source in a quiet and unpre- 
 tending fashion, quite different from the dcafcn.ing roar of most of 
 the fountains we have seen. 
 
 And the waters are the purest of all in the mountains. No 
 sediment of any kind is deposited by them, nor are the pebbles in 
 the least discolored, although these mighty waters have glided over 
 them for unnumbered ages. It was the superior character of this 
 water that induced Sheikh Beshir Jumblat to construct an aque- 
 duct and convey it to his i)alacc at Mukhtarah. 1 have spent seve- 
 ral days encamped in a grove of walnut-trees, a short distance bc- 
 
 ' I Kiiifjs V. 8-IO ; 2 Chron. ii. i6.
 
 l82 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 low the fountains. Most of the trees have been cut down and the 
 timber sold to speculators, but we could still find a pleasant place 
 to camp, had we not directed our muleteers to go on to 'Ain Za- 
 halteh, which is an hour's easy ride farther north. 
 
 The sight of our tents pitched near these fountains would have 
 been very gratifying indeed, for the latter part of our ride has been 
 quite wearisome. But this varied and impressive mountain scenery 
 amply repays us for all the fatigue which it has cost to come and 
 see it, and I take my leave of it with great reluctance. 
 
 We could easily spend a week here, as I have done myself, en- 
 camped under those large walnut-trees, and beside the purling 
 stream of clear cold water that issues from these copious fountains 
 — the head-waters of Nahr el Baruk — and flows down through that 
 beautiful valley below us on the left. But we shall find scenery at 
 least as magnificent as this at 'Ain Zahalteh, and by going on to 
 that village we will shorten our ride to-morrow nearly two hours. 
 
 The houses at el Baruk, like those in most of the villages on 
 Lebanon, present an attractive appearance — at a distance — and 
 they are quite in keeping with their picturesque surroundings. 
 
 El Baruk, el Fureidis, on the opposite ridge, and the villages in 
 this neighborhood occupy that part of Southern Lebanon which is 
 inhabited almost entirely by Druses, and they " are situated," says 
 a former traveller, " on some of the wildest positions of Lebanon. 
 Even these villages of el Baruk seem hung in the clouds, on the 
 verge of precipices, and they have their green belt of pine, poplar, 
 walnut, and other trees, vines and bushes, covering the crags and 
 relieving the desolation of the site. The dwellings are built of 
 hmestone, the roofs are flat, the windows are always small ; the 
 door is usually in the middle ; and the Lebanon homes often re- 
 semble the terraces by which they are surrounded. The path by 
 which these villages are approached is a nervous one, and seems 
 to be cut out of the masses of limestone of which the heights are 
 composed." 
 
 Speaking of this valley of el Baruk, or el Fureidis, along which 
 our road to 'Ain Zahalteh lies. Dr. Anderson, in his geological re- 
 port, says that it " is one of the most attractive combinations of 
 trees, green fields, and running water in this or any other part of
 
 MOUNTAIN SCENERY.— FOUNTAINS OF THE DAMUR. 183 
 
 Syria, and abounds in natural pictures which make its name of Ht- 
 tle paradise" [Wady el FureidisJ"a pardonable exaggeration."' 
 
 He describes this region, between Wady 'Ain Zahalteh and 
 Wady es Sufa, "as marked by variegated sandstones and enlivened 
 by a cheerful vegetation. The pines are strikingly distributed, and 
 many mulberry and fig trees diversify the scene. The streams are 
 made available in driving mills and watering numerous patches 
 of cultivated land, while the iron-stained rocks appear at intervals 
 through the landscape, overhanging it in wild escarpments, or soar- 
 ing far above it in the shape of turretcd and battlemented peaks." ^ 
 There is nothing exaggerated in this description, and he might have 
 added that in a single sandstone cliff all shades of color, from the 
 purest white to jet black, are strangely blended and contrasted. 
 
 Our ride is nearly over, for we are not far from 'Ain Zahalteh ; 
 and we shall find our tents pitched, and ready for our reception, 
 close to Burj el 'Amad, in the middle of the village. 
 
 And most welcome will they be, for though the scenery through 
 which we have passed to-day was at times sublime, and always inte- 
 resting, still our ride down, and up, and along these ranges of Leba- 
 non, has been extremely fatiguing. 
 
 August 14th. Evening. 
 
 As far as I could see, in the dim twilight, as we approached 'Ain 
 Zahalteh, the region to the west and north appeared to be endlessly 
 diversified by profound wadies, lofty peaks, and perpendicular cliffs, 
 on both sides of the stupendous gorge of the river. 
 
 The mountains arc singularly cut up by the many tributaries 
 of Nahr el Kady, as the main branch of the Damur River is called, 
 which, rising in the region south of Jebel el Keniseh, expand and 
 deepen the natural declivities of Lebanon into many a yawning 
 abyss and frightful chasm, opening out prospects on every side 
 which, for sublimity and grandeur, are rarely surpassed. From the 
 base of the cliff, in the gorge below this village, the copious foun- 
 tains of Nahr el Kady burst out with great force and uproar. 
 A part of the water is conveyed by an aqueduct to Bteddin to 
 supply the palaces there, and to irrigate the surrounding gardens; 
 a far larger portion is distributed through the fields and gardens 
 ' Ex. to the Dead Sea, p. 98. ■' E.\. lu tlic Dead Sea, p. 100, 
 
 N
 
 1 84 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 along both sides of Wady es Sufa, but the main vokime of the 
 stream rushes down the valley, in many a foaming cascade, on its 
 way to Jisr el Kady, and onward to the sea. 
 
 That wady abounds in remarkable cliffs of blue argillaceous 
 marl, which are subject to occasional slides and overwhelming ava- 
 lanches. The Emir Haidar, in his history of Lebanon, says that 
 nearly one hundred and fifty years ago a projecting terrace at Kefr 
 Nebrakh, about an hour and a half west of 'Ain Zahalteh, which 
 had a small village on it, parted from the main mountain, and 
 plunged into the wady below, carrying houses, gardens, and trees 
 with it in wild confusion. It completely stopped the river for 
 seven days. The emir relates that one man who was on the slid- 
 ing mass escaped unhurt, but was ever after a raving maniac. The 
 catastrophe occurred during the life of the historian, and not far 
 from his home, and we may therefore credit his narrative. I 
 have frequently stood on that awful precipice, and gazed upon 
 the debris of the avalanche, at the bottom of the profound river 
 gorge, fifteen hundred feet directly below. Similar land slides 
 occur every winter on Lebanon, but not on so gigantic a scale, 
 or accompanied by circumstances so appalling and tragical. 
 
 Such avalanches appear to have been known even in the days 
 of Job, and he refers to them to illustrate the overthrow of man's 
 vain hope and confidence. " Surely," says he, " the mountain fall- 
 ing Cometh to nought, and the rock is moved out of his place;" 
 and he connects such appalling catastrophes with the waters which 
 wear the stones, when, as now, they were occasioned by the great 
 rains and torrents of winter.' 
 
 Burj el 'Amad is the only remarkable building in 'Ain Zahal- 
 teh. It was once the stronghold of Beit el 'Amad, one of the feu- 
 dal families of the Druses, but it has, of late, been transformed into 
 a church for the P/otestant community of this village. When I 
 first visited this region Sheikh Khuttar el 'Amad, the last of his 
 line, was considered the most daring chieftain and expert swords- 
 man amongst the Druses. His exploits long ago brought him into 
 trouble with the Government, and he was obliged to flee into the 
 Hauran, where he died, and Beit el 'Amad is now extinct. 
 
 ' Job xiv. l8, 19.
 
 PINE-TREES AND CEDARS.— PROBLEM OF FOUNTAINS. 1 85 
 
 August 15th. 
 
 Knowing that we had before us a comparatively short day's 
 journey, I rode out this morning to view the remarkable scenery of 
 the place. I visited a pretty grove of pine-trees growing on the 
 hill-side east of the village, and was surprised to find there, and on 
 the mountain above them, some genuine cedars of Lebanon. Re- 
 turning to the village, I descended into the river gorge below it, to 
 the base of the cliff, to see the famous fountains of 'Ain Zahalteh, 
 so remarkable even in this land of great fountains, from whence 
 rivers of waters burst forth like an overwhelming flood. 
 
 It is worthy of note that the main source of the Damur, here 
 at 'Ain Zahalteh, is so near that of the river Auwaly at el Baruk. 
 One is puzzled to account for so great an outflow of water from 
 the same mountain-ridge, where rivers are so close together and so 
 nearly on the same level. Where are the vast reservoirs that send 
 forth, summer and winter, such powerful and never-failing streams, 
 and how are they stored in such a narrow mountain-range as this 
 of Southern Lebanon ? " Who hath divided a watercourse for the 
 overflowing of waters?'" But no problem is more obscure than 
 that of the origin of fountains in this land. 
 
 As there is no direct road through such a wilderness of tow- 
 ering peaks and deep valleys to Shemlan, what route are w^e to 
 follow to-day, in order to reach that village ? 
 
 We have a variety of paths from which to choose. The one 
 the muleteers have taken would lead us along the south side of the 
 valley to Kefr Nebrakh, and down to the road from Dcir el Kamar 
 to Beirut at Jisr el Kady. Another path would conduct us along 
 the north side of the wady to 'Ain Teraz, where the valley unites 
 with that of the Ghabun, and thence up that valley to Bhauwarah : 
 both roads are picturesque but difficult. We shall, therefore, as- 
 cend the main wady on the right for an hour, and then cross over 
 to the west side of it and pass through Bhamdun. 
 
 The road which you have selected along this ridge is sufficiently 
 execrable, though the surrounding scenery is wild and magnificent. 
 
 The sandstone formation at 'Ain Zahalteh, with its invariable 
 pine-groves, continues for a considerable distance northward ; and 
 
 * Job xxxviii. 25.
 
 1 86 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 such formations are often much broken, and cut up by the winter 
 rains into almost impracticable ravines. Not far ahead of us the 
 old road passes along the edge of a cliff, and is so very narrow and 
 dangerous that I am always thankful to get safely over it. A bet- 
 ter road has been made across the ridge east of it, which we shall 
 follow, although it is much the longest. We shall then descend 
 into the valley and easily cross over to the other side. 
 
 It is always a relief to escape from such zigzag roads, with their 
 ill-constructed steps, like those of a broken stairway. 
 
 From this deep valley we might ascend northward to the 
 French carriage -road to Damascus at Ruweiset el Hamrah, and 
 follow it westward to 'Aleih ; but I wish to show you the village 
 of Btathir, the only remaining homestead of the Druse feudal chiefs 
 which you have not seen. For that purpose we will cross over the 
 high ridge in front of us, from the top of which it can be seen on 
 the opposite face of an almost impassable ravine. 
 
 The Druse sheikhs of Beit 'Abd el Melek have their so-called 
 palaces at Btathir ; but, like the other feudal families on Lebanon, 
 they have fallen from their glory, and lost their former position 
 and power. Their village is the capital of Aklim el Jurd, the dis- 
 trict through which we have been riding since leaving 'Ain Zahal- 
 teh. Jurd is the name for a high, cold, and rough region, and is, 
 therefore, eminently appropriate to this district. The sheikhs of 
 Btathir can claim the honor of having been the first to introduce 
 factories for the reeling of silk in this region, in connection with a 
 French company. Those establishments are now quite numerous 
 on the Lebanon, and have greatly increased the value of the silk 
 industry throughout the country. 
 
 Bhamdun, through whose vineyards we have been riding for 
 some time, is inhabited chiefly by Christians of the Orthodox Greek 
 Church ; and, owing to the friendly relations maintained by them 
 with their neighbors, the sheikhs of Btathir, that village has not 
 been either sacked or burnt during all the civil wars that have 
 desolated so large a part of Lebanon. The people are industrious, 
 economical, and prosperous ; their houses are large and well-built, 
 and their fields and vineyards are extensive, spreading far up the 
 mountain eastward, and down the steep declivities westward into
 
 BHAMDUX.— FOSSILS.— BIIAUWARAH. 1 8/ 
 
 the valley of the Ghabun. Bhamdun is celebrated for its grapes 
 and raisins and the excellency of its dibs. 
 
 This village was early occupied as a summer retreat by Ameri- 
 cans and others from Beirut ; but, as it is nearly a thousand feet 
 higher than Shemlan, the night air is often too cool for comfort. 
 Dr. Anderson found the neighborhood very rich in fossils, and a 
 large part of those described and illustrated by him were obtained 
 in this region. An isolated hill, about a mile to the north-east of 
 the village, is remarkable for the extraordinary number of ammo- 
 nites and other fossils found there. 
 
 The descent westward into the Ghabun valley is long, and so 
 steep that I always prefer to dismount and walk down the worst 
 parts. The road is strewn, as you see, with fossils of many kinds, 
 and any one who has the curiosity can gather them. We will find 
 the ascent on the opposite side very gradual, and shall follow the 
 road southward high above the wady for an hour, and then turn 
 to the west along a path which has the range of mountains above 
 'Alieh on the right, and the valley of the Ghabun on the left. 
 That stream flows southward, and joins the Damur at Jisr el Kady. 
 
 That pretty little hamlet far below us, on the other side of the 
 wady, nestling amongst the rocks, and half concealed in the ver- 
 dure, is Bhauwarah. The late Colonel Churchill owned it, and 
 resided there for many years. During that time he published a 
 valuable work on Lebanon, its inhabitants, the Shehab emirs, the 
 Druse sheikhs, and the civil wars in these mountains. 
 
 Leaving Keifun and Suk el Ghurb on the right, we will cross 
 over the ridge and descend westward to 'Aitath; and, passing 
 through the small oak -grove just above that village, in half an 
 hour we shall dismount at our own door in Shemlan. 
 
 Once more from these commanding heights we look off upon 
 this glorious prospect — the boundless sea, " this great and \\k\c 
 sea. There go the ships;" and there is the city of Beirut, the 
 broad plain, the foot-hills, and the exalted majesty of Lebanon. 
 
 We hail thee in distance, still mountain, that liftcst thine head, 
 
 Where the wavelet, that noelts as it gliblcns, from snows everlasting is fed.
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 VI. 
 
 SHEMLAN TO THE NATURAL BRIDGE. 
 
 Summer Resorts on Lebanon. — 'Aitath. — Beit Tulhuk. — Suk el Ghiirb. — Ancient Church. 
 — The Sweating Picture. — Convent of St. George. — Monks. — Wady Shahrur. — In- 
 habited Tree. — 'Aleih. — Tragedies in the Old Palace. — Ibrahim Pasha. — Tragedy of 
 the Three Brothers. — Decline of Feudal Princes. — Wady Hummana. — Coal Mine. — 
 Muhammed Aly. — Petrified Pine-cones. — District of el Metn. — The Emirs of Beit el 
 Lema. — Brummana. — The Damascus Road. — El Mugheiteh. — Snow Blockade. — Jebel 
 Keniseh. — Summit Level. — Khan Murad. — Cold Winds and Malignant Fevers. — A 
 Glorious Prospect. — El Bukaa. — Anti-Lebanon. — Eastern Side of Lebanon. — Shtora. 
 — The Road to Damascus. — Temple at Mejdel 'Anjar. — Neb'a 'Anjar. — Intermitting 
 Fountain. — Deir el Guzal. — Kiibb Elias. — Mekseh. — Extensive Views over Ccelesyria. 
 — Zahleh. — El Berduny. — "Vine and Fig-tree." — El Mu'allakah. — Burning of Zah- 
 leh. — Prosperity of Zahleh. — Kerak Niih. — Ascent of Lebanon. — Bituminous Shale. — 
 Globular Iron Ore. — Limestone Pinnacles. — Neb'a Sunnin. — Temples on Lebanon. — 
 Temple near 'Anturah. — Husn Niha. — Tomb of Noah. — Tomb of Seth. — Origin of 
 Primitive Sanctuaries. — Rock-cut Tombs. — The Druses and their Religion. — Druse 
 Funerals. — Feudal Families of the Druses. — Lex talionis, or Blood Revenge. — Moses 
 and the Hebrews. — Matrimonial Alliances. — Abraham and Jacob. — Betrothal. — Noc- 
 turnal Incident. — Bears and Wolves. — Ascent of Sunnin. — Outlook from the Sum- 
 mit of Lebanon. — Sirocco. — Descent of Lebanon. — Druse War-song. — Bringing Grain 
 to the Mill. — Grinding at the Mill. — Baking Bread in the Tannur. — Native Bread. — 
 VThe Use of Leven. — The Staff of Life. — Cone-shaped Oven. — City Ovens. — Ovens 
 in the Time of the Hebrews. — Baking upon the Saj. — Wady Biskinta. — Griffin Vul- 
 tures. — Eagles. — Pinnacles of Limestone. — Casts of Fossil Shells. — Dr. Anderson's 
 Description of the Fossils of Syria. — Kiil'at el Fukra. — Tiberius Claudius. — The Tem- 
 ple in the Midst of Rocky Pinnacles Described by Dr. Robinson. — Remains of a 
 Tomb. — Road from the Dog River to the Natural Bridge. — 'Ajeltiin. — Fantastic 
 Rock Scenery. — Wady es Salib. — Canal from Nahr el Leben. — Irrigation. — Sowing 
 Wheat in Autumn. — Neb'a el Leben. — Milk and Honey. — The Natural Bridge. — 
 District of el Kesrawan. — The Maronites. — Feudal Families. — Monastery Bells. 
 
 September ist. 
 
 What a bright and pleasant morning at the very outset of our 
 tour through Northern Lebanon ! 
 
 As the muleteers know their business thoroughly, and are well 
 acquainted with the roads, they may be left to take their own time
 
 SUMMER RESORTS ON LEBANON— THE SWEATING PICTURE. 1 89 
 
 and way to Neb'a Sunnin. We, however, will make a long detour 
 from the regular road, to obtain more comprehensive views of the 
 mountains and valleys of the Upper Ghurb. 
 
 The people of Beirut are greatly favored in having their sum- 
 mer resorts in these villages prettily situated above the plain, the 
 city, and the sea. They are so high that the air and the water 
 are cool and refreshing, and yet near enough to the city so that 
 they can be reached in a few hours. 
 
 'Aitath, through which we have just passed, is a fair specimen, 
 and it is further distinguished as the home of the Druse sheikhs of 
 Beit Tulhuk, one of the families of Lebanon's feudal lords, whose 
 glory has faded, and their palaces are fast crumbling into decay. 
 I have spent several summers in that village, and occupied one of 
 those palaces. Since then a few commodious dwellings have been 
 built, and they are now rented to some of the English and Ameri- 
 can residents of Beirut. Suk el Ghurb, directly above 'Aitath, is 
 the more popular resort, especially for the Greeks and Greek Catho- 
 lics of the city, attracted to it, in the first instance, perhaps, by the 
 reputed sanctity of its ancient church. I remember Suk el Ghurb 
 when there were only half a dozen small, low houses around the 
 old church, and all nearly hidden from view by mulberry terraces. 
 Now, as you observe, it has become a picturesque village, with large 
 houses built upon and above the high rocky ledge which extends 
 quite to the base of the mountain-ridge south of it. 
 
 About forty-five years ago I was taken to see an old picture in 
 that church, which was said, in those times of ignorance, to be en- 
 dowed with miraculous powers. It was called the sweating picture, 
 from a propensity it had of perspiring profusely. The features of 
 the patron saint were so besmirched with the smoke of wax ta- 
 pers as scarcely to be visible in the dim light of the dark vault. 
 Giving the old priest a small gratuity, he besought the saint, with 
 prayers and exclamations, to perform the miracle, and soon the 
 picture was bedewed with moisture; but my companion, a shrewd 
 native, declared that he saw the priest sprinkle water upon it. The 
 miraculous power of the saint was exhausted long ago, and the 
 dilapidated old church has been replaced by a new edifice. 
 
 That long, level terrace of the Convent of Mar Jirjis esh Siiir.
 
 IQO THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 St. George of the Cliff, just below us, is the favorite promenade of 
 the monks, and there every pleasant evening some of them are al- 
 ways to be seen, apparently engaged in devout meditation, while in 
 reality they are taking a little exercise, and enjoying the cool air 
 and the magnificent prospect. 
 
 The entire mountain-side, and this profound valley sinking far 
 down to the plain, present a wide expanse of terraced fields and 
 fruitful gardens, studded here and there with small clusters of 
 houses, which give to it the appearance of one continuous village. 
 
 Wady Shahrur, or el Wady, as it is sometimes called by way of 
 eminence, is one of the most densely populated valleys of Lebanon. 
 Owing to the character of the soil and the abundant supply of 
 water from the numerous fountains, nearly every variety of fruits 
 and vegetables in this country are raised here. The little rills that 
 come tumbling over the cliffs and foaming down the terraces ex- 
 haust themselves in the summer season amongst the vineyards, the 
 gardens, and the groves below. During the winter they rush madly 
 down to the plain, and swell the turbid Nahr el Ghudir into an im- 
 passable torrent, sweeping everything before it to the sea. 
 
 Some of the English and American residents of Beirut have 
 built houses for themselves amongst the rocks and upon the ledge 
 above us, and more picturesque positions could not be desired 
 for summer residences. This venerable oak, near the edge of the 
 precipice, is one of the " inhabited trees," upon whose branches the 
 natives hang bits of rags torn from their garments — votive offer- 
 ings to propitiate the mysterious being supposed to frequent them. 
 Such trees are found all over this country, and illustrate the te- 
 nacity with which ancient superstitions retain their hold upon the 
 minds of the ignorant and credulous inhabitants. 
 
 We are now passing through 'Aleih. This village has of late 
 been greatly improved, and there are at present many large and 
 comfortable houses in it, some of them built by wealthy citizens 
 of Beirut. Many of the foreign consuls have selected this place 
 for their summer residence, and the Governor-general of the Leba- 
 non frequently spends a few weeks here. 'Aleih has the reputa- 
 tion of being very healthy, and is considerably higher and cooler 
 than Shemlan. A branch of Beit Tulhuk resided here ; but the
 
 TRAGEDIES IN THE OLD PALACE AT 'ALEIH. I9I 
 
 sheikhs have been deprived of their former power by the Turkish 
 government, and the family is now almost extinct. 
 
 That rambling old palace on the hill-side recalls a series of tra- 
 gedies enacted there many years ago. The first summer I spent 
 on Lebanon I lived in a house not far from the palace, which was 
 then occupied by one of the sittat, with her two sons and a cousin 
 of the young sheikhs. The three boys were of about the same age 
 — from twelve to fifteen — bright and intelligent. They visited me 
 often, and I became quite interested in them. The three gen- 
 erally came together, accompanied by their respective guardians ; 
 and the cousin was always attended by a servant who carried a 
 silver cup, and would never allow him to drink out of any other. 
 It was feared that the young sheikh would be poisoned at the in- 
 stigation of his aunt, the mother of the two boys — a princess as 
 beautiful as Delilah, and equally treacherous. 
 
 The summer passed quietly away, but a year afterwards the 
 cousin was inveigled into a room in the palace, and there mur- 
 dered by the two brothers, because he was the heir to most of the 
 property. The country had but recently passed under the nomi- 
 nal control of the Egyptian Government, and Ibrahim Pasha had 
 marched northward to encounter the army of the Sultan. During 
 that disturbed interregnum every one " did that which was right 
 in his own eyes," as the Hebrews did in those days when there 
 was no king in Israel; so there was no investigation, and no one 
 was punished. But the tragedy did not end in that atrocious 
 murder. The two brothers were engaged one day in cleaning 
 their weapons, when the younger was shot by the elder brother. 
 It was reported that the deed was accidental, but of that there 
 was great doubt amongst the people. 
 
 The double murderer, now sole possessor of the entire property 
 of the family, became a leading sheikh amongst the Druses; and 
 when the war broke out, in 1842, between them and the Maronites 
 he took an active part in it. Being accused of outrageous cruelties, 
 he fled to the Hauran ; but, after remaining there for some time, 
 he was pardoned by the Turkish authorities and recalled. Kticjuettc 
 required him to pay his res^jccts to the Pasha in Damascus; and, 
 after being graciously received and dismissed, he started to return
 
 192 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 to that palace in 'Aleih, accompanied by some of the sheikhs who 
 had been with him in the Hauran. They never reached Lebanon. 
 The cholera, which was then raging in this country, attacked them, 
 and all died on the road. It was the general belief, however, that 
 they had been poisoned on taking leave of the Pasha at Damascus. 
 The widowed and childless mother married a sheikh of another 
 family, but was soon after divorced and sent away to die, no one 
 knows when or how. Thus ends the sad story of one of the 
 branches of Beit Tulhuk — the first family of Druse sheikhs with 
 whom I became acquainted nearly half a century ago. 
 
 The Nemesis of retribution, though delayed, had neither pity 
 nor mercy for such monsters in the guise of men and women. 
 
 That dark record is not an isolated chapter in the history of 
 this country. Muhammed Aly, in i830-'3i, sent his warlike son, 
 Ibrahim Pasha, to w-rest Syria from the Sultan ; the leading feudal 
 family in Lebanon sided with the Turkish Government, and, in 
 consequence, the male members were obliged to flee to distant 
 parts. In i840-'4i the Egyptians were driven out of the country 
 by the combined European Powers, and Syria was given back to 
 the Turks. There were then three brothers in that family of 
 Druse sheikhs, and they were raised to their former station, and 
 their property was restored to them. During the ten years of 
 their enforced exile two young sheikhs lower in station had risen 
 to power, and had married the only brides, sisters, within the mar- 
 riage circle of the family. After the return of the fugitive brothers, 
 the two oldest killed the husbands and married their widows them- 
 selves. 
 
 Such atrocious villany reaped its swift reward. The eldest 
 brother became imbecile, and sunk into obscurity and poverty. 
 The other usurped all authority, and laid hands upon the entire 
 property ; nor could he be induced to allow a decent competency 
 for the support of his elder brother. He became wealthy and 
 powerful ; but, owing to his presumable complicity in the massa- 
 cres at Deir el Kamr in i860, he was denounced by some of the 
 Commissioners of the European Powers, imprisoned in Beirut by 
 the Turkish authorities, and barely escaped being beheaded. At 
 length, through the earnest intercession of political friends, he was
 
 DECLINE OF FEUDAL PRINCES.— WADY IlC.MNL^NA. 193 
 
 allowed to leave his prison, but only to die. A few days after his 
 liberation he expired in a house not far from my own. 
 
 Great hopes were entertained that the youngest of the brothers, 
 when he came of age, would exert a happy influence upon the peo- 
 ple ; and he appeared anxious to qualify himself for a life of useful- 
 ness, but he soon became insane. The widows had three brothers, 
 the youngest of whom became a raving maniac. The oldest was 
 killed during the civil wars that desolated Lebanon, and the other 
 brother retained just enough wit to manage the property. I was 
 brought into frequent contact with both those families of Druse 
 sheikhs and marriageable princesses, and observed, with painful 
 interest, the dreadful calamities attending their career, and the 
 declining fortunes of their ancestral house. 
 
 The feudal lords and ladies of these mountains have indeed 
 been visited with relentless and condign punishment. 
 
 For at least a thousand years the native princes on Lebanon 
 and Hermon have been engaged in plots and outbreaks, assassina- 
 tion and murder, and now their families are either extinct, or are 
 rapidly declining, with no prospect of their restoration to power. 
 The country has, however, no cause to regret the dying out of 
 those old families. They blocked the wheels of progress, and 
 their extinction was as necessary as it was inevitable. 
 
 We have now reached the carriage road to Damascus, which 
 winds up the slopes of Lebanon above the profound gorge of Nahr 
 Beirut. Let us ride to the edge of the cliff, and look down into 
 the wide and deep valley of Hummana. 
 
 It is impossible to gaze upon scenery so vast and sublime with- 
 out giving expression to one's great surprise and admiration. 
 
 Wady Hummana is considered one of the finest in Lebanon. 
 It possesses a greater variety of forest scenery than any other val- 
 ley, interspersed with silk-reeling factories, convents, churches, and 
 picturesque villages. It has also one interesting feature found no- 
 where else in Syria. Near the bottom of the valley, below Kurna- 
 yil, is the only coal-mine in this country. Its existence had been 
 long known, but it was not worked until the Kgyptians got pos- 
 session of these mountains. Muhammed Aly employed an English 
 engineer, in i834-'35, to superintend the mining operations, and
 
 194 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 many hundred tons of coal were taken to Beirut, for the Egyptian 
 steamers. But the coal was of an inferior quality, and so impreg- 
 nated with sulphur as to corrode the boilers. There was, also, a 
 large proportion of iron pyrites mingled with the coal, and the 
 mounds of that rubbish, thrown out of the mine, became ignited 
 by the autumn rain, and continued to burn for several months. 
 
 When the Turkish Government was again established over 
 Syria, mining operations were, of course, abandoned, nor is it proba- 
 ble that they will ever be renewed. Besides the impurity of the 
 mineral, the stratum is not more than two and a half feet thick, 
 and the working of it is rendered difficult and expensive by nume- 
 rous dislocations and " faults " in the strata. I was surprised to 
 find in the mass of shale overlying the coal numberless fragments 
 of perfectly preserved specimens of petrified pine-cones, in all re- 
 spects like those which now grow on the pine-forests that crown 
 the sandy ridge above the mine. How they came there, and what 
 they imply or suggest, we may leave to geologists to explain. 
 
 Directly below Deir el Kul'ah the deep gorge of Nahr Beirut 
 is divided into two branches. The one which descends from Jebel 
 Keniseh forms this beautiful valley of Hummana. The other, com- 
 ing down through the yawning chasms in Jebel Sunnin, drains all 
 the western slopes of that imposing mountain. Between those two 
 profound wadys is the district of el Metn, with its coal-mine, below 
 Kurnayil, its pine-forests, and numerous villages. The Metn is in- 
 habited by a mixed population, Greek, Maronite, and Druse ; and 
 each party, in turn, Maronite or Druse, has swept over it during 
 the many civil wars, killing, plundering, and burning, and the mar- 
 vel is that it recovers so rapidly. 
 
 A large part of el Metn has been constantly governed for the 
 last two hundred years by Emirs of Beit el Lema. They came 
 from Jebel el A'alah, south-west of Aleppo, with a pedigree as long 
 as the tail of a comet, and settled at first in Kefr Selwan. After 
 the usual fortunes and inevitable misfortunes which have befallen 
 every feudal family on these mountains, they became, nominally. 
 Christians, and finally sunk into poverty and obscurity. Some of 
 them still reside in Sulima, a village on the northern side of the 
 well-wooded ridge, beneath which lie the coal-measures of Leba-
 
 BRUMMAXA.— EL MUGIIEITEH.— SNOW-DRIFTS. 195 
 
 non. Others are living at Brummana, that village on the top of 
 the mountain, above the Bay of St. George. 
 
 Many years ago Brummana was the favorite summer resort of 
 the Europeans of Beirut, but the water is scarce and not palata- 
 ble, being slightly impregnated with sulphur from the ferruginous 
 sandstone, which overlies the entire ridge. The village is celebrated 
 for its noble prospects and pleasant rides through pine-forests, and 
 for a group of oak-trees of venerable age and great size, under the 
 dense shade of which I have spent many a pleasant hour. 
 
 The gradients on this part of the Damascus road, which leads 
 up almost to the summit of Lebanon, are by no means steep, and 
 the ascent is so gradual as hardly to be perceptible. 
 
 A short distance ahead of us the rise is more rapid until the 
 famous pass of el Mugheiteh is reached, over five thousand feet 
 above the level of the sea. Before the French engineers opened 
 the way up through that wilderness of rocks and crags, el Mughei- 
 teh was a long and dangerous defile, which many fatal accidents to 
 individuals and caravans had rendered notorious. Every winter it 
 was overwhelmed by snow-drifts, and all travel to and from Damas- 
 cus on that route was suspended. Even this broad and admira- 
 bly constructed road is often completely blocked, and a channel 
 through the snow has to be made. 
 
 I have ridden over the part where we now are when the chan- 
 nel was barely wide enough to permit the diligence to pass. On 
 one occasion the snow on either side was higher than the top of 
 the diligence, and the passage was so narrow that the snow was 
 swept from both sides on to the vehicle. The accumulation of 
 snow is due to the proximity of Jebel Keniseh, which lifts its head 
 to the clouds, six thousand six hundred feet above sea-level, and 
 directly above el Mugheiteh. So steep is the side of that rugged 
 mountain that much of the snow that falls upon it is drifted down 
 into the pass during the great winter storms. 
 
 The summit level of the ridge is only about a mile across, and 
 then the road begins to descend eastward towards the Biika'a — at 
 first gradually, Ijut after passing Khan Murad its descent is very 
 steep, and the diligence rumbles along with dangerous velocity 
 even around the sharp zigzags, quite down to the i)lain. We will
 
 jq6 the land and the book. 
 
 stop to rest for an hour at that khan, where the hospitable inn- 
 keeper will furnish us with hot coffee after our lunch. It was 
 originally a dilapidated khan, where I have encamped more than 
 once, long before the Damascus road was constructed by the 
 French, but it has been greatly altered to adapt it to the wants 
 of the Company. Wherever it was practicable, the new road fol- 
 lowed the line of the ancient highway, and the stations of the Com- 
 pany are also located at or near the old khans of former days. 
 
 This way-side inn is directly below the south-eastern shoulder 
 of Jebel Keniseh, and, of course, is very cold in winter, and often 
 buried under the deep snow. It is also exposed to violent gales 
 of wind. I once pitched my tent on the roof of the old khan, 
 which was then the only level place about it. But it was not a 
 secure or a comfortable camping-ground. Some time after mid- 
 night there came sweeping down from the heights of Jebel Keni- 
 seh a furious gale that nearly carried away my tent ; and, though 
 it was midsummer, the wind was extremely cold. 
 
 An old sheikh of 'Aitath explained to me why it was that so 
 many of the men who came from the mountain villages to this part 
 of the Buka'a at harvest time soon returned, having been attacked 
 with malignant fevers. He said the fever was not caused by ma- 
 laria, but was entirely due to those cold winds. The harvesters 
 slept on the threshing-floors, and owing to the extreme heat in 
 the first part of the night, they used no covering, and were conse- 
 quently exposed to the chilling wind that invariably began to blow 
 after midnight. That, I believe, to be the true cause of most of 
 the fevers which abound on Lebanon during the latter part of 
 summer, and all travellers should then protect themselves and 
 their muleteers from the pernicious effects of such cold winds. 
 
 We have been descending rapidly since we left Khan Murad, 
 and now, far below us, the broad expanse of the Buka'a stretches 
 away to the north, and, passing the ruins of Baalbek, is lost to 
 sight at "the entrance of Hamath." Across the plain, southward, 
 is Hermon, and opposite to us is Anti-Lebanon ; while Lebanon, 
 that goodly mountain, rises above us to the clouds. 
 
 This is indeed a glorious and comprehensive prospect. 
 
 Instead of hurrying, like the diligence, down the ever-winding
 
 THE RANGE OF ANTI-LEBANON.— THE DAMASCUS ROAD. 197 
 
 road to the plain, we will take our stand on that high bluff north 
 of us, and survey the splendid outlook which it affords. It was 
 mainly to show you this magnificent and suggestive view that we 
 have made this detour from the regular route. 
 
 Hermon seems to dominate the entire southern portion of the 
 Buka'a ; but the long, irregular range of Anti-Lebanon, which walls 
 in the eastern side of the plain, appears to be much lower even 
 than our present stand-point on these western mountains. 
 
 It is in reality lower than the Lebanon range, and yet I have 
 ascended some peaks east of Ba'albek and above the plain of 
 Zebedany which are six or seven thousand feet high. 
 
 The Buka'a now seems to be surprisingly near, and outspread 
 almost at our very feet, like a great carpet of diverse patterns. 
 
 This eastern side of Lebanon is entirely different from the 
 western. There are none of those long reaches of nearly level 
 ground by which the summit is easily gained, but the mountain 
 drops abruptly to the plain, almost without a break ; and the dili- 
 gence, which takes six hours to reach this point from Beirut, de- 
 scends swiftly down to Shtora, the half-way station to Damascus, 
 in thirty minutes. From Shtora travellers often take a carriage 
 or hire horses, and make a hasty visit to Ba'albek, which is six 
 hours distant from that station. 
 
 One can follow the line of this carriage-road to Damascus quite 
 across the plain to the other side, until it passes behind that low 
 ridge which extends far away to the south-east. 
 
 From Mejdel 'Anjar, on the eastern side of that ridge, it ascends, 
 by easy grades, the long Wady Harir, to the level but stony Sahil 
 Judeideh, and thence passes into Wady el Kurn, which it follows 
 towards ed Dimas, a large village on the western border of a rocky 
 and dreary plateau, called es Sahra, that extends eastward to the 
 banks of the Barada. The road cro.sses that desert of ed Dimas, 
 and winds along the left bank of the lively and beautiful river of 
 Damascus, overshadowed by tall trees of various kinds, and then 
 passes out upon the plain between luxurious gardens, and through 
 the verdant Merj to the gates of the city. 
 
 With your glass you can see the walls of an ancient temple, 
 standing on the northern end of the hill which hides Mejdel 'Anjar
 
 iq8 the land and the book. 
 
 from view. That temple was well built, like those upon Hermon, 
 and there are some enormous stones in the eastern and Avestern 
 walls, twenty -one feet long and nearly six feet high. There are 
 no inscriptions, and it has no name or historic association, except 
 that, directly below it, on the north-east, are the extensive ruins 
 of 'Anjar — towers, walls, columns, and other remains — supposed to 
 mark the site of Chalcis, the capital of a small province ruled by 
 the Ptolemies and the Herods. The temple may have been built 
 in the first century by Herod Agrippa 11., mentioned in the Acts, 
 in honor of the Emperor Claudius.' 
 
 About half a mile north-east of those ruins is Neb'a 'Anjar, the 
 main permanent source of the river Litany. There are several 
 large fountains much farther north, on both sides of the plain, 
 such as those of the stream that passes down from Sunnin through 
 Zahleh, and at Ras el 'Ain, near Ba'albek ; but during the summer 
 the water from them is exhausted by irrigation. The stream from 
 Neb'a 'Anjar always forms a deep river, which cannot generally 
 be crossed except at the bridge. It has, in fact, several sources, 
 but the main one is an intermitting fountain. Sometimes the 
 quantity of water from it is quite small, and at other times it is 
 largely increased. I was there once when the overflow was so 
 great as to endanger the mill-dam below it. Somewhat similar 
 phenomena occur at Fauwar ed Deir, the Sabbatical river, north 
 of Tripoli, mentioned by Josephus and Pliny. 
 
 Upon a low ridge opposite us, on the eastern side of the 
 Buka'a, is a place called Deir el Ghuzal, the convent of the gazelle, 
 where there was an ancient temple, the remains of which are still 
 to be seen on the hill-side and in the valley below. On some low- 
 cliffs south of it are a few words of a Greek inscription, but they 
 impart no valuable information. There is a much longer inscrip- 
 tion in a village farther north which I once copied w^hen passing 
 along that side of the plain from Ba'albek to Neb'a Anjar. 
 
 What is the name of that ruined castle upon the high crag on 
 the side of that ravine to the south of us? 
 
 It is called Kubb EHas, and there is a village below it of the 
 same name. Fakhr ed Din, the celebrated Druse emir, is said to 
 
 ' Acts XXV. 26.
 
 CCELESVRIA.— ZAHLEIL— EL BERDUNY. I99 
 
 have built it ; but it was dismantled long ago, and there is nothing 
 about it of much interest or to indicate its age. It was probably 
 constructed to command the ascent over Lebanon, and for the 
 protection of caravans, merchants, and travellers. 
 
 It is time to continue our ride. We will get a guide at Mek- 
 seh, the next station ahead of us ; and, keeping along the moun- 
 tain above the extensive vineyards of Zahleh, we will climb to 
 Neb'a Sunnin, near the summit of Lebanon west of that village. 
 
 How magnificent are the views over the great plain and the 
 surrounding mountains ! From every projecting ridge the prospect 
 is different, but always impressive and beautiful. 
 
 We obtain, from some points, a perfect view of the whole of 
 Coelesyria; for although that name came, ultimately, to have a far 
 wider application, the Buka'a is the original Coelesyria, or hollow 
 S\ria of ancient history and geography. We are to pass through 
 the northern part of it hereafter, and will become more familiar 
 with it, and with the names of many villages scattered over this 
 fertile plain. From that prominent ledge of rocks to which we 
 are coming we will obtain an excellent view of Zahleh, the most 
 populous and prosperous town on Lebanon. 
 
 It is a much larger place than I expected to see, and its situa- 
 ' tion has been well chosen, and is exceedingly picturesque. 
 
 There is nothing resembling it on these mountains. The town 
 occupies both sides of the valley, which widens as it deepens, and 
 finally opens out upon the plain to the south-east. Through the 
 middle of the valley flows the sparkling little river of el Berduny, 
 which descends from the south-eastern end of Jebel Sunnin; and, 
 after contributing to the wants of the town, its life-giving waters 
 are distributed over a wide area of vineyards, gardens, and culti- 
 vated fields on the plain of el Buka'a below. Along the banks, 
 through the town, and elsewhere grow hundreds of tall and grace- 
 ful silver-leaved poplars, which add much to the attractiveness of 
 the place and the beauty of the scene. The houses arc built 
 upon the sloping declivities on both sides of the river, and rise, 
 tier above tier, far up the steep side of the mountain. 
 
 There are several churches in the town, including one recently 
 erected by the Protestant community. Excellent schools, both for 
 O
 
 200 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 boys and girls, have been established, and are flourishing remarka- 
 bly. The desire for education has extended to the surrounding 
 country, and schools have been opened in many of the villages. 
 
 The Rev. Gerald F. Dale gives a graphic description of the 
 scenes and scenery in this neighborhood, and the manners and 
 customs of the inhabitants at the present day : 
 
 " The Zahleh people are now in the vineyards. We went yes- 
 terday to Furzul to hold the usual service, and during the hour's 
 ride were surrounded with vineyards before us, behind us, and upon 
 either side of us. The road wound over the low spurs of the 
 mountain, which were carefully cultivated, and beautifully terraced 
 all the way down to the fertile plain of Coelesyria. The ruins of 
 Ba'albec were in sight to the north, and toward the south Mount 
 Hermon was towering above everything. Men, and women, and 
 children, horses, donkeys, camels, and mules, were going and com- 
 ing with baskets or boxes or saddle-bags of grapes. Each person 
 in passing politely invited us to help ourselves [from the tempt- 
 ing baskets], and some would take no denial. 
 
 " We sold two pocket Testaments for twenty pounds of grapes, 
 the grapes to be delivered at any time during the present week. 
 We scattered mission papers where we thought that they would be 
 read and appreciated, and turned aside for a talk with one of our 
 church members whose vineyard was by the roadside. In two dif- 
 ferent places companies of people were treading out the juice of 
 the grapes to make grape molasses. In all directions people were 
 making raisins, and some were preparing the ripe fruit to be sent to 
 the neighboring villages for sale. Here and there, upon a terrace, 
 was a fig-tree, and we thought of the time in America when we read 
 and wondered at the words 'They shall sit every man under his 
 vine and under his fig-tree.' " 
 
 Vineyards and vines, treading out the juice of the grapes, and 
 here and there a man sitting " under his vine and under his fig- 
 tree " are subjects eminently Biblical ; and here on the spot we 
 certainly can testify with Mr. Dale that " this land is a grand 
 commentary upon the Bible." ^ 
 
 Although Zahleh does not command so magnificent an outlook 
 
 ' I Kings iv. 25 ; Micah iv. 4 ; Zech. iii. 10.
 
 PROSPERITY OF ZAIILEH.— BITUMINOUS SHALE. 20I 
 
 as Deir el Kamar, nor is the scenery around and about it so wild 
 and romantic, yet it appears to be almost twice as large. What 
 is the supposed number of its inhabitants ? 
 
 Including el Mu'allakah, "the suspended" — a mere annex to 
 the town, and almost exclusively Moslem — the population is over 
 thirteen thousand — all Christian, principally of the Greek, Catholic, 
 and ]\Iaronite sects — and it is steadily increasing. 
 
 No one looking down upon Zahleh from our stand-point would 
 imagine that every house in the place was burnt during the last 
 civil war, and yet such was the fact. By a combined attack of the 
 Druses this town was captured, plundered, and burnt. The in- 
 habitants, however, escaped ; and, being particularly energetic and 
 enterprising, they speedily repaired and re-roofed their dwellings, 
 and during the last twenty years of peace they have more than 
 regained their former prosperity. They not only manufacture the 
 articles needed by the numerous peasantry around Zahleh, but also 
 deal largely with places at a distance, and with the Bedawin tribes 
 of the eastern desert. Some of the merchants have become com- 
 paratively wealthy, and live in commodious houses. 
 
 About a mile north of el Mu'allakah is the small hamlet of 
 Kerak Nuh, where is shown the reputed tomb of Noah, of which I 
 will give you an account in the evening. At present we must 
 commence the last steep ascent of Lebanon, at the top of which 
 we will be obliged to quicken our pace to reach the tents at Neb'a 
 Sunnin before it becomes too dark to sec the way. 
 
 Between this point which we have now attained, on the summit 
 of the ridge, and Kurnayil is a locality of bituminous shale, near the 
 village of Kefr Selwan. The shale crops out in many places, and in 
 some parts it is arranged in laminre not thicker than brown paper. 
 Indeed, my attention was first attracted to it by its fluttering in the 
 wind like the leaves of an open book. Thrown into the fire, that 
 bituminous .shale burns with a bright flame, but it has a sulphurous 
 smell, and leaves a hard, stony residuum. Nor is this the only min- 
 eralogical product met with in that region. 
 
 The ridge between Jebel Keniseh and .Sunnin is sandstone, and 
 the surface is covered in many places with small rounded pebbles 
 like bullets and balls of various sizes, coated over with iron rust
 
 202 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and sand. They are called globular iron ore, and resemble those 
 found in such quantities on the south-eastern side of Jebel er Ri- 
 han. Those curious globules are generally found arranged in con- 
 centric layers, as if formed by accretion, around a solid nucleus. 
 But by what agency they were formed there, on that sandy ridge 
 of Lebanon, is a problem not easily solved. 
 
 Another problem is equally puzzling. Our path from here on 
 to Neb'a Sunnin is entangled in a wilderness of sharp limestone 
 pinnacles — needles, obelisks, shafts, and spires — some of them of 
 colossal proportions, and looking as if driven up from below through 
 the sandstone during the long ages of the past. 
 
 Was this singular rocky formation always thus, or has the sand 
 drifted in upon and nearly buried these jagged pinnacles? 
 
 They have doubtless been worn into such grotesque shapes by 
 the action of weather, water, and time, but from whence came 
 the sand here upon the summit of the Lebanon range? In fact, 
 the geological problem presented by the sandstone formations on 
 these mountains remains still unsolved. 
 
 We seem to have risen quite above the range of human habita- 
 tions, and this is a wild and desolate region. 
 
 Our ride for to-day is nearly over, for beyond this rough ravine 
 into which we have descended we will find the tents pitched and 
 comfortably arranged for our reception, and dinner awaiting us. 
 
 Neb'a Sunnin is a fountain of no great size, but the water is 
 clear as crystal and icy cold, and the air is delightfully cool and 
 bracing. There is a weird influence about this oasis in a wilderness 
 of mountains— neither khan nor hut, not even a sheepfold near- 
 shut out from the world below, shut in with the stars above. 
 
 This is the only suitable camping- ground for many a weary 
 mile along the road we are now travelling. I have spent more 
 than one night encamped upon the greensward below the foun- 
 tain. Sunnin towers above it to the north-east for over three 
 thousand feet, and here we are nearly twice that height above the 
 sea. To any one who proposes to climb to the top of Lebanon, 
 there is no better place to spend the previous night than this 
 Neb'a Sunnin ; for the ascent to that lofty summit and the return 
 from it will require an entire day.
 
 ANCIENT TEMPLES ON LEBANON. 203 
 
 Neb'a Sunnin, September ist. Evening. 
 
 During our long ride we passed no ancient ruins, no prostrate 
 temples, no forsaken altars ; and yet it seems almost impossible 
 that man could dwell in the midst of such august scenery with- 
 out being inspired with religious thoughts and emotions, prompting 
 him to give expression to them in the erection of such edifices. 
 How do you account for their absence from this part of Lebanon? 
 
 Partly by qualifying your statement, and in part by the con- 
 sideration that the inhabitants of this western side of the mountain 
 were near the cities on the seaboard, and they would naturally per- 
 form their religious ceremonies, such as they were, in the grander 
 temples and more celebrated shrines of the neighboring cities. But 
 your remark is not in strict accordance with the facts in regard to 
 this region. Not to mention the remains of the temple at Dcir el 
 Kul'ah, there are others quite worthy of attention. In the valley 
 of the north-eastern branch of Nahr Beirut, which comes up here 
 almost to our tent door, are the ruins of a large temple, near 'An- 
 turah, not the Maronite village in Kesrawan, but one of the same 
 name belonging to this district of el Metn. It was one of the 
 most ancient sanctuaries on these mountains, too old for inscrip- 
 tions, and was built of large stones, but without much architectu- 
 ral ornamentation, and what remains consists mainly of broken 
 buttresses and masses of shapeless rubbish. 
 
 East of our camping-ground, on the other side of the moun- 
 tains, in the neighborhood of Niha, there are the remains of two 
 ancient temples. The one near the village has been so thoroughly 
 demolished, and the materials carried away, that neither its dimen- 
 sions nor its architectural character can now be distinguished. A 
 ravine leads up westward from Niha into the mountain, for half 
 an hour, to a small plain, upon which is the other temple, called 
 Husn Niha. It stood on a wide platform, facing the east, and had 
 a portico in front, with a flight of steps leading up to it, more than 
 thirty feet broad, and still in good preservation. The walls were 
 built chiefly of small stones, although a few are ten or twelve feet 
 long, and well squared. The temple was nearly one hundred feet 
 long, and over forty feet wide, but the interior is much choked up 
 with fallen stones and broken columns. The columns are not large.
 
 204 ^^^ LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and appear to have had capitals of the Ionic order, as had also the 
 pilasters, along the walls, on each side of the naos, but the work- 
 manship is inferior to that of most temples, either on Lebanon or 
 Hermon. On the east, south, and west are extensive remains of 
 substantial buildings, whose object it is impossible to ascertain. 
 
 At Kerak Nuh, north of Zahleh, there was, probably, a heathen 
 shrine, as there is now a Moslem mukam over the reputed tomb 
 of Noah. When I first visited it, many years ago, the grave was 
 covered with a ragged cotton cloth of faded green ; and the old 
 sheikh informed me, with the utmost simplicity, that the patriarch 
 was so tall that, when they came to lay him in his sepulchre, one 
 hundred and thirty-two feet long, they were obliged to sink a deep 
 shaft, into which his legs, from the knee downwards, were depo- 
 sited. It is a curious fact that native tradition has transferred to 
 the Buka a more than one Biblical celebrity. Directly across the 
 plain from Kerak Nuh, on a spur of the lower range of Anti-Leba- 
 non, is the wely of Neby Shit — the tomb of the prophet Seth— 
 but it is only fifty-five feet long. It is kept in better condition 
 and regarded with greater reverence than that of Noah, and is fre- 
 quented by Metawileh as well as Moslems. 
 
 How could men be brought to believe, without evidence, that 
 Noah was buried at Kerak Nuh and Seth at Neby Shit? 
 
 Or that one was one hundred and fifty feet high, and the other 
 under sixty, with other equally absurd traditions? The conclusion 
 is that the origin of such primitive and fabulous sanctuaries dates 
 far back into the twilight of man's history. Jew and Persian, 
 Greek and Roman, Christian and Moslem, have each in turn found 
 those shrines already venerated, and have adapted them to their 
 own peculiar superstitions. They owe their origin, however, not 
 to any of them, but to the races settled in this land after the 
 great deluge, in the days of Noah himself. Besides ancient tem- 
 ples and venerated shrines, these magnificent mountains contain 
 other traces of man's presence and handiwork in remote antiqui- 
 ty. Numerous rock-cut tombs are found near almost every vil- 
 lage, and in many lonely localities they are the only witness that 
 human habitations ever existed there. Those tombs were of va- 
 rious shapes and sizes, and are, doubtless, extremely ancient. We
 
 THE DRUSES AND THEIR RELIGION. 205 
 
 have seen specimens of most of them in GaHlee and Phcenicia. as 
 well as in Southern Lebanon. 
 
 As we shall not again pass through the part of Lebanon occu- 
 pied by the Druses, I should like to learn something more definite 
 about their histor}', character, and religion. We have found them 
 in nearly every village, and have been invariably treated by them 
 with the greatest respect and kindness. 
 
 Their places of worship are low, isolated buildings, called khul- 
 wat, or solitudes, generally situated on lonely summits of the 
 mountains, but in no other respects differing in appearance from 
 ordinary dwellings. There is nothing in and about those khidwat 
 to throw any light upon the Druse religion, and they carefully 
 avoid the subject when introduced. Though residing for many 
 years amongst the Druses, and on terms of cordial acquaintance 
 with many of their principal men, I could never obtain from them 
 much reliable information. They affect to keep their religion an 
 inviolable secret; but this is now quite absurd, since their sacred 
 books have been studied with entire success by De Sacy and other 
 foreigners, and even by many natives of this country. During their 
 wars with the Egyptian Government, soon after I came to Syria, 
 their most sacred khulwat were plundered, and their books were 
 seized and distributed to various European libraries, or sold to the 
 curious in this and other countries. Their religious doctrines have 
 thus become known, and their origin and history clearly revealed. 
 
 Early in the eleventh century a certain Persian, called Muham- 
 med Ibn Isma'il ed Durazy, began to proclaim the divinity of EI 
 Hakem li Amr Allah, the Caliph of Egypt, maintaining that he 
 was the last incarnation of the Deity. Durazy was mobbed in a 
 mosk at Cairo while reading an argument to establish his doctrine, 
 and some say he was killed in the fray, others that he escaped and 
 was sent by El Hakem to Wady et Teim, where he successfully 
 published his system, and made many proselytes amongst the tribes 
 who occupied the valley between Hermon and the south end of 
 Lebanon. From cd Durazy, no doubt, this sect derived the name 
 by which they are now commonly known. It is, however, a nick- 
 name, which they repudiate and dislike. They claim to be strict 
 Unitarians, and call themselves el IMuwahhedin, which has that sig-
 
 2o6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 nification. Their religious system was formulated, not by Durazy, 
 but by Hamzeh Ibn Ahmed, also a Persian, whom they style el 
 Hady, or the Guide. He composed most of their sacred books, 
 and is, therefore, their real religious prophet. He supplanted 
 Durazy, and the Druses disclaim all connection with him. 
 
 By what means Durazy or Hamzeh, one or both, contrived to 
 propagate their doctrines and gain proselytes is not known, but 
 tradition says that they were aided by supplies of money sent to 
 them by their insane divinity, el Hakem. Such arguments have 
 always been successful in this country, and are so still ; but all we 
 know with certainty is that a considerable body of fanatical con- 
 verts was organized into a compact, secret, and resolute society 
 which has lived on through numberless social convulsions and civil 
 wars for nearly a thousand years. They gradually spread over 
 Southern Lebanon, Hermon, and into the Hauran, to Jebel el A'alah, 
 above Antioch, and to Mount Carmel and the mountains east of 
 Acre, while a few thousands have settled in Damascus, Beirut, and 
 other towns. They are, however, not a large sect, the highest esti- 
 mate being one hundred thousand souls. In any case their power 
 and influence in this country are due, not to their numbers, but 
 partly to their geographical location, and still more to their in- 
 domitable courage and admirable organization. This compact and 
 available organization has been established and perpetuated mainly 
 by two separate agencies, one religious, the other secular, but 
 which, in times of danger, act in perfect concert and with surpris- 
 ing success. The religious and " initiated " sheikhs, on necessary 
 occasions, can and do summon the entire community to rally round 
 the standards of their feudal lords, and the Druse nation then acts 
 as one man against the common enemy. 
 
 In brief, the religious doctrines of the Druses appear to have 
 been derived mainly from the teachings of various sects of nominal 
 Moslems in Persia, Egypt, and the East, grouped together by Mu- 
 hammedan writers under the general name of Bateniyeh. They 
 were mystics, who gave an allegorical interpretation to much of 
 the Koran, and were persecuted as heretics by the orthodox. The 
 most celebrated of these schismatics were the Carmathians, who 
 \vere with great difficulty subdued by the Caliphs of Bagdad.
 
 RELIGIOUS DOCTRINES OF THE DRUSES. 20/ 
 
 The doctrines of that sect, however, survived the extinction of 
 their poHtical organization, and, mixed up with speculations and 
 dogmas still more ancient, derived from Zoroaster, the Gnostics, 
 and other Oriental philosophers, constitute the strange medley of 
 m^'stical opinions found in the six or seven sacred books of the 
 Druses. Their idea of God difTers from that of Islam mainly in 
 the exaggeration of the doctrine of the Divine Unity. Though 
 they hesitate to ascribe any distinct attributes to the Deity, they 
 maintain that He has often assumed a human form, but more in 
 semblance than in reality. The most remarkable of those divine 
 manifestations and Ministers of Truth are the following: Adam, 
 Enoch, Noah, Shem, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammed, 'Ali Ibn 
 Abi Talib, Muhammed Ibn Isma'il, Sa'id el Muhdi, and el Hakem 
 li Amr Allah, who was the last of them all. 
 
 A strange group of incarnations, certainly. But if the Druses 
 believe that Jesus was one of the divine manifestations, how do 
 they regard him and his Gospel ? 
 
 They have tw^o Christs, one divine, the other the son of Joseph. 
 The latter was one of the Ministers of Truth ; he was crucified, 
 while the former escaped. It would be a wearisome and pro- 
 fitless waste of time to detail the wild and utterly baseless stories 
 which the Druse disciple is taught to believe on this and kindred 
 matters. The only other doctrine of the Druses which is of sufifi- 
 cicnt interest to deserve special attention is that of the transmigra- 
 tion of souls. This they maintain openly, and apparently from real 
 conviction. They do not admit that the souls of wicked persons 
 pass into the bodies of brutes, as a punishment for their sins, as 
 do the Nusairiyeh and some other sects. Still, it is their opinion 
 that transmigrations, from one human body to another, and from 
 one state or condition to a different one, better or worse, has 
 in it the elements of retribution. The metempsychosis, you are 
 aware, has been taught, in one form or another, from remote an- 
 tiquity. It is owing to a belief prevailing amongst the Druses that 
 the Chinese hold this and some other of their dogmas, that they 
 regard them as brethren, and expect, at some future time, a mighty 
 army from that country to come to their aid, b\' which the whole 
 world will be subdued or converted to their creed.
 
 208 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The entire Druse community, both male and female, is divided 
 into 'Akkal and Juhhal, initiated and uninitiated. The great body 
 of the nation belong to the latter class, and cannot be said to have 
 any religion. They have no professed creed, observe no religious 
 ceremonies, and never attend the assemblies of the 'Akkal in their 
 Khulwat. The initiated, besides their peculiar dress, are distin- 
 guished by a greater dignity and sobriety of demeanor, and are 
 bound by numerous restrictions from which the Juhhal are entirely 
 free. They do not accept office, hold it unlawful to indulge in 
 smoking and such luxuries as coffee, and abstain from all intoxi- 
 cating drinks. There are many things regarded by them as " for- 
 bidden," usury, for example, and they believe the money of the 
 Government to be polluted. Many of the women are 'Akkal, and 
 meet with the men in the Khulwat. The female 'Akkal are much 
 respected, and when I came to Syria were about the only women 
 who were able to read and write. In their domestic relations the 
 Druses partly conform to the Moslem regulations, but polygamy 
 is not practised amongst them. Divorce, however, is so easy and 
 so common, that the advantages of monogamy are lost. They 
 can literally '' put away their wives for any cause," or for none 
 whatever but the whim of the moment. This introduces great 
 irregularity and confusion in their family relations. Without giv- 
 ing credence to the reports of their enemies on these subjects, we 
 shall do them no injustice by admitting that their matrimonial and 
 domestic matters need greatly to be reformed. 
 
 The Druses are agriculturists; at least, none of them follow 
 mechanical occupations, and very few engage in trade or are shop- 
 keepers. Though not specially industrious, they are extremely 
 simple and frugal in their habits, and contrive to live on very 
 small incomes. In their ordinary intercourse they are polite and 
 ceremonious to a proverb, even in little things. Etiquette obliges 
 them to be most punctilious in showing the greatest respect to 
 their friends on all private and public occasions — social visits, 
 births, marriages, and deaths. No sooner does a Druse die than 
 his acquaintances, male and female, are seen hurrying from all 
 quarters to the funeral. The most frequent and the largest gather- 
 ings on Lebanon are at funerals, and in times of danger or contem-
 
 RELIGIOUS HYPOCRISY.— FEUDAL FAMILIES. 209 
 
 plated war such occasions are availed of for political purposes, and 
 many an uprising has been matured at these gatherings. Perhaps 
 the worst feature in their character is religious hypocrisy. They 
 curse Muhammed in their secret meetings, and yet join in the 
 Moslem forms of worship when residing amongst them. They 
 will, in a word, conform to the faith of the strongest, whatever it 
 may be ; and hence it is almost impossible to accept with confi- 
 dence their professed conversion to Christianity. There are a few, 
 however, amongst them who have become sincere Christians. 
 
 There are, or have been, nine chief historical families of feudal 
 princes, emirs, and sheikhs. Several of them are now extinct, such 
 as the Tannuch emirs and those of Beit Ma'an. In Lebanon there 
 only remain at present the emirs of er Reslan and the sheikhs of 
 Beit Jumblat, of 'Ammad, of Abu Nakad, of Tulhuk, and of Abd 
 el Melek. All these feudal families are rapidly declining in wealth, 
 power, and influence. During the wars and commotions of the 
 present century several other families have risen into importance, 
 especially in the Hauran, whither large numbers of Druses have 
 emigrated from Lebanon. The emirs of er Reslan reside in the 
 lower, and the Tulhuk sheikhs in the upper, Ghurb; the Abd el 
 Melek in the Jurd ; the Nakadiyeh in and around 'Abeih and Deir 
 el Kamar; and the 'Ammads east of that village. The large dis- 
 trict of esh Shuf is the home of the Jumblats, whose palace is at 
 INIukhtarah. Theirs is by far the wealthiest and most influential 
 family amongst the Druses, and Sheikh Beshir was their most cele- 
 brated hero, at least in modern times. Indeed, the only other chief 
 that achieved historic celebrity amongst them was the Emir Fakhr 
 cd Din Ma'an, who lived nearly three hundred years ago, and 
 played an important part in the wars of his times. He conquered 
 a large part of this country, and for many years set at defiance the 
 power and intrigues of the Turkish (lovernment. 
 
 The Druses have the reputation of being particularly stern and 
 remorseless in the execution of the old law of blood revenge. 
 
 The lex talionis is in force, not only amongst the Druses, but 
 with all the non-Christian tribes who inhabit the mountains at the 
 head of the Mediterranean, and also amongst the l^edawin wiio 
 roam over the surrounding deserts. Alliances are made between
 
 2IO THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 families and tribes, near and far away, for the sake of mutual pro- 
 tection, and to enable the contracting parties to retaliate injuries 
 to life and property. By these compacts the parties are bound to 
 stand by each other in case of need, to join in all quarrels, shelter 
 each other when fleeing from the law or from the pursuit of ene- 
 mies, and to bear their proportion of the fine incurred by any vio- 
 lation of property or injury to person. Especially must they aid 
 in cases of manslaughter or murder ; in the first instance, to con- 
 ceal and further the escape of the slayer, and then to stand by his 
 family to prevent a general massacre by the enraged relatives of 
 the slain ; and, finally, they must do all in their power to bring 
 about a compromise, by inducing the other party to accept a ran- 
 som for the blood shed and abandon their right of revenge. 
 
 It is one of the cruel features of this lex talionis that, if the 
 murderer cannot be reached, the avengers of blood have a right to 
 kill any member of his family, then any relation, no matter how 
 remote, and, finally, any one of the blood confederation. I knew 
 of a case where a Christian had killed a Mutawaly of 'Ain Ibel ; 
 and, as the Metawileh are far the most numerous in that region, 
 and delight to get an opportunity to assault the Christians, the 
 whole village was immediately deserted, the terrified people seek- 
 ing shelter and concealment amongst their confederates, wherever 
 they could find them. Even on Lebanon, which the Allied Powers 
 have undertaken to look after, I have known, not one, but many 
 horrible tragedies. Several of my acquaintances have literally been 
 cut to pieces by the infuriated avengers of blood, and in some in- 
 stances those poor victims were not implicated in the murder, and 
 had only a remote connection with the families involved. Were 
 it not for these confederations there would be no safety in such 
 emergencies, and they do actually furnish an important check to 
 the murderous designs of " avengers." 
 
 I once inquired of a guide if he were not afraid to go into a 
 certain neighborhood w^iere a murder had been committed by one 
 of his confederation. " Oh no," he replied ; " our 'aileh can num- 
 ber twelve hundred guns, and our enemies dare not touch me ; and, 
 besides, the matter is to be made up by our paying a ransom." 
 That is the ordinary mode of settling those sanguinary affairs.
 
 CITIES OF REFUGE.— COMPACTS AND ALLIANCES. 211 
 
 Such compacts, with all their consequences, are extra-judicial, 
 are ignored by the law of the land, and opposed to it. Their act- 
 ual object seems to be to render the execution of the law impos- 
 sible. But as in the Hebrew community in the time of Moses, 
 so here, the custom of blood revenge is too deeply rooted to 
 be under the control of the feudal lords of the land ; indeed, they 
 themselves and their families are bound by it in its sternest de- 
 mands. It is plain that Moses, clothed with all the influence and 
 power of an inspired law -giver, could not eradicate this dreadful 
 custom, and was commissioned to mitigate its horrors by estab- 
 lishing cities of refuge, under certain humane regulations, which 
 are fully detailed in Numbers and Deuteronomy.' In process of 
 time other places besides those six cities of refuge acquired the 
 character of sanctuaries, to which persons could flee ; and they 
 were established, sanctioned, and sustained by necessity. 
 
 But we must remember that both law and custom have abo- 
 lished all sanctuaries. There is now neither city nor shrine whose 
 sanctity affords a refuge to one fleeing for his life, and yet the law 
 of retaliation remains, and is executed with energy by the non- 
 Christian tribes, who are in the majority. And those compacts, 
 offensive and defensive, are intended to answer the same purpose 
 that the ancient sanctuaries and cities of refuge did, and they do 
 it. When a man fleeing for life arrives amongst his allies, he is 
 safe, so far as their utmost power to defend him can go, and they 
 are to pass him on to more distant retreats if necessary. For this 
 purpose those compacts and family alliances are extended all over 
 the land, from Dan to Beersheba, and thither the refugees are 
 sent with the utmost despatch and secrecy. 
 
 Old Emir Beshir succeeded, after a few terrible examples, in 
 putting an end to the custom of blood revenge on Lebanon. But 
 many a Druse wove his smothered vengeance into his unshaven 
 beard, and waited his opportunity during the long reign of that 
 energetic prince. And this is the reason why his downfall, in 
 1840, by the action of the Allied Powers, was followed by so many 
 shocking tragedies. Long outstanding accounts were immediatel}' 
 referred to a bloody arbitration and settled in death. 
 ' Nunilj. XXXV.; Dcut. xix.
 
 212 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The introduction of a higher and more perfect development of 
 Christianity amongst Oriental sects has to encounter and overcome 
 many other obstacles from customs adverse to its nature, which are 
 at least as ancient as history. They have stiffened by old age into 
 elements of unyielding resistance ; and yet the reception of the 
 Gospel must abolish or greatly modify even those which have 
 struck their roots down to the very heart of society. 
 
 In addition to those confederations devised for external pro- 
 tection, there is the system of matrimonial alliances which pre- 
 vails amongst all non-Christian sects in this country. There are 
 certain family circles, called mejawise, within which alone such alli- 
 ances are permitted. They mutually give and take, and outside 
 of those they must neither marry nor give in marriage. Treaty 
 stipulations, such as Hamor and Shechem wished to establish be- 
 tween their people and the family of Jacob, are still considered 
 matters of importance ; and long negotiations are often necessary 
 before the difficult and delicate compact can be accomplished. 
 The readiness with which the people of Shechem consented to the 
 hard condition imposed by the treacherous sons of Israel proves 
 that their alliance was considered an honor and a benefit.' 
 
 There are also one-sided mejawise, in which, from necessity, a 
 family consents to take, in order to get wives for their sons, but 
 refuses to give, from an aristocratic feeling of superiority. Many 
 of those matrimonial circles are extremely narrow, and seem to 
 have for their main object the preservation of property within the 
 immediate family. The same purpose lay at the bottom of many 
 Mosaic institutions, or original customs vvhich he sanctioned. But 
 it now acts badly, tends directly to deterioration of the race, and 
 ends in insanity and extinction. I have known instances where 
 there was not a single disposable bride within the entire circle of 
 mejawise. This often leads to murder between contending candi- 
 dates for a wife, oftener still to the marriage of mere children to 
 very old men. The difficulty is sometimes got over by purchasing 
 Georgian girls in the Constantinople market. The Gospel must, 
 of course, abolish that traffic ; but at the same time it will open 
 the way for marriages on better principles. 
 
 ' Gen. xxxiv. 8-12.
 
 MATRIMONIAL NEGOTIATIONS.— FICTITIOUS RELATIONSHIPS. 213 
 
 It will also abolish the very ancient system of marrying only 
 relations. This custom prevailed in the family of Abraham even 
 before he left Mesopotamia ; and the reason assigned by Laban for 
 o-ivino- his daughter to Jacob — because he was a relative — is still 
 held to be binding. If there are two claimants for the same bride, 
 and one is a relation, that is admitted to be a valid plea in his 
 favor. But this also is attended with all the objections already 
 mentioned, and causes many unnatural and compulsory marriages, 
 with their subsequent bad consequences. 
 
 The Gospel will, likewise, bring about an entire change in the 
 mode of conducting matrimonial negotiations. They have always 
 been managed in these countries by others than those most inte- 
 rested in the result. The parents— or the elder brother, if there 
 are no parents— make the bargain, and the poor bride has nothing 
 to do but to submit. Her preferences and dislikes are treated with 
 utter disregard, and I have known fatal catastrophes to arise from 
 that cause. Under the ameliorating agency of the Gospel, the ma- 
 terial veil of Oriental seclusion will give place to the veil of genuine 
 modesty and self-respect, for which that has been in all ages but a 
 miserable compensation. True religion will educate and elevate 
 the females, and introduce them into society, where they will have 
 opportunities to become acquainted with those who seek them in 
 marriage ; and they will not be married off while mere children to 
 those they do not know, or, knowing, dislike. 
 
 The Gospel will also greatly narrow the list of prohibited de- 
 grees of relationship. That established by Moses was certainly 
 comprehensive enough; but ecclesiastical legislation in the East 
 has added to it, and introduced the fictitious relation.ships of god- 
 parents and foster-brothers, and the like. In practice, these rules 
 are found to be so intolerable that the clergy have been obliged 
 to exercise largely the power of dispensation ; but that opens a 
 wide door to intrigue and bribery. Half tlu- quarrels between 
 priest and people grow out of the manner in which this tlis[)ensing 
 power is exercised in matrimonial affairs. 
 
 Certainly Christianity knows nothing about matters in them- 
 selves unlawful, but which may be matle just and right by paying 
 a few piastres to a priest. That whole system, with all its api)end- 
 P
 
 214 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ao-es, will be abolished, and the priestly revenue derived therefrom 
 be dried up. Such changes in social habits and domestic institu- 
 tions, to be brought about safely, must begin from within and de- 
 velop gradually, and not be forced upon society by foreign influ- 
 ence acting from without ; and the Christian reformer should be 
 contented to wait for this gradual development. 
 
 The present system of betrothal is much the same, I suppose, 
 as it was in ancient Bible days? 
 
 It is a sort of half marriage, accompanied with religious cere- 
 monies, and the setthng of the nature and amount of dower which 
 the bridegroom is to give — a custom equally ancient. This, too, 
 in its present form and essence, is destined to give way before the 
 advancement of a higher Christianity, or at least to be so modified 
 as to make marriage a less commercial transaction, in which the 
 affections of the parties have no concern. As a part of that sys- 
 tem by which relatives dispose of the hand and heart of a poor 
 victim long before she is old enough to have any notions of her 
 own, it needs to be greatly modified. 
 
 Neb'a Sunnin, September 2d. 
 
 You are early this morning; it is still quite dark. 
 
 Not so early as you think; our camping-ground lies in the deep 
 shadow of Sunnin, and the sun will be two hours up before his 
 rays strike our tent. But early rising is indispensable on such a 
 journey. Breakfast will soon be ready, and then the tents must 
 be struck, and everything strapped tight and safe, to insure against 
 the possible accidents or adventures which may befall the mules 
 while climbing up and down these mountains. 
 
 To what were we indebted for the noise and confusion during 
 the night? I was startled out of a profound sleep by the report 
 of a gun close to my head. My first thought was that we were 
 attacked by robbers ; but as you took the affair quite philosophi- 
 cally, I did the same, and, burying myself beneath these ponderous 
 quilts, soon forgot all about the disturbance. 
 
 The explanation is simple enough. After the moon had set, 
 leaving us in the dark, something frightened the horses, and Yusuf, 
 roused out of sleep, declared he saw a large wahsh creeping up to- 
 wards them. Seizing his gun he blazed away at it, without reflect-
 
 NOCTURNAL INCIDENT.— WOLVES AND BEARS. 215 
 
 ing that the flash and the roar would startle the horses. They, 
 of course, pulled up the stakes to which they were tethered, and 
 plunged about amongst the rocks. The mules did the same, and 
 a general stampede followed. After much shouting the panic 
 subsided, the animals were caught and re-tethered, and, muttering 
 curses upon Yusuf, his gun, and his wild beast, the muleteers were 
 soon fast asleep, covered over head and ears in their 'abas. 
 
 The danger, however, was not from robbers, but one of the 
 mules got entangled in the tent ropes, and threatened to drag the 
 whole tabernacle away in its fright, and that proceeding is no tri- 
 fling accident, as I have experienced more than once. But it is 
 time to mount and march. We must take our lunch with us, for 
 we will find no khans along the road as we did yesterday. The 
 tents will be pitched in a field above the Natural Bridge, and near 
 the canal that comes from Neb'a el Leben. 
 
 Are bears and wolves still found in these mountains.'' 
 
 Wolves are not uncommon, especially in the wildest and least 
 frequented regions. Bears, however, are extremely rare. I have 
 never seen one during all my rambles, though others of my ac- 
 quaintances have on these very mountains, but they could not get 
 near enough to shoot them. 
 
 Many years ago I encamped at this same Neb'a Siinnin, one 
 clear, calm evening in the month of August. After dinner my com- 
 panion, but recently arrived from America, resolved, in spite of my 
 protestations and warnings, to climb to the top of Sunnin to see 
 the moon rise over Anti-Lebanon. The whole western side of this 
 mountain was in deep shadow, and I saw my friend disappear in 
 the darkness with considerable solicitude. Directing one of the 
 muleteers to follow in the line of his adventurous ascent, I set 
 about collecting thorn bushes and brushwood to make a bonfire at 
 the proper time to guide him back to the tent. In about an hour 
 I was startled by the sound of a deep, long-drawn Imwl, a little 
 north of the ravine by which my friend intended to gain the sum- 
 mit. That was soon followed by another, still farther north, and 
 that again by a third, in the same direction, until the whole 
 mountain-side resounded with <)niinf)us howls. 
 
 The muleteers said they were bears, but I was sufficiently fa-
 
 2i6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 miliar with the howl of the wolf to recognize perfectly what they 
 were. Lighting the bonfire, I sent one of the men to go as far as 
 he could in the dark and fire off his gun, from time to time, as a 
 signal to my companion ; his courage carried him but a short dis- 
 tance from the camp, and soon both he and the other man re- 
 turned, declaring that they dared not remain out in the dark. To 
 make the story short, the rash adventurer got back to the tent 
 about midnight, but thoroughly tired out. Far from reaching the 
 summit, he had been drawn into the centre of the mountain, along 
 a rough, water-worn channel, until, after unavailing efforts to get on 
 and up, he found himself at the foot of a perpendicular cliff, which 
 could not be scaled, and was obliged to return. 
 
 Is the ascent, then, so impracticable? 
 
 By daylight it is not ; but in the darkness it is folly to attempt 
 it ; and at any time it would task the endurance of most persons 
 to accomplish the ascent and return in the afternoon. I made my 
 first attempt more than forty years ago. Our camp, on that oc- 
 casion, was near the southern base of the ridge, and it took two 
 hours' steady riding from it to reach the first snow. There we left 
 our horses, and set out on foot. The climb was fatiguing, but at 
 the end of an hour and a half we stood upon the topmost pinnacle 
 of the mountain. Many have been the vicissitudes of fortune, 
 and the changes which civil wars and revolutions have brought 
 upon this land from that day to this, and yet the outlook from 
 the summit of Sunnin, eight thousand six hundred feet above the 
 blue Mediterranean, remains essentially the same. 
 
 With my glass I could discern the oak -clad sides of Mount 
 Tabor in the south, the desert of Arabia in the east, and the faint 
 outline of Cyprus, a hundred miles away, over the sea, westward ; 
 and to the north the Lebanon range extending to the highest 
 point of the mountain above the Cedars. On the left hand Her- 
 mon and Anti-Lebanon, the long plain of Coelesyria, with the ruins 
 of Ba'albek and the meandering Litany ; on the right. Tyre and 
 Sidon, the rock-bound coast, the villages on the mountains, and the 
 wide-spreading plain, while the city of Beirut lay gleaming in the 
 sun almost at our very feet. And what shall be said of the sea, 
 stretching from north to south, and westward to the sky?
 
 DESCENT OF LEBANON.— SIROCCO.— DRUSE MULETEERS. 217 
 
 The descent over the snow to where we had left our horses was 
 accompHshed in less than half the time it had taken to reach the 
 summit. There our cook awaited us with some lemonade, which 
 he had prepared by boiling the snow, and then cooling the water 
 thus obtained with pieces of frozen snow, cold as ice could have 
 made it. The lemonade was most refreshing, for a hot sirocco 
 wind had set in, and we were almost suffocated. 
 
 Walking on the snow, and surrounded with snow-banks, it is 
 more natural to suppose that you suffered from the cold, instead 
 of being oppressed by the heat. 
 
 The sirocco passes over high mountains, even when buried in 
 snow, without losing its peculiar character ; apparently absorbing 
 no moisture, nor having its temperature essentially lowered. The 
 thermometer stood at loo'^, and we were glad to avail ourselves of 
 the friendly refuge from the heat afforded by " the shadow of a 
 great rock." There w^e remained until the approach of evening 
 admonished us to seek a more desirable place to spend the night. 
 Descending round the south-east shoulder of Sunnin, we followed 
 a path made by the mountaineers, who carry frozen snow at that 
 season to the villages and cities below. 
 
 For miles the path ran along the very edge of shelving declivi- 
 ties, which appeared to sink far away to the level of the Buka'a, 
 and our muleteers amused themselves and us by rolling large 
 stones down the mountain-side, which, with giant leaps and rum- 
 bling, crashing roar, went thundering to the bottom. As the sha- 
 dows of evening lengthened, and the moon rose over the dark ram- 
 parts of Anti-Lebanon, those sturdy Druse muleteers unsheathed 
 their short, broad swords, fired ofT their guns, joined hands, and, 
 marching on before us, began to sing their familiar war-song. They 
 sung in chorus, some of them an octave below, some an octave 
 above the rest, and at times one would lead and all the others 
 respond with a heartiness that made the welkin ring, while their 
 loud, harsh voices echoed from cliff to cliff, and were lost in tht 
 labyrinths of the deep ravines below. 
 
 At length their warlike demonstrations, their vocal music, and 
 their mimic march subsided ; a dreamy silence came over us, and 
 thus we continued the descent, hour after hour, searching for wa-
 
 21 8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ter, near which we might encamp for the night, but not a drop 
 was to be found in that apparently endless ravine. Finally, about 
 midnight, we reached a village on the edge of the Buka'a, called 
 Shemustar, where we were able to obtain water for ourselves, our 
 horses, and our teapot ; and there we encamped, and slept as only 
 weary travellers can sleep after such prolonged fatigue. 
 
 Our present position is near the border-line between the district 
 of el Metn and the far more celebrated one of el Kesrawan, which 
 lies north of this profound gorge of the Dog River. And now I 
 advise you to dismount and walk, as any one either merciful to his 
 beast or careful of his own neck will do, when about to descend 
 into such a wady, at least fifteen hundred feet deep. 
 
 This succession of zigzags, windings, and turnings, down broken 
 rock-cut steps and over smooth split -up ledges, is, indeed, inde- 
 scribable, but I have no longer any criterion by which to decide 
 what is or what is not a practicable road on these mountains. 
 
 We have, in fact, taken a wrong path, which has led to a mill 
 at the bottom of this fathomless wady of Biskinta. But we need 
 not regret the mistake, as it has given you an opportunity to see 
 what these horses, mules, and mountain donkeys can accomplish, 
 even when they are heavily loaded. 
 
 I have been watching some of them bringing grain to the mill. 
 One man in front steadied the sagacious beast by holding hard 
 against its head, while another, with the tail in both hands, acted 
 as a drag behind, and thus all three came sliding down together. 
 After lunch I should like to examine the primitive machinery of 
 that flour-mill driven by this noisy mountain stream. 
 
 Let us now enter the mill. The entire machinery, you perceive, 
 is extremely simple. The upper millstone is of light, porous lava, 
 about five inches thick, and four feet in diameter, driven round, 
 horizontally, over the lower stone, by a water-wheel turning the 
 same way, the shaft of which penetrates the centre of both the 
 millstones, and is firmly fitted into the upper one. A wedge-shaped 
 box is suspended above a hole near the middle of the upper stone, 
 and from it the wheat descends, in a dribbling stream, through the 
 hole upon the lower millstone. The flour is thrown out from an 
 aperture on the side of a narrow rim made of hard mortar around
 
 BAKING BREAD IN THE TANNUR. 219 
 
 the lower stone, which also prevents it from being scattered hither 
 and thither in the process of grinding. That man collects the 
 flour, from time to time, with a bit of lath, and pushes it into a 
 sack conveniently suspended for its reception. There is no machi- 
 nery for bolting, but the bran is separated from the flour by a sieve 
 whenever there is need for a batch of bread. Of course there are 
 much larger mills than this, having more than one set of mill- 
 stones, driven with greater water-power, and producing far larger 
 results; but the method followed is essentially the same in all 
 these mountain mills, as well as in those upon the plain. 
 
 Yusuf, I see, has purchased a large quantity of that wonderfully 
 thin and tough bread, which so much resembles sheets of brown 
 paper cut round. Having watched the process of grinding flour, I 
 should like to be shown how bread is made from it. 
 
 He says the loaves are fresh baked, and that the oven is close 
 by. I hear the pat, pat, patting of the women around the tannur 
 of this small hamlet connected with the mill. There we will find 
 a merry group busy in achieving a baking. 
 
 The tannur, as you see, is merely a hole in the ground, about 
 three feet deep and two feet in diameter, lined with cement and 
 smoothly polished. It is filled wnth thorn bushes, dry grass, and 
 weeds when it is to be heated, or with any kind of fuel that will 
 make a sudden and fierce blaze ; and the heat is kept up by throw- 
 ing in a fresh supply, as occasion requires. Three women are neces- 
 sary to carry on the operation of baking to advantage. One to roll 
 or pat out the dough into comparatively thin loaves ; another to 
 manipulate each loaf, tossing it, from hand to hand, and over her 
 arms, so as to expand regularly when thrown upon a round cushion 
 made for the purpose ; and the third woman to clap the loaf on the 
 cushion upon the heated interior side of the tannur, and tear off 
 the one which is sufficiently baked. A shed is generally built over 
 the tannur, or it is excavated in the floor of a small room, open, in 
 front, by which it is made easy of access, and sufficiently protected 
 from the rain and the snow during the winter. 
 
 The loaves are not as thick as ordinary pasteboard, and arc 
 from one foot to a foot and a half in diameter. The bread is called 
 markuk, that is, "rolled," or made thin; and when the tannur is
 
 220 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 quite hot two loaves can be thus baked "in a minute," and it is 
 no unusual thing to see a pile of one hundred and fifty of these thin 
 loaves by the side of the women baking at the tannur. Fresh, hot, 
 and crisp, this bread is excellent eating, but in two or three days 
 it becomes as tough and as hard as leather. 
 
 It is evident that these women at the tannur do not ahvays use 
 leaven, nor do they wait until the dough has had time to rise. 
 
 Not when they are in haste ; neither did most of the women 
 mentioned in the Bible. Instead of that, however, they mingle 
 with the dough a large amount of salt. And though it appears to 
 us an inferior bread, yet it is the very staff of life to those hale and 
 hearty sons of the mountains. Their morning, noon, and evening 
 meal is largely made on bread, and often there is very little else. 
 The peasant whose bins are stored with wheat sufficient for the 
 wants of his family during the winter feels but little concern about 
 other sources of supply until the coming harvest. 
 
 There is a kind of oven shaped like a hollow cone, having a hole 
 in the top, into which is cast the same sort of fuel as that used 
 in the tannur. The ashes are swept away through a small door on 
 one side when the smooth pebbles with which the bottom of the 
 oven is paved are thoroughly heated, and the bread is laid upon 
 them. I never saw that kind of oven used except by some pea- 
 sants on the plain of Acre. Of course there are other modes of 
 making and baking, and in the cities the public ovens can bake 
 bread and prepared meats in large quantities, and in any form 
 desired by the natives or foreigners. The making and baking of 
 bread is often referred to in the Bible, and the Hebrew word for 
 oven is the same as the Arabic " tannur," and probably signifies 
 substantially the same thing. 
 
 Such ovens, however, would not be convenient for a nation con- 
 stantly moving from place to place, as were the Hebrews in the 
 Wilderness of the Wanderings. 
 
 They had portable ovens, and possibly made use of the saj, 
 which is of iron, in shape like a large bowl, and of various sizes. 
 Placed over burning embers, like a cover to a dish, it is quickly 
 heated, and the dough spread on the upper, or convex, side is soon 
 baked. The saj is pre-eminently the oven of the Bedawin, though
 
 BAKING UPON THE SAJ.— VULTURES AND EAGLES. 221 
 
 they also bake by the simplest of all methods, under hot embers, 
 and the bread thus made is savory, especially to the tired and the 
 hungry. The loaf baked upon the saj is thicker than markuk, 
 and laid on in strips, not more than four inches broad and eight 
 long. I have eaten that bread hot from the saj on the banks of 
 the Jordan, near its entrance into the Dead Sea, and found it quite 
 palatable under the circumstances. 
 
 It is time to find the way up and out of this profound Wady 
 Biskinta, and resume our ride to the Natural Bridge. 
 
 Passing through that solitary forest above the flour -mill, we 
 have disturbed a number of eagles; what has attracted them to 
 the cliffs in this tremendous ravine? 
 
 They are griffin vultures, and the explanation of their presence 
 is found in the proverb quoted by our Lord : " Wheresoever the 
 carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together." ' In his pro- 
 phetic discourse about the destruction of Jerusalem he probably 
 had in mind the vultures, which were commonly called eagles, just 
 as these flying above our heads are, by the natives of this country. 
 Whether this parable be interpreted figuratively to signify the 
 eagle-headed standards of the Roman legions, or literally the im- 
 plied doom of the Holy City, was terribly significant. Jerusalem 
 was then rapidly becoming a moral carcass, and the eagles were 
 already on the wing, and erelong they did gather together at its 
 awful destruction. Eagles are found on Lebanon and throughout 
 this country, and the allusions to them and to their habits in the 
 Bible are the results of actual observation, and exceedingly accurate. 
 We take no note of time as we ride along gazing upon scenery 
 too grand for description. For a considerable distance we have 
 had, on our left, a very wilderness of great, jagged pinnacles, hav- 
 ing a strange resemblance to fluted columns and the many-shaped 
 turrets of Gotiiic architecture. 
 
 The rock, which the architects of Nature have fashioned so fan- 
 tastically, is an intensely hard limestone, which, when struck, gives 
 out a clear, metallic ring quite unexpected. There is a far more 
 remarkable wilderness of similar rocks on the other side of the 
 valley of the northern branch of Nahr el Kelb. 
 
 ' Matt. xxiv. 23.
 
 222 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 One is continually meeting with surprises on these gigantic 
 mountains. For the last half-hour I have noticed with astonish- 
 ment that the entire surface over which we have been riding is 
 literally covered vvath casts of various kinds of shells. 
 
 No intelligent traveller can wander about over Lebanon with- 
 out having his attention frequently attracted to such countless 
 fossils. Those most abundant in this neighborhood are varieties 
 of cardium, venus, area, mactra, trigona, and strombus. They are, 
 however, mere casts, the shell having disappeared entirely from 
 every specimen. There are localities in Lebanon where the petri- 
 fied shell remains quite perfect. That is especially true in regard 
 to large deposits of ostrse, exogyra, ammonites, echinus, turritella, 
 nerinea, hippurites, and star -fish. There are, also, two or three 
 localities of fossil fish : one near the convent of St. George, above 
 the bay of Juneh; and another at a village called Hakil, on the 
 mountains, three hours north-east of Jebeil. 
 
 What is most astonishing is, not the existence of such fossils, 
 but the inconceivable quantity of them. It is no exaggeration, 
 but the simple fact, to say that the road and the entire face of 
 the country, in many places, are covered with them. Dr. Ander- 
 son gave special attention to the fossils of Lebanon ; and in the 
 appendix to the official report of the United States Expedition to 
 the Dead Sea will be found a very interesting description of the 
 fossils of Syria, illustrated by thirty-two plates, in which more than 
 two hundred and fifty specimens have been accurately delineated. 
 Many of the original specimens in those plates once belonged to 
 me, and I recognize in them the familiar features of old friends. 
 
 Instead of going direct to the tents, we have been riding for 
 nearly an hour through an almost pathless wilderness of ragged 
 rocks and across stony fields to visit the remains of two ancient 
 temples near the ruins of that old tower now called Kul'at el 
 Fukra, the castle of the water-shed. 
 
 One is surprised and astonished to find such remains of an- 
 tiquity in a bleak mountain solitude like this. Where were the 
 people that required such temples for their worship ? 
 
 Farther south are the shapeless remains of the nameless town, 
 but who its inhabitants were is not known with any certainty.
 
 CASTS OF FOSSIL-SHELLS OX LEBANON. 223 
 
 CASTS OF FOSSIL-SHEM-S COLLECTED ON LEHANON
 
 224 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 This massive square tower stands on the water-shed of this re- 
 gion, and commands a fine view southwards down Wady es Salib. 
 It was built of large stones, without mortar — some of them six feet 
 long. The entrance faced the east, and over it is a portion of a 
 Greek inscription, nearly illegible, but which Dr. Robinson says 
 contains " the name of the Emperor Tiberius Claudius." There 
 is a staircase, ending now at the upper story, w^iich probably led 
 to the top of the tower. The whole structure, with its interior 
 chambers, is in a ruinous condition. It may have been a sepulchral 
 monument, and never intended for purposes of defence. 
 
 Let us walk through these fields of Indian corn to the ruins of 
 the principal temple, in the midst of that labyrinth of rocks, five 
 minutes south of the tower. 
 
 No more appropriate site could have been chosen for a fortress, 
 but a temple is singularly out of place here. The entire edifice 
 must have presented a very picturesque appearance, with its rock- 
 hewn court and portico of many columns, facing eastwards towards 
 the Lebanon and the rising sun. 
 
 This labyrinth of limestone rocks and the temple in the midst 
 are graphically described by Dr. Robinson : 
 
 " The singularity is," he says, " that the strata are perpendicu- 
 lar, and have been worn away by time and weather, so as to pre- 
 sent various forms of columns, needles, blocks, and ridges, separated 
 by narrow clefts, chasms, passages, little chambers, and recesses ; 
 the whole rising up some twenty or thirty feet or more, and all 
 exceedingly wild and rugged. On the eastern side the rocks were 
 cut away for a space large enough for the temple and a portion 
 of its court. The walls of rock thus formed served, towards the 
 front, as sides of the court ; but the remaining part of the court, 
 farther east, was built out with walls of a yellowish-colored lime- 
 stone, with an entrance in front by a portico of many columns, all 
 of the same kind of stone. Indeed, the whole front of the court 
 seems to have been highly ornamented. The body of the temple 
 stood farther back, amongst the rocks, and on a terrace higher than 
 the court. It was built of the same yellowish limestone. The 
 stones are large, and were laid up with cement. The noble portico 
 on the eastern front was composed of either four or six large col-
 
 RUINED TEMPLE NEAR KUL'AT EL FUKRA. 225 
 
 umn5 of rose-colored limestone three feet nine inches in diameter, 
 with Corinthian capitals. From long exposure these columns now 
 appear blue on the outside. The temple we judged to have been 
 
 RUINIiU TEMl'LL NEAR KULAT LL IIKKA. 
 
 not less than one hundred feet long by fifty feet broad. But so 
 entire is the prostration and confusion that accuracy is out of the 
 question."' A statement which we can fully confirm. 
 
 In the field east of the temple are the remains of a plain but 
 massive enclosure, constructed of large blocks of hewn stone, pro- 
 bably a tomb. Some of the stones are over twelve feet long and 
 three feet thick, but there are no inscriptions nor any architectural 
 ornamentation upon them. Traces of foundations are also to be 
 seen to the south and north, and a few rock-cut tombs. 
 
 A short distance below this temple the road from the plain near 
 the mouth of the Dog River passes along to the Natural Bridge, 
 and we shall follcjw it to our tents. 
 
 Looking down this wady and over the mountains between us 
 
 ' Rob. Res. vol. iii. py>. 612, 613.
 
 226 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and the sea, that road must be extremely rugged and wild, and 
 in many places remarkably picturesque. 
 
 It is only by penetrating into these mountains along such un- 
 frequented paths, descending into profound depths, and rising to 
 sublime heights, that any adequate idea of what Lebanon really is 
 can be obtained. Following the northern bank of the river to the 
 weir, the path winds through the pines, and zigzags up the pre- 
 cipitous side of that rocky chasm of the Dog River for half an 
 hour. Reaching the summit of the ridge, the ascent is gradual but 
 steady, along a worn and stony road, for about two hours to the 
 village of 'Ajeltun. In many places the view to the north and 
 south, and over the sea westward, is extensive and magnificent. 
 
 For miles north-east of 'Ajeltun the scenery is very peculiar and 
 striking. The path passes through the midst of a region of lime- 
 stone rock of fantastic shapes and sizes, resembling houses, castles, 
 fortresses, temples, columns, buttresses, and towers, round, square, 
 and tapering to a needle-point. Some of those natural columns 
 are over forty feet high, and are surmounted by large, flat slabs of 
 rock, looking, at a distance, like gigantic centre -tables. Issuing 
 from that labyrinth near the village of Kulei'at, the road descends 
 steeply for an hour down Wady es Salib to the banks of the north- 
 ern branch of the Dog River. The water in that gorge dries up 
 in the autumn, for the stream from the fountains of Nahr el Leben 
 and Nahr el 'Asal is entirely absorbed by irrigation. 
 
 The valley of Nahr es Salib, especially the bed of the stream, 
 is a wild chaos of enormous rocks which have been brought down 
 by the winter floods, or have fallen from the cliffs on either side of 
 the wady. Those cliffs rise in many places almost perpendicularly 
 for twelve and fifteen hundred feet, and the ascent, where it is pos- 
 sible, is not only difficult but actually dangerous. The distance 
 from 'Ajeltun to the Natural Bridge is about four and a half hours 
 to an unencumbered rider, but it took our party, on one occasion, 
 seven hours, owing to the difficulty of descending and ascending 
 the profound gorge of Nahr es Salib. An easier but much longer 
 road to the Natural Bridge leads from Kulei'at, through a region of 
 fantastic, castellated rocks, around the northern side of the gorge, 
 and by the village of Fureiya, in the valley below Neb'a el 'Asal.
 
 CANAL IRRIGATION.— SOWING IN AUTUMN.— NEIi'A EL LEBEN. 227 
 
 From where does this canal, along which we have been riding, 
 derive its abundant supply of water, and of what special service is 
 it in this bleak and rocky region? 
 
 It comes from Neb'a el Leben. and is used entirely for irriga- 
 tion. (3n these lofty declivities of Lebanon, which we are now 
 traversing, the peasants sow their wheat and barley in August and 
 September, that the seed may take firm root before the fields get 
 buried under deep snow, which often begins to fall in October, and 
 remains till the following April. As there rarely is sufficient rain 
 in the autumn to soften the soil, that early sowing can only be 
 accomplished by flooding the ground with water from such canals. 
 When sufficiently saturated, a man, with the wheat in a basket, 
 scatters the seed over the surface, while another starts his plough, 
 drawn by the leanest of lean kine, and mixes up the earth, wheat, 
 and stones in a very miscellaneous manner. 
 
 The only result one would expect from this soil, treated in that 
 fashion, would be an abundant harvest of stones. 
 
 There are the tents pitched on the south side of the canal, and 
 commanding a magnificent view down Wady el Leben, and over the 
 mountains far away northwards. The Natural Bridge is not five 
 minutes distant from the tent door. 
 
 September 2d. Evening. 
 
 I have been down to the Natural Bridge, and have followed the 
 foaming, dashing stream up the wild chasm to its source. It bursts 
 out amongst the rocks under the cliffs of Jebel Sunnin, and is as 
 clear and cold as ice. Leben, I suppose, suggests to the Arab mind 
 the purest and most refreshing beverage with which the delicious 
 water of that great fountain can be compared. 
 
 Neb'a el Leben, fountain of milk, and Neb'a el 'Asal, fountain of 
 honey, farther north, in a figurative sense abundantly confirm the 
 Scripture, and emphatically illustrate the promise of the Lortl to 
 the Hebrews concerning this country: "I will bring you up out of 
 the affliction of Lgypt unto a land flowing with milk and honey" 
 — "a land of fountains that spring out of the hills."' 
 
 One of the most impressive views of that astonishing bridge is 
 obtained from beneath the gigantic span of the rocky arch, j-'roni 
 
 ' Exod. iii. 17 ; Dcut. viii. 7.
 
 228 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 JISR EL HAJR — THE NATURAL BRIDGE. 
 
 there the wild gorge of the river below the bridge, and that of the 
 stream from Neb'a el 'Asal on the north-east, and beyond them the 
 cliffs of the distant mountains of the Kesrawan, are seen at once, 
 as if looking through the chaotic ruins of a mountain tunnel. 
 
 I have visited this wild, mountainous, and rocky region several 
 times during the past forty years, and with ever-increasing inter- 
 est. The height of Jisr el Hajr, or the stone bridge, measuring on 
 the northern side, is one hundred and fifty feet above the bed of
 
 THE NATURAL BRIDGE.— EL KESRAWAN.— FHE >L\RONITES. 229 
 
 the stream ; on the southern side it is about half that height. The 
 span is over a hundred and sixty feet, and the curve is so regular 
 and clean cut that one can scarcely believe that it is entirely natu- 
 ral. The thickness of the rock above the arch is thirty feet ; and 
 the breadth on top, where the road passes over it, from ninety to 
 one hundred and fifty feet. There is an excavated amphitheatre 
 south of the bridge, about three hundred feet in diameter, and 
 enclosed by a perpendicular wall of limestone rock about one hun- 
 dred feet high. In those cliffs, and in the sides of the chasm, 
 down which the stream from Neb'a el Leben rushes, flocks of wild 
 pigeons and hundreds of field-sparrows have built their nests, and 
 thither they gather in the evening in merry conclave. 
 
 The region west of our present position, extending from the 
 Dog River on the south, to Nahr Ibrahim, the classic Adonis, on 
 the north, is called el Kesrawan, the Holy Land of the Maronites. 
 "There the wicked [Druses] cease from troubling; and there the 
 weary [Maronites] be at rest." Though the Maronites are met 
 with in all parts of Syria, no Druses are seen in the Kesrawan, and 
 none are allowed to reside there. From the time of Neibuhr and 
 Volney, at the least, travellers have been made familiar with the 
 Kesrawan, its villages, churches, convents, monks, nuns, priests, bish- 
 ops, and patriarchs. All these proclaim aloud the piety and zeal of 
 the clergy, and, alas ! the ignorance and superstition of the people. 
 
 The Maronites are of Syriac origin, and the earliest notice of 
 them is as schismatic heretics of the Monothelitic sect, settled 
 along the head-waters of the Orontes, in the fifth century. They 
 derive their name, from John Maro, their first bishop and patron 
 saint, who was killed by Justinian. During the fierce persecutions 
 directed against them by the Emperors of Constantinople they re- 
 tired to the inaccessible heights of Lebanon, and there set at defi- 
 ance all the wiles and assaults of their enemies. When the Crusa- 
 ders invaded this country they united with them against the Sara- 
 cens, and in the twelfth century they renounced their heretical 
 dogma of the divine and human nature of Christ having but one 
 will, and became reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 It was during their long rehellion against the Catholic faith that 
 they were generally called Mardaites, from a word which signifies 
 Q
 
 230 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 rebels. Though they have become bigoted Papists, Syriac is even 
 yet their sacred language ; and their ecclesiastics are required to 
 read parts of their liturgy in that language. They are eminently 
 religious, and singularly intolerant and superstitious. Every ham- 
 let has its church, and many a conspicuous mountain summit is 
 crowned with a convent for monks or nuns, or for both ; and it is 
 said that at least one-third of the land in the Kesrawan belongs 
 to the convents and other ecclesiastical institutions. 
 
 Their parish priests are generally selected by the people from 
 amongst themselves, and may be married before being ordained. 
 If the wife of the priest dies he cannot marry a second, and must 
 remain a widower for the rest of his life. Like the priests, the 
 bishops are all natives of the country, and they elect the patriarch, 
 who is confirmed by the Pope. The Maronite Patriarch is, in fact, 
 the Pope of Lebanon. He is the spiritual head of the sect, and 
 exercises great authority over its temporal affairs. His office is 
 one of dignity and power; and he usually resides, in ecclesiastical 
 state, at the celebrated convent of Kanobin, in the wild gorge of 
 the sacred river el Kadisha, below the Cedars. 
 
 The Maronites, the most numerous body of Christians in el 
 Kesrawan, amount to over one hundred thousand. The people are 
 tillers of the soil, cultivators of silk, and manufacturers and traders 
 in a small way; but generally all are very poor and extremely igno- 
 rant. Education is not encouraged, and liberty of conscience is 
 unknown. Two or three colleges, so called, testify to the value 
 the Pope, the Jesuits, and the Maronites place upon the education 
 of candidates for the Roman Church. The college at Ghuzir and 
 that at "AntLira are in the hands of the Lazarists and Jesuits. The 
 most celebrated, however, is that of the Maronites at 'Ain Warkah. 
 But the entire hierarchy is an omnipresent and stifling religious 
 incubus; and all classes and conditions of the people are devoted 
 to the worship of saints, and especially of the Virgin Mary. 
 
 Have the Maronites on Lebanon no feudal families of sheikhs 
 and emirs, like those of the Druses ? 
 
 The chiefs of the Mardaites, or rebels, have dwindled down to 
 but three families of sheikhs— those of Beit el Khazin, in the Kes- 
 rawan ; of Beit Habeish, farther north ; and of Beit ed Dahdah,
 
 FEUDAL FAMILIES.— MONASTERY BELLS. 2^1 
 
 north of them. Their chronicles are largely made up of domestic 
 quarrels, intrigues, horrible assassinations, and petty wars, and they 
 carry up their genealogy to a fabulous date ; but the earliest notice 
 of those sheikhs goes back no farther than the sixteenth century. 
 They have now greatly declined in wealth and importance ; and, 
 like the emirs of Beit Shehab and el Lema, they are surely and 
 rapidly subsiding into the category of ordinary fellahin. Such 
 feudal families are a curse to any people, and the sooner they are 
 absorbed into the far greater family of the human race the better ; 
 and yet the Maronites glory in their sheikhs, their record, and 
 their mountain retreat of el Kesrawan. 
 
 I can readily believe that these rude and hardy mountaineers, 
 residing in such romantic wilds and almost isolated from the world, 
 have become intensely attached to their secluded valleys and ra- 
 vines, their towering cliffs and rugged mountains, and to the primi- 
 tive simplicity of their native villages and unpretentious homes. 
 
 That is certainly the case. They arc a romantic and pictu- 
 resque people ; and their religion also, such as it is, appears to be 
 omnipresent. One is never out of the sight of a priest, a nun, a 
 monk, or a bishop ; and if not those, then a cross, a church, or a 
 convent. Morning, noon, and at evening the mountains and val- 
 leys resound with the ringing of many-toned bells, and the effect 
 is most impressive and suggestive. During the solemn silence of 
 the night the monastery bell rings out its mighty peal on the 
 ambient air; and immediately, to the right and to the left, from 
 some lofty peak or profound ravine, others chime in with their me- 
 lodious responses, which echo and re-echo along the mountain-sides, 
 and far up the snowy summits of Lebanon ; and then the deep, 
 rich tones cease, and the chorus dies away, and all is still again.
 
 >32 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 VII. 
 THE NATURAL BRIDGE TO THE CEDARS. 
 
 Bird's-eye View of the Kesrawan. — Picturesque Hamlets and Flourishing Villages. — Con- 
 vents Isolated in Winter. — Nahr es Salib. — Flooded Fields and Ploughed-up Roads. — 
 Cascade. — Neb'a el 'Asal. — Wady ShebrCdi. — Volcanic Action and Fields of Trap- 
 rock. — Energy and Industry of the People. — Products of the Soil. — Lebanon Wine. — 
 Zuk Miisbah. — 'Arak. — Sacramental Wine used by Papists and Greeks. — The Juice 
 of the Grape. — The Wine Used at the Last Supper and the Feasts of the Jews. — 
 " Unfermented Wine." — Wine, Ancient and Modern. — The Wine of the Bible. — The 
 Hebrew Debash and Arabic Dibs. — Winter on Lebanon. — Monotonous Life of the 
 Natives. — Mountain Houses. — Miscellaneous Company. — Animals, Smoke, and Fleas. 
 — Smoking and Sleeping. — The Return of Spring. — Biblical Allusions to Manners 
 and Customs. — Ancient and Modern Habitations. — Reminiscences of a Former Tour. 
 — Lost in a Fog. — Magnificent Prospect. — The Lebanon Range. — Descent to 'Afka. 
 — Walnut and Sycamore Trees. — Venus and Adonis. — Goats in the Clefts of the 
 Rock. — A Tremendous Cliff. — Scene from the Bridge. — Mugharat 'Afka. — Source 
 of the Adonis. — Three Cascades. — Temple of Venus. — Syenite Columns. — The Wor- 
 ship of Adonis. — Destruction of the Temple by Constantine. — Retrospective. — The 
 Damsels of Phcenicia. — "Women Weeping for Tammuz." — The Poetry of Milton, 
 and the Vision of Ezekiel. — "Smooth Adonis ran purple to the Sea." — Ancient and 
 Modern 'Afka. — Metawileh. — The Valley of Nahr Ibrahim. — Bridge. — Emir Ibrahim. 
 — Mar Maron. — Burj Fatrah. — Ancient Aqueduct. — Plateau. — Wady el Muneitirah. — 
 Wady el Mugheiyireh. — Eagles and Ravens. — Natural Bridge. — Grotto at el 'Aukurah. 
 — Wine-vats. — El 'Aukurah. — Trap - rock. — Burckhardt. — Native Hospitality. — The 
 Avenger of Blood. — Lofty Plateau. — Arab Encampment. — Transportation of Sheep 
 to Egypt. — Pasture-lands of the Kurds. — Funnel-shaped Pits. — Jebel Jaj. — El Mesh- 
 nakah. — Burr el Haithy. — " Timber of Cedar." — Wady Fedar. — M. Renan's De- 
 scription of the Ruins at el Meshnakah. — Rock-cut Tombs. — "Baal a la tete 
 Rayonee." — Figures Carved in the Rock at el Ghineh. — "The Image of Venus." — 
 Ard 'Akluk. — Hid Treasure. — Inscriptions on the Rocks. — Dr. De Forest. — M. 
 Renan. — The Emperor Adrian. — Tannurin el Foka. — Fog in Autumn. — Fossil Fish. 
 — Hakil. — Duma. — Iron Ore. — Wady Tanndrin. — Ard Tannurin. — Wady ed Duweir. 
 — Wady el Jauzeh. — Jebel en Niiriyeh. — Theoprosopon. — Nahr el Jauzeh. — Kul'at el 
 Museilihah. — Black-mail. — Cedar-grove. — The Emir Beshir and the British Fleet. — 
 Manufacture of Pitch. — Trees Cut Down will often .Sprout Again. — Ruins of a Coiu 
 vent. — Amyun. — El Kurah. — El Hadith. — Wady el Kadisha. — The Holy River. — Dei^
 
 BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE KESRAWAN. 2^^ 
 
 Kanobin. — Maundrell's Visit to Kanohin. — As'ad esh Shidiak'. — Hasrun. — Convers- 
 ing Across the Chasm. — F^xceptional Cultivation. — Gorge of the Kadisha Described 
 by Dr. Robinson. — "The Beauty and the Grandeur of Lebanon." — Bsherreh. — 
 Bridge over the Holy River. — Productiveness of the Soil. — The Cedars of God. — 
 A Sabbath of Rest among the Cedars of Lebanon. — The Cedar pre-eminently the 
 Biblical Tree. — El Arz.— Biblical Allusions to the Cedar. — Cedar Wood. — The Palaces 
 of David and Solomon and the Temple of the Lord. — The Temples of Zerubbabel 
 and Herod and the Graven Images of a God. — Fragments of Cedar among the Ruins 
 of Nineveh. — Cedar not Mentioned in the New Testament. — Juniper. — Pine. — The 
 Thistle and the Cedars of Lebanon. — The Destruction of the Ancient and Modern 
 Cedar. — Sunday-school under the Cedars. — The Cedar-tree of the Bible. — The Lo- 
 cality of the Cedars Described by Dr. Robinson. — Dean .Stanley. — Canon Tristram. — 
 Glacial Moraines. — The present Cedar-grove. — Age of the Cedars. — The Glory of 
 Lebanon.— Four Cedar-trees Intertwined and Growing together. — Dean Stanley's 
 "'Description of Old and Young Trees supporting one another. — Graceful Form and 
 Shape of the Cedar. — Vain Effort to Protect the Young Cedars. — Lebanon could be 
 Covered with Cedars. — Cedars in the Parks and Gardens of Europe. — "Full of 
 Sap." — The Cedar not Used for Building Purposes.— Feast of the Cedars. — Modern 
 Chapel. — Decline of Religious Zeal. 
 
 September 5th. 
 
 Early this morning I again walked up to the source of Nahr 
 el Leben, and watched the great volume of water glide forth noise- 
 lessly from the base of the cliffs of majestic Sunnin towering far 
 above it. Though the stream was soon lost to sight amongst the 
 rocks below, I could hear the roar of its waters as they rushed 
 foaming down the many cascades towards the Natural Bridge. 
 From the lofty heights above the fountain I obtained a bird's-eye 
 view of the Kesrawan, down to the sea-shore, over the summits of 
 those lower ranges of Lebanon which appear so precipitous and 
 rugged from Beirut. That city itself and the Bay of St. George 
 were distinctly visible far away to the south-west. 
 
 It seems scarcely credible that a region so limited in extent, 
 and so broken up with bleak and barren mountains, should never- 
 theless be studded with picturesque hamlets and flourishing vil- 
 lages. They crown many a lofty ridge, and cling to rocky ledges 
 and sloping hill-sides that seem to be quite unapproachable. Some 
 of the convents, built upon isolated pinnacles, are in fact cut off 
 for days and even weeks from all communication with the outer 
 world by the snows of winter; while others, hid away in deep ra- 
 vines, are sometimes nearly overwhelmed by sliding avalanches.
 
 234 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Where are we to encamp this evening ? 
 
 At 'Afka, near the fountain of Nahr Ibrahim, the source of the 
 river Adonis ; and it is time we were in the saddle. After crossing 
 the Natural Bridge, we will ride over the intervening plateau and 
 descend to Neb'a el 'Asal, the fountain of honey, from whence 
 issues the twin stream which unites with that from Neb'a el Leben, 
 and together form Nahr es Salib, the northern branch of the Dog 
 River. It is a short half hour's ride to the north-east ; and, as is 
 usual at this season, I see that the farmers have flooded the fields, 
 to prepare them for sowing their winter wheat. We must pick 
 our way through the spongy soil as best we can, with no little 
 discomfort to the horses and their riders. 
 
 They have actually ploughed up the road through the fields, 
 leaving not a trace of it to guide us on our way. 
 
 That is the custom in many parts of the country, and I have 
 often been misled and perplexed by it. But the difficulty is now 
 over, and we will soon reach the fountain. The stream from 
 Neb'a el Leben, just before it unites with the waters from Neb'a 
 el 'Asal, plunges over that high ledge of rocks west of us into the 
 ravine below in one unbroken cascade. 
 
 The scenery around this Neb'a el 'Asal is desolate and dreary, 
 and there is nothing so grand and picturesque in its immediate 
 neighborhood as at the Natural Bridge — only a volume of water 
 ghding forth between a chaotic mass of volcanic rocks and flowing 
 in various directions over newly-ploughed fields. 
 
 The quantity of water is much greater during the rainy sea- 
 son, but it is always clear and cold. The natives pronounce it 
 the best in these mountains. We will not only make a practical 
 test of its virtues, here at the fountain-head, but also fill our 
 " bottles " with it, for there is no other spring betwen this and 
 'Afka of equal excellence. The road from this place will lead us 
 northward for several miles up Wady Shebruh, a long valley hav- 
 ing the main Lebanon range towering upwards on the east, and 
 a parallel lower, ridge bounding it on the west. 
 
 The greater part of this region, around the head-waters of the 
 Dog River, appears to have been thrown up into its wild, rugged, 
 and "dislocated" condition by volcanic action. The soil of the
 
 PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.— THE WINE OF LEBANON. 235 
 
 fields on both sides of the road is of a very dark color, and seems 
 to be composed altogether of disintegrated trap-rock. 
 
 It appears in many places in amorphous masses several hun- 
 dred feet thick ; but the land is extremely fertile, and produces 
 exuberant crops of wheat and barley. Although the entire region 
 northward to the Cedars is exceedingly mountainous, rocky, and 
 rugged, and cut up by profound chasms and deep valleys, yet 
 every available spot where a few handfuls of earth can be scraped 
 together is carefully cultivated and thoroughly irrigated. The 
 labor required to level down the fields, to build up and repair the^ 
 terrace walls, and to keep open the small canals for irrigation, re- 
 quires a degree of energy and industry amongst the people which 
 is amply rewarded by abundant harvests. Wheat and barle}', In- 
 dian-corn and all the principal cereals raised in this country are 
 grown in the higher regions, and cover the hill-sides and climb the 
 mountain heights. The mulberr}', the vine, the fig and the olive, 
 the walnut, the apple and the pomegranate, and many other fruit- 
 trees nestle in the green valleys, giving beauty and variety to 
 scenery itself unsurpassed by any on the Lebanon. 
 
 I have heard it stated that most of the wine of Lebanon is 
 produced in the Kesrawan. Is much of it made there at present ? 
 
 The quantity is quite limited, although the quality is said to 
 be good by judges of such matters. The best is made at Zuk 
 Musbah ; and the light wines obtained from some convents are 
 especially celebrated. A few of those " self-denying institutions " 
 are provided with the "still and worm" for the distillation of 'arak 
 from the fruit of the vine, a favorite stimulant throughout the 
 land, and some of the inmates arc said to be too fond of that 
 fiery kind of " wine-spirit " for their own good. 
 
 Do the priests or the monks use any substitute for wine in their 
 religious ceremonies during the observance of the Lord's Supi)cr? 
 
 There is not even a tradition in the Papal or Greek Church to 
 countenance such a practice ; on the contrary, both affirm that 
 sacramental wine must be genuine wine. 
 
 Certain modern critics maintain that "the good wine" drank at 
 the wedding in Cana of Galilee, and the "fruit of the vine" used 
 and alluded to by our Lord at the institution of the holy supper,
 
 236 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 was the pure juice of the grape.' Has any such beverage been 
 known in ancient or modern times in this country ? 
 
 The juice of either ripe or unripe grapes is now occasionally 
 used as a refreshing beverage, similar to lemonade, especially on 
 the mountains or in places where lemons are unobtainable. It 
 is reasonable to suppose that such a beverage was both known 
 and used in this land from time immemorial. From the context 
 it is evident that " the good wine " of the miracle at Cana was of 
 an intoxicating nature ; and there is no proof that the " fruit of 
 the vine" used at the Last Supper was not real wine. It is worthy 
 of remark in this connection that the Jews give the same name to 
 the wine which they use during the observance of the Passover, 
 and that their invariable custom has been, and is now, to use such 
 wine at their feasts. Christ says of himself, "The Son of Man is 
 come eating and drinking ; and ye [the Pharisees] say, Behold a 
 gluttonous man, and a winebibber;" if Jesus drank wine on ordi- 
 nary occasions, he would conform to the undeviating custom of 
 the Jews and drink wine at the Passover.^ It is well to remember 
 that there is no mention either in the Old or New Testament of 
 "the juice of the grape" having been used as a substitute for 
 wine, or even as a refreshing beverage. 
 
 This matter of wine — especially " unfermented wine" — has been 
 frequently and earnestly discussed by those living in countries 
 where it does not exist as a beverage ; is there now, or has there 
 ever been, any substance to which such a qualifying designation 
 can be applied in this country ? 
 
 Wine is the fermented juice of the grape ; and, so far as its 
 essential elements are concerned, is substantially the same in all 
 countries. Its color, taste, aroma, and intoxicating properties de- 
 pend upon the quality of the grape and the method of its manu- 
 facture. The juice of the grape, in the process of wine-making, 
 always has, and always will, pass through fermentation into the 
 alcoholic state ; it then becomes wine. No other kind of wine is 
 known in Syria, and, so far as can be ascertained, it never had any 
 actual existence. There is no evidence that there has occurred any 
 important variation in the manufacture, the use, or the effects of 
 ' John ii. 10 ; Matt. xxvi. 29. '■' Luke vii. 34.
 
 THE WINE OF THE BIBLE.— WINTER ON LEBANON. 237 
 
 wine from remote antiquit)', and it is idle to build theories in regard 
 to the existence or the use of " the unfermented juice of the 
 grape" upon mere suppositions which have no basis in fact. 
 
 The common name for wine in the Bible, in Greek, Latin, and 
 English, is almost identical in sound, and equally comprehensive in 
 signification. In Arabic the specific name, " khamr," expresses its 
 nature, because it is fermented ; and the Hebrew word, when not 
 qualified by some explanatory term, has just the same meaning. 
 No doubt the Hebrew and Greek words, translated "wine" in some 
 parts of the Bible, were applied to various preparations of wine 
 mixed with other beverages; there was also "spiced wine," "sweet 
 wine," and "new wine," but the principal ingredient was wine — not 
 unfermented grape-juice, not syrup, not honey; and the effects 
 actually produced, and intended to be produced, were essentially 
 the same as they are in modern times. 
 
 Is the Hebrew " debash," rendered "honey," the Arabic dibs? 
 
 It is a comprehensive term, and was used for both honey of 
 bees and honey of grapes, and in the latter sense is equivalent to 
 dibs. The best dibs is now made at Bhamdun, by boiling down 
 the juice of ripe grapes one-half or two-thirds to the consistency of 
 syrup. A small quantity of clay is mixed with it to clarify it, after 
 which it is beaten until it becomes quite thick. It is of a golden 
 color, and will remain sweet for a long time. Dibs is stored in 
 jars or skins for winter use, and is generally eaten on or with 
 bread, but it is not used and never regarded as a beverage. 
 
 How do these Maronite mountaineers pass the time during the 
 winter, cut off as they are from the outer world by the snow ? 
 
 The difference between winter and summer, in these higher 
 regions of Lebanon, is almost inconceivable to any one who has 
 not had personal experience of it. Now the country is everywhere 
 alive with the inhabitants of the villages, and many of them are 
 almost deserted. Even the women and children are abroad in the 
 fields and vineyards, and their voices are both merry and musical. 
 But two or three months hence you will not meet a living creature 
 on these mountain-roads. The flocks will all have been taken from 
 their temporary folds on the mountain-sides, and either sent down 
 to the plains below or housed with their shepherds in the hamlets
 
 238 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and villages. The very birds — the crow and the raven, the eagle 
 and vulture — will have flown to a milder climate. 
 
 Owing to the winter rains the roads and paths will then be 
 nearly obliterated, or become the channels of roaring torrents ; 
 mud and slush and snow will be encountered on every side ; while 
 chilling winds blow through the wadys, and freezing blasts rage 
 around the ice-clad crags ; and woe to the luckless wayfarer whom 
 accident or necessity compels to be abroad. The natives who 
 have not or cannot emigrate to the cities on the sea-shore pass 
 the time as best they can in the villages, taking care of the stock, 
 keeping up the smoky fires, and dropping in now and then upon 
 their neighbors to while away the dreary hours with such con- 
 verse as their circumstances suggest. Their low habitations are but 
 poorly lighted and ventilated even in summer. In winter every 
 crevice is closed, and what small windows there may be are plas- 
 tered up tight, so that neither air nor light can penetrate except 
 through the door into the one large room which constitutes the 
 whole house. Within that one room are gathered men, women, 
 and children, unto the second and third generation ; dogs and 
 donkeys, cows and sheep, goats and chickens — in short, everything 
 living and moving in and about the place. 
 
 To us such a life would be dismal in the extreme. 
 
 I have sometimes spent the night in the midst of such a mis- 
 cellaneous company, and occasionally with the addition of camels, 
 horses, and mules, the latter a very disturbing element. It does 
 well enough as an interesting experiment, but a night at a time 
 is quite sufificient to test one's powers of endurance. Two un- 
 avoidable evils are intimately associated with those winter gath- 
 erings around the social hearth, and both are intolerable — the 
 pungent smoke, which has no way of escape, and the fleas, which 
 have no desire to do so. In such dismal abodes there is no light 
 to read by, no book to read, and but little useful occupation either 
 for old or young. The grand resource is smoking and sleeping. 
 Of tobacco there seems to be an inexhaustible supply, and the 
 sleeper is rarely exhorted to consider the ways of the ant and be 
 wise. Thus these people hibernate, like bears in their dens, until 
 the winter storms blow over and the mild breath of returning
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN HOUSES.— REMINISCENCES. 239 
 
 sprin<'>" gradually melts the snow from their neighborhood. Then 
 thev come forth and shake themselves, and prepare to follow their 
 usual avocations, under a clear sky and a warm sun. It should 
 be borne in mind that this description specially applies to the life 
 of the unsophisticated mountaineers, which is essentially the same 
 throughout the elevated regions of Syria and Palestine. 
 
 Was it always thus in this land ? 
 
 The manners and customs of the peasants and farmers appear 
 to have changed but little from very ancient times. The allusions 
 to such matters in the Bible are few and incidental ; but we may 
 infer from them, and from other circumstances, that the ordinary 
 habitations of the villagers, even at the beginning of our era, were 
 no better than they are now, and the stall of the ox and the 
 manger were then, as now, in the house. There are no hous&s of 
 that period standing at the present day in any of the places fre- 
 quented by our Lord in Galilee and the adjacent regions ; but at 
 the sites of some of those "cities" mentioned by Josephus there 
 are foundations which indicate very inferior habitations. As they 
 must be those of the largest and most substantial houses, the 
 greater part, it would seem, were so small and ephemeral as to 
 leave no trace behind. "Cities" of ten thousand inhabitants, ac- 
 cording to his accounts, occupied sites where a modern village of 
 as many hundreds would scarcely find sufficient room. 
 
 I am continually being reminded by the scenery through which 
 we are riding to-day of other rambles over these picturesque moun- 
 tains. This is not the first, nor even the fourth, time that I have 
 passed this way. On one occasion the presence of a party of 
 ladies and gentlemen added greatly to the interest of the excur- 
 sion. We followed the valley from Neb'a el 'Asal northward to 
 the base of a perpendicular cliff, where the road turns abruptly to 
 the right and ascends the steep side of the mountain. It took 
 an hour's hard climbing to reach the top of the pass, where we 
 were promised a glorious outlook down to the sea over the region 
 drained by Nahr Ibrahim, the ancient river Adonis. 
 
 Long before reaching the summit we were completely enve- 
 loped by a dense, palpable mist, driven up the ravine by the west 
 wind, and nothing could be seen ten steps ahead of us. The
 
 240 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 descent was even longer than the ascent, and in many places all 
 dismounted and walked, to relieve both horse and rider. Soon we 
 lost our way, and the whole caravan seemed about to plunge off 
 the narrow plateau into a fathomless abyss of cloudy vapor. It 
 was impossible, however, to go very far wrong, since the tremen- 
 dous chasm of the river on the left, and the cliffs of Lebanon 
 towering to the sky on the right, allowed of but little margin to 
 wander on either side. After rambling hither and thither, now on 
 the edge of the cliffs, and then through the thick bushes, bewil- 
 dered with numberless goat -paths, we finally got safely through 
 that tangled wilderness, just as the mist began to rise and reveal 
 the deep gorge of Nahr Ibrahim belov/. 
 
 There we stopped and lunched upon the brink of a precipice 
 which descends sheer down many hundred feet into the valley of 
 the river. Just before we reached 'Afka there suddenly burst upon 
 us a most magnificent prospect. The sun broke through the fog, 
 filling the profound gorge of the river Adonis with golden light, 
 and revealing the fantastic buttresses and rounded towers of the 
 mountain ramparts. It was difficult to believe that they were not 
 designed by man for the defence of the valley, but their colossal 
 proportions dispelled all thought of human art. 
 
 This long range of Lebanon on our right rises several thousand 
 feet, terrace above terrace and ledge above ledge of perpendicular 
 rock. Masses of rock in some places seem to have been rolled 
 from the summits above and swept down the mountain-side. 
 
 Many kinds of trees spring out of crevices in those gigantic 
 walls; and along the narrow margin of those ledges bushes and 
 underbrush grow and spread out into clumps, green and shady, but 
 absolutely impenetrable ; even goats cannot enter except in places 
 where the shepherd has cut a way through for them. 
 
 This has been a long and fatiguing descent, and, from the im- 
 posing appearance of those massive buttresses ahead of us, on the 
 right, towering to the sky, and which seem to bar our further pro- 
 gress, I conclude that we are not far from our camping-place. 
 
 'Afka is directly below us, but before we can reach it we will 
 have to zigzag down the mountain-side along a road rough and 
 rocky, and through tangled bushes and clumps of small trees for
 
 VENUS AND ADOXIS.— GOATS OX THE CLIFFS. 24 1 
 
 some distance. After passing by the ruined temple of Venus, and 
 crossing the bridge over the Adonis, we will arrive at our tents, 
 pitched on the brink of the flowing river, and in the midst of a 
 forest of walnut and sycamore trees. 
 
 'Afka, September 5th. Evening. 
 
 This is the most romantic spot we have visited in our travels 
 through this country. With its cavern and fountains, its river and 
 ruins, grove, m}'th, and fable, it rivals Banias. 
 
 Here, according to ancient mythology, the beautiful Adonis, 
 the favorite of Venus, was killed by a wild-boar, nor would she be 
 consoled for his loss or allow his lifeless body to be removed until 
 the gods decreed that he should return to her during the spring 
 and summer, and that she might go to him in the winter. And 
 thus we have a reference, in this tragic myth, to the changes of 
 the seasons — the joyous spring and the generous summer, the 
 dreary autumn and the mournful winter. 
 
 Let us walk out to the bridge, climb into the cavern above it, 
 and then visit the ruined temple on the opposite side of the valley. 
 The stream which we have just crossed rises near the cavern, tum- 
 bles over the road, and falls into the ri\er below the bridge. 
 
 See that flock of goats creeping like ants along the perpendicu- 
 lar precipice, so high above our heads. How did they get there? 
 and how can they escape from their perilous position? 
 
 The cliff above the cavern is more than a thousand feet high, 
 but the rock strata form regular ledges, one above the other, 
 extending to a considerable length, and overgrown with bushes. 
 As for the goats, they manifest no anxiety about their exalted 
 position or its supposed dangers. On the contrary, they appear 
 to be enjoying themselves amongst the bushes up there, utterly 
 regardless of the glorious prospect all around and the roar of these 
 mighty waters hundreds of feet below them. 
 
 This stone bridge with its rounded arch may not be as ancient 
 as some we have crossed, but the picturesque scenery which it com- 
 mands is unsurpassed by any of them. Cliff and cave, streams and 
 water- falls — this amphitheatre of rocks around it. and the placid 
 basin of clear, cold water above it — all c()ml)inc to make a n.itural 
 picture of wonderful beauty and grandeur.
 
 242 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 We are now about two hundred feet above the bank of the 
 river near where our tents are pitched. 
 
 ScrambHng up those great masses of fallen rocks and into this 
 cavern is a feat not easily accomplished. 
 
 When I first visited Mugharat 'Afka a wide natural arch spanned 
 the cavern near its mouth, and, by creeping over it, I reached an 
 upper ledge, along which I penetrated into the mountain for a 
 short distance, but discovered nothing very remarkable about it. 
 In winter the stream which issues out of the cavern is, probably, 
 the overflow of the main fountain springing up within the hidden 
 and deeper recesses of the mountains. The streams that now burst 
 forth from amongst the rocks below the cave are connected with 
 the principal source of the river Adonis, and thus, in summer, they 
 would be sufficient to draw off the water, as the quantity is then 
 greatly decreased. Rushing down amongst the rocks, they iill the 
 little basin above the bridge, and then the stream from it sweeps 
 on for a short distance and falls, in quick succession, over the 
 cliffs in three regular and beautiful cascades. 
 
 On our way to the ruins of the temple we will be obliged to 
 cross another stream, which comes tumbling down the ravine from 
 the north-west and enters the river below the falls. 
 
 Water, water everywhere, and what a deafening roar! This 
 temple must have commanded a magnificent prospect — up the 
 river, across the falls, over the bridge to the deep cavern above, 
 and away to the top of that sublime cliff. 
 
 The site was well chosen on this bluff at the extreme end of 
 the projecting ridge. The temple probably stood upon a plat- 
 form on the highest of a succession of terraces raised up from the 
 banks of the little stream that now flows out below it. The edi- 
 fice itself could not have been a very large or imposing structure, 
 to judge from its present ruins — a confused mass of well-squared 
 stone, with very little architectural ornamentation. Some of the 
 stones are large, and all are limestone, quarried from the rock in 
 this region. One is surprised to find under the rubbish a column 
 of red or Syenite granite, like the one in the village of 'Afka, 
 which must have been brought from Egypt to Jebeil, and then 
 transported up and down these mountains with incredible toil.
 
 MUOllAKAl 'AlkA— boLK^ 1. "!■ IHi. AiJOMo.
 
 DAMSELS OF PHCENICIA.—" WOMEN WEEPING FOR TAMMUZ.' 243 
 
 Byblus, the modern Jebeil, was the reputed birthplace of 
 Adonis, and devoted to his worship ; and this temple of Venus 
 was erected here in commemoration of his tragic fate. Here were 
 practised — in the month of Tammuz, or midsummer — the most 
 licentious rites, down to the time of Constantine. That emperor, 
 according to Eusebius and Sozomen, deemed such a temple un- 
 worthy of the light of the sun, and decreed its destruction. These 
 ruins bear emphatic testimony to the thoroughness with which his 
 orders were executed. There is something very impressive in the 
 fact that we are looking upon the same scenery to-day which wit- 
 nessed the celebration of the burial of Adonis, by the damsels of 
 Phcenicia, many thousand years ago. We are listening to the 
 solemn cadence of the same river, which murmured a requiem as 
 they, with dishevelled hair and weeping and wailing, followed the 
 funeral procession to this temple upon whose ruins we now stand ! 
 
 Ezekiel says, "There sat women weeping for Tammuz" at the 
 gate of the Lord's house.* Was the worship of Venus and Adonis 
 transferred from this temple to that at Jerusalem ? 
 
 The Grecian Adonis was probably none other than the more 
 ancient PhcEnician deity Tammuz ; and it is supposed that the 
 weeping of the Jewish women was in commemoration of the cele- 
 brations which took place annually at Byblus and in this place 
 during the month of Tammuz, corresponding to our July. Milton, 
 marshalling the gods of Canaan before Satan, thus alludes to 
 Adonis and his worship : 
 
 Thammuz came next behind, 
 Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured 
 The Syrian damsels to lament his fate 
 In amorous ditties all a summer's day ; 
 While smooth Adonis from his native rock 
 Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood 
 Of Thammuz yearly wounded : the love-tale 
 Infected Zion's daui^hters with like heat ; 
 Whose wanton passions in the sacred porch 
 Ezekiel saw, when, by the vision led, 
 His eye survey'd the dark idolatries 
 Of alienated Judali.' 
 
 ' Ezek. viii. 14. "^ Paradise Lost, Hook I., lines 44^) to 457. 
 
 R
 
 244 'THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The widely -known fable which ascribes the red color of this 
 river to the blood of the beautiful Adonis may be thus explained : 
 The first rains of winter carry down a large amount of sand, which 
 gives to the water, and even the sea near the mouth of the river, 
 a reddish color. I once encamped for two days at the mouth of 
 the river, making excursions up the gorge as far as was practicable, 
 and found vast formations of red sandstone on both sides, and par- 
 ticularly along the north-eastern bank. On a former visit I dis- 
 covered what may possibly be the true origin of that mythical 
 transformation, here at the very place wl^ere Adonis is supposed 
 to have been killed. Just below our tents there is a mass of 
 amorphous trap-rock, friable and loose, and of a blood-red color, 
 quite sufificient to cause " smooth Adonis from his native rock 
 run purple to the sea." 
 
 'Afka, September 6th. 
 
 We will have a long, and in some parts a fatiguing, ride to- 
 day. This route from 'Afka to the Cedars commands magnificent 
 views of the distant sea, and will lead us through some of the 
 grandest scenery in Lebanon. 
 
 The farther one penetrates into these mountains the deeper is 
 the interest they inspire. From the time when the women of 
 Phoenicia were accustomed to visit that temple of Venus, thou- 
 sands of years ago, until the day when Constantine ordered its 
 destruction, a considerable town must have risen near this grand 
 and picturesque source of the Adonis. 
 
 The ancient Apheca was deserted long ago. A few stones re- 
 main, larger and better squared than the rest, but they are the 
 only traces of antiquity to be seen at this once celebrated place. 
 The inhabitants of modern 'Afka barely exist in a village, beauti- 
 fully situated in the midst of groves of walnut and other trees, on 
 the south side of the valley and west of the ruined temple. They, 
 and the people who occupy this wretched hamlet on the north side 
 of the river through which we have just passed, are all Metawileh, 
 miserably poor, notorious thieves, and about the most degraded gen- 
 eration we have seen in this country. Being the sole representatives 
 of their sect in this region, their houses were burned during the last 
 civil war, and they have been but partially repaired since.
 
 VALLEY OF THE ADONIS.— LOFTY BRIDGE.— BURJ FATRAII. 245 
 
 At sunrise this morning I had a grand view of the valley of 
 Nahr Ibrahim and the river gorge, quite down to the sea, from a 
 high cliff above the cavern. I should like to explore that region, 
 for it appears to be well wooded and romantic. 
 
 The river valley is lined with many kinds of trees — oak, syca- 
 more, kharnub, bay, plane, orange, and mulberry. But notwith- 
 standing the brilliant foliage, the magnificent .scenery, and the 
 ceaseless and deafening roar of the river as it tumbles over the 
 rocks, cascades, and mill-dams, the valley of Nahr Ibrahim is very 
 sickly, especially in the summer and autumn. 
 
 The gorge is wild, and in many places inaccessible. Profound 
 chasms break down into it, on either side, upon whose beetling 
 crags and projecting ridges a convent or a village is often seen 
 standing out against the .sky, or clinging to the rocks far above the 
 foaming torrents of the river. Near its mouth Nahr Ibrahim is 
 crossed by a lofty bridge of a single arch, which has a span of 
 sixty-three feet, and an elevation of thirty-six feet above the wa- 
 ter. That bridge appears to be erected upon the foundations of 
 one more ancient, probably Roman. Arab historians inform us 
 that it was built by Emir Ibrahim, a nephew of ]\Iar Yohanna 
 Maron, who lived in the eleventh century; and from him the river 
 is said to take its present name. That Mar Yohanna must not be 
 confounded with John Maron, from whom the Maronites as a sect 
 derive their name. 
 
 I have ascended the mountain on the north side of the river 
 gorge for two hours, to examine the ruins of Burj Fatrah, not far 
 from el Harf, a village situated on a conical peak seventeen hun- 
 dred feet above the level of the sea. The remains are insignificant, 
 but they may mark the site of a .shrine dedicated to the worship 
 of Thammuz. Burj Fatrah is perched upon the edge of a preci- 
 pice overhanging the gorge of the river, and it made my head 
 dizzy to gaze down into the fearful abyss and see the eagles sail- 
 ing about above their nests far below my stand-point. 'I'lie pro- 
 found depths resounded with the ceaseless roar of the river— that 
 eternal anthem which the J'hccnician pilgrims must have listened 
 to with mysterious reverence as they toiled up those mountains 
 towards the temple of Venus, near the fountain of the Adonis.
 
 246 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The only remains of any importance in the valley of Nahr Ibra- 
 him are the broken arches of an ancient aqueduct that conveyed 
 the water of the river to Jebeil. It was carried along the cliffs, on 
 the south side of the gorge, until, near the narrow plain between 
 the mountain and the sea-shore, it crossed over to the north side. 
 The gorge there is about three hundred and fifty feet wide from 
 cliff to clifT. The arches of the first tier of the aqueduct are 
 eleven, and of about twenty-two feet span, supported by massive 
 buttresses, eighteen feet thick, most of which are still standing. 
 The main arch, above the bed of the river, had a span of fifty feet. 
 Above the first tier of arches there was another, much narrower, 
 and proportionately higher. The canal of the aqueduct appears to 
 have been upon the top of them. The entire height of the aque- 
 duct above the bed of the river was about one hundred feet. 
 
 Only one arch is now perfect, and it is apparently Saracenic. 
 Indeed, most of the masonry of the buttresses is of the same order, 
 but the lower part of them was built of larger, bevelled stones, leav- 
 ing no doubt as to the antiquity of the original structure. The 
 cliffs on either side of the river are in many places almost perpen- 
 dicular, and hence most of the wall built into or on their sides to 
 support the aqueduct has fallen away. The wonder is how it was 
 possible to construct the work along such precipices. Upon reach- 
 ing the plain the canal was carried northward through the modern 
 village of en Nahra. A short distance beyond that village the line 
 of the canal is over one hundred feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 The road we have been following northward is nearly level 
 along this elevated plateau, which extends westward between the 
 chasms of Wady el Muneitirah and Wady el Mugheiyireh. The 
 streams from 'Afka and 'Akurah, the main tributaries of Nahr 
 Ibrahim, flow through those valleys. This plateau is walled in — 
 south, east, and north — by clifTs of great height and remarkable 
 outline, closely resembling colossal towers and gigantic castles. 
 
 I notice flocks of small birds flying about the trees and chat- 
 tering among the branches of the bushes, while hawks, vultures, 
 and eagles sail majestically along over the profound chasms, and 
 the omnipresent raven drops headlong from the cliffs above. 
 
 This pleasant ride of two hours has brought us to a natural
 
 GROTTO AT 'AKURAH.— WTXE-VA IS.— EL 'AKLKAII. 247 
 
 bridge of a single rock across the ravine, over which the road 
 passes, and beneath which is the entrance to Mugharat el 'Akurah. 
 
 Our party of ladies and gentlemen spent a whole morning ex- 
 ploring the hidden recesses of that cavern, and were greatly im- 
 pressed by their subterranean experiences. Getting down to the 
 low entrance of the cave was accomplished with difficulty, but, once 
 inside of the grotto, we found the floor comparatively level. With 
 many tapers, casting faint gleams of light into the darkness, we 
 crept on and in for about one hundred yards; then, leaving the 
 main grotto, and turning to the left along a broad passage, we 
 followed it for perhaps two hundred yards. The floor in that part 
 is uneven and slippery. Numberless pools of water, some shallow, 
 others deep, filled to overflowing by dripping stalactites pendant 
 from the roof, rendered our progress slow and rather critical. 
 
 Near the extreme end of that passage, which it was supposed 
 we were the first to explore, is a lofty grotto, whose sides are 
 incrusted with translucent, crystallized spar, through which the light 
 from our tapers shone with a bright red color. What with singing 
 and shouting to wake up the slumbering echoes, breaking off speci- 
 mens of stalactites, and an occasional plash into the ice-cold water 
 of some treacherous pool, we remained much longer in the grottoes 
 than we supposed. When we got back to the entrance it was time 
 to lunch, and that we enjoyed exceedingly, sitting on the smooth 
 rock floor at the mouth of the cave. In former times that floor 
 had been levelled, and the vats, troughs, and channels necessary 
 for a wine-press were excavated out of the solid rock. The pro- 
 spect outwards, looking under the natural bridge and down the 
 deep gorge, was extraordinary and very picturesque. 
 
 The mighty range of Lebanon is here flanked and sustained by 
 numerous round towers and many -shaped buttresses, even more 
 gigantic than those above the cave at the fountain of the Adonis. 
 
 This village of 'Akurah is a mile or more from the grottoes, antl 
 has a plentiful supply of water. It abounds in groves of walnut- 
 trees, and is surrounded by vineyards and mulberry terraces. Being 
 a centre for this part of the country, it has a blacksmith and car- 
 penter, and a few shops, but the inhabitants are rude and fanatical. 
 Through a cleft in that perpendicular wall of rock extending be-
 
 248 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 hind the village, and which is over one thousand feet high, a road 
 passes up the mountain from Jebeil to Ba'albek. 
 
 From 'Akurah the level road we have been travelling thus far 
 ceases, and we must toil up the mountain to the north-west of the 
 village, for two thousand feet or more, over an immense formation 
 of trap-rock extending westward for several miles. 
 
 Burckhardt spent a night in 'Akurah in 1810. Learning Arabic 
 in Aleppo, he assumed the character of a native, and, travelling 
 through the country, threw himself upon the hospitality of the 
 people. He says: "The mountaineers, when upon a journey, never 
 think of spending a para for their eating, drinking, or lodging. On 
 arriving in the evening at a village they alight at the house of some 
 acquaintance, if they have any, which is generally the case, and say 
 to the owner, ' I am your guest.' The host gives the traveller a 
 supper consisting of milk, bread, and burgul, cracked wheat, and, 
 if rich and liberal, feeds his mule or mare also. When the traveller 
 has no acquaintance in the village he alights at any house he 
 pleases, ties up his beast, and smokes his pipe till he receives a 
 welcome from the master of the house, who makes it a point of 
 honor to receive him as a friend and to give him a supper. In the 
 morning he departs with a simple ' Good-bye.' " ' 
 
 Burckhardt generally received a kind reception, but at 'Akurah 
 he was shabbily treated. The inhabitants, he says, have " a bad 
 name amongst the people of this country," and " are accused of 
 avarice and inhospitality." They neither receive travellers nor give 
 a supper, nor sell them provisions for ready money. " The conse- 
 quence of which conduct is, that the Akourans, when travelling 
 about, are obliged to conceal their origin, in order to obtain food 
 on the road." Not to go supperless, Burckhardt made the sheikh 
 believe that he was " a Kourdine in the service of the Pasha of 
 Damascus," and he, becoming alarmed, sent him some bread and 
 cheese. Such were some of the customs in these mountains se- 
 venty years ago ; but the traveller of the present day finds native 
 hospitality greatly changed, and is more likely to be cheated by 
 exorbitant prices than to receive gratuitous entertainment. 
 
 I first became aware of the existence of el 'Akurah and its 
 
 ' Burckhardt, p. 24.
 
 AVENGER OF BLOOD.— LOFTY PLATEAU.— ARAB ENXAMPMENT. 249 
 
 people by the following incident : Late one evening during the 
 winter of 1835 I was startled by the abrupt entrance into my room 
 of a man completely disguised by his cloak, who threw himself 
 down upon the floor before me, exclaiming, " I am your suppliant." 
 Upon inquiry I found that he belonged to 'Akiirah, and having 
 killed a man in the church, which we saw in passing, he had fled 
 to Beirut, pursued by the avengers of blood. Some one had di- 
 rected him to my house, as the safest asylum, and that accounted 
 for his unwelcome intrusion. Through the influence of his rela- 
 tives and friends the affair was finally settled by the payment of 
 a considerable sum as blood-money. 
 
 The great elevation which we have now reached, on the highest 
 part of this ridge, commands a wide prospect over a wilderness of 
 bristling pinnacles, gigantic cliffs, and profound valleys — a vast and 
 varied scene, such as no pen can describe and no pencil portray. 
 
 There is not a human habitation for many miles on this lofty, 
 cold, and desolate plateau ; but at this season of the year num- 
 berless goat-paths traverse it in every direction. They seem all 
 equally well marked, and the traveller, if not provided with a local 
 guide, will inevitably get bewildered and lost. He might, much to 
 his surprise, stumble against a camel, and make the startling dis- 
 covery that he has strayed into an Arab encampment. 
 
 The top of Lebanon is certainly the last place where one would 
 expect to find those roving sons of the desert. 
 
 There is a tribe of sedentary or resident Arabs who pass the 
 winter on the sea-coast, and pasture their insignificant flocks and 
 herds on these heights in the spring and summer. In October 
 they strike their tents, and with their cattle and flocks descend to 
 the milder regions below. Before the transportation of sheep by 
 steamers from this country to Egypt became general the high and 
 level districts on Lebanon were the pasture-lands of the Kurds. 
 They came from the north of Syria in the spring with thousands 
 of sheep, which they sold as they proceeded through the country 
 — in the summer to the villagers on the mountains, ami in winter 
 to the residents of the cities on the plains. 
 
 There are no fountains on those highest levels of Lebanon, but 
 in the spring the melting of the snow affords drink for men and
 
 250 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 cattle. Snow-water is often found during the summer in funnel- 
 shaped holes or pits formed in the ground by the snow. There are 
 hundreds of them on these lofty ranges ; but, from my experience, 
 I can caution those who desire to explore the summits of Lebanon 
 not to expect to find an abundance of water in them. I could not 
 get a drop from any of them in June. 
 
 This entire region down to the sea belonged, I suppose, in 
 ancient times to Byblus, the modern Jebeil, and this part of it 
 presents a most extraordinary appearance. 
 
 That long range of limestone rocks, west of our route, piled 
 up in utter confusion, is called Jebel Jaj. It is composed entirely 
 of huge isolated bowlders, amongst which are many oak-trees, old, 
 gnarled, and scraggy, whose lower branches have been hacked and 
 hewn off by charcoal-burners and shepherds. Long ago I spent a 
 night on the east side of that rocky mountain. The object of that 
 excursion was to visit some ruins at a place called el Meshnakah. 
 After ascending the mountain east of Jebeil for three hours we 
 came to Burr el Haithy, evidently an ancient site. Up to that 
 place we had been accompanied by some workmen sent to con- 
 struct a road by which the beams, cut down from a neighboring 
 forest of pine-trees, could be transported on camels to the sea-shore 
 at the mouth of Nahr Ibrahim, It was in that way, perhaps, that 
 the "timber of cedar" for Solomon's temple was brought "down 
 from Lebanon unto the sea" by the "servants" of Hiram.' 
 
 Burr el Haithy is not far from el Meshnakah, or the place of 
 hanging, as its Arabic name implies; but our guide took a wrong 
 path, and soon involved us in one of the worst w'ar — a rocky place, 
 abounding in tangled thorny thickets — that I ever encountered. 
 It was only by dismounting, and forcing our frightened animals 
 over breakneck rocks half concealed by the thick thorn-bushes, 
 that we got through the w'ar — not to el Meshnakah, however, but 
 to the bottom of the tremendous Wady Fedar. We then followed 
 up the w^ady to a ruin in the vicinity, and finally encamped for the 
 night at the foot of Jebel Jaj. The next morning we returned to 
 Jebeil, greatly disappointed at not having accomplished our pur- 
 pose of visiting the ruins at el Meshnanak. 
 
 ' I Kings V. 8, 9.
 
 M. KENAN'S DESCRIPTION OF THE RUINS AT EL MESHNAKAH. 25 I 
 
 M. Renan was more fortunate, and in his splendid work, " Mission 
 de Phenice," he gives a detailed description of the place and the 
 ruins. He speaks in glowing terms of the wild and romantic sce- 
 nery, and is convinced that the remains are those of a temple dedi- 
 cated to the worship of Tammuz, V^enus, and Adonis. The enclo- 
 sure of the temple was rectangular, three hundred and twenty-five 
 feet long by one hundred and sixty-six feet wide. The entrance 
 was from the east. The walls — never very solid — are now mostly 
 prostrate. Corinthian capitals and entablatures are found scattered 
 amongst the debris, but their style and execution are rude and 
 imperfect. Short columns are also found in a depression near the 
 eastern end of the main court of the temple. 
 
 There are tombs with several loculi hewn in the rock — of a kind 
 common all over Lebanon — having heavy stone covers. About five 
 hundred feet north of the court a passage was cut through the 
 rock, and on each side of the entrance to it is a large figure in a 
 niche having Ionic pilasters and a cornice. On the sides of those 
 figures are smaller ones, in the same general style, but all are so 
 defaced that M. Renan is uncertain about their origin. As in 
 nearly every other collection of such tombs in Syria, there are no 
 inscriptions upon those at el Meshnakah, which may imply that 
 neither Greeks nor Romans had any connection with them. 
 
 Ten minutes' walk to the east of the entrance to the temple 
 court are the remains of a small sanctuary, and there was found, 
 on a block, a figure which M. Renan says represents Baal, " i\ la 
 tete rayonee." If really meant for Baal, that figure is a very inter- 
 esting one. M. Renan found cut on the rocks at el Ghimeh, south 
 of el Meshnakah, between Nahr Ibrahim and Mu'amaltcin, a group 
 representing a man in a short tunic, carrying a lance, with which he 
 is about to strike a bear standing up to attack him. Near that 
 group is the figure of a woman seated, apparently mourning. 
 These very naturally suggest the pathetic myth of Venus and 
 Adonis, only the bear ought to be a boar. Another group, not 
 far distant, consists of a man with two hunting-dogs. 
 
 M. Renan's quotation from Macrobius is very pertinent when 
 taken in connection with those groups: "The image of Venus is 
 found in Mount Lebanon having the head veiled, in a sorrowful
 
 252 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 attitude, holding her face in her left hand enveloped in her robes. 
 Tears are believed to flow from the eyes of those beholding her.'" 
 As Macrobius was a non-Christian writer, about the beginning of 
 the fifth century, he may not only have seen the image of Venus, 
 but also "assisted" personally at her worship. 
 
 Ard 'Akluk, as this plateau is called which we have been tra- 
 versing, extends from the top of the ascent above el 'Akurah north- 
 ward for about two hours to the region around Tannurin el Foka. 
 Owing to its lofty position, near the summit of the Lebanon range, 
 the melthig snow by day feeds the little rills that cross its surface ; 
 and the heavy dew at night refreshes the green grass, giving to this 
 little plain the appearance of a pasture land well supplied with 
 springs of water, and surrounded by high mountains, jagged cliffs, 
 rocky precipices, and profound gorges. Most of Ard 'Akluk be- 
 longs to the village of Tannurin et Tahta, or lower Tannurin, which 
 is out of sight in a deep valley to the north-west of us. 
 
 Many years ago I spent several hours rambling over the wide, 
 rock-strewn wilderness east of the range of Jebel Jaj, in order to 
 examine some inscriptions upon the rocks. A number of peasants 
 at work in the fields volunteered to conduct me to them. In the 
 language of the natives a large isolated rock upon which letters 
 are inscribed is called a burj, which means a tower. I soon dis- 
 covered that the eagerness of those peasants to show me the 
 mysterious " writing on the rocks," was occasioned by the belief 
 that the inscriptions indicated the place where "hid treasure" was 
 to be found. They kept watch over my movements, and were 
 suspicious that my object in copying the letters was to obtain the 
 key, dalul, or indicator, and that, having found the place, I would 
 come again, secretly, and rob the buried treasure. 
 
 I examined some of those rocks and copied a few of the in- 
 scriptions, but there were rarely more than two or three words, 
 generally only as many letters. Nearly all that I saw were on large 
 isolated rocks, but some are cut upon the sides of cliffs, and are 
 somewhat longer. I could make nothing of them, except that the 
 name of the Emperor Adrian was found in most of them. Dr. 
 H. A. De Forest afterwards copied a number of those singular 
 " writings on the rocks." M. Renan devotes no less than twenty-
 
 EMPEROR ADRIAN.— TANNURIN EL FOKA.— FOG IX AUTUMN. 253 
 
 one folio pages of his work, " Mission de Ph^nice," to those inscrip- 
 tions. He copied eighty, found in more than sixty places, and 
 heard of others. His surmise may be the true one, as to the origin 
 of those cuttings, that they were inscribed on the rocks, by order 
 of the Emperor Adrian, to mark out the parts of the forest in 
 that region which belonged to the Roman Government from those 
 which were owned by private individuals. 
 
 M. Renan is not quite correct, however, in supposing that, with 
 the exception of Dr. De Forest, he was the first traveller who had 
 seen and copied those inscriptions. Others had done the same 
 many years before ; but to him belongs the credit of having care- 
 fully examined and illustrated them. None but those who have 
 attempted to penetrate that rocky wilderness in Wady Tannurin 
 and scale those perpendicular clifTs or cross those yawning chasms, 
 can adequately appreciate the fatigue or even the danger attend- 
 ing such an achievement ; and, after all, the results are very 
 meagre and unsatisfactory to the explorer. 
 
 This small hamlet which we are passing through belongs to 
 Tannurin, and called after it Tannurin el Foka, or the upper. The 
 place is only inhabited during the summer by some peasants from 
 the village below, who plant Indian-corn and various kinds of vege- 
 tables in every available spot. About the middle of September 
 they gather in their crops, and send everything down to the village 
 before the first snows of winter render this region inaccessible. 
 During many tours through this part of Lebanon I have had oc- 
 casion to encamp two or three times at Tannurin el Foka. Once, 
 soon after our tents were pitched, a dense fog enveloped us, and 
 night came on, cold and bleak, and " sablcd all in black." 
 
 That was something novel in my experience on these moun- 
 tains so early in the autumn; but the outer darkness only made 
 the well-lighted tents more cheerful and the party more social. 
 The peasants — men, women, and children — brought us chickens, 
 eggs, green corn, leben, and plenty of fire -wood. They told us 
 that after two or three weeks the entire region would be wholly 
 forsaken, nor would a traveller pass over the road we had followed 
 from 'Akurah until March or April of the next year. 
 
 Midway between our present route and the sea-shore is some
 
 254 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 of the grandest scenery in Lebanon. Gigantic cliffs break down in 
 all directions, most of them nearly perpendicular, and all dipping 
 westward at various angles. They open up distant views over 
 valley, hill, and narrow plain to the sandy shore and out upon the 
 boundless Mediterranean beyond. Soon after coming to this coun- 
 try I visited a locality of fossil fish at Hakil, a village far down 
 below us on the left. The fossils were found at the bottom of a 
 deep wady, and at that time, when the locality was unknown, one 
 could gather excellent specimens by the mule-load. 
 
 The fish were small but well preserved, and the rock in which 
 they were embedded could be split into thin laminae, and, no matter 
 how thin, each face was coated with fossil fish. Their number 
 w^hen thus packed in the soil must have been very great. The 
 largest specimen I obtained appeared to have a small fish in its 
 mouth, as though caught in the act of swallowing its victim. 
 Besides fish, many of the specimens had between the laminae per- 
 fectly preserved leaves and other vegetable matter. When that 
 locality became better known it was visited by many travellers, and 
 the people of the village, finding they could sell the fossils, gath- 
 ered them up so thoroughly that on my last visit to the place 
 no good specimens could be obtained. 
 
 From Hakil the road led over rough ridges and through deep 
 valleys for about three hours to the large village of Duma, where 
 I spent two nights and part of three days in the hospitable family 
 of the Greek priest. On the summit of a lofty ridge south of the 
 village some natives were engaged in digging out and smelting 
 iron ore. I was told by them that the work would soon be aban- 
 doned, owing to the stifling heat and want of ventilation at the 
 bottom of the deep shaft from where the ore was procured. 
 
 Wady Tannurin seems to drain the western slopes of Lebanon ; 
 where does the little river running through it enter the sea? 
 
 This region is called Ard Tannurin, but the wady takes differ- 
 ent names. Below the village of Tannurin it joins Wady ed 
 Duweir, which near the sea bears the name of Wady el Jauzeh. 
 On the north of it are the stupendous cliffs of Jebel en Nuriyeh. 
 That ridge extends far out into the sea and terminates in a pre- 
 cipitous promontory several hundred feet high. It is called Ras
 
 RAS ESH SIIUKAH.— NAHR EL JAUZEII. 
 
 -3 3 
 
 esh Shukah, the famous Theoprosopon, or Face of God, of the 
 ancients, and is the most conspicuous cape on the eastern shore of 
 the Mediterranean. As there is no room for a road around the 
 base of that lofty promontory-, the highway to Tripoh and the 
 north passes up Wady el Jauzeh for some distance, and then 
 
 kOl'aT el MUSEIUHAII. 
 
 crosses over the cape and down to the plain on the other side. 
 Nahr el Jauzeh rises in Ard Tannuriii, and the stream below us 
 in Wady Tannurin is one of the main branches of that river. Kl 
 Jauzeh enters the sea a short distance south of Ras esh Shukah. 
 and between that point and el Batrun, the ancient ]^.tr\-s. 
 
 To the north-east of el Batrun, in Wady el Jauzeh. and where
 
 256 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 that valley is exceedingly narrow and completely shut in by tower- 
 ing cliffs, are the ruins of a Saracenic castle, now called Kul'at el 
 Museilihah, which was built upon a high and isolated rock, nearly 
 perpendicular on all sides. It commanded the bridge over the 
 stream and the highway, and travellers and caravans were obliged 
 to pay whatever black-mail was levied upon them by lawless native 
 sheikhs who frequently occupied it in former times. The castle 
 has long been in a dilapidated condition, and trees and bushes 
 have grown up among the ruins. I found nothing more formida- 
 ble about it than a shepherd lad peacefully watching over his 
 flock of black and white goats as they scaled its rocky heights to 
 reach the bushes growing upon the edge of its overhanging cliffs. 
 
 From this Wady Tannurin the road leads up a long and steep 
 ascent, only to descend again by a difficult and muddy path into a 
 deep ravine. Passing westward along the farthest side of it, we 
 will come to an extensive grove of cedar-trees. There are many 
 hundreds of them, but all are comparatively young and small. 
 They spread over the rocky ridges between the villages of Tannu- 
 rin, Niha, and el Hadith, about four miles farther north. 
 
 This old man from Tannurin, who accompanies us as guide, 
 repeats essentially the same story about those cedars that I had 
 heard many years ago. The young trees, he says, have sprung up 
 from the roots of older cedars, cut down by order of the Emir 
 Beshir Shehab to furnish tar and pitch for the British fleet, which 
 was then in this part of the Mediterranean, watching the proceed- 
 ings of Napoleon Bonaparte in Egypt and Syria. 
 
 It is quite unexpected to hear from such an authority here on 
 Lebanon of Napoleon and the English fleet, and of events that 
 occurred in the beginning of this century. 
 
 The old man says, also, that other forests have disappeared in 
 a similar manner — for the manufacture of pitch — and that the work 
 of denudation is still going on in these mountains. Whether or 
 not his stories are strictly true, one of them is sufficient to account 
 for the general disappearance of cedar forests on Lebanon. 
 
 A few old stumps are still seen amongst these young cedars, 
 yet not enough to prove that this forest sprang from them. 
 
 The natives continually cut away the old stumps, to obtain
 
 EL HADITII.— RUINS OF A CONVENT.— EL KURAIL 257 
 
 resinous chips, which make kinclHng-wood for their fires, and often 
 serve the purpose of an oil-lamp. The account of our guide in 
 regard to the origin of this cedar-grove reminds us of the well- 
 known fact, referred to in the fourteenth chapter of Job, that 
 trees cut down to the roots will often sprout again. 
 
 We have come to tlie end of this cedar-grove, and must now 
 follow our guide northward to el Hadith. Returning from my 
 first visit to the well-known Cedars above Bsherreh, in No\-ember, 
 1834, we were overtaken at el Hadith by a cold and drenching 
 rain ; and fearing that it might be the prccursoi^ of a snow-storm, 
 which would effectually block up the mountain -passes, we deter- 
 mined to descend to the plain. The road was extremely rough, 
 and the rain made the rocks so slippery that my horse fell several 
 times, and once I was thrown off amongst the stones. Two hours 
 from el Hadith we saw the ruins of a convent, built upon an 
 arch thrown midway across a chasm in a high cliff, two or three 
 hundred feet below its summit, and as many above the torrent at 
 its base. The last occupants, it was said, were robbers, who had 
 been captured and put to death by the Turkish authorities. 
 
 After reaching the plain a ride of two hours brought us to 
 Amyun, Avhere w-e spent the night. It is the largest village in the 
 Kurah, a district which extends westward to the sea, and north- 
 ward to the city of Tripoli. El Kurah is an irregular plain, some- 
 what elevated above the sea, having a substratum of cretaceous 
 rock, hard on the surface, and softer beneath. The soil is admi- 
 rably adapted to the growth of the olive-tree, and the numerous 
 villages situated upon the plain are surrounded by olive-groves, 
 which impart an appearance of life and beauty to what would 
 otherwise be a bare and barren expanse. The river Kadisha mean- 
 ders through the Kurah in a deep and narrow vale, overhung by 
 perpendicular cliffs, which only decrease in height as it leaves the 
 mountains and approaches the sea. 
 
 From el Hadith our course changes from north to east, having 
 the stupendous gorge of Wady el Kadisha far below us on the 
 left. This valley is so deej), and the cliffs on cither side so pre- 
 cipitous, that the river at the bottom of it cannot be seen from 
 many points along the road.
 
 258 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 I notice several convents upon projecting rocks, and quite a 
 number of churches and villages clinging to the steep and pictu- 
 resque terraces on the north side of the wady. 
 
 This is a sacred region to the Maronites ; and the Kadisha is 
 the holy river, because it rises near the "Cedars of God." Amongst 
 the convents is Deir Kanobin, which has a history fifteen hundred 
 years long, and not always very peaceful or Christian. It derives 
 its name from the Greek word for convent, but it has been the 
 seat for many generations of the Maronite patriarch, and the princi- 
 pal summer residence of the present incumbent of that high office. 
 The convent has not essentially changed since the close of the 
 seventeenth century, when Maundrell visited it, and the scenery 
 not at all. His description of it and its surroundings is graphic 
 and exceedingly interesting : 
 
 " Its situation is admirably adapted for retirement and devo- 
 tion, for there is a very deep rupture in the side of Lebanon, run- 
 ning at least seven hours' travel directly up the mountain. It is 
 on both sides exceeding steep and high, clothed with fragrant 
 greens from top to bottom, and everywhere refreshed with foun- 
 tains, falling down from the rocks in pleasant cascades, the inge- 
 nious work of nature. These streams, all uniting at the bottom, 
 make a full and rapid torrent, whose agreeable murmuring is heard 
 all over the place, and adds no small pleasure to it. 
 
 " Kanobin is seated on the north side of this chasm, on the 
 steep of the mountain, at about midway between the top and the 
 bottom. It stands at the mouth of a great cave, having a few 
 small rooms fronting outwards that enjoy the light of the sun; the 
 rest are all under ground. Kanobin had for its founder [in the 
 fourth century] the Emperor Theodosius the Great ; and though 
 it has been several times rebuilt, yet the patriarch assured me the 
 church was of the primitive foundation. It stands in the grotto, 
 but fronting outwards receives a little light from that side. The 
 valley of Kanobin was anciently, as it well deserves, very much 
 resorted to for religious retirement. You see here still hermi- 
 tages, cells, monasteries, almost without number. There is not 
 any little part of rock that jets out upon the side of the moun- 
 tain but you generally see some little structure upon it for the
 
 EL HASRCx. -EXCEPTIONAL CULTIVATION. -EL KADISHA. 259 
 
 reception of monks and hermits, thoui^h few or none of them are 
 now inhabited." ' A statement essentially true at present. 
 
 The "convent," or Deir Kanobin, was the prison, and near it 
 is the tomb of As'ad esh Shidiak, a learned native, and the first 
 Protestant martyr on Mount Lebanon. 
 
 It has taken us a little over an hour from el Hadith to reach 
 this beautiful and well-wooded village. 
 
 It is called Hasrun, and is situated on the edge of the precipice 
 overhanging the deep wady of the same name. On the opposite 
 side of the valley is Hadshit ; and though the villagers can call to 
 each other across the profound chasm, it takes two hours to pass 
 from one place to the other. An hour farther on we will cross 
 the Kadisha, and half an hour from there we will enter the lower 
 part of Bsherreh, although its actual distance from Hasrun as the 
 crow flies is not two miles. 
 
 This region is justly celebrated for its exceptional cultivation: 
 every available spot where a handful of earth can be made to pro- 
 duce a blade of wheat or a single vegetable is terraced up and 
 thoroughly irrigated. Besides wheat, barley, Indian-corn, and the 
 cereals and vegetables of this country, the potato is successfully 
 cultivated in the fields along the steep mountain-sides. Patches 
 of tobacco, mulberry gardens, and extensive vineyards climb the 
 mountain heights, surround the villages, and descend into the deep 
 wadys far below, while here and there and everywhere, in little val- 
 leys and sheltered nooks, silver-leafed poplars, walnuts, figs, apples, 
 pears, plums, peaches, quinces, and other fruit -bearing trees arc 
 seen in all their leafy perfection. 
 
 As the road winds along the brink of this gorge of the Kadisha, 
 with its perpendicular sides over a thousand feet high, we can look 
 down from time to time into its profound depths. 
 
 "The gorge," says Dr. Robinson, "is for the most part deeper 
 and wilder than any other in Lebanon. Its great depth, its sides 
 — rocky, precipitous, and dark — closely approaching each other be- 
 low, and then in some parts gradually sloping off and opening out 
 above; the rich cultivation and exuberant fertility of every si)ot 
 where earth can be made to lie; the gardens of fruit -trees, the 
 
 ' Early Travels, pp. 502, 503.
 
 26o THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 mulberry plantations, and the fields of grain and vegetables cloth- 
 ing and adorning its sides, and mingling everywhere with bold, 
 romantic rocks and precipices ; the villages, sometimes peeping 
 from among the trees, and sometimes perched picturesquely on 
 the rocks ; the convents, thrust into curious remote nooks and in- 
 accessible places, sometimes deep in the valley, and sometimes on 
 the summits of the surrounding mountains — all these presented a 
 scene singularly wild, picturesque, and beautiful.'" 
 
 As we descend into the valley, in order to ford the Kadisha, 
 purling rills and shooting streams everywhere cross our path and 
 disappear in the depths below, and the scenery in all directions is 
 grand and sublime — the deep gorge and basin ; the streams from 
 the sources of the Kadisha tumbling and foaming along their chan- 
 nels to form the holy river; the convents, the verdure, and the 
 villages ; the great wady which, from the bottom to the summit of 
 the mountain, appears only as one unbroken slope; and the magni- 
 ficent snow-capped range of the Lebanon above the cedars, which 
 forms the amphitheatre in which all are contained — these here 
 combine the beauty and the grandeur of Lebanon.'' 
 
 Bsherreh, on the northern side of the gorge, is a large village, 
 and the houses, rising tier above tier up the mountain-side, give 
 it quite a striking and imposing appearance. 
 
 It is surrounded and half concealed by groves of silver-leafed 
 poplar and walnut trees, oak woods, fig orchards, mulberry terraces, 
 vegetable gardens, vines and vineyards ; but a near acquaintance 
 reveals the same neglect and squalor which characterize every vil- 
 lage on Lebanon. The streets are mere lanes — crooked, narrow, 
 and filthy — winding at random up and down amongst the houses. 
 There are a few shops where the mountaineers procure their sup- 
 plies of groceries, clothing materials, and other necessaries. We 
 must there replenish our exhausted commissariat, have our horses 
 re-shod, and allow the men time to purchase barley for the animals 
 and supplies for themselves during our stay at the Cedars, and for 
 two days' journey beyond, until we reach Ba'albek. 
 
 The holy river is here divided into several streams, and fording 
 them is not so formidable as I had expected. 
 
 ' Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 597. ^ Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 597.
 
 A PRIMITIVE BRIDGE.— BSHERREH.—" THE CEDARS OF GOD." 261 
 
 Earlier in the season I have crossed el Kadisha — with horses 
 and loaded mules — on one of the most primitive of bridges, even in 
 this rural region, constructed by laying trunks of trees across the 
 stream, and placing slabs of stone upon them, covering the whole 
 with thorn-bushes, grass, and earth. 
 
 Bsherreh is abundantly supplied with water; and the gardens 
 in its immediate neighborhood, although apparently just clinging 
 to the cliffs below, and climbing the mountain above the village, 
 are very productive. The arable lands are extensive, and yield 
 good crops of wheat, barley, Indian-corn, tobacco, and potatoes. 
 While our men are making their purchases we will pass on and 
 up towards our camping- ground. It will take an hour's steady 
 climbing, over a road steep, rough, and slippery, to reach our desti- 
 nation ; but the extensive views obtained as we ascend are cer- 
 tainly amongst the most impressive in this part of Lebanon. 
 
 The dark clouds overhead have passed away, and the setting 
 sun fills the gorge of the holy river far below us with its mellow 
 light. Those trees standing like sentinels watching our approach 
 are the advance-guard of the grove under whose solemn and sug- 
 gestive shadow we propose to pass a quiet Sabbath amongst the 
 far-famed " Cedars of God." 
 
 Sunday, September 7th. 
 I could spend a week here, merely to breathe the cool, fresh 
 air, fragrant with aromatic odors from "the trees of the Lord [that] 
 are full of sap; the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted; 
 where the birds make their nests;" and to enjoy the universal 
 quiet and the solemn grandeur of these venerable patriarchs of the 
 grove, which is so very impressive.' Tree and branch and twig 
 and leaf are still and motionless, keeping a Sabbath of reverent 
 re: t, and there is nothing to disturb the peacefulness of the place. 
 Even the ravens and crows and the tiny finches seem to glide in 
 and out of the uppermost boughs with unwonted sobriety. 
 
 The cedar was pre-eminently the l^ible tree, greatly admired 
 
 and esteemed by the Jews, and its Hebrew name is still preserved 
 
 ' in the modern Arabic one, cl arz. " To the sacred writers the 
 
 cedar was the noblest of trees — the monarch of the vegetable 
 
 ' I'sa. civ. 16, 17.
 
 262 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 kingdom. ' Solomon spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in 
 Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." 
 To the prophets it was the favorite emblem for greatness, splen- 
 dor, and majesty; hence kings and nobles, the pillars of society, 
 are everywhere cedars of Lebanon.'" And to the Psalmist it was 
 the type of increasing prosperity for the righteous : " he shall grow 
 like a cedar in Lebanon.'" The cedar was celebrated in Bible 
 times for its great height. According to Amos the Lord says, 
 " Yet destroyed I the Amorite before them, whose height was like 
 the height of the cedars.'" Isaiah tells us that "the day of the 
 Lord of hosts shall be upon all the cedars of Lebanon, that are 
 high and lifted up.'" ''Sennacherib, king of Assyria," in his pride 
 and arrogance, " reproached the Lord and said. With the multitude 
 of my chariots I am come up to the height of the mountains, to 
 the sides of Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedars thereof.'" 
 And so Ezekiel represents the Lord as saying, " I will also take 
 of the highest branch of the high cedar;" and the same idea is 
 implied in other passages of the Bible.' 
 
 The cedar had special claims to be regarded with reverence by 
 the Jews, and, owing to its fragrance, its yielding readily to the 
 skilful hand of the artificer, and its durability, cedar-wood appears 
 to have been considered by them as amongst the choicest of woods. 
 It was always present in the palaces of their kings, and may be 
 said to have "assisted" in the worship of God in the Jewish 
 temples. "The king [David] said unto Nathan the prophet, See 
 now, I dwell in an house of cedar, but the ark of God dwelleth 
 within curtains.'" "Solomon built also the house of the forest of 
 Lebanon, upon four rows of cedar pillars, with cedar beams upon 
 the pillars, and it was covered with cedar above upon the beams.'" 
 " Solomon covered the house [the temple of God] with beams and 
 boards of cedar; and the cedar of the house within was carved 
 with knobs and open flowers: all was cedar: the altar was cedar 
 overlaid with pure gold.'"" In the time of Zerubbabel the men of 
 
 ' I Kings iv. 33. " Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 591. ^ Psa. xcii. 12. 
 
 * Amos ii. 9. ^ Isa. ii. 12, 13. « 2 Kings xix. 20-23. 
 
 "> Ezek. xvii. 22. * 2 Sam. vii. 2. ' i Kings vii. 2, 3. 
 
 '» I Kings vi. 9, 10, 15-18, 20.
 
 IMAGE OF A GOD.— CEDAR-WOOD IN NINEVEH. 263 
 
 Sidon and Tyre brought " cedar trees from Lebanon to the sea 
 of Joppa," as was done in the days of Solomon, to be used in 
 building the second temple " according to the grant that they 
 had of Cyrus;"' and Josephus tells us that "the roofs" of Herod's 
 temple "were adorned with cedar curiously graven."' 
 
 Isaiah leads us to infer that cedar-wood was used in the manu- 
 facture of graven images by cunning workmen ; that the worshipper 
 of idols " chooseth a tree that will not rot ; he heweth him down 
 cedars; he burneth part thereof in the fire; with part thereof he 
 eateth flesh ; he roasteth roast, and is satisfied ; yea, he warmeth 
 himself, and saith, Aha, I am warm, I have seen the fire; and the 
 residue thereof he maketh a god, even his graven image."" That 
 the cedar "will not rot" appears to be confirmed by specimens 
 taken from the most ancient ruins which man has explored. 
 " Fragments of cedar-wood, about three thousand years old, were 
 found in the ruins of Nineveh by Mr. Layard, and are now in the 
 British Museum. They were first supposed to be yew ; but a care- 
 ful microscopic examination made by Mr. Carruthers, with the 
 odor they emitted when burnt, proved it to be cedar-wood."' 
 
 There is no mention of the cedar-tree in the New Testament. 
 
 Simply, I suppose, because our Lord and his disciples had no 
 occasion to allude to it. Nor is it necessary to insist that, in the 
 fifty or more notices found in the Old Testament, reference is 
 always made to the cedar of Lebanon. Evidently it did not grow 
 in the desert, and the cedar -wood mentioned in Leviticus and 
 Numbers was probably a species of juniper.^ So also the state- 
 ments in Ezekiel, that masts of cedar were made for the ships of 
 Tyre, may have had reference to exceptional cases, as the ordinary 
 pine of the country was better adapted for such purposes." 
 
 The parable of the trees inviting the bramble to rule over them, 
 and the indignant reply, " Let fire come out of the bramble and 
 devour the cedars of Lebanon" — the allegory of the thistle pro- 
 posing the marriage of its son to the daughter of the cedar—" and 
 there passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon and trode down 
 
 ' Ezra iii. 7. ' Wars v. 5, 2. ^ Isa. xl. 20; xliv. 14. 16. 17. 
 
 •• Hist, of Hil). riants, j). 123. * Ecv. xiv. 4, 6, 7 ; Niimh. xix. (t. 
 
 ' Ezek. xxvii. 5.
 
 264 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the thistle" — both, I suppose, are as well adapted to rebuke the 
 proud and pretentious now as they were then.' 
 
 Alas ! flames far more destructive than any " out of the bram- 
 ble " have devoured " the goodly cedars." " Open thy doors, O 
 Lebanon, that the fire may devour thy cedars."^ And not only 
 has the charcoal-burner consumed " the glory of Lebanon " in his 
 smouldering pits, but forked lightning sometimes rends asunder 
 the strongest and shatters the tallest trees amongst them. "The 
 voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars ; yea, the Lord breaketh the 
 cedars of Lebanon."^ Isaiah tells us that they rejoiced at the fall 
 of Babylon, "saying, Since thou art laid down no feller is come 
 up against us;" yet more barbarous fellers than the hosts of 
 Babylon have raised their Vandal axes against " the cedars of 
 God," not to build and adorn the palaces of kings and the tem- 
 ples of the Lord, but to burn and destroy, and to manufacture into 
 tar and pitch for the navy of a Christian nation.^ 
 
 On some of my former visits to this grove I have found the 
 nights extremely cold, even in the middle of September. Several 
 years ago, in company with a party of ladies and gentlemen — Eng- 
 lish, Scotch, French, and American — we came here to spend the 
 day of rest. Saturday had been cold, misty, and gloomy, and this 
 grove was enveloped in a dense fog. Sunday morning, however, 
 dawned upon us clear and bright, and the day was one of unal- 
 loyed enjoyment, not soon to be forgotten. In the presence of 
 such impressive scenes and scenery conversation seemed almost an 
 impertinence, and the morning was spent in wandering through the 
 grove in silent meditation. Our party dined beneath the verdant 
 canopy of these venerable trees, and, as was natural, the topics of 
 conversation were mostly suggested by our immediate surround- 
 ings. As the cedar was pre-eminently a Biblical tree, it was pro- 
 posed that we form ourselves into a Sunday-school class, the lesson 
 being the Cedars of Lebanon ; and we proceeded to search out and 
 read over the passages in the Bible in which they were mentioned, 
 and to compare the ancient with the modern tree. 
 
 Li order to correspond to the Biblical descriptions, the cedar- 
 
 ' Judges ix. 15; 2 Chion. xxv. 18. ' Zech. xi. i. 
 
 2 Psa. xxix. 5. ^ Isa. xiv. 8.
 
 THE CEDARS OF LEBANON.— OLD GLACL\L MORAINES. 265 
 
 tree should be tall, goodly, choice, excellent; flourishing and abun- 
 dant, with spreading branches and umbrageous foliage, and of great 
 strength and durability. " The Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon 
 with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and of an high 
 stature; and his top was among the thick boughs. His height 
 was exalted above all the trees of the field, and his boughs were 
 multiplied, and his branches became long. Not any tree in the 
 garden of God was like unto him in his beauty; so that all the 
 trees of Eden envaed him."' 
 
 " The cedars [of this grove] are not less remarkable," says Dr. 
 Robinson, " for their position than for their age and size. The 
 lofty ridge of the mountain trends slightly towards the east; and 
 then, after resuming its former direction, throws off a spur of equal 
 altitude towards the west, which sinks down gradually into the 
 ridge terminating at Ehden. This ridge sweeps round so as to 
 become nearly parallel with the main ridge, thus forming an im- 
 mense recess or amphitheatre, approaching the horseshoe form : 
 surrounded by the loftiest ridges of Lebanon [over six thousand 
 feet high and], which rise still [three or four thousand feet] above 
 it, and are partly covered with snows. In the midst of this amphi- 
 theatre [on a group of half a dozen small knolls] stand the cedars, 
 utterly alone, with not a tree besides, nor hardly a green thing in 
 sight — ['at the apex of the vegetable world"]. The amphitheatre 
 fronts towards the west ; and, as seen from the cedars, the snow 
 extends round from south to north. High up in the recess the 
 deep, precipitous chasm of the Kadisha has its beginning, the 
 wildest and grandest of all the gorges of Lebanon."^ 
 
 Canon Tristram aptly remarks that the general appearance of 
 this grove is of a thick clump, as though it was the r(imnant of 
 some ancient forest." The little rocky knolls upon which it stands, 
 and which Dr. Hooker believes to be "old moraines deposited by 
 glaciers," cover but a few acres of the arena enclosed within this 
 vast amphitheatre, and the trees themselves do not exceed four 
 hundred, of all sizes and ages. There is a regular gradation from 
 small and comparatively young trees to the largest and oldest patri- 
 
 ' Kzck. xxxi. 3, 5, 8, 9. '■' Dc.nn Stanley. 
 
 ^ Rob. Res., vol. iii. pp. 590, 591. * Land of Israel, p. 629.
 
 266 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 archs of the forest. The large trees are about twelve in number, 
 and have several trunks, dividing into three or more great branches 
 a few feet from the ground. Of those trees some are over forty 
 feet in circumference, others thirty and twenty feet in girth. They 
 are from fifty to eighty feet in height, "with fair branches," and 
 their " shadowing shroud " spreads widely around. 
 
 Nothing very satisfactory has yet been ascertained in regard to 
 the age of these cedars, nor are they more ready to reveal it than 
 those who have an uneasy consciousness of "length of days." Very 
 different estimates have been made by botanists and others, var>'- 
 ing from eight hundred to two thousand and even three thousand 
 years ; but the method of ascertaining their approximate age by 
 counting the growths, or concentric circles, in a section of the 
 trunk does not appear to be very reliable. 
 
 Some of these trees are, certainly, very old ; they have names 
 and dates of persons known and unknown to fame carved upon 
 their gnarled and knotted trunks many generations ago, and the 
 growth of the tree since then is hardly perceptible. 
 
 One cannot look upon these patriarchs of the forest — the glory 
 of Lebanon — without feeling that they are endowed with a species 
 of immortality — their ancient story! — their glory and renown! 
 coming down the ages from "the garden of God" — "the cedars 
 of Lebanon which he hath planted" — to the temple of the Lord — 
 from the time of David, Solomon, and Hiram to the days of Ze- 
 rubbabel and Herod the Great. As they stand now they have 
 stood for many centuries, looking down in tranquil repose upon 
 the ephemeral generations of mankind as they passed on to ob- 
 livion ; and it is their great antiquity and renown which are their 
 chief glory, and attract so many from all parts of the earth to 
 make " pilgrimages " to this " sacred grove," and to meditate 
 within the mystic circle of its " shadowing shroud." 
 
 Wandering through the grove this morning, I noticed, near the 
 south-west part of it, four trees that have become inextricably in- 
 tertwined. About twenty-five feet from the ground two of them 
 have grown together, and a large branch of the third has passed 
 into and through the trunk of the second tree, near the same 
 place. Twenty feet higher up, a stout limb from the third tree
 
 FOUR CEDAR-TREES INTERTWINED. 
 
 267 
 
 AN AGED CEUAR Ol' LEKANON. 
 
 has also passed through the second, and. still higher up, a strong 
 branch from it is similarly united with the same tree. Finally, the 
 third tree has become firmly joined to the fourth, and no one of 
 the four could be felled without cutting down all the others. 
 
 I suppose that growing together was the result of friction after 
 the several branches had become permanently intertwined. Dean 
 Stanley probably alludes to the same unusual spectacle when he
 
 268 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 says: "In one or two instances the boughs of these aged trees are 
 held up by a younger tree; others, again, of the smaller ones, 
 whose trunks are decayed, are actually supported in the gigantic 
 arms of their elder brethren." 
 
 The form and shape of the cedar give to it a very striking 
 and graceful appearance. In places where it can grow naturally 
 and freely the tree assumes somewhat the symmetry of its beau- 
 tiful cone. The branches spread out horizontally from the main 
 trunk, and the lower ones are the longest. These again divide into 
 other boughs, which preserve the same horizontal direction, and 
 so on to the smallest twig; and even the leaves follow the same 
 general arrangement. Climb into one of these trees, and you will 
 see a succession of verdant floors beneath your feet, and similar 
 floors overhead, spreading around the trunk, and gradually con- 
 tracting their circuit, as you approach the topmost boughs. The 
 cedar-cones stand upon or rise perpendicularly out of that green 
 flooring. Travellers gather and carry them to their distant homes, 
 and they are found in private cabinets more frequently than almost 
 any other memento from the Holy Land. 
 
 Forty-five years ago, when visitors and travellers were few and 
 far between, I found hundreds of young trees and shoots springing 
 up from the seeds of the ripe cones, and from the roots of the aged 
 cedars; and an effort was made to protect them from the goats and 
 cattle of the shepherd and the peasant. That, however, was soon 
 abandoned, and during the summer and autumn this grove is over- 
 run by men and animals, and the young cedars are trampled upon 
 and destroyed. This shows that, instead of four hundred, there 
 might be as many thousand trees in the grove, and that the whole 
 of the lofty ridges of Lebanon could again be covered with cedars. 
 
 It is some consolation to know that, if this forest of cedar 
 should slowly die out and disappear through the negligence and 
 vandalism of the natives and the ruinous policy of the Turks, the 
 tree itself will not be lost. It has been propagated from seeds 
 in the parks and gardens of Europe, and there are specimens of 
 the cedar in England, I suppose, as fine as these in this "sacred 
 grove" upon the heights of goodly Lebanon. 
 
 The wood, bark, cones, and even the slender leaves of the cedar
 
 FEAST OF THE CEDARS.— PRIEST AND CHAPEL. 269 
 
 are " full of sap," as the Psalmist has it. imparting to them their 
 peculiar fragrance and their abiding life ; and it was that which 
 rendered cedar-wood valuable, and also imperishable ; but, owing 
 principally to the scarcity of the tree, the timber is now rarely 
 used for building purposes in this countr\-. 
 
 During most of my former visits a holy quiet seemed to pervade 
 this grove, and I have always regarded it with those feelings of 
 reverence and solemnity which no other spot on Lebanon is calcu- 
 lated to inspire. I am not surprised, therefore, that even to this 
 day it is invested with a religious sanctity by multitudes of Chris- 
 tians. The i\Iaronites of these mountains assemble here in Au- 
 gust, and celebrate the Feast of the Cedars under these venerable 
 trees. More than forty years ago, on my second visit to this grove, 
 I heard "mass" performed in a rude and rustic chapel, which has 
 given place to the little edifice lately erected by the poor priest 
 who now solicits aid from travellers for its maintenance and his 
 own support. He complains, and not without reason, of the sad 
 decline of relicrious zeal in these modern times.
 
 270 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 THE CEDARS TO HURMUL AND BA'ALBEK. 
 
 The Summit-level of the Lebanon Range. — The Cedar Mountain.— Jebel Mukhmal. — 
 Pass over Lebanon Described by Dr. Buchanan. — Ehden. — Paradisus. — Yusuf Karam. 
 — Pass around the West End of Lebanon. — Tripolis. — El Mina. — Small Islands 
 North-west of Tripoli.— The Castle of Tripoli. — Library at Tripoli Burnt during the 
 Crusades. — Burckhardt. — Tarablus esh Sham. — Terminus of the Euphrates Valley 
 Railroad. — Ruwad, Arvad. — Cyclopean Wall. — Alexander the Great. — Tartus, Tor- 
 tosa. — Castle and Church at Tartus. — Bombardment of Tartus. — Antaridus. — Ancient 
 Quarries. — Idol-temple. — Remains near 'Ain el Haiyeh. — Sepulchral Monuments. — 
 M. Renan. — Marathus. — Area.— Tell 'Arka.— Temple of Alexander. — The Emperor 
 Severus. — The Holy Lance. — Ruins of Area. — Tunnel. — Fossil Shells. — Exuberant 
 Verdure and Grand Sceneiy. — Nahr el Barid. — Orthosia. — Ruined Temple on Harf 
 es Sphiry. — Dining with the Beg at Sir. — The Man of Uz. — The Sabbatical River. 
 — Fauwar ed Deir. — Intermitting Fountains. — Gray Squirrels and Walnut-trees. — 
 Fountain and Overhanging Cliff. — View from the Pass above Sir. — Cloud-burst.— 
 Homer. — Tydens. — Dislocated Strata. —Wheat and Snow. — Sheepfolds. — 'Ain el 
 Beida. — Natives Making Tar. — A Mountain Meadow. — Et Tubban. — Water-shed. — 
 Wady Farah. — "Boundless Contiguity of Shade." — 'Ain el Ayun. — Dahar el Kiidhib. 
 — A Camp-fire on Lebanon. — Personal Incident at Hurmul. — Local Rebellion. — 
 Hurmul. — Woodland Scenery on Lebanon Described by Van de Velde. — " The En- 
 trance of Hamath." — Dr. Robinson. — Ribleh. — Pharaoh and Josiah. — Nebuchadnezzar 
 and Zedekiah. — A Dreadful Massacre. — The Camping-ground of Fierce Conquerors. 
 — The Hittites. — The Kheta. — Egyptian Inscriptions. — Rameses II. — M. Ebers. — 
 Battle near Kadesh between the Egyptians and the Kheta. — The "Right Arm" of 
 Rameses II. — Pentaur. — The Iliad of the Egyptians. — "I was alone." — Rameses II. 
 Fighting the Kheta, with Two Lions at his Side. — A Warlike and Powerful People. — 
 The Report of the Spies sent by Moses. — Frequent Communication between Egypt 
 and Syria in Patriarchal Times. — Egyptian Influence in Syria. — Site of Ketesh. — 
 Kedes. — Laodicea. — Tell Neby Mindau. — Lake of Hums or Kedes. — Stone Dam. — 
 Abulfeda. — Canal to Hums. — Rivulets and Corn-fields. — The Fountains of the Oron- 
 tes Described by Van de Velde. — Neb'a el 'Asy. — The Orontes. — The Monk's Cavern. 
 — Kamu'a el Hiirmul. — Hunting Scenes Delineated on the Kamii'a. — Outlook over 
 the Plain from the Kamu'a. — The Canal from 'Ain Lebweh to Ka'a. — Perpendicular 
 Banks above Neb'a el 'Asy.^Ras Ba'albek. — Conna. — Wady Fikeh. — El 'Ain. —
 
 SUMMIT-LEVEL OF LEBANON.— THE CEDAR MOUNTAIN. 2/1 
 
 Aiji. — The Water-shed. — A Night in a Bedawin Encampment. — Lebweh. — Lybo. — 
 Saracen and Crusader. — Neb'a Lebweh. — An Oasis in the Desert. — Lake Yemmuneh. 
 
 Disappearance of the Water of the Lake. — Ruined Temple at Yemmuneh. — Vil- 
 
 lat^es on the Hill-sides, not in the Plain. — Lone Column in the Biikd'a. — Ancient 
 Temple and Rock-cut Tombs at Nahleh. 
 
 September Sth. 
 
 Instead of following the ordinary road from the Cedars to 
 Ba'albek, we will take a nnore circuitous course, across the ranges 
 of northern Lebanon, to the source of the river Orontes, near 
 Kamu'a el Hurmul, and thence southward, ascending the broad 
 valley between the two ranges of Lebanon and Anti- Lebanon to 
 Ba'albek. That route will lead us through regions about which 
 very little is known ; but we have only to follow the muleteers, 
 who have already started with a guide for Sir, where we are to 
 encamp for the night. Our course for the first three hours will be 
 westward along the lofty ridge which comes to an end above the 
 picturesque village of Ehden. 
 
 It is evident that our tour to the Cedars has not brought us to 
 the termination of goodly Lebanon. 
 
 Far from it. This mountain -range extends at least twenty 
 miles farther to the north-east, and then it descends gradually 
 down to the lower hills of Jebel 'Akkar, which connect, it with the 
 mountains of the Nusairiyeh. The characteristic feature of the 
 range is also changed. From Taum Niha, on the extreme south, 
 up to this lofty peak east of the Cedars, the summit-level of Leba- 
 non is quite narrow— not more than a mile wide. But from there 
 northward it expands into an elevated plateau at least ten miles 
 broad— a cold, barren, and uninhabited region, fit haunt of bears, 
 wolves, jackals, and other wild animals. 
 
 Nothing, certainly, in this country can exceed in grandeur this 
 vast amphitheatre around the Cedars; and the views of the grove. 
 and those of lofty Lebanon towering above it, which we obtain from 
 many projecting points along our road, will never be forgotten. 
 
 The range is here called Jebel el Arz, the Cedar Mountain ; 
 and the highest peak overhanging the grove is Jebel Mokhmal. 
 It is more than ten thousand two hundred feet above the level of 
 the sea— probably the most elevated point of land in all S\ria. 
 higher than Sunnin, and even Mount Hcrmon. To those coming
 
 272 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 from Ba'albek to the Cedars the outlook from the top of the pass 
 over them is, perhaps, the most extensive in this region. For about 
 two hours the road winds up the steep mountain -side, affording 
 many fine views of the distant range of Anti-Lebanon and the far- 
 off ruins of Ba'albek ; the broad and varied plain of Coelesyria, and 
 the silvery lake of el Yemmoneh, gleaming in the sunlight ; the 
 bleak little village of 'Ainata, built upon a spur of the mountain, 
 its beautiful grove of walnut-trees almost directly below ; and the 
 magnificent and nearly perpendicular sweep of the Lebanon range 
 extending southward far as the eye can follow. 
 
 Such is the prospect from the eastern side of Lebanon over 
 the plain of Coelesyria. The outlook westward from the top of 
 the pass above the Cedars is thus described by Dr. Buchanan: "As 
 we approached the summit of the mountain our path lay over un- 
 broken snow. Never shall I forget, while memory lasts, the mag- 
 nificence of the view which burst upon us when we suddenly turned 
 the narrow ridge of the mountain. Before gaining this point we 
 had many times turned round to gaze w^ith rapture on the scene 
 we were leaving behind. But grand as that view was, it seemed 
 almost tame and commonplace in comparison with the wonderful 
 and glorious sight that opened upon us when we at length reached 
 the summit of this gigantic mountain wall and looked over to the 
 other side. The range of the Lebanon at this particular point is 
 so narrow as almost to resemble the top of a wall. This singular 
 peculiarity is caused by the immense gash made by the valley of 
 the Kadisha, which nearly cuts the mountain through. 
 
 "We were now standing at the top, and on the very brink of 
 this crevasse, which descends rapidly to the broad and beautiful 
 plain that stretches out from the western base of the mountain to 
 the sea-shore at Tripoli. It is made up of a succession of vast 
 basins or cavities, with sudden breaks or precipices dropping sheer 
 down from one to another, and walled in, all the way down, by 
 mountain heights overhanging this abyss on either hand. The 
 bottom of the uppermost of these large cavities lay about fifteen 
 hundred feet beneath us. Sweeping forward from the point where 
 we stood, the mountain encloses it on two sides, rising at the same 
 time several thousand feet higher above it than at the point where
 
 SCENE FROM THE TOP OF THE PASS ABOVE THE CEDARS. 273 
 
 we stood. We were therefore lookinj^ down into this enormous 
 cavity, and away downwards and onwards to the phiin and the 
 sea, between these stupendous heights. 
 
 " It is amongst these heights the Lebanon attains its loftiest 
 elevation — the cluster of peaks immediately in front of us on the 
 right rising over ten thousand feet above the sea-level, while those 
 on the left are not much lower, and both of them, from their sum- 
 mits down to the vast hollow or cavitx' between them, exhibited 
 one unbroken mass of dazzling snow. It is necessary to conceive 
 of this foreground in order to form any correct idea of the striking 
 and almost supernatural appearance of the scene which here met 
 our startled and bewildered eyes. 
 
 " Light fleecy clouds were sailing across our line of vision from 
 one mountain -side to another. The glorious blue heaven was 
 above our heads. Far down beneath us, at the bottom of the 
 gorge, gleamed [the Holy River] in the bright sunshine, and the 
 plain seemed almost at our feet. [On its outer margin] was Tri- 
 poli, shining brightly above the dark foliage of the groves and gar- 
 dens around it ; and there was the sea, as blue as the sky, [rising 
 up to] those fleecy clouds .... and there was another expanse of 
 blue [rising above them] to the sky. It was the sea seen at the 
 same moment both below and above the clouds ! We stood 
 amidst the snow gazing in a sort of ecstasy on this wonderful and 
 truly glorious scene. The first object that attracted our notice, in 
 a corner of the huge cavity or basin immediately beneath us, was 
 a group of trees — one solitary clump — standing apparently on a 
 floor of gray rock, only a few hundred yards beneath the line of 
 the snow. These were the Cedars of Lebanon.'" 
 
 Our road from the Cedars, though rough and rocky, has been 
 endlessly diversified by distant views of mountain scenery, com- 
 bining every element of beauty, grandeur, and sublimity. We 
 have had glimpses of the profound gorge of the holy river Radi- 
 sh a ; have seen, far below and above us, several villages and con- 
 vents; have crossed green valleys and purling streams; have been 
 refreshed by the waters of cold and sparkling fountains; ami ha\e 
 at last, after a pleasant ride of three hours, arrived at this pretty 
 ' Notes of a Clerical Fuilougli, ]). 432-434. 
 
 •T
 
 2-74 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 villa"-e of Ehden, embowered in verdure, and surrounded by vine- 
 yards, mulberry terraces, and pine, fig, and walnut trees. 
 
 Ehden is about five thousand feet above the level of the sea, 
 and from its advantageous position, on the slope of the mountain 
 at the north-western angle of the great amphitheatre around the 
 Cedars, it commands a magnificent outlook in all directions. It 
 has abundant fountains, substantial houses and churches, and the 
 inhabitants are remarkably enterprising and prosperous. Nor is it 
 entirely unknown to fame : it has been confounded by Maronite 
 monks with the Paradisus of the ancients, and " is said to have 
 been the birthplace of the Maronite scholar, Gabriel Sionita, the 
 editor of the Syrian version in the Paris Polyglot.'" Formerly it 
 was the seat of a Maronite bishop, and more recently it became 
 the refuge of a Maronite rebel against the Government, Yusuf 
 Karam, the ruins of whose dwelling are still to be seen in the 
 middle of the village. In the winter this place is buried in deep 
 snow, and those of the inhabitants who can do so then descend 
 to Zugharta, a large village on the south side of a fertile valley 
 between the foot-hills of the mountain and the city of Tripoli. 
 
 Since leaving Ehden the direction of our ride has changed to 
 the north-east, and from the top of this pass around the west end 
 of the mountain we must bid farewell to the city of Tripoli and 
 that vast expanse of land and sea. 
 
 Owing to the great transparency of the atmosphere to-day 
 Tripoli seems to be surprisingly near. 
 
 It is at least seven thousand feet below us, and it would take 
 more than nine hours to reach it. 
 
 Compared with Tyre and Sidon, Tripoli appears to have but 
 little historic interest, either ancient or modern. 
 
 And yet it has long been, and is now, one of the most impor- 
 tant towns on this coast. The ancient geographers inform us that 
 it was founded about 700 B.C. by three colonies from Arvad — that 
 little island of Ruwad, away to the north — Sidon, and Tyre, and 
 that they occupied separate quarters ; hence the name Tripolis, 
 triple city. Its Phoenician name is supposed to have been Kady- 
 tis, " the holy ;" and it is inferred that the river Kadisha, which 
 
 ' Rob. Res. vol. iii. p. 587.
 
 TRIPOLI.— TOWERS AND ISLANDS.— THE CASTLE. 275 
 
 runs through the town, still preserves the form and significance of 
 that ancient name. It is not mentioned in the Bible, nor even 
 alluded to by classic writers until the times of the Greeks. El 
 IMina, the harbor, appears to occupy the site of the original town. 
 Tripoli was a member of the Phoenician league, and participated in 
 an unsuccessful revolt against the Persians. In Alexander's time 
 it was a seaport of the first rank, and continued to increase in com- 
 mercial importance until after the Moslem invasion, when the town 
 was destroyed, and the present city of Tarablus was founded, about 
 two miles inland, towards the south-east. Tripoli was one of the 
 last cities that surrendered to the Saracens, on the final overthrow 
 of the Frank kingdom in Syria and the Holy Land. 
 
 The shore between the mouth of the Kadisha and the north- 
 western end of the Mina was defended by a number of square 
 towers. There were originally seven, but one of them has entirely 
 disappeared, and the remaining six are dilapidated and fast crum- 
 bling into shapeless ruins. The best-preserved is Burj es Scba'a, 
 the lions' tower, so called from a tradition that two lions were for- 
 merly visible on a slab over the entrance — probably the shield and 
 arms of Count Raymond of Toulouse. Burj es Seba'a is ninety 
 feet long and sixty-six feet wide, and it has seventy granite col- 
 umns built into its walls. All those towers were probably con- 
 structed during the times of the Crusaders. A group of about a 
 dozen small and rocky islands extends into the sea, from el Mina 
 towards the north-west, for several miles. The largest and the 
 most distant is called Sha'ishet el Kady ; the next is er Rumkin ; 
 and the third in number and size is en Nukhl, distinguished by a 
 palm-tree, from which the name is derived. It is said that a num- 
 ber of rabbits inhabited it in former times, and that there are an- 
 cient remains and several deep wells on another island. Those 
 near the shore are merely ragged rocks, rising only a few feet out 
 of the water, and have nothing remarkable about them. 
 
 When the Crusaders besieged Tripoli, in 1 104, Count Raymond 
 built the existing castle on the hill, then called the Pilgrims' 
 Mount, at the entrance of the Kadisha into the plain, in order to 
 protect pilgrims and harass the Moslem.s. Arab historians relate 
 the story of the burning of a great library, containing over one
 
 276 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 hundred thousand volumes, in Arabic, Persian, and Greek, when 
 the city was captured five years after by Baldwin, and Bertram, the 
 son of Count Raymond. A fanatical priest in his train, finding 
 many copies of the Koran in the library, concluded that it con- 
 tained nothing else, and ordered the entire collection to be burnt. 
 The library was founded by Abu Talib, an author of some cele- 
 brity ; and Moslem writers lament the destruction of so extensive a 
 library, but the historians of the Crusades do not even mention it. 
 
 Tarablus, or modern Tripoli, is often mentioned by Arab writ- 
 ers, who speak with enthusiasm of its wealth and the beauty of 
 its gardens, surpassed only by those of Damascus. Then, as now, 
 it abounded in extensive gardens of orange, lemon, apricot, pear, 
 plum, apple, and other fruit trees ; but it is, by way of eminence, 
 the city of roses. "Tripoli is built upon the declivity of the low- 
 est hills of the Lebanon, and is divided by Nahr el Kadisha into 
 two parts, of which the southern is the most considerable. On 
 the north side of the river, upon the summit of the hill, stands the 
 tomb of Sheikh Abu Nusr, and opposite to it, on the south side, 
 the castle, built in the time of the Crusades ; this castle has often 
 been in a ruined state, but it has lately been put into complete 
 repair. Many parts of Tripoli bear marks of the ages of the Cru- 
 sades ; amongst these are several high arcades of Gothic architect- 
 ure, under which the modern streets run. 
 
 " In general the town is well built, and is much embellished by 
 the gardens, which are not only attached to the houses in the town, 
 but cover likewise the whole triangular plain lying between it and 
 the sea. Tripoli stands in one of the most favored spots in all 
 Syria, as the maritime plain and neighboring mountains place every 
 variety of climate within a short distance of the inhabitants.'" 
 " The path leading up either hill [from the river Kadisha] opens 
 on a brilliant and extensive landscape : of the plain, two miles in 
 width, covered with gardens even to the sea ; of the port on the 
 left, with the islands ; of the heights of Lebanon behind, and the 
 boundless and beautiful Mediterranean Sea in front — and over all 
 an atmosphere pure, soft, and splendid."" 
 
 Such was Tarablus esh Sham, Tripoli of Damascus, more than 
 
 ' Burckhardt, Travels, p. 163, 164. '^ Carne's Syria, p. 22, 23.
 
 POPULATION OF TRIPOLI.— HOME OF THE ARVADITES. 2// 
 
 threescore years ago, and such essentially it is at the present day. 
 It is the capital of a military province, the seat of a Greek bishop ; 
 contains churches, monasteries, nunneries, an orphanage, one s)'na- 
 gogue, and the Female Seminary of the American Mission ; it has 
 spacious mosks, with tall minarets, some of which were once 
 Christian churches, and rejoices in ed Derwishiyeh, a monastery of 
 whirling dervishes, picturesquely situated at the foot of the hill, on 
 the left bank of the Kadisha. I might add much more about Tri- 
 poli and its immediate surroundings; but if we loiter along the way 
 until all that could be said is told, our progress would be slow 
 indeed, and the narrative prolonged to weariness. 
 
 \\'hat is the number of the inhabitants in Tripoli? 
 
 About twenty thousand, including six thousand in the Mina. In 
 Tripoli three-fourths of the population is Muhammedan; in the Mina 
 the majority is in favor of the Greeks ; there are, also, in both places 
 a few Maronites and some Jews. Tripoli has declined in commercial 
 importance, and its trade is not very extensive. It consists mainly 
 in silk, soap, olive-oil, tobacco, oranges, lemons, and even potatoes 
 from the gardens and fields in the neighborhood. Sponges have 
 always been a specialty amongst the exports. They are gathered all 
 along the shore, both to the north and south of Tripoli, by native 
 and Greek divers, who frequently bring up portions of the rock 
 with the sponge still adhering to them. If Tripoli should become 
 the terminus of the Euphrates Valley Railroad, leading from the 
 Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, and thus connecting Syria with 
 India, its future growth and prosperity would be assured ; but it 
 has a formidable rival in Alexandretta, whose harbor is safer, though 
 from Tripoli the grade into the interior would be less difficult. 
 
 It will take five hours more to reach our place of encampment, 
 and therefore we must quicken our pace. There is neither village 
 nor human habitation between this and Sir. 
 
 Can you not enliven the loneliness of the ride by giving some 
 account of Ruwad, the island-home of the Arvadites, far away on 
 the horizon to the north of Tripoli ? Since the Arvaditc is men- 
 tioned in the tenth chapter of Genesis, there must be some remains 
 of special interest upon that island, or in its immediate neighbor- 
 hood, for it is one of the oldest historical sites in the world.
 
 278 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Except in Genesis x. 18, and i Chronicles i. 16, Arvad, the son 
 of Canaan, and the Arvadites, his descendants, are not mentioned 
 in the Bible until the time of Ezekiel, nearly two thousand years 
 later. He places " the inhabitants of Arvad " among the mariners 
 of Tyre, and with its army, who " were upon thy walls round 
 about." ' Strabo speaks of the island as a rock in the midst of the 
 waves, inhabited by mariners, and he says that the houses were 
 exceedingly lofty, owing, no doubt, to the limited area of the 
 island. We hear little more of Arvad until the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great, when both the island and the adjacent territory 
 submitted to that conqueror, and its "mariners" assisted in the 
 siege of Tyre. Arvad was an important place, " a city of refuge " 
 for political fugitives, under the Seleucidae ; and it was one of 
 the little kingdoms with which the Romans established friendly 
 relations', and to whose favor they commended the Jews, their con- 
 federates, in the time of the Maccabees." 
 
 Eventually Ruwad fell iiito the hands of the Saracens, who 
 destroyed the city, expelled its inhabitants, and, out of the ruins 
 of their lofty houses and towering palaces, they built the modern 
 castle crowning the highest part of the island. Under the Turks 
 Ruwad has become a heap of ruins and a barren rock; it has now 
 no commercial or political importance, and its inhabitants, few in 
 number and miserably poor, far from affording a refuge to the 
 fugitive, can hardly protect themselves against the exactions of 
 their oppressors. On my first visit to the island I found the castle 
 and its Turkish appendages occupied by the families of seafaring 
 men — sailors, fishers, and sponge-divers — a maritime population 
 unique of its kind, and numbering about two thousand in all. 
 
 Thp shape of the island is an irregular oval, the longest side 
 being from east to west ; but it is very small, not over three-quar- 
 ters of a mile in circumference, and it was formerly enclosed by 
 double walls, probably of Phoenician origin. On the western side, 
 close to the margin of the sea, are the remains of a high wall built 
 of large bevelled stones, which in size and appearance are Cyclo- 
 pean, resembling those in the foundations of the temple at 
 Ba'albek. At one place that wall is still more than thirty-five feet 
 
 ^ Ezek. xxvii. S, il. - I Mace. xv. 23.
 
 HARBOR OF ARVAD.— CASTLE AT TORTOSA. 279 
 
 high, and was originally over fifteen feet thick. From isolated 
 blocks and columns, mostly of basalt, I copied seven Greek inscrip- 
 tions, containing forty-two lines, in a fair state of preservation. 
 
 The harbor was made by extending the massive outer wall into 
 the sea at the north-west and south-east angles of the island. The 
 water thus protected was divided into two harbors by a mole con- 
 structed of immense stones, and carried a short distance towards 
 the main-land. Cisterns, for the storing of Awater and other neces- 
 saries, and even rooms for dwelling purposes, have been excavated 
 in the rock in many parts of the island ; and upon the rain-water 
 collected in those cisterns the present inhabitants mainly depend 
 for their ordinary supply of that indispensable article. 
 
 The position of Arvad was much more formidable than that of 
 Tyre, for it is at least two miles from the main-land, and the depth 
 of the sea Avould have rendered it impossible for even Alexander 
 to deprive it of its insular character, had he desired to do so. As 
 Pal^Etyrus was much larger than the island-city, so the Arvadites 
 had suburbs on the neighboring coast, at Tortosa, and for several 
 miles south of it, far more extensive and of greater interest than 
 anything that could have been erected on their island. 
 
 Tartus, or Tortosa, the ancient Antaridus — situated on the 
 shore to the north-east of Ruwad, and not directly "opposite," as 
 its name implies — though once a large place, is now reduced to an 
 inconsiderable village of less than two thousand inhabitants, who 
 reside, mostly, within the castle of the old city. That castle was 
 defended on the land side by double walls built of massive bevel- 
 led stones, which appear to rest upon their original foundations. 
 The walls had salient towers, and were further protected by a 
 double fosse cut in the solid rock. The one on the outside of the 
 walls is forty feet wide and twelve feet deep ; that between the two 
 walls is sixty-three feet wide, and is parti)' filled up with ruhbisli. 
 On the side towards the sea the castle had only one wall, which is 
 still in good preservation, having been strengthened along its base 
 by a sloping abutment of large, smoothly -cut stones, probably 
 added by the Romans, to protect it from the action of the sea. 
 The entrance to the castle strikes the beholder with surprise b)- 
 its great solidity. It is in a projection of the outer wall, ni'ar to
 
 28o THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and facing the sea, and was formerly reached by a drawbridge 
 across the fosse. The gate opens into a large room with a vaulted 
 or groined roof, and on the keystone of the entrance is a defaced 
 figure deeply cut into it, probably the arms of the Knights of St. 
 John. Crossing the inner fosse and passing through the second 
 wall, the open court of the castle is reached, having on the left a 
 spacious hall one hundred and fifty-five feet long and fifty-six feet 
 wide. The walls were seven feet thick, and the vaulted roof was 
 supported by five clustered columns in the centre of the hall. 
 There were six windows in the front of that hall, and over one of 
 them, carved in relief, is the figure of a lamb, the favorite emblem 
 of the Crusaders, who occupied both the castle and the town. 
 
 Some distance to the south-east of the village and outside the 
 walls are the remains of a fine church, in good preservation, having 
 clustered columns, groined arches, and pointed windows, and appa- 
 rently of the same age and architecture as the hall in the castle. It 
 is now used as a mosk, and a minaret has taken the place of a bel- 
 fry. Its length is one hundred and thirty feet ; its breadth, ninety- 
 three feet ; and its height — over sixty feet — must have given it a 
 conspicuous and imposing appearance. When the English fleet 
 bombarded Tartus in 1840, to dislodge some of Ibrahim Pasha's 
 troops, that church was struck several times, and a cannon-ball was 
 embedded in the western wall over one of the windows. 
 
 The history of Antaradus is essentially the same as that of 
 Arvad, for it was colonized by the Arvadites ; but during the Cru- 
 sades the former seems to have been a place of far greater impor- 
 tance than the latter. Although the town was once taken by 
 Saladin, the Crusaders did not abandon the place until after the 
 final defeat of the Franks at the battle of Hattin. 
 
 About an hour from Tartus, on the right bank of Nahr Amrit, 
 around 'Ain el Haiyeh, and for some distance south of that foun- 
 tain along the road to Tripoli, there are extensive quarries, an 
 excavated idol -temple, and several sepulchral monuments. The 
 mystery about those quarries is, what became of the immense 
 amount of stone that was cut out of them ? The temple — now 
 called el M'abed, the place of worship — consists of a court one 
 hundred and eighty feet long and one hundred and fifty feet
 
 ROCK-HEWN TEMPLE.— SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 28 1 
 
 broad, hewn out of the soHd rock to an average depth of about 
 ten feet, the south side being the highest. The entrance to the 
 temple was probably from the north, as that side of the court ap- 
 pears to have been purposely cut awa}'. In the middle of the 
 court a portion of the rock remains, about ten feet high and more 
 than fifteen feet square. Upon that stands, facing north, what ap- 
 pears to have been the shrine of the idol. It \\as constructed of 
 three large stones, one on either side, and one at the back, upon 
 which rests a huge concave block, like a canopy, fifteen feet long, 
 twelve feet broad, and over six feet thick ; the whole structure 
 being more than twenty feet high, and embellished with a frieze 
 and cornice similar to those on some Egyptian tombs. 
 
 There are ancient remains about 'Ain el Haiyeh — traces of old 
 foundations, ruins of temples, and broken sarcophagi — evidently 
 marking the site of a place of some importance. About a mile 
 south of el M'abed arc several singular sepulchral monuments, 
 called el Maghazil, the spindles. They consist of a pedestal, over 
 fifteen feet square and nearly ten feet high, surmounted by a cy- 
 lindrical or cone-shaped block from six to fourteen feet in height, 
 upon which was a pyramidal stone, the entire height being more 
 than thirty feet. One of those monuments was ornamented at the 
 base with rude sculptures, apparently of lions ; and under all of 
 them there are rock-cut tombs, containing loculil of unusual size. 
 
 Standing alone amidst sand-hills and myrtle jungles, nearly a 
 mile south of el Maghazrl, is a very striking mausoleum, called Burj 
 el Buzzak, the snail's tower. At the base it was about thirty-one 
 feet square, above the base nearly twenty-eight feet square, and the 
 entire monument was almost an exact cube, the height being a 
 little more than thirty feet. It was divided into two stories, con- 
 sisting of one chamber in each, and finished off with a cornice, 
 above which there may have been a pyramidal stone. Burj cl 
 Buzzak was constructed of massive blocks, some of which are 
 nearly fifteen feet long and about eight and a half feet broad, and 
 the floor and roof of the chambers w^ere coipposed of two immense 
 slabs, four feet thick. The top of the monument was reached by 
 a staircase ascending from the inside. M. Kenan, in his " Mission 
 en Phenicie," has described and illustrated those curious sepulchral
 
 282 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 monuments, and he supposes that the ruhis in the neighborhood 
 of 'Ain el Haiyeh are of Phoenician origin. 
 
 The region around the quarries at 'Ain el Haiyeh is called Ard 
 Amrit by the natives, and Amrit may be the Arabic form of the 
 Greek, Marathus, the name of a town and colony founded by the 
 Arvadites, the great-grandsons of Noah. 
 
 Our road, since leaving that lofty stand-point on Lebanon over- 
 looking the plain of Tripoli and the great western sea, led us along 
 a narrow ledge of hard, smooth rock, and then, descended into a 
 deep ravine, densely wooded, on either side, with a great variety of 
 forest trees — oaks of several kinds, sycamores, cypress, juniper, and 
 terebinth trees, and a number of thorny bushes, including the bar- 
 berry and the omnipresent blackberry — a region so wild and unin- 
 habited that only wolves, panthers, and bears are seen there. The 
 nature of the country west and north of us is extremely rough and 
 rocky, especially around the source of the short river of 'Arka, 
 which enters the sea about fifteen miles north-east of Tripoli. 
 That pretty little stream gets its name from a village near the 
 ruins of Area, a Phosnician city, originally founded by the Arkites, 
 the descendants of Canaan's seventh son, according to the record 
 given in the tenth chapter of Genesis. 
 
 Tell 'Arka, the acropolis of the old town, is situated above the 
 plain, about four miles from the sea. It is about a mile in circum- 
 ference, of solid rock at the base, but the upper part was artificial. 
 The sides were quite steep, rising to more than a hundred feet, 
 and the top was flat, covering an area of nearly three acres. The 
 city, built upon a terrace overlooking the Mediterranean, lay around 
 the east, north, and west sides of the tell. The river comes rushing 
 down from the heights of Lebanon east of the tell. Leaping down 
 the mountain-side, tumbling over the rocks and darting through 
 deep ravines, it sweeps by the precipitous side of the tell, and, 
 passing under a bridge of a single span, forces its way through a 
 rocky channel out on to the plain and thence to the sea. 
 
 After the mention of the Arkite in Genesis x. 17 nothing is 
 definitely known of the history of Area until about the time of 
 Vespasian and Titus, when the city was also called Caesarea of 
 Lebanon ; and there appears to have been a temple there, dedicated
 
 TEMPLE OF ALEXANDER.— rETER AND THE IIOLV LANCE. 283 
 
 to Alexander the Great, in which annual festivals were held in his 
 honor. Josephus intimates that Titus passed by Area, on his way 
 to Antioch, after the destruction of Jerusalem.' The emperor 
 Alexander Severus was born in the temple at Area, and recei\-ed 
 his name from that circumstance. Area was the seat of a Chris- 
 tian bishop, and in the fifth century was subordinate to Berytus. 
 Afterwards it fell into the hands of the Saracens, and in the begin- 
 ning of the twelfth century was an important fortress, capable of 
 resisting all the efforts of the Crusaders to get possession of it. 
 
 It was at Area, while the army of the Crusaders was encamped 
 before the place, that the dispute occurred regarding the genuine- 
 ness of the holy lance, with which it was said the Saviour's side had 
 been pierced, and which had been discovered at Antioch by Peter 
 Bartholomew, a priest of Marseilles, and intrusted to the custody 
 of Count Raymond of Thoulouse. As visions and denunciations 
 could not dispel the doubts of the multitude, Peter resolved to sub- 
 mit to the trial or ordeal by fire. That quieted the camp. A fire 
 was kindled on the plain, and Peter, taking the holy lance in his 
 hands, passed through the flames apparently unscathed. But the 
 multitude, in their reverence of Peter, rushed upon him to touch 
 the cross, tore off his clothes for relics, and might have killed him, 
 had not Count Raymond with his guard come to his rescue. The 
 deluded Peter died twelve days after, either from the effects of his 
 burns or his bruises, or both, upbraiding those who had persuaded 
 him to make the dreadful trial. 
 
 The fatal result of that ordeal discouraged the people and their 
 leaders, and after a siege of two months, perceiving that they could 
 not capture Area, they burnt their camp and proceeded on their 
 way to the Holy City. After the fall of Tripoli, Area surrendered 
 to Count William of Cerdagne, and since then it has been taken 
 and retaken by Saracen and Crusader, Egyptian and Turk." 
 
 The ruins of the old town are not extensive, and are found 
 mostly on the north side of the tell. They consist of ordinarx- 
 sized building-stones, with here and there amongst the heaps the 
 fragments of a granite column. The tcini)Ic of Alexander stood on 
 the south-eastern side of the tell, where the rock is perpendicular. 
 ' B. J. vii. 5, I. '' Rob. Res. vol. iii. p. 57S-581.
 
 284 '^^^ LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Its columns have been either shaken down the precipice by the 
 earthquake which destroyed the town in the thirteenth century, or 
 they have been thrown down by the equally destructive Saracen 
 and Turk. I counted sixty-four lying on the bank of the river, 
 one-third of which are of red Syenite, the rest of gray granite. 
 
 High up in the face of the perpendicular rock, above which the 
 temple stood, is a horizontal tunnel, supposed to lead under that 
 edifice. A stream of water must have passed through that tunnel 
 and fallen into the river, as is apparent from the tufaceous deposit 
 upon the rock below. The canal which now conducts the water 
 to the mill, near the bridge, and which is tunnelled through a spur 
 of the mountain, may have been originally designed to convey 
 water to the temple and the city. A short distance above the 
 bridge, on the south side of the river, is a perpendicular cliff of 
 white calcareous sandstone, in which recent shells are thickly min- 
 gled, and in as perfect preservation as when they were cast up on 
 the sea-beach. I collected a number of pectens, cardiums, and 
 venuses. The dip of that formation is towards the sea. 
 
 The village of 'Arka is a mean little hamlet, built upon the ruins 
 of the old town to the east of the tell, and occupied by a few fami- 
 lies of Christians and Moslems, miserably poor and degraded. 
 
 The mountain ridges around Sir are limestone, but much of 
 the intervening soil is volcanic, very black, and surprisingly fertile. 
 Here is Neb'a Sir, near the south side of the village, and, though 
 this is the dryest season of the year, the fountain is sending forth 
 a powerful stream, driving the primitive wheels of those flouring 
 mills, only a few rods from its source. 
 
 In no part of the country have we seen the trees — oaks, pines, 
 poplar, walnut, and mulberry— so large and flourishing. 
 
 The cause of this exuberant growth is obvious enough — water, 
 water everywhere, and plenty of it. 
 
 The natural scenery above and below the village is extremely 
 ^vild and picturesque, and on a scale so grand that it would require 
 a day to ride around this vast amphitheatre. 
 
 From the towering cliffs of Lebanon, which have an elevation 
 of at least nine thousand feet above the level of the sea, the whole 
 of this mountainous region about Sir breaks down rapidly towards
 
 NAHR EL BARID.—ORTHOSIA.— RUINED TEMPLE. 285 
 
 the plain. Four great and deep ravines descend from the north- 
 western end of that "goodly" range, and their streams, uniting 
 below Sir, form Nahr el Barid, the cold river, which goes tumbling 
 and foaming in its rocky channel down to the plain, about three 
 thousand feet below the village. On the south side of Nahr el 
 Barid, above the khan, and about two miles from the sea and eight 
 miles north of Tripoli, there are some ancient remains of an exten- 
 sive city, probably those of Orthosia, mentioned in i Maccabees 
 xv. 37, as the place to which Tryphon fled when besieged by King 
 Antiochus in Dora, the modern Tantura, south of Mount Carmel. 
 
 On a former occasion, having pitched my tent amongst these 
 oak-trees east of "the palace," where we are now encamped, I 
 called upon Khudar Beg, the governor of this district. After the 
 usual compliments, the sipping of coffee, and smoking of pipes, I 
 requested the Beg to let me have a guide to the ancient temple 
 called Husn es Sphiry, from a small village of that name near it. 
 The Beg declared that it was impossible to go there and return 
 that afternoon, but finally he ordered a rough old trooper to mount 
 his horse, and we set off immediately. 
 
 We descended at once into a rough and narrow path, muddy 
 and slippery, and overhung with briers and thorn-bushes. It took 
 an hour to ride down to the bottom of that ravine, where we 
 crossed Nahr el Barid. The ascent on the opposite side was long 
 and steep, but after an hour and a quarter's hard climbing we 
 reached the temple. It stands on the summit of a limestone ridge, 
 called Harf es Sphiry, which commands a prospect over a vast and 
 varied region, including the north end of Lebanon, the long, bil- 
 lowy ranges of Jebel 'Akkar, the Nusairiyeh mountains, farther 
 north, and the plain to Safita, TartCis, and the island of Ruwad. 
 And over the top of the eastern ridges I saw the plain of Hums 
 and Hamath. stretching away to the north-east and onward into 
 the sandy desert farther than the eye could follow. 
 
 The walls of the temple were nearly perfect, and, though well 
 built of beautifully white and intensely hard limestone, there was 
 very little ornamentation about them ; and an inscription over one 
 of the entrances to the temple was the only evidence of its Greek 
 oridn. Amongst the ruins there were two or three small columns,
 
 286 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 but they had no capitals, and the design of a few adjoining build- 
 ino-s was not easy to determine, as our time was Hmited, and we 
 were obHged to hurry off without sufficiently examining the temple 
 or the ancient remains in its neighborhood. 
 
 Long before we got back to the village it became quite dark, 
 and much of the ascent was beset with difficulties and dangers, 
 appreciated only by those who have learned from experience what 
 risks they run who ride up such mountain roads late at night. On 
 reaching the tent I found a slave waiting for me with a lantern; he 
 had been sent to conduct me to "the palace," where I was expected 
 to dine with the Beg. There is but little social distinction observed 
 at such feasts in the old feudal halls of this country, especially in 
 such out-of-the-way places as Sir. All, from the Beg and his 
 brothers down to the humblest of his retainers, partook of the same 
 meal, and in the same way, without any plates, and using their fin- 
 gers instead of knives and forks or spoons. 
 
 In the main hall or reception room a large, low, circular table, 
 without any cloth, was covered with bowls filled with mutton, 
 chicken, and vegetable stews, leben, olives, and pickles ; there were 
 also copper trays placed at intervals around the centre of the table, 
 filled with rice, burghul, kibby, and roast lamb, torn in shreds, and 
 swimming in a sauce of butter and onions. Twenty-five persons 
 sat round the table, with nothing but the mat or a carpet under 
 them, and each had at his right hand half a dozen loaves of thin 
 bread. All ate rapidly and voraciously, and each guest sprang up 
 as soon as he was satisfied to give place to another, who immedi- 
 ately took the vacant seat without waiting for an invitation. After 
 leaving the table, water was poured upon the hands of each guest 
 from the same brass pitcher and over the same ewer ; and to each 
 a cup of coffee was handed and a pipe offered, though it was ex- 
 pected that some would smoke their own tobacco. 
 
 Fifty or sixty men thus dined in about half an hour, after which 
 the dishes were removed to the harem, and the women and chil- 
 dren were oblicfed to content themselves with the remains of the 
 feast. It would take a large income to feed so many hungry retain- 
 ers, but of course the Beg does not provide such a dinner as that 
 every night. It was intended to honor the guest, and not without
 
 THE MAN OF UZ.— THE SABBATIC RIVER. 28/ 
 
 a desire to impress him with the splendid hospitaHty of the house 
 of Ra'ad. The Kady of the district took pains to acquaint me 
 with the antiquity, wealth, and power of that family, all of which of 
 course I accepted upon such impartial testimony. But an air of 
 dilapidation and appearances of unmistakable poverty about " the 
 palace" and its belongings were calculated to suggest serious doubts 
 in regard to the accurate details of the family history and the avail- 
 able resources of its hospitable representative. 
 
 Seeing the successive groups of hungry retainers gathered about 
 the Beg's round table, I thought of that famous Emir in the land 
 of Uz called Job, and of his solemn protestations: " If I have with- 
 held the poor from their desire, or have eaten my morsel m\'self 
 alone, and the fatherless hath not eaten thereof, then let mine arm 
 fall from my shoulder blade." ' We must pay our respects at " the 
 palace " before night comes on, and secure a guide for to-morrow, 
 for though I have crossed over the mountain eastward to KamiVa 
 el Hurmul, I would not venture to do it again without taking a 
 competent native to show us the way. 
 
 Sir, September Stk Evening. 
 
 Having completed our arrangements for to-morrow, I would 
 like to know something about the "Sabbatic River" which Jose- 
 phus alludes to in connection with the journey of Titus through 
 Syria. I have hitherto regarded it as altogether mythical, but it 
 actually exists, it seems, and still keeps up its irregular flow. 
 
 That of the Jews is, indeed, sufficiently apocryphal, but the one 
 mentioned by Josephus is not. He says that Titus, on his way 
 from Berytus to Antioch, " saw a river as he went along, of such a 
 nature as deserves to be recorded in history. It runs in the middle 
 between Arcea, belonging to Agrippa's kingdom, and Raphanea. 
 It hath somewhat very peculiar in it, for when it runs its current 
 is strong and has plenty of water; after which its springs fail for 
 six days together and leave its channel dry, as any one may see ; 
 after which days it runs on the seventh day, as it did before, and 
 as though it had undergone no change at all ; it hath also been 
 observed to keep this order perpetually and exactly, whence it is 
 that they call it the Sabbatic River, that name being taken fron^ 
 
 ' J(j1) xxxi. if), 17, 22. 
 
 u
 
 288 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the sacred seventh day among the Jews.'" PHny also refers to the 
 same river, though he makes it rest every seventh day, according 
 to the injunction in the fourth commandment. 
 
 Josephus locates the Sabbatical River between Arcea and Ra- 
 phanea. Area, the capital of the Arkites, is at Tell 'Arka, north- 
 east of Tripoli, and between it and Hamath, on the east of Jebel 
 'Akkar, is the site of Raphanea, near the ruined castle of Barin. 
 North of Tell 'Arka, and a short distance west of Kul'at el Husn, 
 is the convent of Mar Jirjis el Humeira, and in the wady below it 
 is a fountain called Fauwar ed Deir, from which flows at intervals 
 a sufficient volume of water to entitle the stream in this country to 
 the name of a river. The site accords with the description given 
 by Josephus, and there I discovered the "Sabbatic River" in 1840; 
 but the fountain is now said to be quiescent two days, and active 
 on a part of the third day only. 
 
 The account which the monks gave me of the actual phenome- 
 non was, that every third day St. George, their patron saint, de- 
 scends into the fountain and forces the water out with a loud noise, 
 to irrigate the extensive plantations of that rich Syrian convent. 
 It was a day of rest for the fountain when I examined it, but evi- 
 dently a considerable quantity of water had flowed along the chan- 
 nel of the river a few hours before. The cave out of which the 
 river issues is at the base of a hill of limestone involved in a forma- 
 tion of trap-rock, and it is well known that subterranean reservoirs 
 of water are sometimes drained by intermitting fountains acting 
 upon the principle of the siphon. 
 
 A very simple diagram will illustrate the phenomenon. Let A 
 in the diagram represent such a reservoir, filled by the veins D E F. 
 Let S be the siphon, which, of course, must begin at the bottom 
 of the pool, rise over the elevation at C, and end in the wady at B 
 — lower than the bottom of the pool. Now, the condition neces- 
 sary to cause the stream to intermit is, that the capacity of the 
 siphon be greater than the supply from D E F. If the supply were 
 greater, or exactly equal to that capacity, the pool would be always 
 full, and there could be no intermission. The periods of intermis- 
 sion and the size of the stream depend upon the capacity of the 
 
 1 B. J. vii. 5, I.
 
 INTERMITTING FOUNTAINS. 
 
 JS9 
 
 pool A, the supply from D E F, and the calibre of the siphon S. 
 If it required six days for D E F to fill the pool, and the siphon 
 could exhaust it in one, we have the conditions required by the 
 statement of Josephus — a river runnini^^ only on the seventh da}-. 
 
 INTERMITTING FOUNTAIN. 
 
 On the other hand, if D E F fill the pool in one day, and their 
 continued supply is so nearly equal to the draining power of the 
 siphon that it requires six days to draw off all the water, then it 
 will run six days, according to Pliny, and rest on the seventh. 
 Now the supply, it is supposed, fills the reservoir in about two 
 days and a half, and the siphon drains it off in half a day. 
 
 I suppose the Sabbatical River always had nearly the same vol- 
 ume of water in it as the stream below the convent of Mar Jirjis 
 has at the present day, and that its stated periods of intermission 
 were as irregular then as they are now. The love of the ancients 
 for the marvellous, and a desire to conform that natural phenome- 
 non to the Jewish division of time, will sufficiently account for the 
 inaccuracies of Josephus and Pliny. 
 
 Sir, September glli. 
 
 Our guide has come, and, as we are to ride to-day for ten 
 hours through a wild and uninhabited region, sometimes without 
 any visible road or distinct path, we had better be in the saddle. 
 Our course will be due east, and for the first hour the ascent is 
 gradual, winding about amongst large wahuit-trees and across ex- 
 tensive fields of Indian-corn.
 
 290 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 This scenery is singularly beautiful, and these bushes are full 
 of birds ; and gray squirrels run from tree to tree, and leap from 
 branch to branch, just as they do in other lands far away. 
 
 They are enjoying their favorite food, walnuts and green corn, 
 of both of which there is here an abundant supply. We are about 
 to pass away from the grateful shade of this leafy grove, and a 
 steady climb up the mountain for another hour will bring us to 
 the source of the main branch of the river Barid. The fountain 
 bursts out at the base of a gigantic cliff, and the stream, rushing 
 through large heaps of debris and between fragments of great 
 rocks that have fallen from the overhanging cliff, plunges imme- 
 diately into a narrow chasm, down which it leaps, in noisy cas- 
 cades, one after another, falling at least four thousand feet in a 
 very few miles, before it reaches the plain far below. 
 
 The cliff is called Ijr el Kul'ah, the foot of the castle, and it 
 breaks sheer down from the northern extremity of the Lebanon 
 range at least five hundred feet in perpendicular descent, thus 
 abruptly cutting off Lebanon from the confused mass of mountains 
 lower down and farther north. The top of the pass, above the 
 fountain, is about eight thousand feet above the sea, and, as we 
 rise higher and higher, the views westward over Sir, and the plain 
 of 'Akkar, beyond and below it, are continually changing in charac- 
 ter and expanding into the distance, until their variety seems end- 
 less and their extent almost limitless. The point beyond Tripoli is 
 nearly due west, and an imaginary line drawn from there eastward 
 would pass near Hurmul, the village where we intend to encamp, 
 and which we expect to reach to-night. 
 
 A few days before my first ascent of this pass a cloud had burst 
 over the cliff above the fountain, and the flood was so great that 
 it not only washed out deep channels in the mountain, but it also 
 overwhelmed many vineyards and corn-fields in its destructive 
 course. Such cloud-bursts, called seil by the Arabs, are not un- 
 known in other countries, for even Homer must have derived some 
 of his vivid descriptions of martial combat from the suddenness 
 and violence of their devastations. The merciless rage and on- 
 slaught of Tydeus on the field of battle is compared to the over- 
 powering floods of such a seil, when
 
 PASS OVER LEBANON'.— SUMMER SHEEPFOLDS. 29I 
 
 "From high hills the torrents swift and strong 
 Deluge whole fields and sweep the trees along ; 
 Through ruined moles the rushing wave resounds, 
 O'erwhelms the bridge, and bursts the lofty bounds. 
 The yellow harvests of the ripened year 
 And flattened vineyards one sad waste appear." 
 
 The last two lines describe exactly the direful results of the sell 
 at the north end of Lebanon as I afterwards saw them. 
 
 This pass over Lebanon is not across a sharp ridi^c, like most 
 of the others, but along a broad depression, evidently caused by 
 volcanic action. It will take three hours to ride through it. and 
 we shall have lofty cliffs on our right and large snow-banks in the 
 sheltered ravines. The volcanic formation over which our pathway 
 winds appears to have been driven up from below like a wedge, 
 and with such force as to split asunder the limestone strata and 
 scatter the fragments northward for several miles, piling them upon 
 each other in the wildest confusion. In that outburst the strata 
 have been dislocated, bent, and overturned in the most extraordi- 
 nary manner. In one place they have been jammed inward 
 like the dog-eared leaves of an ill-used school-book, and the 
 superincumbent mass has been tilted over southward, contrary to 
 the ordinary dip of the strata in this region, which is generally 
 downwards towards the plain of el Buka'a. 
 
 We have now reached the highest part of this long pass, nearly 
 nine thousand feet above the level of the sea. In some places the 
 young wheat, sown by the peasants from Sir, is already quite green, 
 and waiting for the coming snow to cover it up and protect it from 
 the cold in winter. This road is then buried under deep snow- 
 drifts and rendered impassable until the spring. 
 
 Scattered over this region are many sheepfolds, made with the 
 branches of trees that abound on the mountain ; there the shep- 
 herds abide with their flocks by night while spending the hot 
 months of summer in these lofty regions. And there they breathe 
 the purest air and drink the ice-cold water which trickles down from 
 the melting snow-banks. Now those sheep-folds are deserted ; but 
 no tent-life in this country is so romantic as that isolated, open-air 
 existence of the shepherd, roaming all day over these mountains
 
 292 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 with his flocks, and protecting them from savage beasts and thiev- 
 ing men through the long, starry nights of summer. 
 
 Apparently this is the highest, dryest, and most lonely pass in 
 the country. We have not crossed a single stream nor passed a 
 solitary wayfarer during this morning's ride of nearly five hours. 
 
 There is a small fountain near by, called 'Ain el Beida, which, 
 our guide says, furnishes the only drinkable water between it and 
 Hurmul; there we will rest and lunch. 
 
 Several paths cross each other at 'Ain el Beida. One descends 
 Wady Siry and leads northward to a ruined town near the head- 
 waters of Nahr 'Akkar. Another goes south-east to Ba'albek, and 
 a third— the continuation of the one we have followed — will take 
 us eastward to Hurmul, which is still more than five hours distant. 
 
 That long ridge on the left of our path appears to be covered 
 with a dense forest of pine-trees. 
 
 Riding over this region on another tour, I went out of my way 
 to reach it, in order to examine the process of making tar and pitch, 
 in which some natives were then engaged. They build conical fur- 
 naces, which, after being filled up with resinous wood, they cover 
 with earth. The wood is then ignited, and the smouldering fire 
 consumes it very slowly. The rosin trickles to the bottom, and is 
 drawn off into vessels. It is then boiled, to reduce it to the con- 
 sistency of tar and pitch. Those pitch-burners, with their faces, 
 hands, feet, and garments besmeared with tar and blackened by 
 smoke, were a most savage-looking set. They glared upon me with 
 bloodshot eyes through the lurid light of their smouldering .fur- 
 naces, and shouted after me in a most hideous manner as I rode 
 away from that Tartarean region. 
 
 For the next two hours we must pass over a sterile plateau, 
 having nothing" of any interest upon it. Far away to the south 
 stretches a long, broad valley or marshy plain, called Merj 'Ahin, 
 the meadow of 'Ahin, in which many small pools are visible. It 
 resembles in general appearance the valley or plain about Lake 
 Yemmuneh, although there are more trees in that valley and upon 
 the mountain and hills adjacent to the lake. In many parts of this 
 unproductive plateau over which we have been plodding nothing 
 seems to flourish except hundreds of small, round, spiny shrubs
 
 ET TUBBAX.— THE WATER-SUED.— WADV FARAH. 293 
 
 called tubban. At a distance they look like hedgehogs or porcu- 
 pines. They are found elsewhere on the highest parts of Lebanon, 
 and when the clumps are green and the spines tipped with pale 
 pink flowers, they are quite pretty. 
 
 We have now passed the water-shed of this region and entered 
 a wady which descends gradually eastward to the base of the moun- 
 tain near Hurmul. It is overshadowed by large oak-trees, but is des- 
 titute of fountain or stream, cultivated land or human habitation. 
 
 To relieve the dreary monotony of this interminable wady I will 
 give you an account of a trip through a parallel valley, called Wady 
 Farah, a few miles south of this one, with which memory associates 
 some pleasant experiences. Our party had spent a rather anxious 
 night below Mugharat er Rahib, the monk's cavern, near the source 
 of the Orontes, and, after examining both those remarkable places 
 in the morning, we followed the windings of Wady Lcbweh south- 
 ward for an hour. Crossing to the west side of it. we entered Wady 
 Farah and began the ascent leading towards the pass over the 
 mountain above the Cedars. We soon found our path overshad- 
 owed by wide -spreading oaks and other evergreen trees, and the 
 ascent was very gradual and continuous until we reached the sur- 
 prising deviation of seven thousand feet. 
 
 In all that ride of six hours there was not a house or cultivated 
 field to be seen •, we met no wayfarer, nor could we obtain a drop 
 of water. But the lofty ridges on either side of the valley were cov- 
 ered with a dense forest, " a boundless contiguity of shade," which 
 made the ride very enjoyable. Red-legged partridges kept up a 
 continuous cackling and calling on all sides, and gray squirrels ran 
 from tree to tree and hid themselves amongst the thick branches. 
 The Nimrods of the party had many a scramble up and down the 
 mountain -sides, hoping to add variety to our bill of fare in the 
 evening, but the game was extremely wary and wild. Issuing, 
 towards evening, from that long and lonely valley, we encami)ed in 
 a broad depression called Wady el 'Ayun, on the side of a green 
 meadow, and just above a purling rill of ice-cold water. 'Ain el 
 'Ayun, the source of that little stream, was a short distance above 
 our tents, and it well deserves its name — the I'\)untain of fount- 
 ains—for there is none higher, or purer, or colder in that region.
 
 2Q4 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Wady el 'Ay Cm abounds in springs, the water from which col- 
 lects in the lower valley into small pools and miniature lakes, like 
 those in Merj 'Ahin. Dahar el Kudhib, one of the highest peaks of 
 Lebanon, towers up to the sky for at least two thousand five hun- 
 dred feet above Wady el 'Ayun, and directly below that lofty sum- 
 mit, on the western slope of the mountain, are the Cedars. There 
 was something sublime in the utter solitude of such an encamp- 
 ment, so high and so shut in by the majestic range of Lebanon. 
 
 As the shadows on the mountains lengthened and the darkness 
 in the valley deepened the air became quite cold. The muleteers 
 climbed the steep side of the mountain, and, with their long ropes, 
 dragged down whole trees — roots, trunk, and branches — which had 
 been blown over by the storms of winter, and were as dry as tin- 
 der. These they piled up in front of the tents and set them on 
 fire. The crackling and roaring of the flames; the lurid blaze of 
 such a conflagration ; the lights and shadows on tents and tourists, 
 mules and muleteers; the volumes of white and black smoke, rising 
 high into the air — the scene and the situation all combined to make 
 a picture of one of the most romantic night encampments I had 
 ever witnessed even in this land of the ancient patriarchs. 
 
 We were obliged to keep up that camp fire all night; and in 
 the morning we found that the dew had frozen the roofs and walls 
 of the tents as stiff as boards, and small fires were kindled in them 
 before they could be taken down. Frost sparkled on the grass, and 
 the little pools in the valley gleamed with a thin coating of ice. 
 Altogether the experience of that night and morning were de- 
 cidedly exceptional to the traveller in this country, and the cold 
 continued all the following day, and the next night at the Cedars 
 was far from being a comfortable one. 
 
 In another hour w^e shall reach our tents, pitched under the 
 large walnut-trees below and south of the village of Hurmul. On 
 my former ride over this road it began to grow dark after leaving 
 this point where we are now, and the guide led us down a steep 
 and rocky path to the south-east, to avoid entering the village. 
 The tents had just been pitched, when some Mutawaly horsemen 
 came galloping up, shouting in a most belligerent style. At first 
 they were very insolent, but when told who we were they apolo-
 
 LOCAL REBELLION'.— HURMUL.— WOODLAND SCENERY. 295 
 
 gized and retired, saying that they had mistaken us for a detach- 
 ment of Turkish cavalry sent against them from Hums. 
 
 The next morning we learned that the inhabitants of that dis- 
 trict had rebelled against the Governor of Hums, and that the 
 sheikhs had gathered together at Hurmul all their roving and law- 
 less retainers, expecting an attack from the irregular cavalry in the 
 employ of the Government. Their families had been sent to the 
 mountains, and the men were prepared either to fight or run away, 
 as the exigencies of the case might demand. Early in the forenoon 
 an agent arrived from the Governor with conditions of peace, and, 
 while the contracting parties were arranging the terms of submis- 
 sion, we improved the opportunity to visit the village. 
 
 Hurmul probably occupies an ancient site, and it has been a 
 much larger place in former times. It is now the last village in 
 this direction belonging to the Government of the Lebanon. It is 
 prettily situated high up the slope of this natural amphitheatre; 
 and the houses are divided into several clusters by narrow ravines, 
 through which little streams come tumbling down into the valley. 
 The land around it is very fertile, owing to the abundance of water; 
 and the silver-leaved poplar, the walnut, pomegranate, and other 
 fruit-trees growing in and about the village, give it a very pictu- 
 resque appearance. But the lawless Mutawaly who inhabit it would 
 soon convert Paradise itself into a frightful wilderness, and Hurmul 
 is becoming more and more dilapidated. 
 
 Hiirmul, September 9th. Evening. 
 
 Lieutenant Van de Velde gives a graphic description of the 
 woodland scenery in this vicinity, and becomes quite enthusiastic 
 over its park-like nature. He thus writes to his friend : " Much 
 already have I said to you about Lebanon and its glories. Yet be- 
 tween Hurmul and the Cedars I saw still more of Nature's beauties, 
 and these, too, of quite a different kind from what I had seen in the 
 more southern mountain-ranges at Jeba'a or Jez/.in. r^'oni Hurmul 
 our path began immediately to rise, and brought us ere long into 
 a high-situated valley, which had been transformed into a magnifi- 
 cent park by Nature alone, without any assi-stance from the hand 
 of man. I was delighted with the picturesque grou[)s of oaks, 
 the fantastically -shaped terebinths, the oddly -twisted stems and
 
 296 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 branches of other trees, in which were blended together all sorts 
 of green, pale, dark-yellowish, or sometimes inclining to brown. 
 
 " At other points, again, the road led over rocky plateaus, grown 
 over with short, prickly shrubs. Alternating with these there ap- 
 peared at other places cypress groves [Juniperus excelsa], where 
 each several tree was in itself a study for the landscape painter, 
 some on account of their enormous stems and branches, others on 
 account of their trunks having been broken by storms or being half 
 decayed with age ; and others, too, on account of the bright verdure 
 of the shoots here and there springing up from a piece of root ap- 
 parently dead and partially torn out of the ground. Would you 
 see trees in all their splendor and beauty, then enter these wild 
 groves, that have never been touched by the pruning-knife of art, 
 where neither branches nor stems are ever bent into rectilinear 
 forms, and where the dead wood is never removed from amidst the 
 living. Come up into Mount Lebanon, and then tell me if you 
 ever had an idea of such natural groves as are exhibited by the 
 elevated valleys of this mountain-range."' 
 
 Was not "the entrance of Hamath " in this neighborhood? 
 
 That familiar Biblical phrase indicated a well-known place — a 
 pass or opening leading into the territory of Hamath. In marking 
 out the boundaries of the Hebrew " inheritance in the land of 
 Canaan," Moses says: "This shall be your north border: from the 
 great sea ye shall point out for you mount Hor: from mount Hor 
 ye shall point out your border unto the entrance of Hamath ; and 
 the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad."' The spies sent 
 by Moses to explore the land extended their search " from the 
 wilderness of Zin [in the south] unto Rehob, as men come to Ha- 
 math ;" and that part of the country in this direction not subdued 
 by Joshua, when he "was old and stricken in years," and which 
 never came into the actual possession of the Hebrews, is thus de- 
 scribed : "All Lebanon toward the sunrising, from Baal-gad under 
 mount Hermon unto the entering into. Hamath."' 
 
 From those and other incidental notices in the Bible it is evi- 
 dent that, if Mount Hor be identified with Lebanon, or a conspicu- 
 
 ' Syria and Palestine, vol. ii. p. 474, 475. '■' Numb, xxxiv. 7, 8. 
 
 •* Numb. xiii. 21 ; Josh. xiii. 5.
 
 THE EXTRAN'CE OF HAMATH.— A DREADFUL MASSACRE. 297 
 
 ous peak at the northern extremity of that range, then " the en- 
 trance of Hamath" would have been north or east of it, and Zedad 
 still farther off in the latter direction. Between the ranges of Le- 
 banon and Anti-Lebanon, as they gradually terminate in the plain 
 some distance south of Hamath, there is a long, undulating, and 
 comparatively narrow tract connecting the plain of Coelesyria with 
 that which opens up towards Hamath ; and to the south-east of 
 it, on the other side of Anti- Lebanon, is Sudud, the ancient 
 Zedad, and far away to the south-west is " Baal-gad under Mount 
 Hermon." That undulating region has generally been considered 
 as the Biblical " entrance of Hamath," and to the spies, coming up 
 the plain of Coelesyria, from the south, it would have presented 
 such an appearance. Dr. Robinson supposes that " the entering 
 in of Hamath" "was at the northern extremity of Lebanon, and 
 that this became a geographical name for the great interval or de- 
 pression between the northern end of Lebanon and the Nusairiyeh 
 mountains;" and he is probably correct.' 
 
 From the hill-side above Hurmul the ample corn-fields of Rib- 
 leh are seen, extending about ten miles to the north-east, and 
 beyond them spreads the vast plain towards Sudud, and far away 
 eastward until it is lost in the sandy desert around Palmyra. 
 
 A Riblah is mentioned by Moses as being on the north-east 
 border of the Promised Land.^ 
 
 That is the place ; and the name has remained unchanged from 
 that day to this. Nothing more is heard of Riblah after that for 
 almost eight hundred and fifty years, and then we learn that '* Pha- 
 raoh-nechoh king of Egypt went up against the king of Assyria to 
 the river Euphrates;" and on his way he slew Josiah king of Judaii 
 at Megiddo, and put Jehoahaz his son "in bands at Riblah."' 
 There also Nebuchadnezzar established his camp when he came up 
 against Jerusalem. The princes of the king and the army of the 
 Chaldees went on, and when they had captured the king of Judah 
 " they brought him up to Nebuchadnezzar to Riblah in the land 
 of Hamath, where he gave judgment upon him. Then the king 
 of Babylon slew the sons of Zedekiah in Riblah before his eyes : 
 
 • Rob. Res. vol. iii. p. 568, 569. •' Numb, xxxiv. 11. 
 
 ' 2 Kings xxiii. 29-33.
 
 298 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 also the king of Babylon slew all the nobles of Judah. Moreover 
 he put out Zedekiah's eyes, and bound him with chains, to carry 
 him to Babylon," ' 
 
 A dreadful massacre, and a most dismal doom ! What was there 
 about Riblah that induced those terrible invaders to select it for 
 the camping-ground of their vast and merciless armies ? 
 
 At modern Ribleh there are now only a few wretched peasants' 
 houses, situated on the east bank of the Orontes, and no important 
 remains save the ruins of an ancient square tower, called el Keniseh, 
 the church. But no better location for a temporary camp could 
 have been chosen in that region by those fierce conquerors of old 
 than Ribleh. By the side of a never-failing stream, with rich corn 
 lands around it, everywhere well watered, it can furnish ample means 
 of subsistence for the largest of armies : and, from its central posi- 
 tion, military expeditions could be sent in all directions — eastward 
 to "Tadmor in the wilderness;" southward to Damascus, or through 
 Coelesyria to Jerusalem ; westward, by the low pass near Kul'at el 
 Husn, to the sea -coast of Phoenicia, and thence to Egypt, and 
 northward across "the land of Hamath" and beyond "the river 
 Euphrates " into the kingdom of Assyria. 
 
 The last time I was here I obtained a guide and guard from the 
 Governor's agent and set off over a beautiful country, sinking gradu- 
 ally to the plain, to visit the lake of Kedes, near which the chief 
 city of the Hittites is supposed to have been situated. 
 
 That name is eminently Biblical, and even patriarchal, and it 
 is quite unexpected to hear of that ancient people as formerly 
 residing in this distant and little known region. 
 
 Very little information about the Hittites can be obtained from 
 the Bible, both before and after the conquest of the Promised Land. 
 They were called " the children of Heth," the second son of Canaan, 
 and the great-grandson of Noah, and in Abraham's day they were 
 settled in the south of Palestine. It was of " Ephron the Hittite" 
 that Abraham purchased "the cave of Machpelah" at Hebron, 
 when Sarah his wife died.'' Esau married two of the daughters of 
 the Hittites, "which were a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Re- 
 bekah ;" and, lest Jacob should follow the example of his erratic 
 
 ^ Jer. xxxix. 1-7. ' Gen. x. 15 ; xxiii.
 
 THE HITTITES.— KETESII.— THE KHETA. 299 
 
 brother, and " take a wife of the daughters of Heth," they " sent 
 him away to Padan-aram, to take him a wife from thence." ' 
 
 On the return of the men whom Moses sent " to spy out the 
 land of Canaan" they reported that the Hittites dwelt in the moun- 
 tains, from which it would appear that during the capti\ity of the 
 Hebrews in Egypt they had removed into the central part of the 
 country.' We hear of them again as gathering together with other 
 tribes to fight Joshua "at the waters of Merom," where they were 
 defeated with great slaughter,' It is possible that some of them 
 escaped at that time and established themselves permanently in the 
 valley of the Orontes, where, eventually, they formed a powerful 
 confederation with other Canaanitish tribes. 
 
 Egyptologists learn from the monuments that the Pharaohs of 
 several dynasties waged war upon a nation in this region supposed 
 to be that of the Hittites. They had horses and chariots, and some 
 of the Egyptians appear to have taken wives from among them. 
 Ketesh, their principal city, was rendered tributary to Egypt, and 
 it was probably situated near the present lake of Kedes. The an- 
 nals of the Egyptians confirm the accounts given of the Hittites 
 in the Bible, for in the time of Solomon we are told that all 
 the kings of the Hittites and the kings of Syria had horses and 
 chariots brought forth out of Egypt ; and Solomon himself had 
 Hittite women among his many wives.^ 
 
 Additional interest has been imparted to the subject by modern 
 discoveries in Egypt, which imply that the Hittites had long been 
 settled in this country and were a numerous and powerful confed- 
 eration, apparently occupying the region around the head -waters 
 of the Orontes. They are called "the Kheta" in the Egyptian 
 inscriptions, and, probably before Abraham came to Canaan, and 
 long before the time of Moses, there were protracted conflicts 
 between them and the different dynasties of Egypt. M. libers 
 informs us that "a stela was discovered in the wall to the south 
 of the great hypostyle at Karnak, on which was a copy of the 
 treaty which put an end to the war between Ramcscs H. and the 
 Kheta," and he very justly adds that "this di)cumcnt excites our 
 
 ' Gen xxvi. 34, 35 ; xxvii. 46; xxviii. 1-7. '' Numb. xiii. 29. 
 
 3 Josh. ix. I, 2 ; xi. 3, 5, 8. •* i Kings x. 29 ; xi. i ; 2 Cliion. i. 17.
 
 300 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 respect and admiration for the Asiatic nation, which must have 
 reached a high pitch of civihzation, and it raises our opinion of 
 the high poHtical status of both the nations who were parties to 
 such a treaty. The Kheta king secured the alHance thus effected 
 with the Egyptian sovereign by giving him his daughter in mar- 
 riage, and this greatest of all the Pharaohs was thus enabled to 
 enjoy the results of his successes in the field and to spend the last 
 decades of his reign — which lasted sixty-seven years — almost with- 
 out interruption in the exercise of the arts of peace." ' 
 
 Rameses II. was proud of his own personal achievements in the 
 wars against those Kheta. " In a furious battle near Kadesh, the 
 capital of the Kheta, he was cut off from his army, and, by the 
 might of his own ' right arm ' he defended himself against a consid- 
 erable number, forced his way through the enemy who surrounded 
 him, and then, setting himself again at the head of his troops, he 
 defeated the Kheta army, and forced them backwards into the 
 river. Pentaur, the chief poet of his [Rameses II.] time, sang of 
 this great deed of arms in an epic, which was inscribed on temple 
 walls and in papyrus rolls — the Iliad of the Egyptians. ' I was 
 alone, and none was with me,' is the cry that the poet puts into the 
 mouth of the king; but Amon stood by the distressed Pharaoh and 
 fought for him, and so the rescued king built a magnificent temple 
 in the Necropolis as a thank-offering, and to keep his own glorious 
 deed in remembrance. On the principal architecture of this votive 
 building the often-repeated burden of Pentaur's epos may still be 
 read: 'I was alone, and none was with me.' His artists have carved 
 rich and vivid battle-scenes on the broad surfaces of the walls of 
 the pylons, representing the fight at Kadesh, the camp of the 
 Egyptians, the flight of the Kheta and their allies, and the king 
 himself as of colossal stature, towering above his foes. The turmoil 
 of the battle, the fiery onset of the horses, the heroic stature of 
 Rameses, by whose side two lions are raging and fighting, the 
 terror of the vanquished, and the hurry of the fugitives, are viv- 
 idly depicted."" 
 
 The conflicts of the Egyptians with the Kheta, before and after 
 
 ' Egypt : Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque, vol. ii. p. 284. 
 
 ^ Egypt : Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque, vol. ii. p. 2S0, 281.
 
 REPORT OF THE SPIES.— THE SITE OF KETESH. 30I 
 
 the time of the Hebrew exodus, seem to tlirow a new light upon 
 the condition of this country and its inhabitants. The people, at 
 least in some parts, appear to have been more warlike and powerful 
 than the reader of Genesis would naturally suppose. 
 
 The report of the spies, sent by Moses from the wilderness of 
 Paran to examine the condition of the country, no longer seems to 
 be the mere exaggeration of terrified cowards. " The people," said 
 they, "is greater and taller than we; the cities are great and walled 
 up to heaven. We be not able to go up against the people, for 
 they are stronger than we.'" The Hittites are mentioned by the 
 spies, and those Egyptian records supplement in many ways the 
 Biblical narratives of the condition of this land in patriarchal 
 times, for it is now ascertained that there was then frequent com- 
 munication between Egypt and Syria. That enables us to under- 
 stand how it was possible for twelve Hebrews "to spy out the 
 land," without interruption, from the wilderness of Paran north- 
 ward " unto Rehob, as men come to Hamath." As the influence 
 of Egypt in this country must have been very great in those times, 
 the spies probably had merely to assume the character of Egyp- 
 tians to secure protection and safety ; and their report seems to 
 imply that they were not molested in their dangerous mission. 
 
 The supposed site of Ketesh is about fifteen miles north-east of 
 this village of Hurmul, and a short distance south of Tell Neby 
 Mindau, on the left bank of the Orontes. The ruins consist of 
 heaps of rubbish, traces of foundations, hewn stones, and fragments 
 of columns. I noticed some half-submerged vaults in one place, 
 and at another the bases of twenty columns apparently still in their 
 original position. The river finds its way among the ruins, and the 
 low bridge built over it was evidently constructed out of the re- 
 mains of the old city. I found the name Kedes applied only to the 
 mill at the bridge, which is called T.ihunct Kedes. Dr. Robinson 
 and others who have visited that region locate Laodicea ad Liba- 
 num at Tell Neby Mindau, and it may be found that the Roman 
 city was built upon the remains of the ancient Hittitc capital. 
 
 A few miles north of the bridge the river spreads out into the 
 shallow lake of Hums, called also the lake of Kedes, which is wholl}' 
 ' Deut. i. 28 ; Numl). xiii. 31.
 
 OQ2 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 artificial, having been made by a dam built across the valley where 
 it is not more than half a mile wide. The dam was built of trap 
 rock, and the lower part was originally over thirty feet thick, nar- 
 rowing towards the top, where it is now about three feet wide. 
 The height of the dam above the bed of the river is nearly twenty 
 feet. The facing-stone of the dam is all gone, leaving only the 
 ancient rubble-work, which has been often broken, and subsequently 
 roughly repaired by the natives. 
 
 Abulfeda, the celebrated Arab geographer, who was the Emir 
 of Hamah in the fourteenth century, relates that the building of 
 the dam was ascribed, in his day, to Alexander the Great, and he 
 states that there were two towers upon it At present there is only 
 one, at the north-west extremity of the dam, called Burj Sit Belkis. 
 The canal that carries the water to Hums begins near the north- 
 east corner of the lake. In former times there was another conduit 
 at a higher level— a sure indication that the dam was originally 
 several feet higher than it is now. Over the door of a mill below 
 the dam is a Greek inscription, the only one that I could find. 
 
 The length of the lake is about eight miles, and the breadth 
 four at the widest part. There is a small island, with a tell upon it, 
 at the southern end of the lake. The tell must have been made 
 before the lake was formed ; and around it there are said to be traces 
 of foundations and ruins of ancient buildings. 
 
 Hiirmul, September loth. 
 
 The fountain of the Orontes is a short hour's ride south of 
 Hurmul, so we will go there first this morning. These numerous 
 little rills which cross our path, and come tumbling and foaming 
 down the mountain-side from the secluded ravines above us on the 
 west, are united into rivulets in the valley, and lead away northward 
 over the rolling country between this and Ribleh. It is mainly to 
 the waters of those purling brooks that the extensive corn-fields 
 around that village are indebted for their luxuriant growth. 
 
 Lieutenant Van De Velde climbed up this same road to Hurmul 
 which we are now descending after his visit to " the place where 
 the Orontes bursts forth from its copious sources." He says that, 
 " much farther to the south [of the fountain we are about to visit], 
 the waters of the Orontes begin to form a stream. This stream is
 
 FOUNTAINS OF THE ORONTES. 303 
 
 not derived from the main springs, but from the gradual confluence 
 of a number of different rills into a considerable brook, which, 
 under the name of Nahr Fikeh, flows in a deep ravine past the 
 chief fountain of the river. Here [above the fountain] the rocky 
 sides of the ravine are fearfully steep; some places seem quite inac- 
 cessible. I had to follow a dangerous path, better fitted for moun- 
 tain-goats than for men, in order to get to the foot of the rocks. 
 
 " On reaching the bottom you perceive, on the east side of the 
 ravine, a hole overshadowed by thick sycamores; high brushwood 
 seems to make it vain to attempt approaching the spot ; but an 
 eye accustomed to such jungles soon detects a winding path, and 
 perceives also that the dark-green wild fig-trees and the festoons of 
 vines that wind between them are the productions of a Nature to 
 which the hand of man has remained a stranger. In this lovely 
 spot there is a deep basin of water, which lies still and motionless, 
 of a clear dark-blue color, and overflowing on all sides, owing to the 
 abundant ingress of the water that rises from the subterranean 
 springs. This seems to me to be the principal source of the river. 
 But if one passes to the other side of the Fikeh brook by a little 
 bridge formed of stones and branches put together, and then cau- 
 tiously ascends the cliffs, he will perceive that from under the rocks 
 to the north of that principal source of the river the water bursts 
 forth with great force, and this not at one point only, but at dif- 
 ferent places, all close beside each other. Boiling and foaming do 
 the waters gush up and unite themselves with the Fikeh stream. 
 No wonder that hardly half a mile farther on we find the Orontes 
 already augmented into a broad and swift-rolling stream ; no won- 
 der, too, that throughout its farther course it maintains the charac- 
 ter of a considerable river." ' 
 
 The fountain of Nahr Fikeh is too far to the south-east for us 
 to visit it, but here we are above "the copious sources of the 
 Orontes," so graphically described by Lieutenant Van de Vcldr, 
 and to descend to them we must exercise both effort and caution. 
 The water, as you see, flows out from the very base of Lebanon in 
 this wild and savage chasm, and forms at once a stream fifty feet 
 wide and over three feet deep. The fountains seem to burst out 
 
 ' Syria and Palestine, vol. ii. p. 47'. 472- 
 
 X
 
 oQ^ THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 from the rocks under the hill on the east side of the chasm, as if 
 the water came from Anti-Lebanon, but the explanation is that the 
 strata of Lebanon dip under the general plain at this end of the 
 Buka'a, and the water is thereby carried below the surface, and is 
 then turned back to its natural outflow, and hence it appears to 
 come from the east instead of the west. 
 
 This Neb'a or 'Ain el 'Asy, as the natives call it, is not the most 
 distant source of the Orontes, as we shall see during our day's ride. 
 In the winter the fountains at Lebweh and el 'Ain contribute 
 largely to swell the volume of the river, but at present the streams 
 which come from them are nearly exhausted in irrigating the fields 
 of Indian-corn, which is the chief product of this entire region, and 
 constitutes the staff of life for most of the inhabitants. 
 
 I have followed this largest of Syrian rivers from its entrance 
 into the Mediterranean Sea near Seleucia, at the foot of Mount 
 Casius, to its sources in this and other chasms, and the points of 
 special interest along its tortuous course are quite familiar to me, 
 and the river itself I greet as an old acquaintance. It flows on 
 to-day just as it has flowed during unknown ages in the past, and 
 just as it did when I first stood upon this spot; and, so long as 
 " goodly " Lebanon lifts his head to the clouds, the river Orontes 
 will continue to pour forth its crystal waters to refresh and fer- 
 tilize the plains of Northern Syria. 
 
 We will now descend along the bank for a short distance and 
 get a view in passing of the traditional grotto of Mar Maron, exca- 
 vated in the cliff on the opposite side of the river. .It is also called 
 Mugharat er Rahib, the cave of the monk. 
 
 One is taken by surprise to hear that any human being could 
 live in such a cavern at this place, so lonely and solitary. 
 
 You need not be alarmed to hear also that the cell of the monk 
 has since become the robber's den. I have been through it seve- 
 ral times, and Dr. Robinson during his second tour through this 
 country explored it carefully. He thus describes it : 
 
 " Where the stream, having turned around the high projecting 
 point, flows eastward for a little time on the right-hand side, high 
 up in the precipice looking north is the excavated convent now 
 known amongst the common people as Deir Mar Maron. It is only
 
 THE CAVE OF THE MONK.— BRIDGE OVER THE ORONTES. 305 
 
 a few hundred yards distant from the great fountain, towards the 
 north-east. The precipitous chff is here about three hundred feet 
 high, and the cavern is about two-thirds of the way up. The hill 
 on the opposite side of the river is less precipitous, and rises to 
 the height of some four hundred feet. 
 
 " The monks took advantage of a shelf of overhanging rocks, 
 cut away more deeply underneath it, and then built up in front 
 breastworks and outer walls, with loop-holes, thus forming a' covered 
 gallery along the face of the precipice. Behind this they then exca- 
 vated rooms and cells, mainly in two stories, but also some cells in 
 a third story. These are all small, and are now dark, dirty, and 
 d-esolate. No one dwells there, though it was said that one or two 
 monks had remained there for a time within a few years. In the 
 autumn the cavern [is sometimes] occupied as a shelter for flocks 
 of sheep and goats. 
 
 "The story [that the reputed founder of the Maronite sect once 
 dwelt in that cavern] is apparently a mere legend ; as is perhaps 
 Mar Maron himself ; there is nothing to connect [that saint] in any 
 way with this spot or this region. The great convent said to have 
 been founded in his honor after his decease, and called Deir Mar 
 Maron, was, as some say, at Hamah ; or, according to others, at 
 Apemea, now Kul'at el Mudik.'" 
 
 We will have some difficulty in climbing up the hill without a 
 path, and getting into the road that leads on eastward from llur- 
 mul to the Kamu'a, distant about an hour from this cavern. 
 
 Having reached the bridge, we will cross over the Orontcs and 
 ascend the steep bluffs on the other side up to the level of the 
 rolling plateau between the river and Kamu'a el Ilurmul. 
 
 This whole region for miles around is seared and sterile, consist- 
 ing mainly of low hills, covered with fragments of basaltic rock, 
 loose and crumbling, and the scanty herbage has been entirely 
 burnt up by the sun. There are no canals for irrigation, as the 
 Orontes flows in its deep chasm more than a hundred feet below 
 the surface level, and the only living thing we may see during this 
 morning's ride is a fox, or a flock of partridges, or, perchance, a 
 couple of fleet gazelles. 
 
 ' Rol). Res. vol. iii. ji. 539, 540.
 
 3o6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Kamu'a el Hurmul looks from here like a square tower with a 
 pointed top, and it must be visible from every direction. 
 
 We will have to leave the road and ride up to it across this 
 rather difficult country. I saw that curious monument, standing on 
 its elevated mound, for a day and a half before I got to it, when 
 coming from Aleppo in 1846, and wondered all the while what it 
 could be. Since then it has been visited by travellers, who make 
 the detour from the regular route between Ba'albek and the Cedars. 
 
 Standing on this tell, and looking off over the plain as it ex- 
 pands northward towards Hamath, one feels almost assured that the 
 narrow track of rolling country between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon 
 connecting the plain of Coelesyria with that of Hums is the actual 
 "entrance of Hamath;" and that this singular monument may once 
 have served as a land-mark upon the border of the Hebrew terri- 
 tory in this direction. 
 
 No one has discovered when or by whom Kamu'a el Hurmul 
 was built, nor what special event it was intended to commemorate. 
 The sculptures on its sides represent hunting scenes, and it may 
 have been erected over the grave of some " mighty hunter " who 
 was mortally wounded while pursuing the chase in this vicinity; 
 but no inscriptions have been found to explain the figures or relate 
 the circumstances, and both history and tradition are silent upon 
 the subject. This unique and solitary monument stands, facing the 
 four cardinal points, upon a pedestal of basalt about five feet high, 
 and is reached from either side by a flight of three steps. It is 
 built of limestone, and consists of three stories : the first has square 
 pilasters at the four angles, supporting a plain cornice ; the second 
 is a little smaller, and has two pilasters on each side and one at 
 each angle; the third story rises from a receding base above the 
 cornice, and is a perfect pyramid in shape. At the base the monu- 
 ment is thirty feet square, and the first story is about twenty-five 
 feet high ; the next is nearly twenty, and the pyramid, surmounting 
 the whole, about fifteen, so that the entire structure from the base 
 to the summit must be more than sixty-five feet high. 
 
 The common limestone of the neighborhood was used in the 
 construction of this extraordinar>^ monument ; the stones are about 
 two feet thick, and well squared, but they were laid up without
 
 KAMU'A EL HURMUL. 
 
 .5^/ 
 
 cement or mortar, and, consequently, it has not been able to with- 
 stand the destructive power of the earthquake. It is cracked in 
 several places, and the south-west corner has fallen, carrying with it 
 a portion of the pyramid. We are thus enabled to see that the 
 interior was built up solid, though of smaller stone. 
 
 ■■■^j3^: 
 
 --^- -Jiai, . 
 
 *^^^^*r^ 
 
 KAMIA Kl, lilK.MLl, — .M<J> U .Mi,.N 1 I i i.M M l.Mi >i< v i i \ i'- 
 
 But the distinctive and peculiar features of KamiVa el Hurmul 
 are those hunting scenes so boldly and graphically delineated in re- 
 lief upon its sides. The sculptures of animals and implements of 
 the chase on that broad surface of smoothly-cut stones, near the top 
 of the first story, arc almost of natural size.
 
 308 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Those on the east side are the most distinct ; they represent 
 dogs attacking a wild -boar from before and behind. Spears are 
 
 Figures on the east side. 
 
 hurled, of which three stick in his side, and there are bows, quivers, 
 a coil of rope, perhaps, and other hunting implements. On the 
 north side there are two stags — one standing, the other lying down ; 
 
 Ficrures on the north side. 
 
 and there are spears crossed, quivers, and two coils of rope. In the 
 middle of the west side is a large animal, probably a bear, with two 
 cubs — one standing up in front, the other following behind. There 
 
 Figures on the west side. 
 
 are also spears crossed, a coil of rope, bows, quivers, and spears, 
 apparently hurled. So much of the south side has fallen away that 
 the animals represented there are somewhat indistinct, but a dog
 
 OUTLOOK OVER THE PLAIN FROM THE KAMUA. 
 
 309 
 
 appears to be seizing an animal from behind, probably a stag or a 
 gazelle. The body of the dog and a part of the head of the stag 
 are gone, but bows, quivers, a spear hurled, and other implements 
 of the chase are plainly visible. 
 
 Ficures on the south side. 
 
 Few sites suggest scenes of such varied interest in the history of 
 this country. Kamu'a el Hurmul stands on this dreary and deso- 
 late hill, high above the surrounding region, and in the narrowest 
 part of this rolling plateau. Below it, on the north, flows the clas- 
 sic Orontes diagonally across the plain, past the Biblical Riblah and 
 the supposed site of Ketesh, and through the lake of Kedes, and 
 thence by Hums and Hamah and Apamea to Antioch and the sea 
 at the foot of Mount Casius. Eastward the plain rolls back to the 
 horizon and onwards to the Euphrates ; and westward the tower- 
 iner heights of Lebanon shut out " the great sea," and the plain 
 of Coelesyria stretches away southward far as the eye can follow 
 to where the snow-capped range of Hermon is faintly outlined 
 against the pale blue sky. Mighty armies — Assyrian, Egyptian, 
 Babylonian, Persian, Jewish, Greek, Roman, Christian, and Saracen 
 — have marched past during the long ages of human history, but 
 now that nameless monument is deserted in this solitude, and left 
 to tell its story to the stars. Ik-ars and boars, gazelles and jackals 
 may still roam around it, but men and armies will nircly, if ever, 
 come within sight of its sculptured walls. 
 
 Instead of descending again into the valley of the (Brontes we 
 will make our way through the open, roadless couiUn-~a rocky 
 and desert plain — to the fountain near Lebweh, about three hours' 
 ride to the south. We shall, ere long, reach a broad canal which
 
 3IO THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 conveys the water of that fountain northwards to Ka'a, a distance 
 of about fifteen miles, to irrigate the extensive corn-fields which lie 
 too high to be flooded by canals from the Orontes itself. For 
 several miles above the fountain of el 'Asy, near Mugharat er Ra- 
 hib, the bed of that river is more than fifty feet below the sur- 
 rounding country, and the rocky banks on either side are nearly 
 perpendicular, so that one has no suspicion of their existence until 
 he finds himself suddenly standing on the brink of the chasm. 
 
 This must be the canal you mentioned, and there is water 
 enough in it and to spare for irrigating purposes. 
 
 And yet so utterly sterile is the soil in this vicinity that nothing 
 grows along the course of the canal itself. 
 
 That village on our left is called Ras Ba'albek. It is distant 
 three hours and a half, to the north-east, from Lebweh, and the 
 intervening country is hilly and broken, descending rapidly to the 
 south-west. Part of the present village lies in ruins, but there are 
 indications that it was formerly a Christian town of some impor- 
 tance. A fine fountain bursts out in the village, and contributes 
 largely to the productiveness of the gardens and fruit orchards and 
 to the fertility of the plain below er Ras and to the west of it. 
 
 There are in and about the place the ruins of ancient buildings, 
 the remains of an aqueduct, and the foundations of two churches, 
 which were solidly built of large beveled stones, and must have 
 been of considerable size. A short distance east of the village 
 there is a dilapidated convent, facing the deep gorge between the 
 lower ridges of Anti-Lebanon. Its only occupant is a monk from 
 'Abeih, with whom I am well acquainted. His pastoral charge 
 consists of a flock of goats, over which he watches with zealous 
 care, as Ras Ba'albek is a notorious place for sudden raids by 
 prowling Arabs from the eastern desert. 
 
 Dr. Robinson identifies er Ras with the ancient Conna, between 
 Emesa, Hums, and Heliopolis, Ba'albek, and the seat of a bishop 
 in the province of Phenicia in Lebanon. As there is very little 
 resemblance in the names, he asks, " Is perhaps the present name 
 er Ras merely a translation of the Greek [words], the head?"' The 
 answer to which may possibly be found in the correctness of a simi- 
 ' Rob. Res. vol. iii. note 5, pp. 536, 537.
 
 WADY FIKEH.— EL 'AIN.— THE WATER-SHED. 311 
 
 lar identification of another Beit er Ras, south-east of Gadara, " in 
 Decapohs," with the Roman city of CapitoHas. 
 
 From the top of that hill ahead of us we will bid farewell to 
 Kamii'a el Hurmul and the lake of Hums, and then descend into 
 the deep chasm of Wady Fikeh. The village of Fikeh is not visi- 
 ble from here. It is in the bottom of the gorge, and considerably 
 higher up the stream. The valley, though narrow and precipitous, 
 is well cultivated; but in winter the water of this little brook is. of 
 course, not needed for irrigation, and it is then allowed to descend 
 westward and join the river that comes down from Wady Lebweh. 
 This winding road up the chasm, on the south side of Wady Fikeh, 
 is much steeper than the one by which we descended into the 
 valley, and we still have a ride of about an hour along a compara- 
 tively level road before reaching the fountain at Lebweh. 
 
 That small village on the left, up amongst the foot-hills of 
 Anti- Lebanon, is called el 'Ain, the fountain. It is abundantly 
 supplied with water from three small fountains, and surrounded by 
 verdure and vineyards. If it was not so far south it might be 
 identified with the Ain mentioned in Numbers in connection with 
 Riblah, on the east border of the Promised Land.' The reference 
 there is probably to the fountain of the Orontes near Mugharat 
 er Rahib. There are some rock tombs west of el 'Ain, but no 
 ancient remains of importance, in the village. This stream that 
 comes down from el 'Ain is sufficiently powerful to drive some 
 flour-mills below the village. 
 
 On one occasion I rode for several hours southwards through 
 the corn-fields in this vicinity, in order to find the water-shed be- 
 tween the Buka'a and the valley of the Orontes, and, just before 
 sunset, I noticed that the water from the irrigating canals began to 
 run towards the south instead of the north. There, of course, was 
 the water-shed of that region, and it was nearly due west of the 
 fountain of Lebweh, to which we are now going. The corn-fields 
 ran out into a rolling wilderness of barren hills ; the sun went 
 down, and a dense fog enveloped us in almost tot.d cl.irkness. I 
 had with me only one native, and, after wandering about in hope- 
 less bewilderment until nearly eleven o'clock at night, we were 
 
 ' Numl>. xxxiv. 11.
 
 312 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 rejoiced to hear the barking of dogs, and soon found ourselves in 
 the midst of an encampment of Bedawin Arabs. 
 
 We had no Httle difficulty in establishing peaceable relations 
 with the fierce shepherd dogs, and on arriving at the tent of the 
 sheikh we found only his wife and daughter in it, he himself having 
 been summoned to Ba'albek by the Pasha. The sheikh's wife, 
 however, was quite equal to the occasion. She rekindled the ex- 
 piring fire, roasted and made some hot coffee for us, and gave us 
 bread, and brought leben "in a lordly dish" for our supper. 
 
 That modern Jael was of an inquiring turn of mind, and, as she 
 had never before entertained a European guest, she had many curi- 
 ous questions to ask. Finally she retired to another part of the 
 tent, leaving us to doze by the fire until daylight. She then 
 ordered one of the Arabs in the camp to guide us to the regular 
 road along the Buka'a, and we pursued our way until noon before 
 overtaking our servants and the baggage. They also had got lost 
 in the fog, and, finding a spring of water, encamped near it, greatly 
 perplexed and anxious about us, for they knew that we had no 
 provisions, and no beds nor any bedding. 
 
 I suppose we need only to follow the canal, along which we 
 have been riding, to reach the fountain at Lebweh? 
 
 Nor is it far off. I begin to see the ruins of the village, which 
 lie a short distance to the north-west of it, on a low tell nearly sur- 
 rounded by the streams from the fountain. I have, generally, found 
 this village almost deserted, as it is now, but sometimes it is inhab- 
 ited by the peasants who cultivate the corn-fields which spread out 
 into the plain below. Lebweh occupies an old site, and it is be- 
 lieved to correspond to the Lybo of the ancient Itinerarium Anto- 
 nini, a place on the road between Emesa and Heliopolis. On the 
 north side of the tell are the foundations of an old structure, prob- 
 ably those of a temple, and the rest of the mound is covered with 
 heaps of rubbish, with here and there a piece of a broken column 
 or the fragments of a capital. Arabian writers mention Lebweh as 
 a fortified place ; and here it is said that, in the twelfth century, 
 a company of two hundred Saracen horsemen fell in with a troop 
 of Frank cavalry, put them to flight, and killed their leader, a chief 
 of the Knights Hospitalers.
 
 EIRKET EL YEMMUNEH— LAKE ON LEBAXOX. 313 
 
 The quantity of water at this fountain of Lebweh, one of the 
 most distant sources of the Orontes in this direction, is very great. 
 It issues from a mass of pebbles and gravel, at the base of a ledge 
 of limestone rock, in four large streams and many smaller ones, and 
 is used to irrigate the fields both to the south and west ; but the 
 greater part of the water is taken northwards by that canal close 
 to which we have been riding for so long to-day. The rest of the 
 water flows oK towards the north-west, in a deep and narrow chan- 
 nel, along the eastern side of Lebanon, and through a rocky and 
 barren region. The stream from Neb'a Lebweh is joined by that 
 coming down Wady Fikeh, and the two, under the name of Nahr 
 el 'Asy, unite with the water of the great fountain near Mugharat 
 er Rahib and form the river Orontes. 
 
 There is nothing here to detain us but the grateful sight of this 
 verdure, spreading all around like an oasis in the desert, so we will 
 continue our ride to Ba'albek, which is five hours and a half distant. 
 Some travellers on the regular road from Ba'albek to the Cedars 
 spend the night at Lake Yemmuneh ; others, however, prefer to 
 camp at 'Ainata, a village to the north-east of the lake. 
 
 I thought there was no large lake on Lebanon. 
 
 A number of small streams rise along the w-estern side of the 
 lake from the very roots of Lebanon, and, uniting around the base 
 of an ancient temple, form a considerable river, which crosses the 
 plain eastwards for nearly a mile, when it disappears in a sink-hole 
 under the surface of the lake or pool. When the supply from that 
 river is greater than the capacity of the sink-hole, the water spreads 
 out far and wide into the lake, which is increased or decreased in 
 size according to the volume of water and the season of the year. 
 That disappearance of the water is one of the most remarkable 
 phenomena of the kind in this country ; and the question is, where 
 does it reappear? The natives think that Birkct el Yemmuneh is 
 the source of Nahr Ibrahim, which, as you will remember, issues 
 from the cave of Adonis at Afka, below the Natural Bridge, and on 
 the other side of Lebanon. The more probable theory is that it 
 forms part of the fountain of the Orontes near Mugharat cr Rahib. 
 
 During the heavy rains of winter Birket el Yemmuneh actually 
 deserves the name of a lake, U)r then the narrow plain south of it,
 
 314 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 BIRKET EL YEMMUNEH — LAKE ON LEBANON. 
 
 which stretches along the eastern base of the lofty range of Leba- 
 non, is flooded for a considerable distance. Even in summer there 
 is a sheet of water more than a mile in length ; but the lake is 
 greatly reduced in the autumn, as the principal fountain near the 
 temple almost entirely dries up at that season. 
 
 The ruins of the temple are near the base of the mountain, 
 which sweeps upwards to the clouds in one magnificent rise of more 
 than three thousand feet. It stands on a low rocky platform, facing 
 the main fountain, and the water that flows out around it is of the 
 softest and coldest in the land. The platform was two hundred and 
 sixty feet long by two hundred feet wide, and the temple is about
 
 BA'ALBEK.— AMUD VAAT. 
 
 3»5 
 
 fifty-six feet long by thirty-six feet wide. Some of the stones are 
 very large, but the edifice appears to have been destitute of archi- 
 tectural ornamentation. In winter the numerous springs which sur- 
 round the site transform it into a low island, and then the ruined 
 temple presents a very striking appearance. 
 
 We have had in view for some time the ruins of Ba'albek, domi- 
 nating the glorious plain of the Buka'a, which stretches away off to 
 the south-west far as the eye can follow. 
 
 It looks like some formidable castle of mediaeval times, but I 
 am surprised that there are no villages in sight upon the plain. 
 
 The land, however, is highly cultivated, but, as in the case of 
 other plains in this country, the peasants have their homes on the 
 neighboring hill-sides. In the central parts there is no water. The 
 heat in summer is oppressive, and the climate unhealthy. On the 
 hills the air is cooler and pure, and there are all the fountains. 
 
 Instead of going direct to Ba'albek we will turn to the right and 
 visit a curious monument which stands alone in the open plain 
 of the Buka'a, and apparently had no connection with any other 
 structure ancient or modern. 
 
 The only living objects near it this c\"cning are those noisy 
 hawks, who greet us with shrill screams of alarm as they hover 
 about their nest in the crevices at the top of the column. It is 
 much weather-worn, and looks as though the first shock of an 
 earthquake would bring it to the ground. 
 
 And yet it was exactly in its present condition forty-five years 
 ago, when I first saw it ; and, having survived so many of those de- 
 structive phenomena in the long ages of the past, no one can pre- 
 dict the time of its final overthrow. 
 
 For w^^iat purpose do you suppose it was erected ? 
 
 Like the lone monument of Kamu'a el Hiirmul, this 'Amud 
 Ya'at, or el Maghzel, the spindle, as it is called, may have had 
 some reference to boundaries; but more probabl)' it was raisetl in 
 commemoration of some important victory, or special event now 
 unknown. The column, standing upon a pedestal six antl a half 
 feet high, is of the Corinthian order, and is reached by five steps. 
 The shaft is composed of fifteen blocks, five feet in diameter and 
 three feet thick, but the caj^ital is weather-worn and disintegratetl.
 
 3l6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK, 
 
 and the inscription on the north side is so defaced as to be en- 
 tirely illegible. Including the base and capital, this singular mon- 
 ument must have been more than fifty-five feet high, and it may 
 have had a statue on the top of it. 
 
 We are now on the regular road from the Cedars to Ba'albek. 
 Wearied with this long day's ride, we will not stop at Nahleh to 
 examine the foundations of a ruined temple, resembling those we 
 saw on Hermon, nor visit the rock-cut tombs east of that village. 
 An easy ride of an hour and a half will bring us, in the cool twilight, 
 to our tents, pitched in the court of the great Temple of the Sun, 
 from where we can gaze at our leisure upon the ruins of Ba'albek, 
 those marvels of architecture in this or in any other land.
 
 B-VALBEK.— EL BUKA'A.— EZ ZEBEDANV. 
 
 J'/ 
 
 IX. 
 
 BA'ALBEK TO DAMASCUS. 
 
 Ba'albek and el Biika'a. — Approach to Ba'albek from the Cedars, and from Zahleh. — 
 Personal Experience. — The Cardinal Points. — Position of Ba'albek. — The Ancient 
 City. — The Old Wall. — Doric Column. — Remains of the Old Town. — Statues. — The 
 Modern Town. — The Acropolis. — Artificial Platform of the Great Temple. — Stairway 
 Leading to the Platform. — The Portico. — Latin Inscription. — Antoninus Pius and Julia 
 Domna. — Massive Square Towers. — Large Stones. — Vaults. — Main Entrance. — The 
 Hexagonal Court. — The Triple Gate. — The Great Court. — Niches, Recesses, and 
 Chambers. — The Eastern, Northern, and Western Sides of the Court. — Raised Plat- 
 form. — The Temple of the Sun. — The Peristyle. — The Six Columns. — The Walls of 
 the Temple Platform. — Cyclopean Stones and Walls. — Trilithon. — The Three CJreat 
 Stones. — Seven Stones in the West Wall. — Nine Stones Parallel to the North Wall. — 
 Vaults and Galleries under the Platform. — Temple of Jupiter. — The Pantheon at 
 Athens. — Platform of the Temple. — The Portico. — The Peristyle. — The Vestibule. — 
 The Portal. — Mr. David Roberts. — The Hanging Keystone. — The Assyrian Eagle. — 
 Stairway to the Top of the Temple. — The Nave of the Temple. — Fluted Columns and 
 Sculptured Niches. — The Sanctum. — Sacrificial Procession. — Vaulted Chambers. — 
 Moslem Iconoclasts. — Nine Columns on the North Side of the Peristyle. — Entablature 
 and Roof of the Peristyle. — Lieutenant Conder. — Three Columns on the West Side 
 of the Temple. — The Leaning Column on the South Wall of the Temple. — Four 
 Standing Columns. — Fluted Columns of the Portico. — Saracenic Tower. — The Octag- 
 onal Temple. — Columns, Niches, and Festoons. — Ionic and Corinthian Columns 
 around the Interior Walls. — A Christian Church. — Ras el 'Ain. — Coelesyria. — El 
 Bukd'a. — The Orontes and the Leontes. — El Berduny and Nalir Anjar. — Tlie Grave 
 of Noah and the Tomb of Seth. — Toi and David. — The Ilittites and tiie Egyptians. 
 — The History of Ba'albek. — Baal-gad. — The Plain of Aven. — Heliopolis. — Julia, 
 Augusta Felix. — The Emperor Trajan. — John of Antioch. — Antoninus Pius and 
 Septimus Severus. — Julia Domna and Heliogabalus. — Venus Worshipped at Ba'al- 
 bek. — The Emperor Constantine. — Muhammedan Vandalism. — Kiil'at Ba'albek. — 
 The Quarries. — The Great Stone in the Quarry. — Kubbet Diiris. — The Road to 
 Damascus. — Emirs of Beit Harfush. — Bereitan. — Kliurailjch. — A Donkey Fallen 
 under its Load. — The Humane Laws of Moses. — Nahr Vahfufeh. — A Roman Britlge. 
 — SQrghaya. — Volcanic Plain. — The Water- shed. — '.\in Ilawar. — Ez Zebcdany.— 
 The Plain, the Gardens, and the Vineyards. — The Source of the Barada. — The
 
 jl8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Lofty Range of Anti-Lebanon. — Bludan. — Wild and Romantic Scenery in Suk Wady 
 Barada. — The Pass. — The Bridge. — Ancient Roadway Cut in the Rock. — Latin In- 
 scriptions. — "Abila of Lysanias." — Rock-hewn Aqueduct and Rock-cut Tombs. — 
 Ancient Quarries. — The Tomb of Abek— Ruins of a Small Temple. — Plain and Vil- 
 lage of Siik Wady Barada. — A Devout Hermit.— Gibbon. — Kefr el 'Awamid. — An- 
 cient Temple. — Ride along the Canal. — A Succession of Surprises. — 'Ain el Fijeh. 
 —The most Copious Source of the Barada. — Massive Remains of Platforms and Tem- 
 ples. — Fever and Ague. — 'Ain el Khudra. — Grand Scenery and Execrable Road. — 
 Tunnel through the Cliff.— Zenobia and Palmyra.— Bessima.— Es Sahra. — French 
 Carriage-road. — Dummar. — Kubbet en Niisr. — First and Finest View of Damascus. — 
 Description of the Scene by Lieutenant Van de Velde and Mr. Addison. — The Barada 
 Described by Dean Stanley. — The Canals and Streams from the Barada. — The Main 
 Stream. — The Paradise of the Prophet. — The Mountains and the Plain. — Hermon. 
 — Nahr el A'waj, the Pharpar. — Jebel Kasyun. — Adam and Abraham. — Cain and 
 Abel. — Es Salahiyeh. — Broad Paved Road. — The Tent and the Hotel. 
 
 September nth. 
 I HAVE devoted the early hours of the morning to these cele- 
 brated ruins, and have examined them again and again, and always 
 with a feeling of ever increasing admiration and astonishment. 
 
 The disappointment experienced by some visitors on first ap- 
 proaching Ba'albek is partly owing to the vast proportions of the 
 surrounding region. The valley of Coelesyria, now called el Buka'a, 
 extends to a great distance northward and southward, and is shut 
 in by the long and lofty range of Lebanon on the north-west, and 
 that of Anti-Lebanon on the south-east. During the many hours 
 of approach along its undulating surface towards Ba'albek the eye 
 grows familiar with such magnitudes as the extreme length of the 
 plain, the great height of the mountains, and the profound depths 
 of the valleys, and in comparison with them any structure of man's 
 designing, no matter how imposing, is as nothing. 
 
 Coming to Ba'albek from the Cedars, the distant view of these 
 ruined temples is not very impressive, and to approach them from 
 Zahleh is still more disappointing, as I experienced on my first visit 
 in 18^5. Hour after hour we rode along over the plain in weary 
 monotony. Several times I spurred my horse to a gallop, expect- 
 ing to reach those columns in a few minutes, but had to draw rein 
 again and breathe my jaded steed, that had not a particle of my 
 enthusiasts. When, at last, the hoofs of our horses clattered upon 
 the pavement at the entrance I exclaimed, almost in disgust, to my
 
 PERSONAL EXPERIENCE.— POSITION OF BA'ALBEK. 319 
 
 companion, "Is this Ba'albek?" "It is," was his reply; "and now 
 prepare yourself for hours, if not days, of exploration and wonder; 
 you will need all that time, and, having done that once, you will do 
 it again whenever you have an opportunity." 
 
 Dismounting, I came to a prostrate column, and was surprised 
 to find that, on tip-toe, and with my arm outstretched, I could not 
 measure its diameter. I climbed up between two of those six stand- 
 ing columns, and felt dwarfed to utter insignificance beside them ; 
 and I looked up to the entablature with awe, and wondered how 
 high it could be. A fallen fragment lay close by, and I jumped 
 down to measure it, and to my astonishment found that it was 
 more than fourteen feet thick I Such columns and such fragments 
 lay all around, in bewildering confusion ; but by degrees I learned 
 to comprehend the grand design of the whole, and from the plat- 
 form in the middle of the great court I tried to reconstruct, in 
 imagination, their magnificent sanctuaries. 
 
 I cannot feel at home in any place until the points of the com- 
 pass are correctly understood. Here the east persistently seems to 
 be north, and the west south. Let us, therefore, commence our 
 survey of these celebrated ruins at Ba'albek by settling the actual 
 position of the four cardinal points. 
 
 That can easily be accomplished if you will bear in mind that 
 on a low ridge or spur of the sloping tract which extends westward 
 from Anti-Lebanon into the Buka'a, and upon an artificial platform, 
 raised from thirty to fifty feet above the immediate environs, these 
 ruined temples stand, facing the rising sun. They are surrounded 
 by mulberry-gardens and groves of walnut and pojilar trees, through 
 which small streams from Ras el 'Ain find their way to the plain 
 below. This particular site was selected, I suppose, because it was 
 the first beyond the fountain which extended farther west than the 
 cit}% so that the temples would stand out alone and conspicuous, 
 and command an unobstructed view over the Buka'a to the north 
 and south — of Lebanon across the plain westward, and Anti-Leba- 
 non eastward. The ground rises gently to the south-east, affording 
 an admirable position for the town, whose Syrian name, Ba'albek, 
 was translated by the Greeks into Heliopolis, the City of the Sun. 
 
 The old city was irregular in form, and was surrounded by a 
 Y
 
 320 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 wall, which can be traced along almost its entire circuit of nearly 
 two miles. The existing fragments of the wall reveal the fact that 
 it was not the most ancient, since it was constructed out of older 
 material ; and the part still standing, on the south-west, with its 
 battlements and square towers, though both are badly cracked and 
 broken, has quite a modern appearance. When I first visited Ba'al- 
 bek I saw the fragments of a Doric column, which stood on the 
 hill-side, in the angle formed by the wall, and over a cave in which 
 are several sarcophagi. The height of that column, from the bot- 
 tom of the base to the top of the capital, was about forty feet. A 
 hole appears to have been made in the capital to correspond to 
 a groove in the side of the shaft, but for what special purpose it 
 is now impossible to determine. Built into the wall in that south- 
 western part of the city are fragments of ornamented friezes and 
 cornices. Some of the sculptured stones are upside down, and 
 others have portions of Greek inscriptions upon them. 
 
 The remains of the old town are of no special importance. 
 They consist of detached masses of building-stone, fragments of 
 columns, friezes, and cornices, plain and ornate, thrown together in 
 heaps or scattered here and there in hopeless confusion. Statues 
 and other antiquities have been dug up from the ruins, and some 
 stones were found with Greek inscriptions upon them. Careful 
 excavations would probably reveal more of the same kind. The 
 modern town lies to the east of the temples, and is built among the 
 ruins, and out of the old material, of the ancient town. It occupies 
 but a small portion of the original site, and consists of about two 
 luindred and fifty houses, most of which are inhabited by Greek 
 Catholics, and the rest by Moslems and Metawileh. 
 
 The modern traveller, however, does not linger amongst the 
 remains of the old city, nor loiter about the narrow streets and 
 crooked lanes of the present town. The main attractions of Ba'al- 
 bek are the wonderful ruins of these temples, which surpass even 
 those of Greece and Rome in the vastness and boldness of their 
 design, their symmetrical proportions, and the delicate execution 
 of their elaborate decorations. It has been well said of them that 
 "these temples have been the wonder of past centuries, and they 
 will continue to be the wonder of future generations." Let us now
 
 THE ACROPOLIS.— ARTIFICIAL LLATFORNL— I'lIL STAIRWAY. 32 1 
 
 proceed, in imagination, to the Acropolis, in the north-western part 
 of the cit\'. where the temples stood, and which constituted its de- 
 fence in that quarter for centuries after their destruction. 
 
 The Acropolis extended westward from the town, rising gradu- 
 ally in that direction, and the artificial platform occupied b\' tlie 
 great temple was irregular in form and nearly one thousand feet in 
 length from east to west, and four hundred and fifty feet wide from 
 north to south. A broad flight of steps, probably one hundred and 
 fifty feet in length and fifty feet wide, led up from the city to the 
 portico at the eastern end. The steps are now all gone." The floor 
 of the portico was elevated about twenty feet above the ground. 
 The portico was one hundred and eighty feet long from north to 
 south, thirty-seven feet wide, and probably over forty feet high. It 
 had twelve columns in front, four feet in diameter, and with an 
 interval of ten feet between them. 
 
 Standing on that elevated platform, supporting a portico one 
 hundred and eighty feet in length, those columns, w ith their Corin- 
 thian capitals and ornamented entablature, must have presented a 
 magnificent appearance. Only the bases of the columns remain, 
 upon two of which are Latin inscriptions to the effect that Anto- 
 ninus Pius and Julia Domna, grateful for their safety, caused the 
 capitals of the columns to be covered with gold. Flanking the 
 portico on the north-east and south-east are square towers, with 
 rooms in them. Those towers wouUl attract attention anvwhere, 
 for they were constructed of very large stones — one of them is 
 twenty-five feet long — and the spacious room in each is more than 
 thirty-five feet square, and ornamented with pilasters, niches, and 
 cornices. .Steps led down from the rooms into vaults beneath the 
 platform. The upper parts of the towers have been fortified with 
 battlements and pierced with loopholes by the Saracens. 
 
 The wall at the back of the portico is nineteen feet thick, and 
 most of the stones of which it was constructed are of cyclopean 
 size, some measuring from ten to twenty feet in length. That 
 massive wall is also ornamented with pilasters, niches, and cornices, 
 and through it was the main entrance leading into the hexagonal 
 court beyond; but the interior of the portico is now filled with 
 heaps of ruins and great masses of fallen walls, and the gateway is
 
 322 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 almost entirely blocked up 
 the central and largest of 
 which was twenty - three 
 feet wide, and the smaller 
 ones, on each side of it, 
 were ten feet in width. 
 
 The gate consisted of three portals, 
 
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 The side en- 
 trance on the 
 left is the only 
 one now open 
 — a low passage 
 roofed over with 
 very large stones. 
 Entering the 
 hexagonal court, 
 it is found to 
 be two hundred feet in 
 length from east to west, 
 and two hundred and fifty 
 feet wide from anele to 
 
 SCALE n,- FEET. 
 
 WEST. 
 The lliree great stones 
 
 50 100 200 EAST. 
 
 PLAN OF THE COURTS AND TEMPLES AT BA'ALBEK.
 
 THE GREAT COURT IN FRONT OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN. 323 
 
 angle. On all sides — east, north, and south, except the west — it had 
 rectangular recesses, with four columns in front of each ; and at the 
 ant^les there were irregularly shaped rooms of different sizes. The 
 eastern recess was the \estibule before the entrance from the por- 
 tico, and directly opposite to it, on the western side of the hexago- 
 nal court, was the triple gate leading to the great court in front of 
 the Temple of the Sun. The central portal of that gateway was 
 fifty feet wide, and the side portals were each ten feet in width, and 
 the ornamentation upon them all was extremely rich and elaborate. 
 Only one of those portals remains — that on the right. 
 
 The great court is a quadrangle four hundred" and forty feet 
 long and three hundred and seventy feet wide. On all sides except 
 the western this great court had niches, rectangular, square, and 
 circular recesses or chambers, differing in size, and having two or 
 more columns in front of each. The recesses are separated from 
 each other by square pilasters with Corinthian capitals, and between 
 them are two rows of niches: the lower is shell-shaped, or scolloped, 
 the upper is plain, with a projecting cornice or pediment ; and that 
 design, of niches between square pilasters, has been generally fol- 
 lowed along the walls of the recesses themselves. Above the niches 
 ran an uninterrupted entablature, with a frieze composed of garlands 
 of fruit and flowers, and all the recesses are supposed to have once 
 been covered over. All of them are now in ruins, and there is not 
 a column left standing. As the recesses on the three sides corre- 
 spond in every respect with each other, a description of those on 
 the right of the small portal, along the east side of the court, and 
 the ones along the north side of it. will give an adequate idea of 
 them all, and of the general appearance of the great court itself. 
 
 Proceeding northward, therefore, there is, next to the triple gate, 
 on the right, a large niche eighteen feet in width, which was i)roba- 
 bly intended for a colossal statue ; then a rectangular recess about 
 twenty-f^ve feet deep and forty-five feet in length, with four columns 
 two and a half feet in diameter in front, of Syenite granite from 
 Egypt. Next to that there is a room thirty feet in length, willi a 
 door in front instead of columns, and a side door communicating 
 with a chamber, about twenty feet sciuare, in the north-east corner 
 of the wall of the great court.
 
 524 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Turning west and proceeding along the north wall of the court, 
 there is a room similar to that on the east of the square chamber 
 in the corner, with which it also communicates by a door. The 
 square chamber is thus rendered inaccessible except from these side 
 rooms. Next to that room is a rectangular recess, with four col- 
 umns in front, then a semicircular one nearly thirty feet long, with 
 two columns in front; and next to it, occupying the middle of the 
 
 
 SHELL-SHAPED AND RECTANGULAR NICHES AND SEMICIRCULAR RECESS AROUND 
 THE GREAT COURT. 
 
 wall on this side, is a rectangular recess over sixty feet in length, 
 with six columns in front. Then follow, in the same order as be- 
 fore, a semicircular recess with two columns in front, a rectangular 
 one with four columns, and a room with a door next to the corner. 
 Adjoining this is a shell-shaped niche ; but there were no recesses 
 or columns along the west side of the court between it and the 
 peristyle of the temple, a distance of about one hundred feet.
 
 TEMPLE OF THE SUX.— THE SIX COLUMNS. 325 
 
 In the middle of this western part of the court, and fronting the 
 temple, are the remains of a raised quadrangular platform, upon 
 which, it is said, there were two rows of pedestals, three in a row, 
 probably intended for statues. We have now. in imagination, be- 
 fore us — standing upon a stylobate three hundred feet long and 
 two hundred and forty feet wide, and considerably higher than the 
 great court which we have just traversed — the Temple of Baal, or 
 of the Sun. Broad steps led up to it, and it was surrounded b\' a 
 peristyle two hundred and ninety feet in length by one hundred 
 and sixty feet in breadth, consisting of fifty-four columns seven and 
 a half feet thick, sixty-two feet high, and supporting an entablature 
 the top of which must have been eighty feet above the ground, and 
 one hundred and thirty feet above the level of the plain. 
 
 All that remains of that magnificent peristyle are six columns, 
 with their entablature, standing among the most wonderful masses 
 of ruins that man has ever seen, and the like of which he will never 
 behold. The base of each column consisted of a single block of 
 limestone, the shaft of three unequal in length, the capital of one, 
 and the entablature, reaching from column to column — a distance of 
 about fifteen feet — was also composed of but a single block, nearl_\- 
 square. The sections of the shafts were fastened together by round 
 or square iron cramps, and the distance between the columns was 
 eight feet. The style of architecture is Corinthian ; the capitals of 
 the columns are richly sculptured, and the entablature is profusely 
 ornamented with fretted mouldings, garlands, and busts, designed 
 with great taste, and carefully executed. From the splendid effect 
 produced by the six columns now standing the magnificence of the 
 entire peristyle can be imagined, and some idea formed of the grand 
 appearance of the temple itself. Not a trace remains of its walls, 
 however, and the probabilities are that it was never built, and that 
 " the peristyle alone served the purpose of a vast h)'pa:thral tem- 
 ple " under a clear sky, and dedicated to the Lord of Light at 
 Ba'albek, "the city of the sun."' 
 
 If those columns, whose shafts lie in great fragments all around, 
 ever enclosed a temple, it must have been of the usual (piadrangu- 
 br form, and it stood facing the east on this elevated platform high 
 
 ' Roh. Res., vol. iii. p. 512.
 
 326 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 IIIK MX LHJLIMNS (IN THE SOLTH SIDE OF THE PER1M\1.1.. 
 
 above the plain. Only the north wall that sustained the line of 
 columns on that side is exposed to view. It consists of thirty-nine 
 courses of large bevelled stones, each course being nearly four feet 
 high, and of about the same thickness. The eastern wall adjoins 
 the western side of the great quadrangular court in front of the
 
 THE THREE GREAT STONES IX THE WEST WALL. 
 
 ;^7 
 
 peristyle. The southern wall is almost entirely buried up w ith rub- 
 bish and ruins, and the western wall is partly broken down, afford- 
 ing a view through the gap of the mulberry-gardens below and the 
 plain beyond. The walls upon which the columns were erected 
 were of the same height, but whether the i)latform enclosed b\- 
 them was built up solid, or whether the temple stood on massive 
 vaults, can only be determined by careful excavation. 
 
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 1 HL lliRtK (JKEAT STU.Nhs IN 1111, Ul.al WAI.I.. 
 
 But neither the courts, nor this platform, nor these columns, nor 
 yet the temple itself constituted the greatest of Ba'albek's archi- 
 tectural marvels. Those were the cyclopean stones and walls which 
 surrounded the Acropolis itself, and they still confound e\en the 
 imagination of the beholder. To see them we must descend from 
 this platform, near the north-western corner, to the gardens at its 
 base, on the outside of these walls. Those "external substruc- 
 tions," as they are called, were nearly thirty feet distant from the 
 walls sustaining the columns, and on the north side the intervening 
 space appears never to have been filled in. riic most imjiosing of
 
 328 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 them are the celebrated "three stones" in the western wall, that 
 gave the name of Trilithon to the temple in ancient times. 
 
 There they are ; look at them ! — the most enormous stones that 
 man ever quarried out of the solid rock or built into the walls of 
 any edifice. They are twenty feet above the ground, and rest upon 
 seven stones each one of which is almost thirty feet long and thir- 
 teen feet high, and those are laid on others much smaller — a curious 
 fact, but not uncommon in the construction of ancient massive sub- 
 structions. The great marvel is, how they were placed on the top 
 of those other stones, which are themselves of a wonderful size even 
 in Ba'albek. The largest of the three stones is sixty-four feet in 
 length, the second sixty-three feet eight inches, and the third sixty- 
 three feet, and together they are one hundred and ninety feet eight 
 inches long, thirteen feet in height, and about the same in thickness. 
 They contain more than thirty-two thousand cubic feet, and must 
 weigh nearly one thousand tons each — the greatest masses of stone 
 ever handled by man. They were cut and polished with such ex- 
 actness and care that when brought together the blade of a pen- 
 knife could not have been inserted between them, and even now 
 at first sight they seem to be one prodigious stone in the wall, 
 nearly two hundred feet long. 
 
 Passing around this north-west angle of the platform, and pro- 
 ceeding along the north side, we come to nine large stones corre- 
 sponding to the seven in the west wall upon which " the three 
 stones" are placed. These stones are also cyclopean in size and ap- 
 pearance, measuring about thirty-one feet in length, thirteen feet in 
 height, and ten feet in breadth, and they were laid here just as they 
 came from the quarry. They stand in line, parallel to the north 
 wall of the platform, and distant from it about twenty feet — the 
 most ancient, the roughest, and most picturesque objects in all 
 Ba'albek. It may have been the intention to place the great stone 
 still remaining in the quarry upon this wall, and thus to complete 
 the line of substructions to the north-west corner ; but that entire 
 work seems to have been abandoned, the most ancient platform 
 was evidently left unfinished, and the temple which was to have 
 been erected upon it may never have been begun. 
 
 The platform upon which the courts and peristyle of the Temple
 
 TEMPLE OF JUPITER.— Tin: GRAND PORTAL. 329 
 
 of the Sun stood, and which is now covered with ruin.s, is sustained 
 by vaulted galleries, crossing each other at right angles. Those 
 vaults were constructed of very large stones, and the foundations 
 are of the same age as the external substructions, but the arches 
 are Roman, and, from the inscriptions upon the walls and key- 
 stones, it appears that they were used for stables and warehouses 
 by the Roman soldiers. We will now return to the top of that 
 platform b}' the same wa)' that we came down here, and, passing 
 b}' the six columns, visit the lesser temple, which stood a few 
 rods to the south-east of them. 
 
 It is probable that the Temple of the Sun was consecrated to 
 all the gods of Heliopolis, and that this temple was dedicated by 
 the Romans to Jupiter. It is small when compared with the great 
 temple near it, but it is actually the largest, most perfect, and most 
 magnificent temple in Syria, and is only surpassed, in the beauty 
 of its architecture, though not in size, by the Pantheon, at Athens. 
 The platform upon which it stands is considerably lower than that 
 of the great temple, and probably there was no connection between 
 them. There were no courts in front of the temple, but a flight of 
 thirty steps led up to the portico from the east. The steps were 
 still in existence in 1688, but they have been destroyed since then, 
 and their place is now occupied by a Turkish fort. The temple, 
 including the colonnades, was about two hundred and twenty-five 
 feet long, and one hundred and twenty feet wide, and it was sur- 
 rounded by forty-two columns, fifteen on each side, eight at the 
 end, and the same number in front, counting the corner columns 
 twice. An interior row of six fluted columns formed the jjortico, 
 and the vestibule was included between the projecting walls of the 
 cclla. Similar columns .stood one on each side of the portal. 
 
 Nothing now remains of the portico but a few fragments of 
 shafts and bases of columns, and its place is partiailx' occupied b\' 
 the wall of the modern Turkish fort. Crossing the vestibule, which 
 was sixty feet wide and twenty- five feet deep, we come to the 
 portal of the temple, forty-two feet high and twenty-one feet wide; 
 but nearly half of it is cfjncealed by ruins and rubbish. Just as 
 "the three stones" exceed all others in size, and "the six col- 
 umns" surpass in grandeur anything still standing amidst the ruins
 
 330 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 of the great temple, so this portal excels all else in the profusioii 
 and variet)' of its ornamentation, and the admirable skill with which 
 those intricate designs have been executed. 
 
 The sides or door-posts of this magnificent entrance are huge 
 pilasters, in three courses, and the top, or architrave, is composed 
 of three great blocks, elegantly sculptured on three sides. Around 
 the door, on the outside, is a belt of rich ornamentation, in reced- 
 ing panels, of leaves, flowers, and fruits, vines and grapes inter- 
 twined, and most delicately carved in relief. Above this the archi- 
 trave is elaborately adorned with vines and grapes, figures and 
 animals, and the frieze and cornice are finished with rich mould- 
 ings, acanthus -leaves, corbels, and scrolls. In the words of Mr. 
 David Roberts, the well-known Scotch artist, " this is perhaps the 
 most elaborate work as well as the most exquisite in its detail of 
 anything of its kind in the w^orld. The pencil can convey but a 
 faint idea of its beauty. One scroll alone of acanthus-leaves, with 
 groups of children and panthers intertwined, might form a work of 
 itself. Even independent of the beauty of the sculpture, and its 
 excellent preservation, we are lost in wonder at the size of the 
 stones, and at the nature of the machinery by which such masses 
 were raised and placed in position." ' 
 
 But Time has dealt ruthlessly with this noble structure. In 
 1751 it was still perfect; but the earthquake of 1759, besides over- 
 throwing three columns of the peristyle of the great temple, and 
 nine in that of this temple, cracked and broke these massive mono- 
 liths, or door-posts, and so rudely shook that lofty architrave that 
 the ponderous key-stone slipped from its central position and sank 
 down about three feet. There it remained suspended in the mid- 
 dle, between those great blocks of the lintel on either side, for 
 more than a hundred years, threatening the astonished beholder 
 with instant annihilation if it suddenly dropped down upon him. 
 This key-stone is nearly eleven feet high, twelve feet thick, and 
 six feet broad, and will weigh about sixty tons. Quite recently, 
 through the laudable efforts of Mr. Burton, the English consul at 
 Damascus, it has been propped up by a square pier built of ordi- 
 nary masonry. But the celebrated eagle sculptured upon it has 
 
 ' Roberts's Holy Land.
 
 
 i^||rMRip«i
 
 ASSYRIAN EAGLE— EMBLEM OF THE SUN. 
 
 5:>' 
 
 I'OKTAL AM) KEV-STONE OK THE TEMll.K ol' J I llll.K. 
 
 thus been completely concealed from view. That eagle was repre- 
 sented with a tuft or crest of feathers, and with outstretched wings, 
 holding in its claws a staff or caduceus, and in its beak twisted gar- 
 lands, the long strings of which extend on either side, and are held 
 up by flying genii. The crest is supposed to be emblematic of the 
 sun, the god to whom the eagles and the temples were consecrated. 
 Similar eagles have been found upon the ruins of some of the most 
 ancient temples in this country, as at Rukhlch, and esj)ecially the 
 Z
 
 332 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 one on the portal of the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra. They 
 are all supposed to be of Assyrian origin. 
 
 Winding stairways within the jambs of this portal lead up to 
 the top of the temple. The entrance to one of them is built up, 
 but we can get through the low opening near the base of this one, 
 on the right, and ascend to the top of the wall, from where we 
 will obtain a good view of this assemblage of ancient architectural 
 marvels and of the plain and the surrounding mountains. 
 
 INTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER. 
 
 Descending into the interior of the temple, we see that it had 
 no windows, and probably it was only partially roofed. The nave 
 measures about ninety feet in length by seventy-four feet in width. 
 On the sides up to the sanctum it had eight fluted half columns, 
 with Corinthian capitals, and having two niches between them, one 
 above the other. The lower niches were arched and elaborately 
 sculptured; the upper had highly ornamented triangular pediments,
 
 INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER. T,7^^ 
 
 supported by slender columns, and they appear to ha\e had central 
 pedestals for statues. The semi-columns in tiie corners on either 
 side of the portal were double, and the sanctum at the west end 
 had square pilasters on the sides, with Corinthian capitals. 
 
 The sanctum, or place of the altar, extended quite across the 
 cella, and was about thirty feet broad. It was elevated nearly six 
 feet above the floor of the nave, and several steps led up to it. On 
 each side of the steps are great slabs, with groups of figures carved 
 in relief upon them, representing a sacrificial procession, and doors 
 lead down to vaulted chambers beneath the sanctum. These 
 groups are much defaced, probably by the fury of Christian or 
 ]\Ioslem iconoclasts, or by both. They have been but recently ex- 
 cavated, and if not again covered up the figures will ere long be 
 entirely destroyed. The nave or cella of this temple is buried 
 many feet deep with great masses of sculptured friezes, fragments 
 of columns, capitals, and heaps of rubbish ; but it ought not to be 
 uncovered until there is a government in this country that can 
 and will protect from ruthless vandalism the exquisite remains of 
 ancient art which such excavations would surely bring to light. 
 Leaving the interior of this temple of Jupiter, let us now walk 
 around the peristyle on the outside of it. 
 
 Here on the north side there are nine columns still remaining. 
 They stand nearly nine feet apart, and there is about the same dis- 
 tance between them and the temple wall. The diameter of the 
 columns is over five feet ; the base is three and a half feet high ; 
 the shaft, composed of three stones, is forty-eight and a half feet 
 in height, and the capital is six feet high, making the total height 
 of each column about fifty-eight feet. The entablature resting 
 upon these columns is about ten feet high, and has a double frieze, 
 richly ornamented. It is connected with the wall of the temple by 
 great slabs of stone, slightly concave, which form the roof of the 
 peristyle. They are divided into panels of various shapes — hexa- 
 gons, rhomboids, and triangles, containing busts in high relief of 
 gods and probably emperors, but most of them have been pur- 
 posely defaced. The mouldings, scroll-work, tracery, and foliage, 
 filling up the intervening spaces, are all extiuisitely sculptured, and 
 when perfect this ceiling of the entire colonnade must ha\e pre-
 
 334 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 sented a beautiful appearance. Lieutenant Conder, of the Palestine 
 Exploration Fund, supposes, from actual calculation, that these col- 
 umns supporting that entablature and the roofing were subjected to 
 " a crushing weight on each pillar of one hundred and five and a 
 half tons, or four tons to the square foot." 
 
 Of the eight columns on this western side three remain standing, 
 with their entablature connecting them together; the fragments of 
 
 four are still in po- 
 sition, and one has 
 been entirely over- 
 thrown. Passing 
 round to the south 
 side, the bases only 
 of four columns are 
 left in situ. One 
 column has fallen 
 against the temple, 
 but so firmly was 
 it held with iron 
 cramps that the 
 first and second 
 section of the shaft 
 remain fastened to- 
 gether and lean un- 
 broken upon the 
 wall of the cella, 
 apparently a solid 
 column thirty-sev- 
 en feet high, and 
 fifteen feet in cir- 
 cumference, and 
 there it has been 
 for more than a hundred years. Farther on are four standing col- 
 umns supporting a connecting entablature and roofing; and, on 
 turning the south-east corner, we see behind the first two a couple 
 of the fluted columns which extended along the eastern side and 
 formed the portico in front of the temple. Upon the top of those 
 
 THE LEANING COLUMN ON SOUTH WALL OF THE TEMPLE.
 
 RUINS OF THE PORTICO.— THE OCTAGONAL TEMPLE. 
 
 0J3 
 
 four columns, at the south-east angle of the temple, and at a height 
 of nearly fifty feet from the ground, the Saracens built that square 
 tower which is now in ruins. Its superincumbent weight and pre- 
 carious condition seriously threaten the stability of the supporting 
 columns and of that part of the temple itself. 
 
 Having now examined the ruins of the.se marvellous temples, 
 with all their plat- 
 forms, courts, por- "H 
 ticos, gates, col- } 
 umns, thick walls, ■ 
 and great stones in 
 the substructions, 
 we will leave the 
 Acropolis and pass 
 through the fields 
 and along the vil- 
 lage lane to visit 
 the small circular 
 or octagonal tem- 
 ple. It stands a 
 short distance to 
 the south-east of !~^ 
 the temple of Jupi- 
 ter, surrounded by 
 high garden walls, 
 and almost con- 
 cealed by mulber- 
 ry-trees and tall sil- 
 ver-leafed poplars. 
 
 In order to get 
 a good view of its 
 
 beautiful proportions we will have to climb over this garden wall 
 on the west side of the road. It is evidently of the .same age and 
 style of architecture as the great temples, but is not supposed to 
 have had any connection with either of tiiem. 
 
 This templet was semicircular in form, about forty feet in di- 
 ameter, and was approached by a broad flight of steps. It is sur- 
 
 • 1 llIK liiKlKO I>1- IIIK IKMl'I.K OK JlTITl-.K.
 
 336 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 rounded by a peristyle of six Corinthian columns, whose architraves 
 and entablatures are also semicircular, projecting outward from the 
 temple walls to the columns, a distance of about nine feet, and it 
 is that feature which gives to the temple its octagonal appearance. 
 Similar columns stand close to the entrance, one on each side, and 
 the door-posts consist of large monoliths. The entire structure 
 seems to have been covered with a domed roof. The entablature is 
 elaborately ornamented, and along the walls of the temple, between 
 Corinthian pilasters, are shell-shaped niches with round architraves, 
 supported by small square pillars. Above the niches hang festoons 
 of foliage and flowers, with bosses over them and figures at each 
 end, and "wherever a bust or a statue could be introduced it has 
 been placed there." 
 
 The exterior of this temple is the most attractive ; within it is 
 encumbered with ruins and rubbish. Around the interior w^alls 
 there are two tiers of small columns, one above the other. The 
 lower tier is Ionic, supporting a plain cornice, and the upper is Co- 
 rinthian, with triangular projecting pediments. Two hundred years 
 ago this little temple was used as a church by the Greek Christians, 
 but now its condition is very precarious, and the slightest shock of 
 an earthquake will prostrate this elegant gem into a shapeless mass 
 of unsightly rubbish. 
 
 A walk of nearly twenty minutes along the green banks of this 
 little stream will bring us to Ras el 'Ain, or the fountain-head, as 
 it is now called. Heliopolis must have depended upon that copious 
 fountain for its supply of water, and there is evidence in many parts 
 of the temples that they were also abundantly provided for from 
 the same source. This purling stream rises about a mile to the 
 south-east of the temples and near the head of its own little valley, 
 between the hills at the base of Anti-Lebanon. Left to itself its 
 natural course would be southward along the plain until it joined 
 the Litany, and Ras el 'Ain is now regarded as the fountain-head 
 of that river, yet not a drop of its waters reach the Litany except 
 in winter. So full and strong is this stream, however, that even in 
 summer, after supplying the modern town, driving the mills and 
 watering the gardens, it is only exhausted in irrigating the corn- 
 fields which extend for some distance into the plain.
 
 RAS EL 'AIX.— EL BUKA'A.— C(ELESVRL\. 
 
 JJ/ 
 
 Here is the fountain, and, as you perceive, it boils up from the 
 ground in several places, and is enclosed by a low semicircular 
 wall, forming at once a pretty little pond overflowing with clear, 
 
 THE OCTAGONAL TEMPLE. 
 
 cold water. The trees, the greensward, and the murmuring streams 
 make this a delightful place of resort for the natives, and Ras el 
 'Ain is famed for the salubrity of its air as well as its refreshing 
 fountains. Those ruins close by are the remains of two mosks, 
 built, according to the inscriptions, about six hundred )'ears ago 
 by the Muhammedan rulers of Ba'albck, Mcick ed Dhiihir and his 
 son, Melek el As'ad. 
 
 .September nth. Evening. 
 
 The view from the top of the hill above Ras el 'v\in of the ruins 
 of Ba'albek, the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and the 
 Buka'a between them, was magnificent. Wc could see far down 
 that beautiful plain, and it seemed to fall away westward and south- 
 ward with a very manifest descent. I would like to explore it, for 
 it is associated in my mind with Coelesyria of historic celebrity. 
 
 According to the early classic geographers, Cculesyria included
 
 338 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 only this long, broad valley or plain which separates the parallel 
 ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and which is mentioned in 
 the Old Testament in connection with Baal-gad as " the valley of 
 Lebanon." ' Dr. Robinson supposes that Amos alludes to it when 
 he speaks of the "plain of Aven."^ The name Coelesyria does not 
 occur in the Bible, but was given to it by the Greeks, after the time 
 of Alexander the Great, and it exactly describes this remarkable 
 valley or "hollow" between the two mountain ranges of Syria. Its 
 modern Arabic name, el Buka'a, the cleft, is equally significant, and 
 it is frequently spoken of as Sahl el Buka'a, the plain of the cleft. 
 It extends from Kamu'a el Hurmul, on the north, opposite the 
 highest peaks of Lebanon, to Jubb Jenin, under Hermon, on the 
 south, a distance of about seventy miles, having an average width 
 of from seven to nine miles. The highest part of the Buka'a is in 
 the neighborhood of these temples, which are nearly four thousand 
 feet above the sea ; but west of Lebweh the plain descends gradu- 
 ally northward and southward until near Hurmul, and below Jubb 
 Jenin it is not much more than two thousand feet above sea-level. 
 
 The Orontes, called el 'Asy, the rebellious, because its course is 
 northwards, contrary to that of the other rivers in Syria, drains the 
 northern part of the Biika'a. The central and southern portions 
 are comparatively level, and their fertility and beauty are entirely 
 due to the abundance of water. The Litany, the ancient Leontes, 
 one of the longest and largest rivers of Syria, rises near Ba'albek, 
 and is joined, as it flows southward through the plain, by many 
 tributaries. Amongst them is el Berduny, which descends from 
 snow-capped Lebanon, above Zahleh, and the large stream from 
 Nahr 'Anjar, that flows out from the very roots of Anti-Lebanon 
 near the site of ancient Chalcis. Perennial streams descend from 
 the mountains on either side, and copious fountains rise in the plain 
 itself in such positions that the water can be conducted to all parts 
 of its surface. Looking down upon the Buka'a from any one of 
 the hundred stand-points on Lebanon and Hermon, the beholder 
 is charmed with the checkered and endlessly- varied expanse of 
 blending wheat-fields, green or golden, recently-ploughed land, black 
 or reddish-brown, and broad belts of dun-colored fallow ground, 
 ' Josh. xi. 17 ; xii. 7. '■' Amos, i. 5 ; Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 519, 520.
 
 BIBLICAL HISTORY OF BA'ALBEK. 339 
 
 reaching to the foot-hills, and losing themselves amongst the vine- 
 yards that cling to the mountain-sides. 
 
 The Buka'a has a legendary history of its own, attested by cu- 
 rious monuments. At Kerak Nuh the grave of Noah is shown, and 
 on the opposite side of the plain is the tomb of the prophet Seth. 
 while the ruins of these temples at Ba'albek have astonished the 
 world for many centuries. The massive foundations surrounding 
 them, and upon which they were built, must have been placed here 
 at a time too remote for even tradition to reach ; and long before 
 "Toi, king of Hamath," sent presents to David, the Hittites of 
 that region were suf^ciently powerful to contend with the Pharaohs 
 of Egypt for supremacy in this valley of Coelesyria.' 
 
 Has Ba'albek no Biblical history ? 
 
 We read that, after his victory at "the waters of Merom," 
 "Joshua took all that land, from mount Halak even unto Baal-gad 
 in the valley [or buka'a] of Lebanon under Mount Hermon ;" and, 
 again, that when "Joshua was old there remained much land to be 
 possessed," amongst which was "all Lebanon towards the sunrising, 
 from Baal-gad under Mount Hermon unto the entering into Ha- 
 math."' Baal -gad, in the Buka'a — for the Hebrew and Arabic 
 words are identical— must then have been a noted place on the 
 northern border of the Promised Land, and was evidently conse- 
 crated to the worship of Baal from remote antiquity. These 
 notices of Baal-gad in the Bible agree very well with the location 
 of Ba'albek. It is " in the valley of Lebanon under Hermon," and 
 midway between that mountain and " the entrance into Hamath." 
 The gigantic proportions of the oldest remains now seen at Ba'al- 
 bek carry back to remote antiquity the existence of this site, and 
 it may have been one of the holy places of the Canaanites or 
 Phoenicians in the time of Joshua. If the "plain of Aven," men- 
 tioned by Amos, was the plain of On or Heliopolis, and identical 
 with this plain of Ba'albek, then, nearly seven hundred years after 
 Joshua, Ba'albek was celebrated for the worship of the sun, intro- 
 duced into it from Egypt. That is all its Biblical history; but it 
 is still uncertain whether this ancient and remarkable site is ati)-- 
 where referred to in the Bible. 
 
 » 2 Sam. viii. 9-11. '^ Josh. xi. 17 ; xii. 7 ; xiii. i, 5-
 
 340 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 As Heliopolis, Ba'albek is mentioned by several writers during 
 the first centuries of the Christian era; but the principal notices 
 of it are derived from the coins of the second and third centuries, 
 which represent it as a Roman colony, styled Julia Augusta Felix. 
 The coins of Septimus Severus show two temples, one a larger and 
 another a smaller, and a coin of Valerian has two temples upon it. 
 The oracle at Ba'albek, or Heliopolis, was consulted by the Em- 
 peror Trajan, in the second century, before he undertook his sec- 
 ond expedition against the Parthians ; but the earliest authentic 
 record of these temples is found in the writings of John of Antioch, 
 surnamed Malala, about the seventh century. He mentions that 
 ''JEVius Antoninus Pius erected at Heliopolis, in Phoenicia of Leba- 
 non, a great temple to Jupiter, one of the wonders of the world." 
 
 It is possible that the original design here at Ba'albek was to 
 construct a platform surrounded by cyclopean stones, and to erect 
 upon it an altar consecrated to the worship of Baal. That design 
 appears never to have been fully accomplished, and the Phoenicians 
 probably adapted this site for one of their temples. The Greeks 
 and the Romans, in their turn, may have adopted both the site 
 and the ruins of the Phoenician temple for their own purposes ; 
 and Antoninus Pius perhaps began to build his temple out of the 
 remains of one more ancient, and it was probably finished by Sep- 
 timus Severus fifty years later. That may have been the smaller 
 temple, and it was probably consecrated to Jupiter; the great tem- 
 ple of Baal or the sun was apparently never finished. Julia Domna, 
 mentioned in the votive inscriptions, was the wife of the Emperor 
 Severus and the daughter of the priest of the sun at Emesa, Hums.' 
 Her- relative, Heliogabalus, also a priest of the sun, assumed that 
 title when he was proclaimed emperor in Emesa, and afterwards 
 built a temple dedicated to the Syrian god on the Palatine Hill, at 
 Rome. It is not improbable that both of these temples were built 
 by the munificence of the Roman emperors during the early cen- 
 turies of the Christian era, and that here are the ruins of their 
 greatest architectural achievements. 
 
 Venus was also worshipped at Ba'albek, under the name of 
 Hedone, pleasure, and the beautiful octagonal temple in the fields 
 
 ' See page 321.
 
 HEATHEN DEITIES.— CHRISTIAN MARTYRS.— THE QUARRIES. 341 
 
 may have been dedicated to that voluptuous goddess. But the 
 worship of heathen deities and the celebration of their rites and 
 ceremonies was suppressed by the Emperor Constantine. He built 
 a large basilica here, whose ruins are probably those still seen in 
 the middle of the great court in front of the temple of Baal. 
 During the last thirteen centuries the Muhammedans — fanatical 
 haters of all temples, idols, and even innocent statues — have done 
 what they could to deface and destroy the architectural and artis- 
 tic beauties of Ba'albek, and they have recorded their zeal and 
 success in pompous inscriptions ; none of them, however, of much 
 historic value. By those vandals the entire platform, vaults, tem- 
 ples, and all, were converted into a strong fortress, still known 
 amongst the natives as Kul'at Ba'albek — the castle of Ba'albek. 
 Deluded victims of Baal's abominations have been here ; and to 
 these temples came the worshippers of Jupiter and the votaries of 
 Venus ; and here Christian martyrs have been put to death by 
 heathen idolaters and zealous followers of the false prophet. The 
 Canaanite and the Hebrew, the Assyrian and Egyptian, the Greek 
 and the Roman, Saracen and Christian, Tartar and Turk — all have 
 been here ; and for centuries to come travellers from every nation 
 will visit these ruins with wonder and admiration. 
 
 September 12th. 
 
 We will pass by the great stone in the quarr}', this morning, as 
 it is on our way to Damascus, and from the top of the hill above 
 it you will get the best general view of Ba'albek and its ruined 
 temples. The quarries are less than a mile distant, to the south 
 of the town, and are an interesting study to the architect and the 
 antiquary. They show the great thickness of the rock formation, 
 which enabled the builders of the temple to cut out immen.se blocks 
 and large stones of any desired length and breadth. Such forma- 
 tions are rare in this region, and that may have led to the .selection 
 of the site of the temples at Ba'albek. 
 
 These ancient quarries extend along the base of the mountain 
 towards the south-west for a considerable distance, and some of 
 them appear to have been wrought to a great depth. Stones for 
 the modern buildings in the town are now quarried from a place 
 farther south, where the rock is white, soft, and easily wrought.
 
 542 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Now you can see how those enormous stones in " the substruc- 
 tions" of the great temple were quarried. A space of about six 
 inches was cut into the soHd rock around and below them, and 
 when thus detached they were conveyed rough-hewn to the places 
 they were to occupy in those cyclopean walls. This great stone 
 was not entirely separated from the rock beneath, but for what 
 reason the work of cutting it away was suspended we shall prob- 
 ably never know. It is larger in every respect than either of the 
 
 THE GREAT STONE IN THE QUARRY. 
 
 three others in the west wall, and the intention was, perhaps, to 
 place it upon the row of nine large stones in front of the north 
 wall of the temple platform. From here it looks as if a man could 
 reach the top of it, but ride up to it and you will be astonished to 
 find that even on horseback, with a cane in your hand, you cannot 
 measure its height. It is nearly seventy feet long, fourteen feet 
 wide, and fourteen feet high ; contains about thirteen thousand 
 five hundred cubic feet, and would probably weigh fifteen hundred 
 tons ! How those enormous masses of stone, in such great blocks, 
 were transported and placed in position on the wall, twenty feet
 
 KUBBET dCrIS.— ROAD TO DAMASCUS.— FEUDAL LORDS. 343 
 
 above the ground, is another of the unexplained wonders connected 
 with the famous ruins at Ba'albek. 
 
 Near that village of Duris, on the road to Zahleh, and about 
 half an hour from Ba'albek, is a rude Moslem sanctuary, probably 
 once the tomb of some great saint or sinner. It is octagonal in 
 shape, and was constructed of fragments of pillars and square 
 stones taken from the temples at Ba'albek. One of the granite 
 pillars is upside down ; and an old sarcophagus, set up on end, 
 served as a prayer niche. It is called Kubbet Duris, and is of no 
 special interest, except that the eight pillars of which it is made 
 are of Syenite gra- 
 nite from Egypt. 
 
 The road to 
 Damascus turns to 
 the left here, and 
 ascends diagonally 
 the declivities of 
 the eastern moun- 
 tains, which are 
 rough and rocky, 
 and frequently in- 
 tersected by ra- * 
 vines, which drain 
 the waters of this 
 part of Anti-Leba- 
 non into the Buka'a. A path leads southwards to Xcby Shit, a 
 large Mutawaly village, where there is a conspicuous wcl\', the re- 
 puted tomb of the prophet Seth ; and on the opposite side of the 
 Buka'a, at Kerak Nuh, is the tomb of the patriarch Noah, both of 
 which we have already noticed. Those villages are near the bor- 
 der, between the district of el Buka'a and that of Ba'albek. 
 
 The feudal lords of Beit Harfush, a family of Mctawileh Emirs, 
 governed this district, from Zahleh northward, including Ba'albek, 
 the surrounding mountains, and the adjacent plain. They were a 
 turbulent set, occupying these rugged mountains of Anti-Lebanon, 
 and almost as independent as the Emirs of Lebanon. Between 
 them there was eternal enmity, and many a bloody battle. The 
 
 
 KUBBET dCrIS.
 
 344 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Emirs of Beit Harfush were always in a state of chronic rebellion 
 against the Turkish government, and they kept this district of Ba'al- 
 bek in constant turmoil by their tyrannical abuses and daring rob- 
 beries. A few years ago the government made a clean sweep of 
 the entire family, and those of the Emirs not killed were banished 
 to distant parts of the empire. Though severe, the treatment was 
 needed, and the beneficial effect upon the country is seen and felt 
 even by the wayfarer and the stranger. We ourselves can now 
 pitch our unprotected camp where it suits our purpose, without 
 fear of disturbance or danger of robbery. 
 
 Our road over the low foot-hills of Anti-Lebanon since leaving 
 the quarries has been singularly devoid of interest. 
 
 From 'Ain el Barideh, with its small fountain, to Bereitan, it 
 runs parallel with the Buka a, and would have been exceedingly 
 monotonous were it not for the fine views it affords in many places 
 of the beautiful plain and the grand range of Lebanon west of it. 
 At Bereitan there are many rock-cut tombs, some of which have 
 Greek inscriptions upon them ; and though the village is prettily 
 situated between white hills on the eastern edge of the Buka'a, it 
 probably has neither a Biblical nor historical interest attaching to 
 it. The road now begins to ascend the mountain, and in about 
 one hour and a half it will lead us to Khuraibeh. 
 
 The village is a most unsightly cluster of dilapidated hovels, 
 and its name is an appropriate one, since it means a ruin ; other- 
 wise it has little to distinguish it from many similar places on these 
 mountains, except a wide, deep well which supplies the inhabitants 
 with water, there being no fountain in this place. 
 
 After passing through Khuraibeh our ride has been along the 
 dreary slope of this mountain, and in many places it is very 
 narrow, and even dangerous. 
 
 A misstep would roll horse and rider down the mountain-side 
 for several hundred feet into the valley below. Our course is east- 
 wards, and in a little over an hour we will reach the top of this 
 gradual ascent, and then descend steeply to the bridge over Nahr 
 Yahfufeh by a zigzag path, paved here and there with limestone 
 bowlders, lying at all angles of inclination, and worn smooth by 
 constant travel and hopeless neglect.
 
 "LYING UNDER HIS BURDEN. "-H I'MANi: LAWS OF MOSES. 345 
 
 Thus far, however, we have not had aii>- accident — not even the 
 usual falling of a mule under the load or the tumbling off of the 
 cook with the provisions for our lunch. 
 
 Yet this very path, so rocky and slippery, has just furnished us 
 with a commentary on one of those humane precepts which distin- 
 guish the Mosaic laws. See those men ahead of us lifting a poor 
 donkey that has fallen under its load. Moses says, "If thou see 
 the ass of him that hateth thee lying under his burden, and wouldst 
 forbear to help him. thou shalt surely help with him."' Now the 
 people lifting the donkey are bitter enemies — Maronites and Druses 
 — quite recently engaged in a bloody civil war, and ready to begin 
 again on the very first opportunity, and yet they help to lift the ass 
 that is lying under his burden as though they were the best friends 
 in the \\orld. We have in this simple incident the identical occa- 
 sion for the precept, and its most literal fulfilment. Nor is that 
 all. It is fair to infer, from the peculiar specification made by 
 Moses, that the people in his day were divided into inimical parties 
 and clans, just as they now are in these mountains. Moses would 
 not have mentioned the ass of an enemy if enemies were not so 
 common that the case specified was likely to occur. 
 
 So, also, we may conclude, I suppose, that the donke\'s were 
 half-starved, and then overloaded by their cruel masters. 
 
 Such are now the conditions in which those poor slaves of all 
 work ordinarily fall under their burdens, and then, as now, it re- 
 quired the united strength of at least two persons lifting, one on 
 either side, to enable the ass to rise out of his painful and often 
 dangerous predicament. The plan is to lift the beast to its feet 
 without taking off the load, which is a tedious business. And we 
 may also infer that the roads were then as rough and slippery as 
 this which has upset that unfortunate donkey. 
 
 All those deductions I believe to be very near the truth. Man- 
 ners and customs, men and things, roads and loads are apparently 
 very much what they were three thousand years ago. 
 
 We are now on the road to Damascus that passes up from the 
 Buka'a along this pretty little valley with running water in it, the 
 first we have come to since leaving Ha'albck. The stream is here 
 
 ' Ex. xxiii. 5.
 
 346 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 called Nahr Yahfufeh, and it descends through this wild and wind- 
 ing gorge, with rugged precipices on either side, to the Buka'a, and 
 thence across the plain to join the Litany. It is here spanned by 
 a low stone bridge, evidently ancient, and probably Roman — a 
 relic of the old road between Ba'albek and Damascus, traces of 
 which are still visible in several places. Turning southward, we will 
 ascend this fertile valley, through fields of Indian-corn, and along 
 the eastern bank of this purling brook which is half concealed by 
 thickets of wild roses and overshadowed by willows and poplars, 
 with here and there a grove of walnut-trees. In half an hour we 
 will come to the fine fountain of Surghaya, below that village. 
 
 Surghaya is surrounded by fields of corn, vegetable gardens, and 
 fruit orchards, while the banks of the sparkling stream below it are 
 lined with walnut-trees and groves of silver poplars ; but the inhabi- 
 tants are rude and fanatical Moslems. I once spent a night there, 
 encamped below the village, near a grove of poplar-trees ; and the 
 next morning we were greatly annoyed by some of the people, who 
 tried to extort a heavy fine from our muleteers for alleged injury 
 done to a few trees by their mules. 
 
 This plain, through which we have been riding south of Sur- 
 ghaya, appears to be of volcanic origin. 
 
 There can be no doubt about that. It is, in fact, an elevated 
 plateau, nearly level, over a mile in width, and extending for more 
 than three miles between two parallel ranges of mountains. Its sur- 
 face is covered with lava bowlders and stones, and is but partially 
 cultivated, having some vineyards, wheat-fields, and gardens. It is 
 the water-shed between the east and the west, and that is the most 
 interesting feature about it. All the waters and streams that de- 
 scend from the southern part of this little plain fall into the Ba- 
 rada, and, passing Damascus, are lost in the marshes of the lakes 
 on the borders of the eastern desert, while all from the northern 
 part run down to the plain of Coelesyria and join the Litany, and 
 thus enter the Mediterranean near Tyre. 
 
 We have already passed the water-shed, about four thousand 
 feet above the level of the sea, and our road follows the course of 
 this stream from 'Ain Hawar, that hamlet on the left. It is a win- 
 ter tributary of the Barada, the far-famed "river of Damascus;" but
 
 PLAIN AND GARDENS OF ZEBEDANV.— THE BARADA. 347 
 
 in summer its waters are exhausted by the town of Zebedany and 
 its gardens. The distance between Ba'albek and Zebedany is about 
 seven hours, and the road we have travelled over to-day is the 
 shortest, though not the most interesting one. In another hour 
 we will reach our tents, pitched near that flourishing town. 
 
 September 13th. 
 
 This beautiful expanse of green meadows, gardens, and trees is 
 an exceedingly refreshing sight, and the murmur of running water 
 and the songs of many birds is delightful to the ear. 
 
 The position of Zebedany, in the midst of its gardens, here at 
 the northern end of this plain, which stretches away southward for 
 more than seven miles, is exceedingly picturesque. The plain is 
 well cultivated and abundantly irrigated. It was once, probably, 
 the bed of a natural lake more than three thousand five hundred 
 feet above the level of the sea, and on its sloping sides are ter- 
 raced vineyards, and some of the gardens are surrounded, like those 
 at Damascus, by impenetrable hedges, and abound in fruit-trees of 
 all kinds. The grapes, apples, and apricots of Zebedany are cele- 
 brated throughout the country, and the markets of Beirut and 
 other towns are supplied from these gardens. 
 
 The streams of several copious fountains enter this verdant 
 plain from the hills around the northern end, and by them most of 
 the gardens and fields in the central parts are well watered, while 
 those along the east side are irrigated by abundant streamlets that 
 descend from the lofty mountain-range of Bkklan. The river Ba- 
 rada rises in a small, oblong lake or pond among the low hills on 
 the west side of the plain, about four miles south of Zebedany, from 
 whence it meanders, as we shall see, along the western and south- 
 ern borders of the plain, but contributes little or nothing to its fer- 
 tilit)'. The lake is marsh}-, and covered with reeds and busiics, but 
 it is nowhere very deep, and the amount of water issuing from that 
 source of the upper Barada is not half as large as that from the 
 great fountain at 'Ain el Fijeh. 
 
 It is about nine hours to Damascus by the route we proi)ose to 
 follow, and it is quite time we were in the saddle. Instead of pass- 
 ing down the middle of the plain we will ride around to the east 
 A2
 
 248 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 side of it, and through the luxuriant gardens of Zebedany which 
 extend for some distance southward. 
 
 We are ah'eady amongst the numerous streamlets that come 
 tumbling down the declivities of these mountains which rise so 
 abruptly on the left to a great height. 
 
 They form part of the loftiest range of Anti-Lebanon ; those on 
 the western side of the plain are nearly six thousand feet above the 
 sea, but these are higher still. The town of Zebedany has an eleva- 
 tion of nearly three thousand six hundred feet, and Bludan, on the 
 mountain above it, to the east, is a thousand feet higher, while 
 the lofty peak of Anti- Lebanon, behind that village, rises to a 
 hei2"ht of more than seven thousand five hundred feet above the 
 level of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Bludan is best known as the village where the British Consul 
 of Damascus, the Irish and American missionaries, and a few mer- 
 chants of that city spend the summer. It is beautifully situated 
 on the mountain-side, facing the west, and surrounded by vineyards 
 and gardens of fruit-trees, vegetables, and flowers. It is abundantly 
 supplied with running streams and purling brooks, and, from its 
 great elevation, commands a magnificent view of the plain beneath 
 and the mountains beyond as far southward as Mount Hermon. 
 
 Having passed away from the borders of those fruitful gar- 
 dens of Zebedany, which have the neatest and best kept hedges in 
 Syria, not excepting those of Damascus, we will now turn westward 
 across the plain to the Barada, and follow the left bank of that 
 river to where it descends, through the eastern mountains, into the 
 deep and narrow chasm of Suk Wady Barada. 
 
 The river here appears to be deep, and its course swift and 
 noiseless, as it goes on its winding way through the fields and 
 meadows of this ever narrowing plain. 
 
 Farther on, near the ruins of an ancient bridge, it falls over a 
 ledge of rocks in a series of beautiful cascades; and thence on- 
 wards to the pass west of the village of Suk Wady Barada it is a 
 tumultuous and roaring torrent. There we may rest awhile in the 
 wild and romantic gorge and admire the grand and magnificent 
 scenery almost unequalled even in this country. 
 
 These cliffs are in some places quite perpendicular, especially
 
 PASS, BRIDGE, AND ROMAN ROAD NEAR SUK WADV BARADA. 349 
 
 FALLS OF THE BARADA — THE RIVER AUANA. 
 
 on the southern side of the gorge, and the mountains towering 
 above them on our right are at least a thousand feet high. 
 
 In the narrowest part of this chasm is the famous pass of Suk 
 Wady Barada, where the lofty and perpendicular cliffs are not 
 much more than one hundred and fifty feet apart. And here, just 
 at the outgo of the river, between the high and rocky walls of the 
 pass, the Barada is spanned by a modern bridge of a single arch. 
 
 On the northern or left bank of the river, and about one hun- 
 dred feet above the bridge, is an ancient road, cut along the face 
 of the cliff and through the solid rock for a distance of over six 
 hundred feet. In some places the rock was cut down nearly fifteen 
 feet, and the roadway hewn out to a width of over twelve feet. 
 The road terminates abruptly at the north-east end in a precii)ice, 
 and if it was carried any farther it must have been over a viaduct 
 or upon an embankment. Two Latin inscriptions on the rock 
 above the road, and near its eastern terminus, ascribe the work 
 to the emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius 
 Verus, about the middle of the second century.
 
 350 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The most interesting portions of those inscriptions apparently 
 reveal the fact that the expense of constructing the road and cut- 
 ting through the rock was borne by the inhabitants of Abilene. 
 The mention of that place, in this vicinity, is regarded as confirming 
 the identification of Abilene with the city of Abila, and both with 
 the tetrarchate of Abilene governed by Lysanias when John began 
 to preach the baptism of repentance in the wilderness of Judea.' 
 This identification is now generally accepted, and the ancient re- 
 mains near the village of Suk Wady Barada are supposed to mark 
 the site of the "Abila of Lysanias." 
 
 I notice several rock-cut tombs above the Roman roadway, in 
 the cliffs on the north-western side of the river bank. 
 
 I have climbed to an ancient aqueduct, below the road, and 
 then up to the tombs. The aqueduct appears to have been con- 
 structed about the same time as the road. It is also hewn out of 
 the rock in some places, and tunnelled through in others. The 
 tombs are of the ordinary kind, of which we have seen so many 
 in this country — square chambers with loculi for sarcophagi on the 
 sides and in the floors. The tombs are without inscriptions, and 
 the sepulchres empty. Some of them appear to have had stone 
 doors, which may, probably, still be found in the debris below the 
 tombs. On the top of the mountain above those rock-cut tombs 
 are extensive ancient quarries. 
 
 High up on the southern cliff, nearly opposite the village of 
 Suk Wady Barada, and surrounded by venerable oak-trees, is Wely 
 Neby Habil, the reputed tomb of Abel, where, it is said, he was 
 buried by Cain his brother. Like the traditionary tomb of Noah 
 and that of the prophet Seth, the tomb of Abel is a place of Mu- 
 hammedan pilgrimage. It is part of the foundations of an old wall, 
 about thirty feet long, and can be traced much farther than the 
 domed structure that rises above it. It is quite possible that Neby 
 Habil may have derived the name from Abila, that of the ancient 
 city whose site is supposed to have been near this pass of Suk 
 Wady Barada. South of the tomb are the prostrate ruins of a 
 small temple, about fifty feet in length and thirty feet wide. 
 
 We have been resting here nearly an hour admiring this wild 
 
 ' Luke iii. 1-3.
 
 AN'CIENT ABILA.— ROMANTIC SPOT.— MASSACRE AND PLUNDER. 35 I 
 
 and impressive scenery. Let us cross the bridge and proceed on 
 our way towards 'Ain el Fijeh. You will observe that the lofty 
 cliffs of the defile soon separate below the bridge, mainly by the 
 receding of those on the left, thereby affording space for the little 
 plain and the village of Suk Wady Barada. The river winds 
 through the plain ; and amongst the trees, which thickly cover the 
 entire surface, are seen many fragments of the houses of ancient 
 Abila; but there are no remains of any temple, public edifice, or 
 even large building. The road beyond the bridge passes, for some 
 distance, below the overhanging cliff on the right bank of the 
 river, but soon the mountain falls back and the declivities become 
 less precipitous, and open out towards the south-east so as to allow 
 an easy ascent out of the valley for the regular road to Damascus. 
 
 The situation of this village, in the bend of the river, surrounded 
 by trees, gardens, and vineyards, is quite picturesque, and the sce- 
 nery around it is wild and imposing. 
 
 This romantic spot, shut out from the rest of the world by these 
 lofty mountains and perpendicular cliffs, was the chosen retreat of 
 a devout hermit, whose cell was visited by many pilgrims during 
 the fair that was annually held in this vicinity, and from which this 
 village derived its name of es Suk, the fair. And here was enacted 
 one of those diabolical scenes of surprisal, massacre, and plunder 
 for which the Moslems have always been pre-eminently celebrated. 
 Gibbon has given an exceedingly graphic account of that catas- 
 trophe, and of the slaughter of the pilgrims and merchants gath- 
 ered here, and he closes the description in his usual vein of ridi- 
 cule and sarcasm. "The holy robbers," he says, " returned in 
 triumph to Damascus. The hermit, after a short and angry con- 
 troversy with Caled, declined the crown of martyrdom, and was 
 left alive in the solitary scene of blood and devastation." ' 
 
 On that high hill above the road is Kefr el 'Awamid, the village 
 of the columns, so called from the prostrate columns of an ancient 
 temple which once stood upon the brow of the hill. The portico 
 of the temple faced the Barada, and must have commanded a good 
 view of the river and the valley below. We shall not turn aside to 
 visit it, nor shall we follow the course of the river, which here flows 
 ' Dec. and Fall of tlic Rom. Emp., chap. li.
 
 352 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 southwards for a short distance to the right side of the valley, but, 
 fording the stream below the mills on the opposite bank, we will 
 continue our ride nearly due east, along this canal that irrigates the 
 luxuriant gardens below us. The road — a mere path — follows the 
 sinuosities of the canal, having the verdant expanse of gardens and 
 vineyards on our right, and the white limestone cliffs of the moun- 
 tain towering a thousand feet high on the left. Passing this way 
 on a dark night, our animals were at times unable to keep to the 
 path, and repeatedly stumbled into the canal, to the great disgust 
 of the muleteers and our annoyance. 
 
 There is no danger of that kind to-day, for we have already fol- 
 lowed the canal for half an hour, and I am quite delighted with the 
 luxuriance of the vegetation and the grandeur of the mountains 
 and cliffs on either side of the valley. 
 
 As there is nothing of special interest in any of the villages 
 along this route, w^e will pass on for half an hour and stop to lunch 
 at 'Ain el Fijeh, the most famous fountain in all this region. 
 
 Your assurance, this morning, that our ride to-day would pre- 
 sent a succession of surprises has been fully confirmed. 
 
 The charm of them all is due entirely to the Barada. That 
 river, flowing through the verdant plain of Zebedany, rushing down 
 the defile of Suk Wady Barada, and meandering along the valley 
 towards 'Ain el Fijeh, gives to this Damascus road its ever-changing 
 character and remarkable contrasts. Without the river the plain 
 would become a dreary desert, the defile a desolate pass, the valley 
 the dry bed of a torrent, and these high mountains and picturesque 
 villages would be bleak and unattractive. 
 
 Here at 'Ain el Fijeh one is at a loss which most to admire — 
 the great quantity of water that bursts from beneath this ruined 
 platform, cold and beautifully clear, or the rushing, roaring cataract, 
 foaming and tumbling over the rocks as it plunges down its narrow 
 channel; or the thick forest of tall trees, willows and walnuts, syca- 
 mores, plane and poplars, that overshadow the banks, or the mag- 
 nificent cliffs that rise a thousand feet or more and shut in this 
 happy vale on every side. Each in turn delight the eye of the 
 beholder and captivate the imagination. 
 
 'Ain el Fijeh, though not the most distant, is by far the most
 
 THE BARADA AND THE FIJEH— MEETIXc: OF THE WATERS. 353 
 
 copious source of the Barada. Arab geographers, however, re- 
 garded it as the fountain-head of the river of Damascus. That is 
 hardly correct, for the upper Barada drains the entire mountains 
 and valleys of this part of Anti-Lebanon for more than twenty 
 miles, and during the rainy season it is a formidable river, alto- 
 gether independent of its auxiliary from 'Ain el Fijeh. This foun- 
 tain bursts out from a cavern under the mountain that has two 
 openings, one of which is partly arched over, and in winter the 
 volume of water is twice the size of that in the upper l^arada. 
 
 ij I —rri 
 
 
 
 THE liARAUA AND THE FTJEH — THE MEETING OK THE WAIEKS. 
 
 Escaping from the cavern, it rushes down over and amongst the 
 rocks, and through a perfect forest of walnut, poplar, and other 
 trees, with the impetuosity of a roaring torrent, and then expands 
 into a broad stream, clear as crystal. A hundred paces farther on 
 it joins the Barada, and the two streams run side by side for some 
 distance, until the limpid waters of 'Ain el Fijeh are fuKill)- merg«''l 
 into the turbid stream of the Barada.
 
 254 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Above the cavern is an ancient platform, built of large and 
 massive stones, and upon it are the remains of a small temple, 
 about thirty feet square ; but it now has neither portico nor col- 
 umns. Below the platform, and to the right of the cavern, there 
 appears to have been another temple constructed over a heavy 
 vault, through which the stream from the fountain may have been 
 conducted. The side-walls or piers supporting the vault are nearly 
 forty feet long and six feet thick. The rear wall rested against the 
 bank, and was about thirty feet long and four feet thick. It had 
 an opening as if to receive the water from the fountain, and there 
 is a similar opening towards the front, apparently for the stream 
 to flow out. These ancient structures were perhaps dedicated to 
 the god of fountains and streams and overshadowing groves. 
 
 More than half of our day's ride still remains to be accom- 
 plished, and it is time for us to proceed on our way. 
 I should like to spend days here instead of hours. 
 No doubt; and yet, like the first Paradise, this one has its ser- 
 pent. Fever and ague lurk about it and infest its groves. Owing 
 to the superabundance of water, and the dense foliage and the 
 rank vegetation, 'Ain el Fijeh is decidedly unhealthy in summer 
 and autumn. I have been struck, while passing up the valley in 
 October, with the sallow countenances of the natives. It is then 
 not safe to sleep a single night at that glorious fountain. 
 
 A canal runs along from the fountain to irrigate the fields below 
 us ; are we to follow it, as we did the one from Suk Wady Barada? 
 The road descends through the river gorge, and in half an hour 
 it will bring us to the beautiful little meadow of Bessima. 
 
 This small fountain of pure water, surrounded by greensward, 
 rises close to the river and runs directly into it. 
 
 It is called 'Ain el Khudra, the fountain of verdure, and from 
 here on the valley narrows, and the precipitous sides of the chasm 
 leave hardly room for the road. 
 
 The scenery in this gorge is magnificent and truly sublime, but 
 the road is execrable and dangerous, especially where it winds 
 round the face of the cliff which overhangs 4:he river. 
 
 Below this, and beyond the village of Bessima, the gorge, whose 
 eeneral direction has been eastward, makes an abrupt turn south-
 
 TUNNEL THROUGH THE CLIFF.-ES SAHRA.-CARRIAGE-ROAD. 353 
 
 wards, and becomes so narrow that there is not space enough for 
 even a foot-path along its precipitous sides. A tunnel has been 
 excavated there through the cliff on the left bank of the river. I 
 have attempted to penetrate the palpable darkness at its mouth, 
 but without a light it is impossible to venture very far into that 
 unique tunnel. It varies in height and width, and has occasional 
 openings in the roof. The tradition among the natives is that the 
 tunnel was made by Zenobia to convey the water of 'Ain el Fijeh 
 to Palmyra, which is, of course, absurd ; but its real purpose has 
 not yet been discovered. It was probably an aqueduct intended 
 to conduct the water to the Sahra below el Ashrafiyeh. though 
 it ends abruptly near that village, and cannot be traced any far- 
 ther. It is occasionally used at present as a passage-way between 
 Bessima and el Ashrafiyeh. 
 
 As there is no available path down the valley for several miles, 
 our road here below Bessima turns to the left and leaves the ri\-er, 
 with its refreshing verdure, for a climb up this steep and narrow 
 mountain-gorge. It will lead us to a rocky and sterile plateau 
 called es Sahra, the desert, whose undulating surface, destitute of 
 trees, is everywhere strewn with loose stones and flints, which 
 render it disagreeable both to the horse and his ridpr. 
 
 The Sahra appears to be quite extensive, spreading far away 
 to the north, east, and south, and evidently was never cultivated, 
 nor had it any settled inhabitants. 
 
 That is because there is no water. That necessary element of 
 life, which is so abundant in the valley of the river Barada below, 
 cannot be found on this desert plain. 
 
 We have had to-day all kinds of scenery, and ever)- \arict\' of 
 soil and production, from the most luxuriant vegetation to this 
 bleak and blasted Sahra. It is, indeed, a region of surprises and 
 marked contrasts in close pro.ximity. 
 
 Nor is this the last of them. We will soon begin the descent 
 from this desolate plain towards the river, and there the road winds 
 through cretaceous hills of dazzling whiteness, not a little painful to 
 weak eyes. It will b/ing us in half an hour to the carriage-road. 
 constructed by the French company, from Beirut to Damascus, and 
 to the substantial bridcre over the Barada at the village of Dummar.
 
 356 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 How invigorating and refreshing is the sight of this river of 
 Damascus, with its green valley everywhere so full of trees ! 
 
 Here at Dummar is the first station from Damascus on the Com- 
 pany's road, and the necessary buildings that have been put up con- 
 trast very strangely with the miserable houses of the natives, and 
 the so-called villas of wealthy Damascenes. A path from this place 
 leads up the rocky ridge on the left, and many travellers ascend 
 that steep and winding way, in order to obtain their first view of the 
 city and its surroundings from Kubbet en Nusr, on the summit of 
 Jebel Kasyun. It commands the best view of Damascus; and ever 
 since the Muhammiedan era that shrine has been associated with 
 the traditional visit of the false prophet to that terrestrial paradise. 
 
 It has taken us half an hour to climb up to this place from the 
 bridge at Dummar, and there to the right, on the brow of the east- 
 ern ridge, is the white-domed Wely of en Nusr. Let us ascend to 
 it and survey the enchanted scene far, far below. Remember that 
 here you are nearly four thousand feet above the sea, and about five 
 hundred feet over the plain and the city, which is at least a mile 
 and a half distant in a straight line — 
 
 This is the place. Stand still, my steed ; 
 Let me review the scene. ^ 
 
 We have passed through the land from Beersheba to Dan, and 
 around the majestic heights of Hermon, and over goodly Lebanon 
 from the Baruk cedars to the lofty peaks above Tripoli ; but no- 
 where has such a glorious vision of verdure burst so suddenly upon 
 us, nor have we ever looked down upon a sight like this." 
 
 Let us seek protection from the dazzling glare of these lime- 
 stone hills in the grateful shade of this Moslem shrine, and from 
 beneath its venerable arches we can gaze with unwearied eyes 
 upon that unequalled prospect— of river and plain and city — which 
 spreads out below us for many miles in all directions. "A greater 
 contrast," says Lieutenant Van de Velde, " than that of the blinding 
 Avhite chalky hills of Anti-Lebanon, and the green oasis of Damas- 
 cus, of the lone dry rocks, and the finest and most populous city of 
 the East, it is impossible to imagine. A single look from this point 
 
 ' Longfellow's "Gleam of Sunshine." * See Frontispiece to this volume.
 
 FIRST AM) FINEST VIEW OF DAMASCUS. 357 
 
 appears at once to explain the tradition of the Moslems, that Para- 
 dise must have been here," and one feels inclined " to sit down and 
 abandon all idea of proceeding farther rather than lose the enjo\-- 
 ment of this ravishing sight. No wonder that the Syrians, with 
 such a city, were a more haughty people than all the nations that 
 surrounded Israel." ' 
 
 " Like the first view of Constantinople," said Mr. Charles G. 
 Addison, forty-five years ago, this of Dam.ascus and its surroundings 
 '* is unique, and will bear comparison with no other that I have 
 seen. Conceive our sensations, after journeying through thirsty, 
 dusty plains, and across white, sterile mountains, to find ourselves 
 standing on a lofty ledge of rocks, near the tomb of a sheikh, when 
 one of the most magnificent prospects in the world suddenl\- burst 
 upon our sight. We looked down from an elevation of more than 
 five hundred feet upon a vast plain, bordered in the distance by 
 blue mountains, and occupied by a rich, luxuriant forest of the wal- 
 nut, the fig, the pomegranate, the plum, the a[)ricot, the citron, the 
 pear, the apple, and the poplar, forming a waving grove more than 
 thirty m»iles in circuit ; not such a wood as one sees in England, 
 France, or Germany, but possessing a vast variety of tint, a pecu- 
 liar density and luxuriance of foliage, and a wildly picturesque 
 form, from the branches of the loftier trees throwing themselves up 
 above a rich underwood of pomegranates, citrons, and oranges, with 
 their yellow, green, and brown leaves ; and then conceive our sensa- 
 tions to see, grandly rising in the distance above this vast super- 
 ficies of rich, luxuriant foliage, the swelling leaden domes, the gilded 
 crescents, and the marble minarets of ["the one hundred and one" 
 mosks in] Damascus, while in the centre of all, winding towards the 
 city, ran the main stream of the river Barada." '^ 
 
 Though written nearly half a century ago, that graphic descrip- 
 tion of Mr. Addison's is a perfect pen-and-ink sketch of this beauti- 
 ful scene upon which wc are now gazing from the same stand-point. 
 
 But we must not forget the Barada. that "river of Damascus," 
 which is the perennial source of all this luxuriant verdure. After 
 referring to its winding way amongst the sterile hills and through 
 the deep gorge, before it reaches the plain, " visible everywhere by 
 
 ' Syria and I'alcsline, vol. ii. p. 453. "^ Damascus and I'alin) ra. vol. ii. ]>. 59, 60.
 
 ^c8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 its mass of vegetation — willows, poplars, hawthorn, walnut, hanging 
 over a rushing volume of crystal water— the more striking from the 
 contrast of the naked desert in which it is found," Dean Stanley, 
 looking down upon the Barada from this same spot, adds: "The 
 river with its green banks is visible at the bottom, rushing through 
 the cleft ; it bursts forth, and, as if in a moment, scatters over the 
 plain, through a circle of thirty miles, the same verdure which had 
 hitherto been confined in its single channel. It is like the bursting 
 of a shell— the eruption of a volcano — but an eruption not of death 
 but of life.'" 
 
 Before and after it issues from the gorge upon the plain the 
 Barada is divided into several canals and strong streams, which are 
 conducted along the borders of the gardens to the right and left ; 
 and those again are subdivided into smaller streams, which convey 
 the water to all parts of the plain, so that there is not a garden but 
 has a purling rill of pure water running through it. But the river 
 does not appear to be greatly reduced in volume, and flows on 
 through the plain, passing the wall of the city, where it supplies 
 the fountains in the streets and in the courts of private houses, the 
 cisterns, baths, khans, mosks, and public buildings. Thus dimin- 
 ished, the Barada meanders through the plain east of Damascus 
 for fifteen miles, and is finally merged in the marshes and the 
 lakes on the verge of the eastern desert. 
 
 Tradition affirms that here, at this Kubbet en Nusr, the dome 
 of victory, after gazing upon this beautiful scene, the Prophet, then 
 a mere lad and camel-driver from Mecca, exclaimed, "There is but 
 one paradise for man !" and, turning away, he refused to enter Da- 
 mascus. The "true believers" did not follow the self-sacrificing 
 example of the Prophet, and Damascus to-day is pre-eminently a 
 Muhammedan city, the capital of a Turkish province, and the offi- 
 cial residence of the Governor-general of Syria and Palestine. 
 
 Let us return to the road and descend to the plain by the 
 ancient highway, a narrow and crooked path, cut in the rock, and 
 winding down the steep hill-side. This mountain-range, on which 
 we have been standing looking down upon the city and over 
 the plain, extends for more than fifty miles in a north-easterly 
 
 ■ Sinai and Palestine, p. 405, 406.
 
 THE MOUNTAINS AND THE PLAIN AROUND DAMASCUS. 359 
 
 direction, and then sinks down into the sandy desert of Pahiiyra. 
 On the right, and across the deep gorge of the Barada, it rises 
 gradually westward, until it is merged into the grand range of Her- 
 mon, thirty miles away. That majestic mountain dominates this 
 whole region, and, from its exalted heights, looks calmly down upon 
 the boundless plain that sweeps round its base and spreads far away 
 to " the hills of Bashan," fifty miles off. 
 
 Southward are the parallel ridges of Jebel el Aswad and Jebel 
 el Mani'a, and between them runs Nahr el A'waj, the ancient 
 Pharpar. It crosses the plain to the south-east, and is lost in the 
 lake on the borders of the desert. Eastward the line of vision is 
 bounded by the distant Tellul es Sufa, a long range of extinct 
 craters, but the plain in other directions seems interminable, and 
 extends farther than the eye can follow. Seen from this eleva- 
 tion, and over so great a distance in all directions, the plain ap- 
 pears to be almost level, but there are great inequalities in it, 
 and in many parts the undulating surface swells up to high hills 
 and higher mountains, some of which are of volcanic origin. The 
 craters, however, are now extinct from whence issued the amazing 
 streams of lava that covered the vast regions of the Hauran. 
 
 Jebel Kasyun, as this part of the mountain-range is called, is 
 bare, steep, and rugged. It rises about one thousand five hundred 
 feet above the city, and forms, in connection with the ridges north 
 and south of it, the western and northern boundary of the plain. 
 Upon its summit is a Wely, or saint's tomb, which commands a 
 more extensive view than Kubbet en Nusr. Moslem tradition 
 asserts that on this mountain Adam lived; that in one of its cav- 
 erns Cain hid the body of Abel, and that the very rocks, which 
 in some places are of a reddish color, were thus stained by the 
 blood of his murdered brother. Here, according to the same 
 authority, Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, lived, in a cave, 
 until he was fifty years old; and here he forsook his idols for the 
 worship of the one and only true God. 
 
 We have now reached the village of es Salihiyeh, at the base of 
 Jebel Kasyun. It is the largest suburb of Damascus, and here are 
 to be seen the summer residences of many wealthy Damascenes. 
 
 This broad and well -paved road, bordered with large walnut
 
 360 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and other trees, and having a foot-path on either side, is the only 
 one of the kind we have seen in Syria. 
 
 It will lead us, in less than half an hour, to one of the city gates, 
 and from there we will go direct to the hotel, leaving for another 
 occasion the many objects of interest which attract and distract our 
 attention as we ride along the garden-walls under the grateful shade 
 of these large walnut-trees. It is not always safe to encamp out in 
 the suburbs of this city, and it will be pleasant to exchange, for a 
 while, the inconveniences of tent life for the comforts of a well- 
 conducted hotel.
 
 ESH SHAM.— DAMASCUS. ^6l 
 
 X. 
 
 DAMASCUS. 
 
 Damascus and the Manners and Customs of the East. — One of the Oldest Cities in the 
 World. — Thebes and Memphis, Babylon and Nineveh. — Damascus the Capital of 
 Syria. — Biblical History of Damascus. — Abraham and Chedorlaomer. — Hobah. — Dam- 
 mesek, Dimeshk. — Esh Sham. — Damascus Founded by the Cireat Grandson of Noah. 
 — Josephus and Nicolaus. — Abraham Reigned at Damascus. — Eliezer of Damascus. — 
 Abraham's Place of Adoration. — Burzeh. — The Site of Hobah. — David. — The Tribes 
 of Naphtali and Manasseh. — " David put Garrisons in Damascus." — Hadad. — Solo- 
 mon. — Rezon. — Abijam King of Judah ; Tabrimon of Syria ; and Baasha of Israel. — 
 Asa Sends Presents of Silver and Gold. — Invasions of Ben-hadad I., King of Damas- 
 cus. — "Streets in Samaria." — Ben-hadad II. — Ahab. — Invasions of Ben-hadad II. — 
 Aphek. — Flight of Ben-hadad II. — "Streets in Damascus." — Death of Ahab. — 
 Jehoram. — Naaman the Syrian Leper. — "A Little Captive Maid." — Jehoram Rends 
 his Clothes. — Elisha, "a Prophet in Israel." — The Jordan and the " Rivers of Damas- 
 cus." — The "Blessing" of Naaman. — Two Mules' Burden of Earth. — An Altar to 
 Jehovah in Damascus. — Ben-hadad's Attempt to Capture Elisha. — Siege of Samaria. 
 — "A Great Famine." — Flight of the Syrian Army. — The Hiltite Confederacy. — 
 Elijah and Elisha. — Visit of Elisha to Damascus. — Death of Ben-hadad. — Ila/.acl 
 King over Syria. — " Joash Beat Ben-hadad [III.] three times." — Jeroboam II. Re- 
 covers Damascus. — Pekah. — Tiglath-pileser Captures Damascus. — Pattern of an .Mlar 
 sent to Urijah by Ahaz. — Sennacherib, Nebuchadnezzar, and Darius. — Amos and 
 Isaiah. — Jeremiah and Ezekiel. — Zechariah. — Macedonian, Greek, and Roman Con- 
 quests. — Parmenio. — Alexander the Great. — Pompey Receives the Ambassadors from 
 Syria, Judaea, and Egypt in Damascus. — Sextus Cresar. — Herod the Great. — Saul, 
 called Paul.— Spread of Christianity in Damascus.— John the liaptist. — Muhammedan 
 Conquest of Syria. — Siege of Damascus. — Gibbon. — Massacre of Christians by the 
 "Sword of God." — Damascus the Capital of the Muhammedan Empire. — Baneful 
 Influence of Islam. — Decline of Damascus. — Descendants of Ishmael. — A Hebrew of 
 the Hebrews. — Garments Ancient an<l Modern.— Hotel at Damascus. — Citron and 
 Lemon, Roses and Jessamine.— Court of the Kh.alifs of Islam. — The King and (Jueen 
 of the "Arabian Nights." — The Streets and Bazaars of Damascus. — The Horse-market. 
 —The Hangman's Tree. — Saddlers Street.— Street of the Coppersmitiis.— Castle of 
 Damascus. — Ancient Bows and Arrows. — The Fosse. — Street of the Auctioneers. — 
 Suk el Arwam. — Oriental Bargains.— Given Away for Nothing. — Intricacy of the
 
 362 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Streets in Eastern Cities. — Donkeys and Camels. — Khan As'ad Pasha. — Caravans 
 from Bagdad and Elsewhere. — Importunate Christians. — Intense Fanaticism. — A Mos- 
 lem Shopkeeper. — Fate, or God's Decree. — The Wiles of Satan. — Sanctimonious 
 Moslems. — Bazaar of the Goldsmiths. — Manufacture of Gold and Silver Filigree. — 
 South Side of the Great Mosk. — Ancient Remains. — Triple Gate. — Greek Inscription. 
 — "Thy Kingdom, O Christ." — Book Bazaar. — Copies of the Koran. — Manuscript 
 Books. — Arch and Pediment of an Ancient Gateway. — Bab el Barid. — Slippers. — 
 "The House of Rimmon." — Greek and Roman Temple. — Church of St. John the 
 Baptist. — A Basilica. — Dimensions of the Great Mosk. — Rows of Columns. — Triple 
 Roof. — Central Dome. — Stained-glass Windows. — Texts from the Koran. — Praying 
 Rugs. — Lamps and Chandeliers. — Praying Niches. — The Head of John the Baptist. — 
 Court of the Great Mosk. — Colonnades. — Ornamented Piers and Arches. — Corinthian 
 Columns. — Saracenic Fountain and Pavilion. — Domes of the Hour, and of the Treas- 
 ure. — Visit to the Great Mosk by a Party of Ladies and Gentlemen. — Photographs. — 
 Minarets of the Great Mosk. — View from the Gallery of Madinet el 'Arus. — Rini' 
 mon. — Baal. — Tombs of Saladin and the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. — Public Baths. 
 — Baths not mentioned in the Bible. — "Pools." — Hot and Cold Water Baths Intro- 
 duced by Herod the Great. — Baths the Resort of Evil Spirits. — Street Calls and Cries. 
 — "Drink, O Thirsty!" — The Colporteur in Damascus. — "The Bread and Water of 
 Everlasting Life." — Private Houses in Damascus. — The Entrance. — The Court. — The 
 Marble Fountain. — El Lewan. — Reception-rooms. — Panels in the Roofs and Window- 
 shutters Inlaid with Mother-of-pearl. — The Harem. — Coffee-shops along the Banks 
 of the Barada. — Oriental Music and Singing. — The Orchestra. — Musical Instruments. 
 — Greek and Albanian Music. — Biblical Music. — Music in the Time of the Prophets. 
 — Samuel and Saul. — Saul among the Prophets. — Elisha and the Minstrel. — David 
 and Saul. — The Harp and Viol, the Tabret and Pipe. — Ride through the Suburbs of 
 Damascus. — The Gardens. — Canon Tristram. — Flowing Streams and Golden Fruit. — 
 Camping in a Garden. — Canal of et Taurah. — Es Salihiyeh. — Villa of the British 
 Consul. — Exuberant Vegetation. — The Myrtle. — Fountains and Streams in the Gar- 
 dens, and in the Courts of Public and Private Buildings. — Making Kaif under the 
 Xiees. — Nahr el Yezid. — Jebel Kasyiin. — The Barada, the Abana. — The A'waj, the 
 Pharpar. — Bardines. — The Golden -flowing River. — Chasm of the Barada. — Dams 
 and Canals. — Net-work of Watercourses. — The Main Stream of the Barada. — Lake 
 'Ataibeh. — Cufic Inscription. — Carriage -road. — Mud Walls. — Sun-dried Bricks. — El 
 Merj, the Meadow. — Speeding the Departing, and Welcoming the Coming. — Cara- 
 vans and Pilgrims. — The Haj. — Et Tekiyeh. — Hospital for Poor Pilgrims. — Mosk of 
 Sultan Selim. — Muhammedan Burying -ground. — Graves of Muhammed's Wives. — 
 Fatimeh. — The Myrtle and the Palm. — Funeral Mourning. — Mary at the Grave. — 
 Hired Mourners. — Biblical References to Mourning. — Esau and Job. — David and 
 Jeremiah. — Floods of Tears. — "Jesus Wept." — Tear Bottles. — Smiting the Thigh. — 
 El Meidan. — Labyrinth of Crooked Lanes. — Bab es Saghir. — Moslem Funeral Pro- 
 cession. — "That Eternal Truth and Necessary Fiction." — Ancient Stones in the 
 City Wall. — Bab Kisan. — Traditional Place of Paul's Escape. — Christian Cemete- 
 ries. — Spot where Paul was Converted. — Bab esh Shiirky. — Extensive View from 
 the Top of a Mound. — Throwing Dust in the Eyes of European Commissioners. —
 
 ONE OF THE OLDEST CITIES IN THE WORLD. 363 
 
 Leper Hospital. — House of Naaman the Leper. — Leprosy in Damascus. — Roman 
 Triple Gate. — Saracenic Tower. — Gates of Damascus. — "The Street called Straight." 
 — Double Colonnade Described by Dr. Porter. — Christian Quarter. — Armenian Con- 
 vent. — Syrian and Greek Catholic Churches. — House of Ananias. — The Jews in 
 Damascus, Ancient and Modern. — The Jewish Synagogue. — Paul Preached in the 
 Synagogues at Damascus. — The Orthodox Greek Church. — Massacre of the Christians 
 in i860. — The Moslem Quarter. — Damascus Blades and Dama.sk Silks. — Population 
 of Damascus. — House of Judas. — Locks and Keys. — Key on the Shoulder. — Locks 
 and Keys in the Time of David and Solomon. — Suk el 'Attarin. — Attar of Roses. — 
 Dr. Beke. — Rev. J. Crawford. — Extent of the Damascus Gardens Eastward. — The 
 Eastern Plain Destitute of Trees. — Licorice Plant. — Villages on the Plain. — The 
 Barada. — Harran el 'Awamid. — The Southern Lake. — Bedawin. — Columns of Basalt. 
 — Remains of an Ancient Temple. — Greek Inscription. — The Biblical Haran. — Pur- 
 suit of Jacob by Laban. — Harran el 'Awamid and Mount Gilead. — Tradition of the 
 
 Jews. — Return to Damascus. 
 
 Sunday, September 14th. Evening. 
 
 Damascus has preserved the manners and customs of the East 
 better than any other city in Syria, and they have been continued 
 unchanged from generation to generation down to our own day. 
 Here they can be seen and examined to the greatest advantage. 
 
 Where there is so much to claim attention one is at a loss to 
 know where to begin. 
 
 It will be most satisfactory to gain, at the outset, a general idea 
 of Damascus, its history, and its surroundings, and we cannot do 
 better than devote this evening to that special purpose. Though 
 I would not venture to assert that Damascus is the oldest city in 
 the world, yet it may safely be said that no other city has had so 
 long and persistent an existence. The ancient cities in the valley 
 of the Nile, and of the Euphrates — Thebes and Memphis, Babylon 
 and Nineveh — long since ceased to exist, and are now only known 
 by their vast ruins and mounds of .shapeless rubbish ; yet Damas- 
 cus is still the capital of nearly all Syria, and the most populous 
 and flourishing city of the East. 
 
 Is it known when and by whom Damascus was fountled ? 
 
 This city is first alluded to in the Bible during the time of Abra- 
 ham, when it was so well known as to be mentioned, in the brief 
 account of that patriarch's pursuit of Chcdorlaomer, in order to 
 define the position of " Hobah, which is on the left-hand (or north | 
 of Damascus.*" Its ancient Hebrew name, Dammesek, is the same 
 
 ' Gen. xiv. 15. 
 
 B 2
 
 364 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 as the present Arabic one, Dimeshk, but it is commonly called by 
 the natives esh Sham, the general name for Syria, meaning left or 
 north, and by all Arab writers Dimeshk esh Sham, Damascus of 
 Syria. Josephus informs us that it was founded by Uz, the son of 
 Aram, the grandson of Shem, and the great-grandson of Noah.' He 
 appears to accept the tradition recorded by the historian Nicolaus, 
 that Abraham came with an army from the land of the Chaldeans 
 and reigned at Damascus, but after a long time he removed and 
 went into the land of Canaan. " The name of Abram," he adds, 
 " is even still famous in the country of Damascus ; and there is 
 shown a village named from him The Habitation of Abram." "^ 
 
 There is no reason to believe that Abraham ever reigned over 
 Damascus; but, as this city lay on the line of his migration "from 
 Ur of the Chaldees into the land of Canaan," it is quite possible 
 that he may have tarried a considerable time in this neighborhood." 
 His steward, whom at one time he thought would be his heir, was 
 Eliezer of Damascus, one born in his house, implying that his par- 
 ents were members of Abraham's household at the time of his 
 sojourn in this region." Mesjid Ibrahim, Abraham's place of ado- 
 ration, a sacred shrine venerated for the past eight centuries, was 
 erected upon the spot where, according to tradition, the patriarch 
 built an altar and gave thanks to God for his victory over " Che- 
 dorlaomer and the kings that were with him."' It is at Burzeh, a 
 village an hour to the north-east of this city, which is said, by an 
 Arab historian, to mark the site of Hobah. 
 
 After the time of Abraham there is no further notice of Da- 
 mascus in the Bible until the reign of David — a period of nearly 
 eight hundred and seventy-five years. The possessions of the tribe 
 of Naphtali, and those of Manasseh east of the Jordan, bordered 
 upon the territory of Damascus, and the relations between the two 
 peoples during those long, silent centuries appear to have been gen- 
 erally amicable. But when David " became one of the great men 
 of the earth" he began to extend his power and his dominions, and 
 " as he went to recover his border at the river Euphrates " he was 
 brought into hostile collision with " the Syrians of Damascus," who 
 " came to succour Hadadezer king of Zobah. David slew of the 
 
 ' Ant., i. 6, 4. ^ Ant., i. 7, 2. ^ Gen. xi. 31. * Gen. xv. 1-4. ^ Gen. xiv. 17.
 
 DAVID GARRISONS DAMASCUS.— INVASIONS OF BEN-HADAD. 365 
 
 Syrians two and twenty thousand men." He also " put garrisons 
 in Syria of Damascus : and the Syrians became servants to David, 
 and brought gifts."' At that time, according to Josephus and 
 Nicholaus, Hadad, a great king, ruled over Damascus and other 
 parts of Syria, and his "posterity reigned for ten generations.'"' 
 
 The conquest of David, and the tributary condition of the Syri- 
 ans of Damascus, lasted only during his hfetime; for when Solomon 
 came to the throne Rezon, a servant of the former King of Zobah, 
 and a " captain over a band " of robbers, in all probability became 
 "an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon."' He came to 
 Damascus and dwelt there and ruled over it ; but, being an adven- 
 turer and usurper, Rezon was probably soon expelled from this city, 
 and it again became the seat of the Hadad dynasty. After the re- 
 volt of the ten tribes there was a league between Abijam, King of 
 Judah, and Tabrimon, King of Syria, and between Baasha, King of 
 Israel, and Ben-hadad, the son of Tabrimon, who succeeded his 
 father and dwelt at Damascus. It was to this Ben-hadad I. that 
 Asa sent presents of silver and gold from the treasures of the house 
 of the Lord and from the king's house, saying, "Come and break 
 thy league with Baasha, King of Israel, that he may depart from 
 me." Ben-hadad took the presents and sent his captains "against 
 the cities of Israel, and smote Ijon, and Dan, and Abel-beth-maa- 
 chah, and all Cinneroth, with all the land of Naphtali."* 
 
 Incidentally we learn, from i Kings xx. 34, that Ben-hadad I. 
 again invaded Israel, and took many cities, and established "streets 
 in Samaria" for the purpose of trade and traffic between the mer- 
 chants of Damascus and the inhabitants of that city. His son, 
 Ben-hadad II., during the reign of Ahab, " gathered all his host 
 together: and there were thirty and two kings with him, and horses 
 and chariots: and he went up and besieged Samaria." The account 
 of his arrogant demands and their rejection by Ahab; of the battle 
 and the great slaughter of the Syrians, of the flight of Ben-hadad 
 and his horsemen, is given in the twentieth chapter of i Kings. "At 
 the return of the year Ben-hadad numbered the Syrians, and went 
 up to Aphek, to fight against Israel. The battle was joined : and 
 the children of Israel slew of the Syrians a hundred thousand foot- 
 ' 2 Sam. viii. 3-6. ^ .\iU., vii. 5, 2. '' i Kings xi. 23-25. •• i Kings xv. i()-20.
 
 366 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 men in one day." Ben-hadad again fled and hid himself, but was 
 prevailed upon by his servants to surrender to Ahab, who received 
 him as a brother. "And Ben-hadad said unto him, The cities which 
 my father took from thy father I will restore ; and thou shalt make 
 streets for thee in Damascus, as my father made in Samaria. So he 
 made a covenant with him, and sent him away." ' 
 
 Three years after that Ahab is the aggressor, and the prepara- 
 tions for the encounter with Ben-hadad, and the fatal result to the 
 King of Israel, are eminently Biblical, and given at length in the 
 last chapter of i Kings. After the death of Ahab there was a 
 short interval of peace. Ahaziah, his son, fell through a lattice at 
 Samaria, and "so he died;" and Jehoram his brother "reigned in 
 his stead."' Then occurred one of those most interesting episodes 
 in Biblical history, abounding in striking and instructive illustra- 
 tions of the state of society at that remote period. Naaman, the 
 Syrian, of Damascus, was a great captain : " he was also a mighty 
 man in valour, but he was a leper." At the earnest solicitation of 
 " a little captive maid out of the land of Israel," he came to Sama- 
 ria. He brought ten talents of silver, and six thousand pieces of 
 gold, and ten changes of raiment, and a letter from Ben-hadad to 
 Jehoram, saying, " Now when this letter is come unto thee, behold, 
 I have therewith sent Naaman my servant to thee, that thou mayest 
 recover him of his leprosy." The king read the letter, rent his 
 clothes, and exclaimed, "Am I God, to kill and to make alive, that 
 this man doth send unto me to recover a man of his leprosy?" 
 When Elisha heard of it he remonstrated with the king for having 
 rent his clothes. "Let him come now to me," said he, "and he 
 shall know that there is a prophet in Israel."' 
 
 But the story is too familiar to need repetition. Every one can 
 remember the indignant and contemptuous reply of the great cap- 
 tain to the prophet's command, " Go and wash in Jordan seven 
 times." "Are not," he exclaims, " Abana and Pharpar, rivers of 
 Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel? So he turned and 
 went away in a rage." It is worthy of note, however, that, after 
 he had "dipped in Jordan, and was clean," and when the prophet 
 refused his " blessing," as Naaman called his gift, the latter asked 
 
 1 I Kings XX. I, 26-34. '^ 2 Kings i. 2, 17. ^ 2 Kings v. I- 8.
 
 AX ALTAR TO JEHOVAH.— ELISHA VISITS DAMASCUS. 367 
 
 that "two mules' burden of earth" be given to him with which to 
 build an altar here in Damascus, and "offer burnt offerintj and 
 sacrifice unto the Lord." ' Naaman had, probably, been informed 
 that " an altar of earth," and " not of hewn stone," was necessary 
 to the worship of Jehovah, and hence his request." 
 
 This interchange of friendly relations was soon interrupted, for 
 Ben-hadad again invaded Israel, and endeavored to capture Elisha ; 
 but the attempt failed, and the host sent for that purpose were 
 smitten with blindness, and led into Samaria by the prophet him- 
 self." "After this Ben-hadad gathered all his host, and went up, 
 and besieged Samaria." Then occurred that " great " and memo- 
 rable famine when " an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of 
 silver," and children were eaten by their own parents. The city 
 was saved by divine interposition, for " the Lord had made the host 
 of the Syrians to hear a noise of chariots, and a noise of horses, 
 even the noise of a great host : and they said one to another, Lo, 
 the king of Israel hath hired against us the kings of the Hittites, 
 and the kings of the Egyptians, to come upon us. Wherefore they 
 arose and fled in the twilight, and left their tents, and their horses, 
 and their asses, even the camp as it was, and fled for their life."* 
 Recent investigations explain the reason for that panic and the 
 precipitate flight of Ben-hadad's army. The Hittite confederacy 
 was one of the most powerful military organizations in Western 
 Asia, and at that time it was in alliance with the Egyptians. 
 
 Ben-hadad made no farther attempts upon Samaria after that 
 remarkable panic and flight of his army from before its walls. He 
 appears to have been engaged, to the close of his reign, in repel- 
 ling the invasions of the Assyrians, who sought to extend their 
 power over Syria and Palestine, It was during that period of 
 comparative peace between Syria and Israel that " Elisha came 
 to Damascus." He visited this city apparently to fulfil one of 
 the three commands of the Lord to Elijah when in the cave on 
 Mount Sinai. There " the Lord said unto him. Go, return on thy 
 way to the wilderness of Damascus: and when thou comest, anoint 
 Hazael to be king over Syria: and Jehu the son of Nimshi shalt 
 
 ' 2 Kings V. 9-19. * Kxod. xx. 24, 25. 
 
 ' 2 Kings vi. 8-23. * 2 Kinj^s vi. 24, 25 ; vii. 6, 7.
 
 ^68 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 thou anoint to be king over Israel : and Elisha the son of Shaphat 
 of Abel-meholah shalt thou anoint to be prophet in thy room.'" 
 EHjah seems to have taken a large liberty in the manner of car- 
 rying out those various commands. He did not go to Damascus 
 at all, nor did he, personally, anoint either Hazael or Jehu. He 
 " found Elisha and cast his mantle upon him ;" that is, he invested 
 him with the prophetic office by that symbolic act ; and Elisha 
 "arose, and went after Elijah, and ministered unto him."' 
 
 Elisha was now a prophet " in the room " of Elijah, and at the 
 time of his visit to Damascus " Ben-hadad the king was sick ;" so 
 he sent Hazael to meet him, with " a present of every good thing 
 of Damascus, forty camels' burden." And he "came and stood 
 before him, and said, Thy son Ben-hadad king of Syria hath sent 
 me to thee, saying. Shall I recover of this disease?" In that inter- 
 view, while assuring Hazael that the king would surely die, Elisha 
 fixed his gaze steadfastly upon him until Hazael " was ashamed : 
 and the man of God wept." "And Hazael said. Why weepeth 
 my lord ?" Elisha replied that God had shown him that he would 
 be king over Syria, and that he would inflict terrible calamities 
 upon Israel. Upon which Hazael exclaims, " Is thy servant a dog, 
 that he should do this great thing?"' Well might the prophet 
 weep, for Hazael murdered his master on the following morning, 
 usurped the throne, and, during a long reign of about forty -six 
 years, desolated the country east of the Jordan, "oppressed Israel," 
 and even threatened Jerusalem, enacting all the atrocities which 
 Elisha foresaw and predicted. 
 
 But "the Lord had compassion" upon the Israelites, "neither 
 cast he them from his presence as yet." He gave them a saviour 
 in the person of Joash, King of Israel, who beat Ben-hadad III., 
 the son of Hazael, three times, " and recovered the cities of Israel."" 
 We read also, in 2 Kings xiv. 27, 28, that Jeroboam II., the son and 
 successor of Joash, "recovered Damascus and Hamath ;" and after 
 that, in the days " of Pekah the son of Remaliah," the King of Da- 
 mascus appears as an ally of Israel against Judah. "So Ahaz sent 
 to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, saying, Come up and save me." 
 
 ' I Kings xix. 15, 16. ' i Kings xix. 19-21. 
 
 3 2 Kings viii. 7-15. * 2 Kings xiii. 22-25.
 
 HISTORY OF DAMASCUS.— FULFILMENT OF PROPHECV. 369 
 
 And he " went up against Damascus, and took it, and carried the 
 people of it captive to Kir, and slew Rezin." ' Ahaz also came 
 to this city, and here saw an altar, a pattern of which he sent to 
 Urijah, who made one like it, and set it up in the Temple at Jeru- 
 salem.' Thus ran the checkered history of those rival nations until 
 Damascus and Israel were overwhelmed in succession by the Assy- 
 rians, Babylonians, and Persians, under Sennacherib, Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, and Darius, on the north, and the Egyptians on the south. 
 Then was fulfilled the prophecy of Amos, and that of Isaiah. A 
 fire devoured " the palaces of Ben-hadad," " and the kingdom 
 [ceased] from Damascus." " Behold, Damascus is taken away 
 from being a city, and it shall be a ruinous heap j" and the cap- 
 tives of Samaria were "carried into Assyria, and placed by the 
 river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes."^ 
 
 In the days of Jeremiah, about 600 B.C., Damascus had "waxed 
 feeble ;" and Ezekiel alludes to its former prosperity and commer- 
 cial relations with Tyre.* One hundred years later it is mentioned 
 by Zechariah, after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian 
 captivity." Then came the Macedonian, Greek, and Roman con- 
 quests, breaking and fusing all separate nationalities into one vast 
 empire. During those centuries of turmoil and strife Damascus, 
 though it recovered some of its ancient glory and again became a 
 rich and flourishing city, had no independent existence, nor any 
 history of special importance. After the defeat of Darius at the 
 battle of Issus, B.C. 333, Damascus surrendered to Parmenio, the 
 general of Alexander the Great, and with it the family and treasures 
 of the Persian monarch. Here, according to Josephus, I'ompey 
 received ambassadors from Syria, and Judea, and Egypt; and here 
 Sextus Caesar bestowed the government of Coelesyria upon Herod 
 the Great, who afterwards built a gymnasium and theatre in this 
 city." And hither came "Saul (who also is called Paul), breathing 
 out threatenings and slaughter against the disciples of the Lord." ' 
 
 At the beginning of our era Damascus was one of the many 
 large and prospering cities subject to Roman rule, and during the 
 
 ' 2 Kings xvi. 5-9. '•' 2 Kinj;s xvi. 10-16. 
 
 •■' Amos i. 3, 4 ; Isa. xvii. i ; 2 Kings xvii. 6. ■* jir. xlix. 23-27 ; E/.ck. xxvii. l3. 
 
 ^Zcch. ix. I. " Ant., xiv. 3, I ; (;, 5 ; 15. J., i. 21 , 1 1. ■" Ads ix. I-3 ; xiii. 9.
 
 370 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 following centuries Christianity spread rapidly amongst its inhab- 
 itants. Under the Byzantine Empire this city was the seat of a 
 bishop, and its ancient heathen temple was converted into a Chris- 
 tian church and dedicated to St. John the Baptist. For more than 
 two centuries after that Damascus continued to prosper, until at 
 the time of the Muhammedan conquest it was one of the first cities 
 of the Eastern Empire. 
 
 In the year 634, after defeating the army of the Emperor Hera- 
 clius on the plain of Hums, the Arabs besieged Damascus, this 
 ancient capital of Syria. The siege lasted seventy days, and then 
 the city surrendered, and most of the inhabitants were allowed to 
 withdraw. According to Gibbon, they were pursued by Khalid, 
 " the Sword of God," with four squadrons of cavalry, and " not a 
 Christian of either sex escaped the edge of their scymitars." The 
 remaining inhabitants of the city became the tributary subjects of 
 the conquerors, and seven places of worship were allotted to them, 
 and half of the church of St. John. Towards the close of the 
 seventh century Damascus rose, for a time, to great prominence as 
 the capital of the Muhammedan Empire, which soon extended to 
 India on the east, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. Although 
 this city has enjoyed periods of great prosperity during the past 
 twelve centuries of Moslem rule, yet the baneful influence of Islam, 
 here, as elsewhere, has been depressing and destructive. It is im- 
 possible to ruin a city so favorably located as Damascus ; still, it has 
 notably declined in many important respects — in the variety and 
 perfection of its manufactures, the extent and value of its com- 
 merce, and in the wealth and refinement of its inhabitants. 
 
 As Damascus has retained its individuality during a period of 
 about four thousand years, and as it is of all Eastern cities the 
 most Oriental, one naturally expects to find that not only have the 
 manners and customs of ancient times remained unchanged, but 
 that its present inhabitants have come down from the earliest ages. 
 
 Would you seek acquaintance with the descendants of Ishmael? 
 They are to be seen in every bazaar, with their swarthy complexion, 
 sharp features, and lithe and slender figures, clad in simple but 
 primitive garments, very much like those worn by Abraham and 
 they of his household when sojourning in this vicinity. Do you
 
 "A HEBREW OF THE HEBREWS."— " THE ARABIAN NIGHTS." 37 1 
 
 wish to see a veritable "Hebrew of the Hebrews" — a son of "Abra- 
 ham, and Isaac, and Jacob?" You will find f^roups of them in the 
 Jewish quarter of the city, with fair countenance and bri<;ht eyes, 
 curling locks and flowing beards, servile expression and obsequious 
 manner, clothed in much the same style and costume as their fore- 
 fathers. You cannot name an article of their dress, from head to 
 foot, but that you there behold only the modernized form and fash- 
 ion of its ancient shape and size, for the Jews of Damascus have 
 adhered with great tenacity to the manners, the customs, and the 
 costumes of their ancestors. During our stay in this city you will 
 be constantly reminded that we are still in the land of the Bible, 
 and that Damascus furnishes, in many respects, the best li\ing illus- 
 trations of the Holy Book that are now to be found in an\- part of 
 the Promised Land. 
 
 September 15th. 
 
 This hotel — with its paved quadrangular court in the centre, 
 marble fountains, running water, orange, citron, and lemon trees, 
 rose-bushes, trailing jessamine-vines, and blooming shrubs, its open 
 lewans, spacious and lofty rooms on the ground floor, and smaller 
 ones above, with winding stairs, rambling verandas, and projecting 
 balconies — transfers us, almost by enchantment, into the realm of 
 Oriental story and amid the scenes of the "Arabian Nights." 
 
 Ever since the wealthy and pleasure-loving Khalifs, the success- 
 ors of the great prophet of Islam, assumed the supremacy over their 
 more refined Christian subjects and established their court at Da- 
 mascus, this city has been admirably adapted to illustrate those 
 Oriental romances of the happy king, Shahriyar, and his faithful 
 queen, Shahrazar. And to-day many a house within the city walls, 
 and a garden in the suburbs, is the palace and the grove in minia- 
 ture of a Moslem Khalif equally minute, though none the less ma- 
 levolent, than the famous vicars of Muhammed. We will let our 
 horses rest to-day, and allow the muleteers the opportunity to have 
 their animals re-shod, while we visit the bazaars of the city. There 
 are many places of special interest within the walls of Damascus, 
 besides its shops and streets, and we will, therefore, direct our 
 steps to Khan As'ad Pasha, passing through several of the princi- 
 pal bazaars on the way to that celebrated caravansary.
 
 372 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 In this large open space which we are crossing horses are col- 
 lected from the desert and elsewhere and offered for sale, on certain 
 days of the week. Some of them are in a semi-wild state, and pre- 
 sent a shaggy and uncouth appearance, while others are said to be 
 of the famous Arabian breeds raised by the Bedawin of the 'Anazeh 
 tribe. That large plane-tree is one of the sights of Damascus. The 
 trunk is nearly forty feet in circumference, and one of its branches 
 is occasionally used as a gallows. Here are the shops and stalls for 
 the sale of barley, and farther on is the saddle market. There you 
 will find saddles of all shapes and sizes, from the hard pack, stuffed 
 with straw, to the crimson cloth and gold-embroidered saddle of the 
 Effendi and the Pasha. And there, too, are seen girths of every 
 description, and saddle-cloths of gaudy colors and various patterns ; 
 broad, shovel -shaped stirrups, and silver- spangled bridles with 
 clumsy ring bits, and trappings and tassels for the horses of the 
 Bedawin. This clatter of many hammers proceeds from the shops 
 of the coppersmiths. Here are made basins and ewers, pots and 
 pans, cups and kettles, colanders, and other kitchen utensils. Those 
 large copper trays — some of them nearly five feet in diameter — 
 are, in fact, used as tables, upon which the dishes are placed and 
 around which the guests seat themselves on the floor. They are 
 often adorned with elaborate calligraphical designs and compli- 
 cated texts from the Koran. 
 
 The castle, on the opposite side of the street, is a large, quadran- 
 gular fortress, nearly nine hundred feet long and seven hundred feet 
 wide. From its great height, and many projecting towers, and the 
 surrounding moat — twenty feet broad, and fifteen feet deep — it pre- 
 sents a formidable appearance. The interior, however, is in a ruin- 
 ous condition, and only a few vaults are occupied. Some of them 
 chiefly contain bows and arrows, old armor, and other military rub- 
 bish. It is said to have been built by Melek el Ashraf, about A.D. 
 1 2 19, but this can only imply that he rebuilt the fortress upon the 
 foundations of a former one, for the substructions are evidently 
 ancient, and probably Roman. The main branch of the Barada 
 flows along the north wall of the castle, and its waters could be let 
 into the fosse, the bottom of which is now covered with reeds. 
 
 Leaving these jabbering and importunate auctioneers to dispose
 
 BAZAARS AND STREETS.— BARGAINS.— KHAN AS'AD PASHA. 373 
 
 of their second-hand garments, old-fashioned weapons, and copper 
 trays to the highest bidder, we will pass through Suk el Arwam, or 
 the Street of the Greeks. Here are dealers in all sorts of Oriental 
 articles, mostly gaudy and trashy, and not worth a quarter of the 
 price asked for them : tobacco-bags of \^arious colors, embroidered 
 in siK^er and gold ; long pipe-stems encased in blue, green, and 
 crimson silk, bound with gold braid and ornamented with brilliant 
 tassels suspended from the middle of the stems, and adorned with 
 amber mouthpieces six inches long. These persistent dealers offer 
 you, "for nothing," a cloth suit, a red fez, a shawl, a dagger, or a 
 so-called " Damascus blade," bright-colored socks, or a carpet to 
 say your prayers upon — and all *' without money and without 
 price." If you accept on those terms they will expect a present 
 of at least twice the value of the goods thus "given away." 
 
 " It is the most difficult thing in the world," says an Oriental 
 traveller, " to find one's way about a populous Eastern town, from 
 the intricacy of the streets and the many winding bazaars, which 
 are so very confusing. Sometimes you arc pushed into a corner for 
 several minutes and spattered with mud by a string of donkeys, 
 who trot heedlessly and with noiseless tread over the dirty pave- 
 ment; and sometimes you are nearly knocked down and run over 
 by a string of camels, who take up the whole passage between the 
 shop-boards on which the goods are exposed for sale, and whose 
 soft, spongy feet make no sound to warn one of the approaching 
 danger." Fortunately for us, we have at last reached this great 
 khan without encountering anything more formidable in these 
 bazaars than motley crowds of men, women, and children buying 
 and selling, and occasionally an Effendi on horseback. 
 
 This khan belongs to the family of As'ad Pasha, by whom it 
 was built nearly one hundred years ago. He was the Governor of 
 Damascus for fifteen years, and is said to have been an ujiright man 
 and a public benefactor. The main entrance is gram! and very 
 striking — one of the finest specimens of Arabian architecture in this 
 country — and the stone carving above the lofty gateway and around 
 the stalactite vaults is of the most elaborate character. The khan 
 was constructed of black basalt and white limestone in alternate 
 layers, and is about two hundred feet square. The interior court is
 
 374 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 half that size, with a large, round fountain in the centre, above 
 which is a lofty dome resting upon four arches, each supported by 
 four clustered pillars. These are connected with the walls by a 
 series of similar arches and domes — eight in all. Those domes have 
 each sixteen large windows, through which light, air, and sunshine 
 penetrate to the rooms and the court below. Around the sides of 
 the court are vaulted magazines of various sizes for the disposal of 
 merchandise of every description at wholesale. 
 
 On either side of the main entrance a staircase leads up to an 
 arched corridor, which extends quite around the building, and com- 
 municates with the small retail shops and offices of the merchants. 
 It forms a fine promenade, from where one can look down upon 
 the strange and truly Oriental scenes in the court below, free from 
 the noise and confusion which there characterize every commercial 
 transaction, large or small. To Khan As'ad Pasha come caravans 
 from Bagdad, Mosul, Aleppo, Beirut, and elsewhere. On entering, 
 the muleteers and camel-drivers, with mighty din and uproar, throw 
 down their loads of merchandise in this court, and here they must 
 remain until the owners settle with the custom-house ofificials. 
 
 The janissary of the consulate has come to conduct us from 
 this khan to the Great Mosk. He will obtain admission for us, 
 and insure proper respect from the custodians of that sacred edi- 
 fice. We will now leave the khan and pass through some of the 
 bazaars which you have not yet seen. 
 
 I have noticed with surprise the difference in the demeanor of 
 the shopkeepers towards their customers. The Christians are of^- 
 cious and importunate ; the Moslems, on the other hand, are indif- 
 ferent, contemptuous, and even insolent. 
 
 The Moslems of Damascus number more than four-fifths of its 
 inhabitants, and their intense fanaticism is notorious; hence their 
 arrogant treatment of all unbelievers. Christians are infidel dogs, 
 and Jews are curs of the lowest degree, while all Europeans are 
 generally regarded as Russians, with whom the Sultan is supposed 
 to be at war. Amongst themselves, however, Muhammedans are 
 respectful, and treat each other with extreme deference, even in 
 matters of the smallest concern. 
 
 A Moslem shopkeeper is a religious phenomenon wonderful to
 
 A MOSLEM SHOPKEEPER.— BAZAAR OF THE GOLDSMITHS. 
 
 0/ :> 
 
 behold, whose faith is as necessary to him as his food or his rai- 
 ment. Proceeding with solemn step through the street, he strokes 
 his beard at every turn, muttering short ejaculations of praise to 
 God and prayer for his almighty aid. Arriving at his shop, he' 
 unlocks the shutters, exclaiming, " O thou Opener of all things, 
 and Knower of all things !" and ascends to his seat, upon a quilted 
 mattress, about a yard square. Placing his shoes out of sight, and 
 filling his pipe, he reclines against a large, soft cushion, and compla- 
 cently strokes his beard or plays with his beads while patiently 
 awaiting the customer whom fate or God's decree may send him. 
 If his customer be a Jew or Christian, he " takes refuge in God from 
 the wiles of Satan ;" for according to the nature of that first 
 "opening" transaction will his business during the day be fortu- 
 nate or otherwise. If the amount of the purchase is satisfactory, 
 he praises God for having diverted the money of an infidel into the 
 hands of a true believer; but should the amount be insignificant, 
 he calls upon the Enricher of all, the most merciful God, to dispel 
 his ominous ill-luck by sending him another customer of a more 
 promising countenance and longer purse. 
 
 The infidels are common victims, and to cheat and abuse them 
 is the special prerogative of all true believers. It is astonishing to 
 see a ^loslem, at the close of a wrangling bargain with a Christian 
 or a Jew — during which the buyer has been cheated in quality, 
 quantity, and price, and roughly dealt with — suddenly betake him- 
 self to his prayers, perform them in a most solemn and abstracted 
 manner, and immediately thereafter engage in a similar scene over 
 some petty purchase worth only a few piastres. A thousand times 
 in the day is the name of God invoked to confirm the l>'ing state- 
 ment of the seller in regard to the article offered to the bu\'er, and 
 this taking of "the name of God in vain" has continued unchanged 
 from the time of Moses down to the present day. 
 
 We have now reached the bazaar of the goldsmiths, and are in 
 the vicinity of the Great Mosk. After examining some of their 
 handiwork we will ascend to the dilapidated roof of this bazaar, 
 from where we can obtain a view of the exterior of the mosk. 
 Here you will be shown a great variety of ornaments in silver or 
 ■^old and in delicate filigree work, many of tliem quite beautiful, for
 
 376 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the head, the ears, the neck, the arms, the fingers, and even for the 
 nose and ankles of the Bedawin women. There are also brilhant 
 sprays of diamonds, and a great profusion of pearls, coral, amber, 
 and costly gems to tempt the wealthy. 
 
 Where do they keep all those treasures which you have enu- 
 merated ? I see nothing but a row of dingy stalls, with one or two 
 men and as many boys in each, apparently trying to melt something 
 in a crucible over a common blow-pipe. 
 
 The jewelry and precious stones are kept in tin cases, locked up 
 in those ordinary wooden boxes which you see in the stalls, and 
 
 DIAMOND, PEARL, AND GOLD EAR-RLNGS. — DIAMOND NECKLACE. 
 
 they are exhibited with great care to an intending purchaser. The 
 stalls are generally raised nearly four feet above the street, and are 
 about seven feet square. The entire furniture consists of one or 
 two mats or carpets and the same number of quilted mattresses 
 and soft cushions. The stock in trade is placed in the tin cases 
 and strong wooden boxes, and the principal machinery used is com- 
 prised in the following list : a hammer, anvil, hole in the floor or 
 forge ; an oil-lamp, a crucible, a blow-pipe, and a small, flat, and 
 smooth piece of charcoal; a shears, pincers, and a piece of iron or 
 steel, with holes of various sizes, through which the gold or silver
 
 GOLD FILIGREE WORK.— GREEK INSCRIPTION. 377 
 
 wire is drawn. Thus equipped, one of these jewellers will make a 
 pair of ear-rings in gold filigree work from an Oriental design, or 
 from any other which may be given to him ; and the process is very 
 simple. A rude sketch is made ; the gold wire, drawn to the requi- 
 site thickness, is cut into the necessary pieces ; these are shaped to 
 conform to the design, then placed in position on the flat piece of 
 charcoal, a pinch of solder is dusted over them, and a boy with the 
 blow-pipe is brought into requisition. That primitive manufactur- 
 incr process is repeated until the design is complete, and then comes 
 finishing and polishing, and the ear-rings are done. They are 
 weighed, and to the value of the gold the jeweller adds the price of 
 his labor, and the result is the entire cost of the ear-rings. 
 
 A bakhshish has unlocked this side- door, and we may now 
 ascend to the roof of the bazaar. From here we get a good view 
 of the south side of the mosk — its windows, minarets, sloping 
 roofs, and central dome. A part of the wall at the south-western 
 angle, the remains of the gate near the southern transept, and the 
 round arches of the windows on either side and above the present 
 main entrance, sufficiently indicate the Greek and Roman origin 
 of this Moslem mosk and former church of St. John the Baptist. If 
 we had time and opportunity we could approach nearer to the wall 
 of the mosk and examine these ancient remains, especially those 
 of the triple gate, which are almost entirely concealed by the walls 
 of this bazaar. The western arch is hidden from sight, but part of 
 the central and eastern arches rise above the line of those roofs. 
 
 During one of my earliest visits to this place, in company with 
 some missionary friends, we found a Greek inscription high up in 
 the wall, and above the central gateway, which to us was a new dis- 
 covery, as we supposed it had not been seen by any traveller. Pro- 
 curing a ladder, we succeeded, with some diiificulty, in copying it. 
 It is now well known, and being interpreted reads as follows: 
 "Thy kingdom, O Christ, is an everlasting kingdom, and thy do- 
 minion endureth throughout all generations," taken from the thir- 
 teenth verse of the one hundred and forty-fifth Psalm, with the 
 name of Christ interpolated. It was evidently intended for the 
 gateway leading into the enclosure of the churdi, pn.hahly for the 
 lintel of the entrance through which the Christians had access to
 
 378 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 their part of the edifice during the time of its partial occupation by 
 them and the Moslems. It is surprising that Muhammedan fanati- 
 cism has allowed it to remain there for more than twelve hundred 
 years, and has not long since effaced and removed it from the sacred 
 precincts of this their grandest mosk in the city of Damascus. 
 
 ARCH AND PEDIMENT OF AN ANCIENT GATEWAY. 
 
 From the bazaar of the goldsmiths we have now found our way 
 into that of the booksellers. Copies of the Koran, beautifully illu- 
 minated, were occasionally found in the shops, but in these days a 
 good manuscript copy can only be obtained secretly and by paying 
 a high price for it. The magic energy of the printing-press will ere
 
 ANXIENT GATEWAY.— BAB EL BARID.— HOUSE OF RIMMON. 379 
 
 long altogether supersede the laborious methods of the copyist, 
 and even now but few manuscript books of special value are ex- 
 posed for sale in these stalls. Here is another side-door, which the 
 same amount of bakhshish will unlock, and from the terrace of this 
 private house we can examine the remains of an ancient gateway 
 in front of the western entrance to the Great iMosk. Those four 
 massive columns are all that can be seen of it here in the street. 
 
 What we now see rising above the roof of the bazaar is a por- 
 tion of the arch and pediment of the gateway, supported by three 
 columns with Corinthian capitals. The one at the end is composed 
 of a square pier of masonry, with a semi-column on the inner and 
 outer side. The cornice, arch, and pediment are profusely orna- 
 mented with scroll-work, flowers and foliage, and other architectural 
 designs similar to those seen among the ruins at Ba'albek. In the 
 masonry over the cornice there is a small window with a double 
 moulding, and, judging from the proportions of this elaborate frag- 
 ment, the entire gateway must have been more than seventy feet 
 high and of about the same width. Let us descend and walk 
 through the booksellers' bazaar to Bab el Barid, at the end of the 
 street. The double colonnade which formerly extended from this 
 ancient portal to the mosk has been almost entirely destroyed, 
 and only a few of the columns remain ; some of them are built into 
 the walls of the shops and houses along the street. 
 
 Here we are at this unpretentious entrance to the mosk, and 
 the custodians have brought the slippers we are required to wear 
 within the sacred edifice. On former visits I had to purchase slip- 
 pers in the shoemakers' bazaar, but the keepers have become more 
 accommodating, expecting to be liberally rewarded for their polite 
 attentions when we leave the mosk. 
 
 This is the most important historical site in Damascus, and may 
 have been originally an open space, the centre of which was occu- 
 pied by an altar dedicated to the idol-gotl of the S)'rians long before 
 Abraham passed this way, "to go into the land of Canaan." Here, 
 no doubt, was "the house of Rimmon," probably erected by one of 
 those Ben-hadads who reigned in this city from the time of David, 
 and which is referred to by Naaman in his interview with l^lish.i.' 
 
 ' 2 Kings V. 17, iS. 
 C 2
 
 38o 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 And here Ahaz the king of Judah may have seen that altar when 
 he came to Damascus, " the pattern" of which he sent to Urijah the 
 priest in Jerusalem. Several hundred years later, when the Greeks 
 and the Romans were here, a heathen temple stood upon this spot, 
 with its altars and courts, its colonnades and triumphal arches. It 
 must have occupied an area nearly equal in size to that of the pres- 
 ent Haram esh Sherif, in Jerusalem. After Christianity became the 
 
 JAMI'A ES SEIYED YEHYA — CHURCH OK ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 
 
 established religion of the Byzantine Empire the temple was con- 
 verted into a church and dedicated to St. John the Baptist, and the 
 Moslems believe that his head still remains in the cave where it is 
 said to have been placed by the monks of that church. 
 
 When Damascus fell into the hands of the Muhammedans, in 
 the seventh century, this church was occupied by Moslems and 
 Christians, the former taking possession of the eastern part, while 
 the latter were allowed the use of the western portion. That
 
 JAMI'A ES SEIYEU VKIl VA— 1 HE MOSK OF ST. JOHN. 38 1 
 
 division, which indicated the comparative toleration of Muhamme- 
 danism at that period, did not continue long, and the Christians 
 were not only expelled from their place of worship, but they were 
 forbidden to enter the enclosure of the sacred edifice. From thence- 
 forth the entire structure was transformed into Jami'a es Seiyed 
 Yehya, or the Mosk of St. John, which name it still bears. The 
 church was in the form of a basilica, and the space between the 
 enclosing walls of the quadrangle upon which it stood was about 
 five hundred feet long and three hundred and fifty feet broad. 
 It occupied nearly one half of that space, on the south side of 
 the quadrangle, and but few changes have been made in the inte- 
 rior plan since it was transformed into a mosk. The open court 
 on the north occupies much the largest part of the quadrangle, and 
 the ancient outbuildings in it have been removed, and fountains and 
 minarets erected in their place. 
 
 Turning to the right, let us now enter the sacred enclosure of 
 this present mosk and former church. 
 
 This vast edifice, with its numerous columns, its Saracenic arches, 
 lofty roof, and many pendant frames containing scores of oil-lamps, 
 dimly lighted, is entirely different from any public building we have 
 yet seen in this country, and it presents a most singular and inter- 
 esting appearance. 
 
 Though it cannot be called magnificent in its present condition, 
 yet the impression produced upon the beholder by the architectural 
 proportions and the great dimensions of the mosk is peculiar and 
 impressive. It is about four hundred and fifty feet long, and one 
 hundred and twenty-five feet wide, and is divided into three aisles 
 by two rows of columns — twenty in each row -which extend the 
 whole length of the edifice. The columns are about twenty-four 
 feet high, and most of them have Corinthian capitals. There is 
 another row of columns along the north side of the mosk, but they 
 are encased in masonry, and the space between them is now takL-n 
 up by many windows and doors, through which access to the mosk 
 is gained on that side. The triple roof rests upon two tiers of 
 arches supported by the rows of columns, and it is said to be cov- 
 ered with lead on the outside. In the centre of the mosk, and the 
 transept of the ancient church, there are four massive piers, and
 
 282 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 above them rises a dome about one hundred and twenty feet high, 
 and one hundred feet in circumference. There is colored glass in 
 the windows on the south side of the mosk, and along the walls 
 and upon some of the columns are extracts and texts from the 
 Koran, in the usual style of intricate caligraphy which the Arabs 
 delight to employ and display. 
 
 Almost the entire marble fioor is covered with carpets of differ- 
 ent sizes and various patterns, upon which the "true believers" per- 
 form their daily prayers. Looking eastward along these aisles the 
 most striking objects are those great dome-shaped frames with their 
 hundreds of lamps, and the numerous chandeliers, suspended by 
 long chains from the arches and lofty roof. The minbar, or pulpit, 
 and the mihrab, or praying-niches, in the south wall, with their slen- 
 der marble columns, are quite attractive and suggestive. But the 
 most sacred spot in the mosk is the cave above which is the shrine, 
 or Mukam es Seiyed Yehya. The mukam is between the third and 
 fourth column, to the right of the dome, and near the south wall of 
 the eastern part of the mosk. It is enclosed by a quadrangular 
 wall, built of five courses of polished marble, upon which stand 
 twenty square columns, six on each side, and four at either end, 
 counting the corner columns twice. The cornice is elaborately 
 ornamented by extracts from the Koran, in large letters, and above 
 it rises a ribbed dome, resting upon an octagonal structure, and sur- 
 mounted by a gilded crescent. The height of the dome is about 
 twenty-five feet, and the head of John the Baptist is believed by 
 the Moslems to be still preserved beneath that mukam. Like those 
 of many Christian saints, the remains of the Baptist have been gen- 
 erously distributed amongst several favored mosks. His head is 
 here, his heart is claimed in Aleppo, and one of his fingers is said 
 to be in a mosk at Beirut. 
 
 The association of Biblical and even Christian celebrities with 
 Muhammedan shrines in and around this most Moslem of cities 
 appears to be one of the strange features of Damascus. 
 
 We are now in the large open court enclosed by the walls of the 
 mosk. Including the colonnade on the east, north, and west, the 
 court is about four hundred and fifty feet long, and one hundred 
 and eighty feet broad. The columns in the northern colonnade are
 
 COURT OF THE GREAT MOSK.— ORNAMENTAL PIERS. 383 
 
 encased in masonry, and support twenty-four horseshoe arches, upon 
 which rests an upper tier of fifty smaller round arches. The sides 
 of the masonry piers are ornamented with various patterns in panel- 
 work, and elaborate designs of rich arabesque adorn the capitals, 
 while the arches are painted on the inside in alternate black and 
 white irregular squares, presenting a striking and checkered appear- 
 ance. The upper tier of arches is composed entirely of layers of 
 
 ►J^ 
 
 MIKAM i-:. bhiVLD VHiVA— TOMli UK ST. JOHN THE HAl'Tlbl. 
 
 black and white limestone, and the combined effect of those varied 
 designs and different colors in the colonnade give it an appearance 
 eminently Oriental and attractive. More than half the number of 
 Corinthian columns remain exposed to view in the eastern and 
 western colonnade, and the arches in the upper tier are supported 
 by smaller columns of the same order. 
 
 This Saracenic structure over the fountain in the middle of the 
 court is quite imposing, with its eight columns and as many arches; 
 and the domed pavilion above them is large and attractive.
 
 384 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 It is called Kubbet en Naufarah, dome of the water-spout, a 
 name suggested no doubt by the constant and refreshing sound of 
 the plashing waters from those numerous jets. Here " the faith- 
 ful " perform their ablutions before entering the mosk, and in the 
 pavilion above this octagonal basin some of their religious ceremo- 
 nies are conducted. Kubbet es Sa'ah, the dome of the hour, is in 
 the eastern part of the court ; and that curious structure near the 
 western end is called Kubbet el Khusneh, the dome of the treasure. 
 Under the dome of its octagonal chamber — built upon those fine 
 marble columns, whose Corinthian capitals are almost perfect — the 
 sacred books and records of the mosk are deposited, but no visitor 
 is allowed to inspect such precious " treasure." 
 
 Several years ago our party of ladies and gentlemen spent an 
 entire forenoon in the mosk and around this court. We were 
 accompanied by the dragoman of the British Consulate, and at his 
 request our photographer was allowed to take pictures of some of 
 the interesting objects within this great court, and views of the 
 colonnades and the minarets of the mosk. The entire party 
 ascended this central minaret, called Madinet el 'Arus, the minaret 
 of the bride — winding up this same spiral stairway of one hundred 
 and sixty steps which we are now climbing — to the gallery from 
 where the muezzin proclaims " the call to prayers." The mosk of 
 St. John has three minarets. The one we are on is the oldest. It 
 is built up square, and has four galleries. Madinet el Ghurbiyeh, 
 the western minaret, on the south-west side of the court, is the most 
 beautiful. It is octagonal, built in receding sections, like a tele- 
 scope, and has three galleries. The loftiest minaret of them all is 
 Madinet Tsa, minaret of Jesus, so called from a Moslem tradition 
 that on the morning of the judgment-day Jesus will descend from 
 heaven upon it and sit in judgment on all the nations of the earth. 
 It is built upon a square tower, and is octagonal in shape, taper- 
 ing to a point, and surmounted, like the other two, by a crescent. 
 There are two covered "galleries" in the tower and two open ones 
 on the "spire" of the minaret. 
 
 The view from this minaret over this most Oriental of cities is 
 exceedingly characteristic and interesting. We look down upon a 
 motley scene of flat, drab-colored roofs, dark, narrow streets, square,
 
 A PANORAMA FROM IIIE MINARKl OF THE BRIDE. 385 
 
 ORNAMENTED PIERS AND ARCHES IN THE COIRI oK THE C.REAT MOSK. 
 
 whitewashed walls, innumerable domes, lofty minarets, and tall, ta- 
 pering cypress-trees, varied here and there by the green shrubs and 
 large fruit-trees in the courts of some of the principal houses. 
 
 A panorama taken from the gallery of this Madinet cl 'Arus
 
 386 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 would include nearly every important house, public building, mosk, 
 and church in the city, and a large number of the villages on the 
 plain. The new Greek Catholic Church in the extreme south-east- 
 ern part of the city is seen to advantage from here, and the great 
 castle west of us rears its lofty quadrangular walls high above all its 
 surroundings. The outlook from our stand-point extends far be- 
 yond the city and its suburbs, to Jebel Kasyun, above es Salihiyeh, 
 on the north ; to Mount Hermon, on the west; to the distant region 
 of the Hauran, on the south ; and eastward to the green marshes 
 of the lakes — a vast and endlessly diversified prospect of moun- 
 tains and valleys, waving forests of fruit-trees, fertile plains, and 
 stern, hopeless deserts. 
 
 We will now descend from this minaret, having " made the 
 tour" of the mosk of St. John, which, as we have already re- 
 marked, probably occupies the site of "the house of Rimmon," in 
 which Ben-hadad worshipped, leaning upon the hand of Naaman.' 
 
 Was Rimmon one of the many names given to Baal ? 
 
 As the name of the ancient Syrian god it is mentioned only 
 once in the Bible, and its signification and derivation are doubtful. 
 It may have had reference to the pomegranate, still abundant in 
 the gardens of Damascus ; or have been an abbreviated form of 
 Hadadrimmon, the combined names of the Syrian deities. Some 
 suppose that it was derived from Aram, the general name for Syria, 
 and the region of which Damascus was the capital. It is probable, 
 therefore, that " the house of Rimmon," in this city, w-as one of the 
 many temples dedicated to the worship of Baal, the supreme god 
 of the Aramaean tribes. 
 
 The most interesting monuments in the vicinity of this mosk 
 are the mausoleum of Salah ed Din, the famous Saladin of Crusad- 
 ing times, and the tomb of Melek ed Dhaher Bibars, the Mameluke 
 Sultan of Egypt. These custodians appear to be satisfied with their 
 bakhshish, so we can leave the mosk through the same gate by which 
 we entered it and go back to the hotel. 
 
 September 15th. Evening. 
 Returning from the mosk this noon w^e passed a public bath 
 with a curtain drawn across the entrance, indicating, as you said, 
 
 ' 2 Kincrs v. 18.
 
 PUBLIC BATHS INTRODUCED BY HEROD THE GREAT. 387 
 
 that it would be occupied for the rest of the day by the women. 
 Are they not allowed to use the bath at night ? 
 
 Muhammed is credited with the ungallant assertion that when 
 a woman enters a bath the devil goes in with her; and he forbade 
 women to go there except in rare cases of emergency and for sani- 
 tary purpo.ses. Moslem women, however, have entirely disregarded 
 his injunction, and those forbidden places are occasionally engaged 
 for special nights by the families of the wealthy. The ordinary 
 custom is to reserve the bath for the exclusive use of men in the 
 forenoon, and women in the afternoon. Brides are taken to the 
 bath by their relatives and friends a short time before the wed- 
 ding; and such parties often spend several hours there, drinking 
 lemonade, sipping coffee, smoking the nargileh, and partaking of 
 sweetmeats and other refreshments. Singing women are hired 
 to add to the entertainment on those occasions, and the merr}'- 
 making is often noisy enough to be heard out on the street. 
 
 Is it not strange that private and public baths similar to those 
 now in use in this country are not mentioned in the Bible? 
 
 The Hebrews appear never to have built any in their houses 
 nor in their cities, though ablutions of various kinds were common 
 enough, and even enjoined, as part of the necessary ceremonial 
 observances on numerous occasions. For the performance of some 
 of those ablutions provision was made in the Tabernacle, and also 
 in the Temple of Solomon. Subsequently, when synagogues came 
 into use, a small tank or pool was provided for the same purpose. 
 It is possible that the "pools" in and around Jerusalem were con- 
 structed for general bathing, and the Pool of Bethesda was evi- 
 dently resorted to by the infirm and diseased for its healing virtues. 
 Still, there is no evidence that baths, artificially heated and sup- 
 plied with hot and cold water, like those now so common in nearly 
 every part of the world, were ever erected in Palestine until about 
 the time of Herod the Great. He and his successors had become 
 accustomed to them during their visits to Rome, and they built 
 baths in many of the cities of this country, as part of a general 
 plan to break down the stern exclusiveness and isolation of the 
 Jews, and induce them to associate with Greeks and Romans, and 
 conform as far as possible to their manners and customs. Chris-
 
 388 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 tians throughout the Roman Empire resorted to the baths as early 
 as the first century, and they are now patronized by all classes, 
 especially of the Moslem community. Muhammed disliked baths; 
 and as they are supposed to be the favorite resort of evil spirits, 
 prayer is not performed in them, but an ejaculation is uttered on 
 entering to be protected from the machinations of the Jan. 
 
 While we were passing through the crowded bazaars this after- 
 noon, on our way to visit some of the fine houses of this city, I 
 was very much interested and amused by the number and variety 
 of the street calls or cries. I have been startled in Beirut by shrill 
 warnings to look behind or before me to avoid being run over by 
 loaded animals, but here in Damascus one's ears are assailed by 
 many additional calls: " Ya Khawajah !" " Ya Kunsul !" " Ya Ef- 
 fendi!" " Ya Sheikh!" " Ya sit!" " Ya walled!" " Ya bint!" " Yem- 
 minak!" " Shemalak !" " Rasak !" " Riglak !" — all warnings to be- 
 ware, uttered now in front, now behind, now on this side, now on 
 that, until one knows not which way to turn for safety. Two lads, 
 carrying between them a large tray loaded with bread, cried out, 
 " Ya Karim ! ya Karim !" That is not the name for bread. 
 
 No, it is one of the attributes of God, and signifies the bounti- 
 ful or generous ; and since bread is the staff of life, the name im- 
 plies that it is the gift of the Bountiful One. 
 
 Another cry was made by a man carrying on his back a large 
 leathern " bottle," and jingling in his hand several deep and bright 
 copper saucers, to attract attention. I could hear nothing but 
 " Ishrub ya 'atshan ! ishrub ya 'atshan !" which meant, you said, 
 "Drink, O thirsty!" That sounded like the Biblical invitation, 
 "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters."' 
 
 Yes ; but, according to Isaiah, they were to " buy without 
 money and without price." That man's invitation, however, is 
 very different. By the sale of his sherbet he makes his living, and 
 he who has no money will get no drink; and if he should thus 
 publicly offer to sell wine with or " without price," he would be 
 torn to pieces by a fanatical Moslem mob. 
 
 I liked the sound of his invitation, nevertheless. 
 
 And I will only add that it is a most significant and encourag- 
 
 ' Isa. Iv. I.
 
 PRIVATE HOUSES IN DAMASCUS. 
 
 589 
 
 iiv fact that the colporteur may be seen in those bazaars pursuiny," 
 his humble vocation, and offering the true "bread" and the water 
 of "everlasting life" to the perishing multitudes in this intensely- 
 Moslem city. And the best wish we can express in behalf of the 
 Damascenes is that they may be brought to accept it, through 
 Ilim whose kingdom, according to the inscription over the entrance 
 to their mosk, "is an everlasting kingdom," and whose "dominion 
 endureth throughout all generations." 
 
 The house of our obliging vice-consul, and those of his friends 
 and acquaintances which he took us to see this afternoon, are all, 
 apparently, constructed upon the .same general plan. 
 
 SPKCIMKNS i)K IKSSI'.I.I.ATia) I'AVKMKN I. 
 
 The exterior wall is always of rough mud, of a plain drab color, 
 and without windows, or with very small ones. The entrance from 
 the street is through a most unpretending door, opening into a 
 dark and narrow hall, with a projection or screen at the farther cui\. 
 which shuts off the view into the main court. That court has no 
 roof, and is nearly .square, and in some of the larger houses is more 
 than one hundred and fifty feet long. The walls of the court are 
 constructed of red and white limestone or black basalt, in alternate 
 layers, to a height of about fifteen feet, and finished with ordinary- 
 masonry. It is p-aved with large slabs of white marble, bordered 
 with narrow strips of black slate, and sometimes arranged in i)relty 
 ])attcrns and complicated figures, especially in front of the chamber
 
 OQO THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 doors or around the fountains. In the middle of the court is a 
 large tank or fountain, generally octagonal in shape, and raised two 
 feet or more above the pavement. It is cased in marble, and the 
 sides and panels are profusely ornamented with intricate designs 
 in slate and limestone of various colors. The fountain is kept full 
 of clear, sparkling water from the never-failing " river of Damascus," 
 by one or more bronze spouts and central jets. Upon it choice 
 flowers are arranged in large pots, and near it arc fruit-trees, 
 rose-bushes, and jessamine-vines, which impart an attractive and 
 pleasing aspect, and their fragrance pervades the entire court and 
 penetrates into every room in the house. 
 
 On the south side of the court, and facing the fountain, is an 
 open lewan, with a lofty arch in front to support the roof. The 
 pavement of the lewan is of marble, with designs in mosaic of 
 various shapes and sizes, and of different colors. Along three 
 sides of it are divans with marble fronts; they are generally a 
 foot and a half high, and the quilted mattresses, together with the 
 numerous cushions piled upon them, are covered with Damascus 
 silk of brilliant color and rich texture. The walls of the lewan 
 are built up for about ten feet, with alternate layers of red and 
 white limestone or black basalt, and above that there is an elabo- 
 rate display of fresco or mosaic work, in large panels and patterns. 
 On either side of the lewan there are spacious and lofty rooms, 
 sometimes over thirty feet high. They are entered by doors lead- 
 ing from the lewan, and one of them at least is furnished and 
 decorated in a more elaborate style and design than the lewan. 
 Frequently there is a marble fountain in the centre of the room, 
 and the walls display a profuse ornamentation in marble, stucco, 
 mosaic work, and fresco painting. 
 
 The roof is sustained by long, slender beams of poplar, polished 
 and painted in bright colors. In some of the mansions of the 
 wealthy those beams are covered with gilt, and farther ornamented 
 with small pieces of mirrors and mother-of-pearl, inlaid in the wood, 
 which add to the brilliancy of the apartment. The panels in the 
 ceiling, in the doors, the window-frames, and shutters are similarly 
 ornamented, and, in addition, are composed of many small pieces 
 of polished wood of different kinds, arranged in curious figures—
 
 COFFEE-SHOPS ON IIIE BANKS OF THE BAKADA. 
 
 39' 
 
 over fifty in one panel. The apartments for the use of the family 
 and those reserved for domestic purposes, kitchen, batli, and ser- 
 vants' rooms, are arranged around the court, on this side or that, 
 according to the comfort and convenience of the inmates of the 
 establishment. The Moslems have an interior and entirely distinct 
 and separate house, sometimes more profusely ornamented and 
 elegantly furnished, for their harem, the entrance to which is 
 from the court of the main dwelliner. 
 
 The coffee -shops along the 
 banks of the Barada, which we 
 looked into this evening, were 
 more attractive, and the mot- 
 ley throng in some of them 
 was greater and far more in- 
 teresting, than any we saw at 
 Beirut. 
 
 That is due in a great meas- 
 ure to the time, the place, and 
 the people. Damascus is famous 
 above all the cities of Syria for 
 its coffee-shops and the eminent- 
 ly Oriental appearance of the 
 crowds in its streets, and " night 
 is the propitious season to visit 
 the cafes. The glare of the sun 
 glancing on the waters is passed 
 away; the company is then most 
 numerous, for it is their favorite 
 hour, and the lamps, suspended 
 
 from the slender pillars, are lighted. The throng, in the various 
 and brilliant colors of their costumes, crowd the place, some stand- 
 ing moveless as the pillars beside them, some reclining against the 
 rails, others seated in groups, or solitary, as if buried in 'lonely 
 thoughts sublime;' while the rush of the falling waters is sweeter 
 music than that of the tambourine and the guitar that vainly 
 strive to be heard, and the glare of the lamps mingles strangel)' 
 with the moonlight, that rests with a soft and \ivid glory on 
 
 SPECIMENS OF \V(hiI) rANEI.-WORK.
 
 392 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 KAN UN, AND MODE OF PLAYING IT. 
 
 the waters and falls beneath pillar 
 and roof on the picturesque groups 
 within." ' 
 
 But the music was excrucia- 
 ting, and the singing the most 
 outrageous concert of harsh, 
 nasal sounds I ever heard. 
 The same nasal twang 
 and grating 
 gutturals are 
 heard in all 
 the singing of 
 every denomi- 
 nation through- 
 out the East. 
 The Orientals 
 know nothing of harmony, and cannot appreciate it when heard, 
 but they are often spellbound or wrought up to transports of 
 ecstasy by that very music which so 
 tortured your nerves. I have rarely 
 known song to be more truly ef- 
 fective than among these stolid chil- 
 dren of the East, especially in 
 such places of public resort. 
 Seated on a raised platform 
 at one end of the coffee- 
 shop, half a dozen per- 
 formers discourse strange 
 music from curious instru- 
 ments, interspersed occa- 
 sionally with wild bursts of 
 song, which seem to elec- 
 trify the smoking, coffee- 
 sipping company. They 
 usually have a violin, two or three kinds of flutes, a tambourine, 
 kettle-drums, and derbekkeh. One man plays a large harp, lying 
 
 ' Game's Syria, The Holy Land, etc., p. 71. 
 
 MODE OF PLAYING THE KAMANJEH.
 
 ORIENTAL MUSIC AND SINGING. 
 
 393 
 
 upon his lap, called a kanun, and an expert performer often makes 
 
 very agreeable music with it. Another man, with a droll but 
 
 merry countenance, tells stories and 
 
 perpetrates jokes, to the infinite 
 
 amusement of the audience. There 
 
 are also players on the guitar, or ka- 
 
 manjeh, and one of them has a ver\^ 
 
 large instrument of that kind, over 
 
 whose few chords his nimble fingers 
 
 sweep at times like magic. 
 
 The Greeks, and especially the Al- 
 banians, manage the kamanjeh with great skill. They have a small 
 kind, which they take with them on their 
 3 extemporaneous picnics, and they will sit by 
 the hour on the shady bank of some mur- 
 muring brook and sing to its faint and mo- 
 But the most popular of all musical instruments 
 
 DKKK — TAMHOrKINE. 
 
 o^@ 
 
 /^ 
 
 CASTANETS. 
 
 notonous notes 
 in this country are the der- 
 bekkeh, the deff, or tambou- 
 rine, the castanets, and the 
 nukkairat, or kettle - drums. 
 At weddings, birthdays, and 
 all other festal gatherings 
 they will thrum the derbek- 
 keh, and beat the deff, clink 
 the castanets, and clap 
 their hands in concert 
 without weariness or 
 intermission until long 
 after midnight. 
 
 It is now impossi- 
 ble, I suppose, to ob- 
 tain an accurate knowl- 
 edge of Biblical music, 
 and of the musical in- 
 struments used by the 
 Hebrews. 
 D 2 
 
 
 .... M^^ 
 
 DERBEKKl II. 
 
 DERnEKKFiir.
 
 394 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 That is the more surprising, since the allusions to both are 
 almost innumerable throughout the entire Bible. The antedilu- 
 vians had both music and musical instruments, the latter said to 
 have been invented by Jubal, the son of Lamech, the first bigamist, 
 or, rather, polygamist — an origin sufficiently illustrious. It is be- 
 lieved that musical instruments were not employed in the worship 
 of God until long after their invention. 
 
 Music was used by the prophets, at least occasionally, to su- 
 perinduce a condition of mind and body suitable for the reception 
 of prophetic communications. When Samuel had anointed Saul he 
 told him, "Thou shalt meet a company of prophets coming down 
 from the high place with a psaltery, and a tabret, and a pipe, 
 and a harp, before them ; and they shall prophesy : and the Spirit 
 of the Lord will come upon thee, and thou shalt prophesy with 
 them." And so he did, to tlie amazement of the people. " There- 
 fore it became a proverb. Is Saul also among the prophets.'" Eli- 
 sha says, " But now bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass, 
 when the minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon 
 him" and he prophesied." 
 
 The power of music over both mind and body is one of the 
 most curious and mysterious mentioned in the Bible. David with 
 his harp could charm away "the evil spirit" from Saul. And, 
 whether it was actually a demon permitted by God to terrify him, 
 or a fit of demoniacal jealousy and hatred, the effect of the music 
 was equally surprising.^ "The harp and the viol, the tabret and 
 the pipe," were in the feasts of the ungodly both before and after 
 the time of David, but they were so far redeemed from those evil 
 associations by him that they ultimately became consecrated to the 
 worship of Jehovah.* 
 
 September i6th. 
 
 I propose that we ride out this morning to Salihiyeh, the large 
 suburb of Damascus on the north-west, and from there along the 
 canal to the gorge of the Barada, and then through the Merj and 
 around the Meidan to the south-eastern corner of the city wall, 
 and back to the hotel along " the street called Straight." We will 
 
 ' I Sam. X. 5, 6, 10-12. ^ 2 Kings iii. 15. 
 
 ^ I Sam. xvi. 14, 23. * I Chron. xv. 16.
 
 THE GARDEXS.-THE CANAL.-ES SALIIliVEH. :;95 
 
 pass out of the city at Bab es Salihiyeh, and ride northward for a 
 quarter of an hour along the broad, well-paved, and shaded road 
 between Damascus and es Salihiyeh. 
 
 The glimpses into the gardens obtained over these mud-walls 
 are very inviting, and one feels inclined to enter and wander about 
 under the trees and along the little rills. 
 
 I have done that often, and, were our visit in June instead of 
 September, you could fully appreciate Canon Tristram's account of 
 what he saw within them. "Tall mud-walls," he says, "extended 
 in every direction under the trees, and rich flowing streams of water 
 from the Barada everywhere bubbled through the orchards, while 
 all was alive with the song of birds and the hum of bees. The 
 great apricot-trees were laden and bent down under strings of ripe, 
 golden fruit. The lanes were strewn with apricots. Asses, mules, 
 and camels in long strings carried heaped panniers of these ' golden 
 apples.' Walnut, peach, plum, pomegranate, pear, olive, orange, and 
 even apple trees, crowded the maze through which for an hour we 
 wound, till we found our camping-ground in a garden, one tent 
 shaded by an apricot, the other by a walnut-tree, surrounded by 
 pomegranates in full blossom, while a rill from the Barada ran past 
 to cool our water-bottles."' 
 
 Nahr et Taurah, which we have just crossed, is the largest of the 
 many canals taken from the Barada for the purpose of irrigation. 
 It is conducted along the plain for several miles, and passes through 
 some of the villages east of Damascus, before it is finally lost in the 
 marshes of the eastern lakes. 
 
 Salihiyeh is quite a long and narrow village, and the greater 
 part of it appears to be above the plain and the gardens. 
 
 It has been regarded as more healthy than Damascus, and many 
 of its wealthy citizens have built spacious residences here, in which 
 they spend the hot months of summer. During my first visit to 
 Damascus I was the guest of Mr. Farren, the British Consul-gen- 
 eral, who resided in one of those villas. It was located in the midst 
 of a large garden, a short distance to the cast of our present road, 
 and the entrance was through a low door into the front court. 
 Beneath an iirbor ovcr-canopicd with running roses and other flow- 
 
 ' Land of Israel, p. 6i6, 617.
 
 396 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ering creepers there was a large fountain with a Hvely jet d'eau in 
 full play ; and on three sides of the arbor marble platforms for 
 divans were raised about two feet above the court. A short dis- 
 tance from the arbor there was a pool twenty feet long, twelve feet 
 wide, and three feet deep ; and beyond that another fountain, in 
 an octagonal basin or reservoir, cased with white marble. From 
 there the water was conducted to a garden in a channel paved 
 with colored tiles. In the centre of the inner court there was a 
 fine octagonal reservoir, supplied with clear cold water by four 
 bronze spouts with serpents' heads. 
 
 Besides those various fountains and reservoirs, basins and pools, 
 a canal ran along the western wall of the garden ; and the waters 
 of still another flowed through the middle of it, to refresh the 
 flowers, irrigate the fruit-trees, and water the vegetables. 
 
 Mr. Farren's villa was constructed upon the same general plan 
 as that of the houses we have visited in Damascus, and it was 
 adorned with the usual amount of ornamentation on walls and ceil- 
 ings ; but it was furnished in the European style, and combined 
 the comforts of the West with the luxury of the East. 
 
 The abundance of water causes vegetation of all kinds to grow 
 in these gardens with surprising exuberance. Even the myrtle 
 expands into a stout tree, and the inhabitants of Damascus make 
 frequent excursions to es Salihiyeh, during the season, to pick the 
 myrtle-berries, which are eaten when ripe, or dried and sold in the 
 market. 
 
 Fountains, streams, basins, reservoirs, in the city and in the gar- 
 dens — seem to constitute the special charm of Damascus. 
 
 You have only to supply, in imagination, every court, and 
 house, and mosk, and khan, and the numberless coffee-shops, with 
 one or more, and then you will not be surprised that there are not 
 only hundreds but thousands of them, and they constitute one of 
 the principal attractions of the gardens themselves. It is very 
 common to see the Damascenes sitting under the trees making 
 kaif — eating luscious fruit, and inhaling fragrant timbek from nar- 
 gilehs placed in the rills that flow through these gardens— while 
 the plane, the sycamore, and the willow spread a leafy canopy over 
 their heads and shade them from the burninsf sun.
 
 NAHR EL VEZiD.— lEBEL KASVC'N. 
 
 397 
 
 This 
 broad ca- 
 nal, called ''f 
 Nahr el Yezid, 
 which abundantly sup- 
 plies es Salihiyeh with 
 water, sharply defines the 
 limit of fertile gardens 
 below from the arid waste 
 of the mountain above. 
 Jebel Kasyun — steep, rug- 
 ged, and treeless — domi- 
 nates the plain on tlie 
 north, and obstructs the 
 
 view in that direction. Lik-c other places in and around Damascus, 
 It has its fabulous sites and idle legends that connect the primeval 
 home of the human race with the valley of the liarada. 
 
 After following the windings of the canal for half an hour the 
 
 D 2" 
 
 J.N.NKR COLRT Ul' AiU>l.^H.Al sALIIli VK.ll.
 
 3^8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 road will lead us to the gorge of the river, where the Barada flows 
 out on to the plain, and from whence its life-giving waters are dis- 
 tributed far and wide by numerous canals to all the suburbs and 
 the gardens around the city. 
 
 The Barada is supposed to be the Abana, or Amana, one of 
 those "rivers of Damascus" preferred by Naaman the Syrian leper 
 to "all the waters of Israel." Is there any reason to question the 
 correctness of the identification?' 
 
 None of much force. For the city itself the Barada is the only 
 river ; and, being the largest of the two, it would naturally be men- 
 tioned first by Naaman. The A'waj, or Pharpar, is several miles 
 south of Damascus, and its waters do not reach even the suburbs. 
 In the fifth century the Barada was called Bardines by the Greeks ; 
 and it is undoubtedly the Chrysorrhoas — golden-flowing river — of 
 the ancients. That name was probably given to it because of the 
 inestimable blessings it bestowed upon the inhabitants of this 
 region, since gold is not found along its banks, nor in the moun- 
 tains between which it rushes on its way to the plain. 
 
 This chasm through which the Barada issues on to the plain is 
 quite narrow, and the lofty limestone cliffs on either side are jagged 
 and precipitous. But the foaming river and the waving trees, the 
 tall poplars and the exuberant vegetation, present a contrast as 
 striking as it is picturesque; and the carriage-road from Beirut, 
 winding down the defile, adds a novel feature to the scene. 
 
 Some distance up the chasm there is a dam across the river 
 where the canal of et Taurah begins ; and still farther up another 
 dam, below Dummar, conducts the waters from the Barada into 
 the canal of el Yezid. Opposite to us, across the chasm, other 
 canals are taken out of the river ; and here begins that net-work of 
 watercourses for which Damascus is celebrated. The main stream 
 of the Barada, after issuing from this chasm, passes directly down 
 through the Merj, and flows along the northern wall of the city; 
 and although a large portion of the water has been drawn off by 
 the five or more canals above this chasm, and a great quantity is 
 distributed throughout the city proper, still a considerable amount 
 is conveyed to the numerous villages, gardens, and fields north. 
 
 ' 2 Kinfjs V. 12.
 
 MUD-WALLS.-SUx\-DRIED BRICKS.-EL MERJ. 399 
 
 east, and south of Damascus. Nor is the Barada exhausted in the 
 marshes about Lake 'Ataibch, for it flows into that lake a consid- 
 erable stream of clear water. A short distance up this chasm there 
 is a Cufic inscription on the face of the clifT above the carriage- 
 road. It records the deeds of one of the Khalifs of Damascus; 
 and though the letters are large and well-cut, they are so compli- 
 cated that the inscription is difficult to decipher. My reason for 
 mentioning it is because Damascus, though one of the oldest cities 
 in the world, has almost no inscriptions of any age or importance. 
 
 We will now turn back and ride along the carriage-road towards 
 the city, with the Barada below us on the right, and this wilderness 
 of verdure on our left extending northward for many a mile. 
 
 These high mud-walls that border the gardens and narrow lanes 
 effectually shut off the view of those on foot, and they are certainly 
 anything but attractive to those on horseback. 
 
 They are constructed more for service than for ornament, and 
 in this climate they last several years. The walls are generally over 
 six feet high, and are built of compact masses of earth, like great 
 sun-dried bricks. A wooden frame, three feet or more square and 
 about two feet wide, is placed on the spot which the "brick" is to 
 occupy; it is then filled with earth and mud and pressed down 
 firmly. When sufificiently hard and dry the frame is removed, and 
 another "brick" is constructed in the same manner, and so on until 
 the entire mud-wall is finished. 
 
 What a beautiful expanse of greensward that is on the right 
 bank of the river! We have seen nothing like it near any city 
 or village in this country. 
 
 It is called el Merj, and it is the favorite resort of the Damas- 
 cenes ; nor is there another city in Syria that can boast of such a 
 verdant " meadow," as its name implies. It is frequented by men, 
 women, and children, who sit la/.ily on the river-bank sipping coffee, 
 smoking water-pipes, or eating sweetmeats and fruits, while they 
 watch the passers-by, or admire the horsemen from the city exer- 
 cising their Arabian steeds. Here the Damascenes come forth to 
 meet their returning friends and relatives; and from here they 
 speed the departing and welcome their coming guests. Here, also, 
 the caravans and pilgrims encamp previous to their departure for
 
 400 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Mecca ; and when the Haj is about to leave Damascus this beauti- 
 ful Merj presents an extraordinary and animated spectacle, and one 
 eminently Oriental. Instead of entering the city by the gate be- 
 
 MOSK OF SULTAN SELIM IN THE TEKIyEH. 
 
 fore us we will cross the river and continue our ride southward and 
 eastward on the outside of the city walls. We will pass along the 
 extensive suburb of el Meidan, and thus complete the circuit of the 
 citv as far as the eastern grate.
 
 ET TEKiVEH.— TOMBS OF Ml'IIAMMEDS WIVES.— FUNERALS. 40I 
 
 That large edifice on our right, at the end of the Merj, with its 
 numerous domes and tall minarets, is called ct Tekiyeh. It was 
 built by Sultan Selim I., in the sixteenth century, and "is a large 
 quadrangular enclosure, divided into two courts. Around the wall 
 of the [northern] court runs a row of cells, with a portico or gallery 
 of columns in front. Over each cell is a small dome, and another 
 over the portico in front of it, forming thus two rows of small 
 domes around the court." The southern court is similar, except 
 that it contains "a large and fine mosk, with its dome and two 
 minarets. There poor pilgrims are lodged and fed, especially those 
 going to or returning from Mecca with the Haj."' The mosk, with 
 its double row of marble columns in front, its large dome, and tall, 
 slender minarets, is one of the finest in Damascus, but the whole 
 structure is fast falling into a dilapidated condition. 
 
 We have been riding for some time through this Moslem bur}-- 
 ing-ground, but I have seen nothing impressive about it — only a 
 confused number of gravies huddled together without order, and no 
 conspicuous monument anywhere to relieve "the dreary shades" of 
 this great city of the dead ! 
 
 Yet there are some fine marble tombs, and beneath many ordi- 
 nary graves there are vaults capable of holding several bodies. 
 Most of the marble head -stones are surmounted by a neatly- 
 wrought turban, and below it is a long Arabic inscription record- 
 ing the virtues of the true believer who has "entered upon the 
 mercy of God" and experienced peace. In the great cemetery 
 south of the city "rest in peace," it is said, three of Muhammed's 
 wives, and Fatimeh, the child of his favorite daughter, the wife 
 of 'AH. To-day this silent cit}' of the dead — this wilderness of 
 tombs — is almost deserted, but on certain occasions it is crowded 
 with women and children, who visit those whited sepulchres of 
 their relatives to place upon them fresh branches of the myrtle 
 and the palm. They are frequently accompanied by poor sheikhs 
 from the mosks, who recite portions of the Koran, and short prayers 
 in behalf both of the living and the dead. 
 
 At funerals, and over the gra\'es in which relatives and friends 
 have been recently buried, manifestations of grief are often bois- 
 
 ' Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 45<j.
 
 402 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 terous and extravagant ; but many of the mourners are hired 
 for the occasion, and weep, lament, beat their breasts, and tear 
 their hair, according to custom and contract. But from all that 
 we must not infer that there is no genuine mourning amongst all 
 
 WOMEN WEEPING AT THE GRAVE, 
 
 sects and classes in this country. Amidst all the parade of ficti- 
 tious grief there are burning tears and aching hearts, and heads 
 bowed in silent agony and hopeless despair. Many a Fatimeh or 
 a Mary goes " to the grave to weep there," and loving friends fol- 
 low them thither, to comfort them with their real sympathy.' 
 
 ' John xi. 31.
 
 HIRED MOURNERS— BOISTEROUS \VEEriNG. 403 
 
 The custom of hiring mourners is very ancient. Jeremiah says, 
 "Consider ye, and call for the mourning women, that the\' may 
 come ; and send for cunning women, that they may come : and let 
 them make haste, and take up a wailing for us, that our eyes may 
 run down with tears, and our eyelids gush out with waters.'" Every 
 particular there alluded to is observed on funeral occasions at the 
 present day. There are in every city and community "cunning 
 women," and these are always sent for. When a company of s\-m- 
 pathizers comes in those women "make haste" to "take up a wail- 
 ing," that the newly come may the more readily unite their tears 
 with the mourners. They know the domestic history of e\'ery per- 
 son, and immediately "take up" an impromptu lamentation, in 
 which they introduce the names of relatives who have recently 
 died, touching some tender chord in every heart ; and thus all weep 
 for their own dead, and the " mourning," which might otherwise be 
 impossible, comes naturally and sincerely. 
 
 The references to lamentation and mourning are very numerous 
 in the Bible, and some of the ways in which the afflicted and 
 bereaved gave expression to their grief seem to us extravagant and 
 unbecoming; loud, boisterous weeping by men, for example, and 
 yet that was very common in those ancient times. Esau, when 
 robbed of his birthright, " cried with a great and exceeding bitter 
 cry, and he lifted up his voice and wept."' Job's three friends, 
 "when they lifted up their eyes afar off, and knew him not, they 
 lifted up their voice, and wept ; and they rent every one his mantle, 
 and sprinkled dust upon their heads toward heaven."' David often 
 wept long and loud— for Saul and Jonathan, over Absalom, and over 
 his own sins." "I am weary with my groaning," he exclaims; "all 
 the night make I my bed to swim ; I water my couch with my 
 tears.'" "Oh that my head were waters," says Jeremiah, "and 
 mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night 
 for the slain of the daughter of my people !"" 
 
 There appears to have been a marvellous propensity to weep 
 and a wonderful capability to pour out floods of tears in those 
 olden days. Even in the time of Christ we read that Jesus him- 
 
 • Jcr. ix. 17, 18. ^ Gen. xxvii. 34, 38. ^ Job ii. 12. 
 
 * 2 Srd-n. xix. 4. ' Ps.^. vi. 6. " J<-'r. ix. i.
 
 404 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 self wept ; ' and in another place that the woman who " stood at 
 his feet behind him," as he "sat at meat in the Pharisee's house, 
 began to wash his feet with tears, and wipe them with the hairs 
 of her head, and kissed his feet."' 
 
 So far from regarding such overflowing tears as unbecoming, 
 the ancients treasured them up in " bottles," as evidence of their 
 lasting sorrow, perhaps ; and for a similar reason, I suppose, they 
 
 deposited those lachryma- 
 tories in the sepulchres of 
 the dead. Allusion to that 
 extraordinary custom is 
 thought to be found even 
 in the Bible. David prays, 
 " Put thou my tears into 
 thy bottle : are they not 
 in thy book ?" ' Lachry- 
 matories are still found in 
 ancient tombs throughout 
 this country. They were 
 made of thin glass, or more 
 generally of pottery, often 
 not even baked or glazed. 
 They are of various sizes, 
 with a slender vase -like 
 body, and a long funnel- 
 shaped neck; but nothing 
 except dust is found in them at present. If the relatives and 
 friends were expected to contribute their share of tears for those 
 bottles they would certainly need "cunning women" to cause their 
 " eyelids to gush out with waters." 
 
 Jeremiah and Ezekiel speak of smiting the thigh in times of great 
 distress and mourning. Is that custom observed to this day?^ 
 
 On such occasions you will often see people sitting on the 
 ground with their feet under them, which brings the thighs into 
 such a position that the smiting of them is rendered perfectly 
 
 LACHRYMATORIES, OR TEAR BOTTLES. 
 
 1 John xi. 35. 
 8 Psa. Ivi. 8. 
 
 • Luke vii. 37, 38. 
 
 * Jer. xxxi. ig ; Eze. xxi. 12.
 
 jr. 
 
 ■■\ , 
 
 
 
 ■' 
 
 ^, 
 
 ■M 
 
 1 
 
 f 'f' ■ 
 
 ;TiMii'ii 
 
 KfllV iJIIIH'l;; 
 
 |;ii|il;
 
 SMITING THE THIGH.— EL MEIDAX.— FUNERAL rROCESSION. 405 
 
 natural. Thus seated, and swaying backwards and forwards, the}' 
 lift their hands spasmodicalh-, from time to time, and smite each 
 thigh with considerable violence, giving expression to their grief in 
 loud wailing and lamentation. No one can live long in this coun- 
 try without witnessing every exhibition of mourning mentioned in 
 the Bible — rending the garments, tearing the hair, beating the 
 breast, falling upon the ground, smiting the thighs, casting dust 
 upon the head, and the like. 
 
 We have passed out of the Meidan, as that southern extension 
 of Damascus is called, and we will continue our ride through the 
 suburbs towards the south-eastern corner of the city wall. 
 
 We seem to be entering a winding labyrinth of crooked lanes, 
 with wretched houses and mounds of rubbish on either side, and 
 dilapidated tombstones all around — in such a maze there is danger 
 of becoming bewildered and losing the way. 
 
 That would certainly be the result if we attempted to pene- 
 trate it alone; but our guide will take us safely through. On our 
 left is one of the many gates of Damascus, called Bab es Saghir. 
 through which have passed for many centuries countless funeral 
 processions to the numberless tombs and graves which cover this 
 whole region far and wide. Like almost everything else purely 
 Oriental, such processions are conducted without much regard to 
 order and propriety. A confused medley of men and boys, in all 
 kinds of costumes, follow the bier, which is preceded by two or 
 more dervishes carrying the flags of their order, three or four small 
 boys with an open copy of the Koran, and six or eight blind men 
 chanting in a monotonous tone the profession of faith. That 
 "eternal truth," "La ilah ilia Allah" — "There is no god but 
 God," accompanied by that " necessary fiction," as Gibbon styles 
 it, " Muhammed rasul Allah" — "Muhammed is the prophet of 
 God" — is the only funeral dirge, and they repeat it over and over 
 until the grave is reached. 
 
 We have caught occasional glimpses of the city wall, on our 
 left, and it appears to be almost as dilapidated and ruinous as the 
 suburb along which it extends. 
 
 Bab es Saghir is probably of Roman origin, and in a few places 
 along the wall large and well-cut stones are seen which may be (^f
 
 4o5 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 any age; but the present wall is mere patch-work, built by Sara- 
 cens, Arabs, or Turks, and barely sufificient to defend the city 
 against incursions from the Bedawin. We shall soon escape from 
 this cemetery, through which we have been threading our doubt- 
 ful way for half an hour, and, turning to the left, we will reach the 
 south-east angle of the wall not far from Bab Kisan. That gate 
 has been walled up for many centuries, but this neighborhood is 
 not devoid of interest. Although the wall has been rebuilt several 
 times, monkish tradition still points to that part of it between this 
 round tower on our left and the gate west of it as the place from 
 
 SOUTH WALL OF DAMASCUS, WHERE PAUL WAS LET DOWN. 
 
 where Saul " was let down through a window in a basket by the 
 wall, and escaped," from the hands of the governor, as he informs 
 us in his second letter to the Corinthians.' In this vicinity are the 
 cemeteries of the various Christian denominations; and there, too, 
 
 ' 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33.
 
 CONVERSION OF PAUL.-LEPER HOSPITAL.— EASTERN GATE. 407 
 
 the monks have recently located the spot where Paul was con- 
 verted, "as he came near Damascus, breathing out threatenings 
 and slaughter against the disciples of the Lord." ' During the 
 Crusades the site of that stupendous miracle was located at Juneh, 
 near Kaukab, a village on the road to Jerusalem, about six miles 
 to the south-west of Damascus ; but as four places along the roads 
 leading to the city have been pointed out at different times, it is 
 evident that the true site is still unknown. 
 
 As we approach Bab esh Shurky, the eastern gate, we see large 
 mounds of rubbish, and from the top of one of them an extensive 
 view is obtained, not only of the surrounding country, but also of 
 a considerable part of the city. After the massacres, and confla- 
 grations in i860, these mounds were largely increased by the ruins 
 of the Christian quarter, which were carried out of the town, in 
 order to clear the encumbered streets and prepare the way for 
 rebuilding the houses of the Christians. That work was vigorously 
 prosecuted by the Turkish authorities when the city was visited by 
 the international commission appointed by the six great Powers 
 of Europe to investigate that awful tragedy. The day upon which 
 the High Commissioners visited the ruins was quite windy, and the 
 dust from the rubbish was blown into their faces. Lord Dufferin, 
 the English representative, is said to have remarked upon that 
 occasion that the Turkish authorities were attempting to throw 
 dust in their eyes, both literally and politically. 
 
 A short distance north of this East Gate is a large, dilapidated 
 building, now used as a leper hospital, and said to occupy the 
 site of the house of Naaman the leper, hi the same neighbor- 
 hood arc the wretched hovels of those afflicted with that loath- 
 some disease ; and it is a remarkable fact that lepro.sy has been 
 perpetuated in this city from the time of Naaman down to the 
 present day. Some of the most frightful ravages of that dreadful 
 scourge of God arc still to be seen upon its miserable victims in 
 and around the leper hospital at Damascus. 
 
 liab esh Shurky deserves to be carefully examined, as it is evi- 
 dently Roman, and the walls and arches present almost the only 
 specimens of anti(|uity to be seen in this mud-built Alulianinu'dan 
 
 ' Acts ix. 1-9. 
 
 E 2
 
 4o8 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 city. The entire triple gate- 
 way was nearly one hundred 
 feet long and about fifty feet 
 high. The central arch was 
 forty feet high and twenty feet 
 wide, and the side arches are 
 about twenty feet in height 
 and ten feet broad. The main 
 arch has fallen long ago, and 
 the gateway has been walled up 
 for more than eight centuries, 
 
 BAB ESH SHURKY — THE EAST GATE. 
 
 together with the smaller portal on its south side. The entrance 
 to the city is now through the small portal on the north side, and
 
 THE STREET CALLED STRAIGHT.— THE HOUSE OF ANANL\S. 409 
 
 built upon the northern buttress of the central arch is a square 
 minaret, from the top of which a fine view of the city and its sur- 
 roundings is obtained. East of the gateway are the remains of a 
 Saracenic tower. Damascus now has about a dozen gates, but for- 
 merly it had more than three times that number, most of which are 
 in ruins, or have been closed for several centuries. Many of the 
 principal streets leading to the various quarters of the city also have 
 gates, which are closed after dark; but a bakhshish to the gatekeeper 
 will admit the belated wayfarer at any reasonable hour of the night. 
 We will now pass through Bab esh Shurky and follow the street 
 which extends westward from it quite across the city. It is called 
 the Sultaneh, or highway, and is the modern representative of *Uhe 
 street which is called Straight," where st.ood the house of Judas 
 when Paul visited Damascus. 
 
 The street, though not exactly " straight," is wide for an East- 
 ern city; but a moment's inspection of the dilapidated houses along 
 it will convince any one that none of them could by any possibility 
 have been in existence at that time. 
 
 If it was then adorned throughout its whole length by a double 
 colonnade it must have been a fine avenue. Dr. Robinson men- 
 tions the report about such a colonnade, "but could hear of no one 
 who had actually seen the columns." ' Since then Dr. Porter has 
 " traced the remains of the colonnades at various places over nearly 
 one third of its length." He says that the street "was divided by 
 Corinthian colonnades into three avenues, of which the central was 
 for foot passengers and the others for chariots." Thus " a noble 
 street extended from the east to the west gate, intersecting the 
 city. Its length is about a mile, and its breadth exceeded one hun- 
 dred feet."' We are now in the Christian quarter, most of which lies 
 along the northern side of the street, but here on our left is the 
 Armenian convent. The Syrian church and convent and the Greek 
 Catholic church are also on the south side of the street, but to 
 reach them we would have to penetrate this quarter for some dis- 
 tance through narrow and crooked lanes. All those' ecclesiastical 
 edifices have been rebuilt since the massacres and conflagrations of 
 i860. The house of that "certain disciple named Ananias." by 
 ' Rob. Res., vol. iii. p. 455. ' l'"ivc Vcars in Damascus, p. iS.
 
 4IO 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 
 "THE STREET CALLED STRAIGHT. 
 
 whom Paul was miraculously restored to sight, is but a short dis- 
 tance up that narrow street to the right. There is a cave in the 
 house which the Latin priests have converted into a chapel, and 
 there, according to their traditions, the angel of the Lord ap- 
 peared to Ananias and directed him to " go into the street which 
 is called Straight, and inquire in the house of Judas for one called 
 Saul, of Tarsus : for, behold, he prayeth." ' 
 
 ' Acts ix. lo, II.
 
 THE JEWS OF DAMASCUS.— PAUL IN THEIR SYNAGOGUES. 411 
 
 There must have been quite a colony of Jews here at the time 
 when Saul came with his cruel commission from the high priest. 
 
 The Jews of Damascus claim to be the descendants of its an- 
 cient Hebrew^ inhabitants, and they have perpetuated their language 
 and religion, their costume, and their manners and customs, from 
 the time of David down to the present day. As in past ages, and 
 in nearly every countr}', the Jews had special localities allotted to 
 them, so here they have their own distinct quarter. It occupies 
 the south-eastern part of the city, and is separated from the Chris- 
 tian quarter by this street which, as in the time of Paul so now. 
 is still called " Straight." If religious institutions and forms of 
 w'orship improve, like wine, from mere age, then the ten or more 
 Jewish synagogues in this city, and the services observed within 
 them, would be without a rival for strength of body and character- 
 istic virtue. At any rate, the transmission unchanged of a form of 
 faith and mode of worship — resembling in many respects those of 
 the primitive Christians— through countless generations of mighty 
 revolutions in the affairs of men and nations, is a marvellous fact, 
 to be explained only by reference to Providential agency. It forms 
 one of the thousand links in the chain which anchors our faith fast 
 to the Bible, as the Word of God. 
 
 Paul must have often taken a prominent part in the synagogue 
 worship in this city, when " he preached Christ in the synagogues, 
 that he is the Son of God, and confounded the Jews which dwelt 
 at Damascus, proving that this is very Christ." ' 
 
 We may without hesitation carry the institution of the syna- 
 gogue and its worship here in Damascus many centuries farther 
 back than the time of Paul — to the Babylonian Captivity at least, 
 and even beyond that more than three hundred years, to the day 
 when Ahab "made streets" in this city. It is improbable that a 
 colony of Jews would reside here without places of worship, and 
 they were, perhaps, much like the synagogues of the present day. 
 
 This street on our right leads to the Orthodox Greek church, 
 the residence of the Patriarch, and the flourishing schools adjoining 
 it. The church is dedicated to the Virgin, and has been rebuilt 
 since the massacres of i860. " It was the scene of one of the most 
 
 ' Acts ix. 20, 22.
 
 412 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 fearful acts in the tragedy of i860," says Dr. Porter. "Hundreds 
 of men, women, and children had taken refuge in it. It was at- 
 tacked by the mob, set on fire, and those who attempted to escape 
 were hurled back into the flames." ' 
 
 Has it been possible to ascertain how many Christians were the 
 innocent victims of Turkish treachery and Muhammedan fanati- 
 cism during the three days of those atrocious massacres and dread- 
 ful conflagrations? 
 
 The most reliable estimates place the number of adult males 
 killed outright at over two thousand five hundred. But even that 
 apparently large number of murdered men fails to convey to the 
 minds of those who have never resided in this country an adequate 
 idea of the horrors and terrible results of that massacre of the 
 Christians by Turkish troops and fanatical Muhammedans here in 
 Damascus, on the 9th, loth, and nth of July, i860. The whole 
 number of Christians massacred in i860, from Lebanon on the 
 north to Hermon on the south, exceeded six thousand. 
 
 We have now reached the bazaars and the business portion of 
 the city, which occupy the greater part of the Moslem quarter, to 
 the north and north-west. European manufactures have nearly 
 paralyzed every branch of Oriental art which flourished in this 
 city in other days. The " Damascus blade," formerly so cele- 
 brated, and the rich silk fabric called " damask," have disappeared 
 entirely from the- bazaars, and have been replaced by cheap and 
 coarse imitations from the forges and looms of Europe. The trade 
 and traffic of this city is now chiefly with the pilgrims to and from 
 Mecca and the surrounding tribes of Bedawin. • 
 
 A walk through the crowded bazaars gives the impression that 
 Damascus is a very populous city. 
 
 Four-fifths of the inhabitants, or nearly one hundred thousand, 
 are Muhammedans. There are also about four thousand Meta- 
 wileh, and five hundred Druses, who, however, conform to the faith 
 of Islam while residing in the city. The Christians of various 
 sects amount to more than fifteen thousand — principally Greeks 
 and Greek Catholics — including the small communities of Latins, 
 Maronites, Armenians, Syrians, and Protestants. The Jews may 
 
 ' Five Years in Damascus, p. 20, 21.
 
 "THE KEY UPON HIS SHOULDER."— ORIENTAL LOCKS, ETC. 413 
 
 number five thousand, and the entire population cannot be much 
 less than one hundred and twenty-five thousand. 
 
 We have passed the narrow lane on the left, on which the tra- 
 ditional house of Judas stands, where Ananias restored Paul to 
 sight and baptized him.' It is now in the possession of the Mu- 
 hammedans, and contains the tomb, not of Judas, but that of 
 Ananias, which is much respected by them. 
 
 This Moslem has unconsciously exhibited an illustration of 
 Isaiah xxii. 22: "And the key of the house of David will I lay 
 upon his shoulder; so he shall open, and none shall shut; and he 
 shall shut, and none shall open." The key with which he locked 
 the door of his magazine was large enough, certainly, and it might 
 well be laid on his shoulder. 
 
 I have seen keys more than twice the size of that one, carried 
 upon the shoulder of merchants, shopkeepers, and others. The 
 material "house of David" was the stronghold of Zion, and such 
 
 castles have great wooden locks, 
 with keys in proportion. I once 
 spent a summer in an old castle 
 whose outer gate had such a lock, 
 and the key was almost a foot and 
 a half in length, and 
 quite a load to carry. 
 Locks of that kind are 
 
 is: 
 
 F=^^^ 
 
 e 
 
 LOCK AND KEY 
 
 ^ 
 
 <» 
 
 no doubt very 
 ancient. Their 
 construction, 
 though truly 
 
 simple, is such that a false key can scarcely be made to 
 fit them, and the difficulty is increased in proportion to the num- 
 ber and position of the movable metal drops and the holes into 
 which they are required to fall. 
 
 These locks are often placed on the inside of the gates of gar- 
 dens and outer courts, and even on the doors of inner rooms in 
 some places. To enable the owner to vnilock them a hole is cut 
 
 ' Acts ix. 17, i3.
 
 414 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 in the door, through which he thrusts his arm and inserts the key. 
 The garden gates about Damascus are thus secured, and such must 
 have been the custom at Jerusalem in the days of Solomon. In 
 Song V. 4 he makes the bride say, " My beloved put in his hand 
 by the hole of the door ;" that is, she saw him thrust in his hand 
 to unlock the door, that he might enter. 
 
 The strong scent of musk, the aromatic odor of spices and 
 drugs, and the lavish display of boxes and bottles, of many colors 
 and sizes, remind us that we are now in Suk el 'Attarin, as this 
 part of the "Straight Street" is called. As in all Oriental cities, 
 so pre-eminently here, in Damascus, the principal streets derive 
 their names from the special branch of trade to which they have 
 been devoted from time out of mind. It may be well to mention 
 in passing, and by way of explanation, that a dealer in essences 
 is a 'attar, and that here can be purchased rose-petals for confec- 
 tions, rose-water to flavor refreshing beverages, and curiously- 
 shaped vials of attar or otto of roses, so well-known abroad, and 
 so highly prized as a perfume in Oriental countries. Riding in 
 these covered bazaars and through this motley crowd is both un- 
 pleasant and quite unsafe; besides, it is not customary here in 
 Damascus, so we will send the horses forward, and walk to the 
 hotel by the shortest route. 
 
 September 15th. Evening. 
 
 No one who takes such a ride through the exuberant suburbs 
 of Damascus as we did to-day will be at a loss to account for its 
 existence from early times, or for its long life and enduring pros- 
 perity ; and it is not surprising that Dr. Beke should have tried 
 to prove that Haran, the place to which Abraham migrated from 
 Ur of the Chaldees, and from which he went forth into the land 
 of Canaan, was situated in the vicinity of this city. 
 
 Dr. Beke was thoroughly convinced that Harran el 'Awamid, a 
 village south-east of Damascus, and near the South Lake, marks 
 the true site of the Biblical Haran, and he made a tour with his 
 wife through that region to establish the identification, which 
 nearly cost him his life. 
 
 Have you ever been to that Harran ? 
 
 I visited it in company with Rev. J. Crawford, the well-known
 
 THE EASTERN PLAIN.— BEDAWIN.—HARRAN EL 'AWAMID. 415 
 
 missionary of this city, and will give you an account of our ride 
 thither. That neighborhood is infested by lawless Druses and 
 roving Bedawin, and we were obliged to take a guard of Turkish 
 soldiers or horsemen for our protection. Issuing from Bab esh 
 Shurky, we came in an hour to Meliha, and in half an hour more 
 to Zebdin. The gardens of Damascus extend for several miles in 
 that direction, and the road was shaded nearly all the way by fruit- 
 trees and high and wide -spreading walnuts. During the next 
 hour's ride we crossed many watercourses lined with tall siK'cry 
 poplars, and finally forded a large stream called Nahr Harush. 
 
 Beyond that the country was destitute of trees, and little culti- 
 vated. The plain, for several miles before reaching Harran, was 
 covered with a short grass, presenting the appearance of a stiff 
 sward, with here and there a thin sprinkling of low bushes. Large 
 tracts were also overrun with the licorice-plant, called by the Arabs 
 rub es sus. Numerous villages, with their gardens of fruit-trees 
 and groves of poplars, dotted the plain in all directions ; and about 
 an hour's distance on the left flowed the Barada, meandering east- 
 wards towards the lake. It took us just four hours to reach Har- 
 ran, which lies on the perfectly level plain that extends to the 
 marshes of Bahret el Kibliyeh, into which the Barada enters, and 
 through which it finds its way to the lake. 
 
 From the roof of the mosk in the western part of the village 
 we could see the green fringe of tall reeds that borders, and in 
 some places nearly covers, the surface of the lake ; but the lake 
 itself was not visible. The Bedawin, however, assured us that 
 there was always a considerable expanse of clear water near the 
 mouth of the Barada, even during the dryest season of the year. 
 The villanous-looking Arabs and Bedawin in and around the vil- 
 lage caused our guides great uneasiness, and they requested us not 
 to remain there any longer than was necessary. We therefore pro- 
 ceeded at once to examine the three tall columns in the centre of 
 the village, from which it derives the specific name of Ilarran el 
 'Awamid, Harran of the Columns. They are detached from any 
 other ancient remains, and are in some respects quite unique, and 
 excite the surprise of the visitor. 
 
 The material of the columns is black basalt, somewhat porous.
 
 4i6 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 but very hard. They are nearly twelve feet in circumference, and, 
 including base and capital, are about forty feet high. The shafts, 
 composed of six or seven pieces — the number differing in each — 
 are much worn and cracked, large fragments having split off and 
 
 REMAINS OF A TEMPLE AT HARRAN EL 'aWAmId. 
 
 fallen away. Two of the columns have Ionic capitals, but that of 
 the third, which stands at an angle to the others, has fallen from 
 its high position ; and as the edifice to which they belonged no 
 longer exists, one is at a loss to understand the object for which 
 they were erected. They are probably the remains of an ancient 
 temple, the ruins of which, consisting of hewn stones and broken
 
 THE BIBLICAL HARAX.— THE PURSUIT OF JACOB. 417 
 
 columns, are scattered about the village. Vnu\t into the wall of the 
 mosk is a portion of a shaft with a Greek inscription ; but it is so 
 defaced, and partially concealed, that we could not decipher it. 
 That is the last village in the direction of the lake ; and, apart 
 from the columns, there is nothing of the least interest at Harran, 
 nor any indication that it ever was a place of any importance. 
 
 Does the topographical position of Harran correspond to the 
 requirements of the Biblical Haran ? 
 
 Exactly where Haran \vas is not mentioned in the Bible, and it 
 is only in connection with the pursuit of Jacob by Laban that the 
 identity of Harran el 'Awamid with the Biblical Haran should be 
 considered. Three days after his flight Jacob was pursued by La- 
 ban and overtaken " in Mount Gilead," after a chase of seven days. 
 The distance between Harran el 'Awamid and the place in Gilead 
 where Jacob " pitched his tent " could not have been more than 
 ninety miles, and it might have taken him ten days to get there; 
 but it is almost ridiculous to suppose that it would take Laban 
 seven days' hot pursuit to reach the same spot. Remembering 
 that the uniform tradition of the Jews themselves is that they 
 came from Mesopotamia, and that "the city of Nahor" was in 
 that country, and from other reasons which it is not necessary to 
 mention, we must conclude that the accidental resemblance in 
 the names of the two places is too slender a basis to support the 
 theory of their identity. 
 
 On our way back to Damascus we followed a path farther to the 
 north, crossing and re-crossing the main stream of the Barada, and 
 we were glad to get safely back to the city, and so w^ere the horse- 
 men sent for our protection by the Pasha,
 
 4l8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 XI. 
 DAMASCUS TO EL MUSMEIH. 
 
 Damascus the Capital City of Islam. — The Religion Established by Muhammed. — Life 
 and Character of the Arabian Prophet. — The Caaba. — Khadija. — Muhammed Asserts 
 his Prophetic Mission. — El Hegira. — The Crescent and the Star. — Conversion of the 
 Inhabitants of Yathreb. — Jewish Colonies. — Inconsistencies in the Character of Mu- 
 hammed Described by Mr. Muir. — "Weeping with them that Wept," yet taking 
 Pleasure in cruel Assassination and Massacre. — Death of Muhammed in Medina, and 
 his Burial in the House of 'Ayesha. — El Haram. — "The Illiterate Prophet." — The 
 Koran Revealed by the Angel Gabriel and Transcribed upon the Shoulder-blades of 
 Camels and Goats. — Compilation and Revision of the Koran. — Muhammedan Rever- 
 ence for the Koran. — The Death Penalty. — The Pentateuch, the Psalms, and the 
 Gospels of Jesus. — The Patriarchs Inspired Messengers. — Jesus Mentioned with Re- 
 spect in the Koran. — Muhammed the Last and Best of God's Prophets. — Moslems 
 are Unitarians and Fatalists. — Apostasy Imperils Life. — The Attributes of God. — 
 Spiritual Beings. — Worship of Saints. — The Resurrection of the Body. — Judgment 
 at the Last Day. — Paradise. — Wine Prohibited. — Prayer. — Ablutions. — Friday, the 
 Assembly. — Alms -giving. — Bread Thrown to Dogs. — Alms Forbidden to Christians 
 and Jews. — Rigid Fast during Ramadan. — Necessary Preparations for a Tour through 
 Bashan and Gilead. — Pilgrimage to Mecca. — El Haj. — Damascus the Starting-place 
 of the Syrian Pilgrims. — Emir el Haj. — Departure of the Pilgrims from Damascus. — 
 The Mahmel. — Escort of Bedawin Mounted on Camels. — Pilgrims on Camels, Horses, 
 and Mules. — Return of the Haj from Mecca. — Forlorn and Woe-begone Appearance 
 of the Pilgrims. — Bab Allah. — "Bab el Maut, the Gate of Death." — Burckhardt. — 
 Pilgrims that now Pass through the Suez Canal. — Mr. Muir's Estimate of the Benefits 
 Conferred upon the World by Islam. — The Continuation of Derb el Haj. — The Ghii- 
 tah. — Abulfeda. — One of the Four Paradises of the Earth. — Moslem Legend. — The 
 Plain of Damascus Crowded with Villages. — Absence of Important Ruins. — The 
 Merj. — Jebel el Aswad. — Quarries of Basalt. — The Pharpar. — El Kesweh. — El 'Awaj. 
 — The Sabirany. — Wady Barbar. — 'Ain Menbej, an Intermitting Fountain. — Roman 
 Road. — Jebel Mani'a. — Villages. — Jebel esh Sheikh. — Aklim el Bellan. — Kul'at 
 Jendal. — Ascent of Hermon. — Wady el 'Ajam. — Moslem Villages. — Bedawin and 
 Kurds. — Cold Winds. — S'as'a. — Ancient Road. — El Kuneitirah. — Paul's Journey to 
 Damascus. — Juneh. — Deir 'Aly. — Frogs. — Greek Inscriptions. — Leboda. — Marcion. — 
 The Marcionites. — El Jeidur. — Jetur. — The Hagarites. — The Half Tribe of Manas-
 
 DAMASCUS, THE CAPITAL CITY OF ISLANf. 419 
 
 seh. — The Captivity. — Alexander the Great. — Seleuciilcc. — Iturea. — Aristobulus. — 
 Philip, Tetrarch of Iturea. — John the Baptist. — El Jaulan. — Golan, a City of Refuge. 
 — Gaulanites. — Elevated Lava Plateaus. — Wuld 'Aly Bedawin. — No Inhabited Vil- 
 lages. — Lava Bowlders. — Robbers. — Ruins of Old Towns and Deserted Villages. — 
 Ez Zughbar. — A World once on Fire. — El Merjany. — Good Water. — Basaltic Soil. — 
 Burckhardt. — Column of the Morning. — .Small Temple. — Subterraneous Aqueduct. — 
 Private Habitations at El Burak Described by Dr. Porter. — Stone Walls, Doors, Win- 
 dows, and Roofs. — Stone Gate. — Saltpetre Manufactories. — El Liwa. — Wady Liwa. 
 — Arabs of the Lejah. — Villages and Towns in Ruins. — Cultivation and Winter Tor- 
 rents. — Um ez Zeitun. — Druses. — Hid Treasure. — Ard el Bathanych. — Batanis. — 
 M. Waddington. — Inscriptions. — The Ancient Names of Places still Preserved. — 
 Jebel Hauran. — Ard el Bathanyeh Described by Dr. Porter. — Ibrahim Pasha. — El 
 Harrah. — Mr. Cyril C. Graham's Adventurous Tour in the Ilarrah. — A Desert Waste. 
 — Ancient Wells. — Deserted Places. — Rock Inscriptions. — Ilimyritic Writing. — Kings 
 of the Himyri. — Dr. J. G. Wetzstein. — The Safah. — Volcanic Soil. — Arabs of the Le- 
 jah. — Nomadic Tribes of the Desert. — The Apostle Paul. — Early Christian Churches 
 East of the Jordan. — Origin. — " The Region of Argob." — Trachonitis. — Zenodorus. 
 — Robbers' Caverns. — Csesar, Herod, Philip, Agrippa. — El Lejah, an Asylum. — 
 Dr. Porter's Description of the Lejah. 
 
 September 17th. 
 
 Damascus being the capital city of Islam in Syria, it must be 
 the best place to s4:udy the religion of " the true believers." We 
 move about among Moslems every day, and the spirit of their re- 
 ligion pervades the very air we breathe, yet I have only a general 
 and v^ague idea of its origin and religious obligations. 
 
 Islam — "submission to the will of God" — is the religion estab- 
 lished by Muhammed, and it is the dominant faith of about one 
 hundred and fifty millions of the human race; and the mosk, the 
 dome, and the minaret are seen everywhere throughout the Moslem 
 world, from the banks of the Ganges to the shores of the Atlantic 
 Ocean. As Muhammed is himself the incarnation of the religion 
 which commonly bears his name, it is impossible to speak of Islam, 
 or even think about it, apart from the life and character of the 
 Arabian Prophet, "the apostle of God." 1 will therefore give you 
 a brief account of his career, and of the faith of Islam. 
 
 Muhammed was born about the year 571, at Mecca, an ancient 
 city of Arabia, in the province of Iledjaz, and nearly si.\l\' miles 
 inland from Jiddah, its sea-port on the eastern shore of the Red 
 Sea. His parents belonged to the tribe of Kureish and the f,iniil\- 
 of Hashcm, the most illustrious and influential in the eil\' ; the
 
 420 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 hereditary custodians of the Caaba, with its black stone and sacred 
 well, Zemzem. The Caaba was said to have contained statues of 
 all the gods worshipped by the Arabs before the time of Muham- 
 med, but he broke all the idols, and it is now the most venerated 
 shrine in the Moslem world. Having lost his parents in early life, 
 the future prophet was adopted by his uncle, and accompanied 
 him on a trading expedition to Syria. Subsequently, at the age of 
 twenty-five, he conducted a similar expedition in the interest of 
 Khadija, a rich widow of his native city, who ultimately rewarded 
 him with her hand and fortune. 
 
 During his visit to Syria, then a part of the Byzantine empire, 
 he was brought into contact with Christianity as represented by 
 the Greek Church of that day, which, no doubt, greatly influenced 
 the general character of some of his peculiar visions and revelations 
 recorded in the Koran. It was not until his fortieth year that Mu- 
 hammed began to assert his prophetic mission, and, after enduring 
 great opposition from his fellow-townsmen for ten years, he was 
 obliged to flee for his life to Medina, then called Yathreb. That 
 flight of the prophet, known as el Hegira, occurred on the i6th of 
 July, A.D. 622, and has served to fix the date of the Muhammedan 
 lunar year from that day to this — a period of more than twelve 
 centuries. And "from the fact that on that night the moon was 
 gibbous, a crescent with a star has been adopted by the Muham- 
 medans as an ensign of the royal arms, and on their banners, in 
 commemoration of what they consider as the most distinguished 
 period in the life of the prophet."^ 
 
 The conversion of the inhabitants of Yathreb enabled Muham- 
 med rapidly to establish his authority as Prince and Prophet over 
 the whole of Arabia. In Yathreb there were two colonies of Jews 
 to whom the prophet must have been indebted for many of the 
 moral and religious precepts incorporated into the Koran. Before 
 the Hegira, and until the time when he established himself in 
 Yathreb as a powerful and warlike prince, Muhammed's moral and 
 religious record was fair and honorable in the main, but from that 
 date and onward every evil element in the character of the prophet 
 developed with surprising rapidity. 
 
 ' Rev. J. Wortabet's Researches into the Religions of Syria, p. 164.
 
 INCONSISTENXIES IX THE LIFE OF MUIIAMMED. 42 I 
 
 "The truth is," says ^Ir. William ^luir, "that the strangest in- 
 consistencies blended together — according to the wont of human 
 nature — throughout the life of the prophet. The student of the 
 history will trace for himself how the pure and lofty aspirations of 
 Mahomet were first tinged, and then gradually debased, by a half- 
 unconscious self-deception ; and how in this process truth merged 
 into falsehood, sincerity into guile — these opposite principles often 
 co-existing even as active agencies in his conduct. The reader will 
 observe that, simultaneously with the anxious desire to extinguish 
 idolatry and to promote religion and virtue in the world, there was 
 nurtured by the prophet in his own heart a licentious self-indul- 
 gence ; till in the end, assuming to be the favorite of Heaven, he 
 justified himself by 'revelations' from God in the most flagrant 
 breaches of morality. He will remark that while Mahomet cher- 
 ished a kind and tender disposition, ' weeping with them that wept,' 
 and binding to his person the hearts of his followers by the ready 
 and self-denying ofifices of love and friendship, he could yet take 
 pleasure in cruel and perfidious assassination, could gloat over the 
 massacre of an entire tribe, and savagely consign the innocent babe 
 to the fires of hell. Inconsistencies such as these continually pre- 
 sent themselves from the period of Mahomet's arrival at Medina; 
 and it is by the study of these inconsistencies that his character 
 must be rightly comprehended."' 
 
 Muhammed died June 8th, A.D. 632, in the sixty-third year of 
 his age, at Yathreb, then called Medinat en Neby, the city of the 
 prophet; and he was buried on the spot where he died, in the 
 house of 'Ayesha, over which now rises the green dome of el Haram, 
 the sacred mosk of Medina. Passing from this mere glance at the 
 man to the religion which he established, the attention is naturally 
 directed to the Koran, of which he was the original author. Muham- 
 med exulted in the title of the Illiterate Prophet, and it is presumed 
 that he could neither read nor write. The angel Gabriel revealed 
 to him, as occasion required, the chapters, verses, and fragments of 
 the Kor^n, and they were written by some of his friends upon 
 palm-leaves, white stones, pieces of leather, and the shouUlcr-blades 
 of camels and goats. After the death of Muhamnictl those literary 
 ' Life of Mahomet, vol. iv. pp. 322, 323.
 
 422 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 fragments were collected and compiled during the caliphate of Abu 
 Bekr, and subsequently revised in that of Othman. The result was 
 the Koran, which the entire Moslem world has accepted as contain- 
 ing the inspired "revelations" of the Arabian prophet. 
 
 El Koran is regarded by the Muhammedans with a degree of 
 profound reverence accorded to no other book in the world, for 
 it is believed to be absolutely divine, uncreated, incorruptible, and 
 eternal. Its teachings prescribe their religious faith, guide their 
 daily life, and permeate and control their whole intellectual being 
 and moral character, and to deny its divine authority the penalty 
 is death. Besides the Koran, Muhammed accepted certain other 
 scriptures as being inspired by God, including the Pentateuch, the 
 Psalms of David, and the Gospels of Jesus, but all of them are 
 supposed to have been corrupted, and their authority was abro- 
 gated by his own "revelations." Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, 
 and Jesus were inspired messengers and apostles. Jesus is men- 
 tioned with respect in the Koran, but he is not the Son of God, 
 and the Jews " did not crucify him, but one like him was given 
 up unto them."' Muhammed was the last and the best of God's 
 prophets, and has abrogated the authority of all his predecessors. 
 
 A Moslem, or Muslim, is one who has submitted to the will of 
 God, and all Moslems, as you know, are unitarians and fatalists. 
 Any one who makes the brief declaration that " there is no god but 
 God, and Muhammed is the Apostle of God," is a Moslem, nor can 
 he apostatize except at the peril of his life. Muhammedans believe 
 in the essential attributes of God : that he is infinite, unchangeable, 
 and eternal, the Lord of all, and the creator of the universe, and 
 that all events, both good and evil, are foreordained by him and 
 inevitable. The practical and living faith of a community is gener- 
 ally very different from its fundamental creed and religious dogmas, 
 and so it is and always has been amongst the Moslems. Though 
 they acknowledge " no god but God," yet there are innumerable 
 companies of spiritual beings, good and bad, and of both sexes, 
 some of whom were created long before Adam ; and there are 
 many shrines dedicated to reputed saints all over the Muhammedan 
 world which are regarded with the utmost reverence. 
 
 ' El Koran.
 
 WORSHIP OF SAINTS.— PARADISE.— PRAYER AND ALMS-GIVING. 423 
 
 Pilgrimages are made to those shrines, prayers and sacrifices are 
 there offered to the saints, and various rites and ceremonies per- 
 formed which it is impossible to distinguish from actual worship. 
 Thus the saint is invoked, and the invisible spiritual beings propi- 
 tiated, and in reality the followers of the prophet arc practicall}- 
 superstitious and idolatrous, notwithstanding his fierce denunciation 
 of the worship of any being other than God alone. Moslems be- 
 lieve in the resurrection of the body, in a general judgment at the 
 last day, with subsequent rewards and punishments, and in a future 
 life in paradise — a place of gardens and fountains — amidst nc\-cr- 
 fading scenes of luxury, and in the enjoyment of eternal delights. 
 The "true believers" deserve paradise who have faith, and accord- 
 ing to the measure of their good works so will their portion be 
 in that promised abode of the blest. 
 
 Every Moslem is required to pray, to give alms, to fast, and to 
 make pilgrimages ; they are forbidden to eat certain meats, and the 
 use of wine is strictly prohibited. As " in the beginning," so now 
 "the evening and the morning" constitute the day, and the Mos- 
 lem is directed to commence his daily prayers at sunset. Prayer 
 may be offered at any time, or on any spot not polluted, but it is 
 forbidden in baths and a few other places. As you arc already 
 aware, the regular and appointed times for prayer are five, and Mos- 
 lems are obliged to perform certain ablutions before engaging in 
 their devotions. Those ablutions consist in washing the face, hands, 
 arms, head, neck, mouth, ears, nostrils, and feet, and, like nearly 
 every important action performed by a Mussulman, these arc begun 
 with the formula, "In the name of God, the merciful, the compas- 
 sionate." F'riday is the Moslem Sabbath, because Adam was created 
 on that day of the week, and also because the resurrection is to 
 take place on that day; hence its name, el Jhum'ah, the assembly. 
 Muhammedans do not abstain from transacting business or follow- 
 ing their usual avocations on l^Viday, but the noonday services in 
 the mosks are more varied and prolonged. 
 
 Next to the most important duty of prayer is that of alms-giv- 
 ing. Alms were at first both obligatory and voluntary, but now 
 they are freely bestowed, and may be dispensed either in nioiie)- or 
 in kind. The least amount should not fall short of a fortieth, but 
 F 2
 
 424 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 many give a far greater proportion of their income in charity and 
 alms. Bread may be thrown to the dogs in the street, and money 
 distributed among the poor and needy followers of the prophet, but 
 it is forbidden to give alms to the infidel Christian, and to aid the 
 unbelieving Jew. "During the month of Ramadan, in which the 
 Koran was revealed," Moslems are required to abstain from eating 
 and drinking, nor can they smoke, from daylight to sunset. That 
 rigid fast is obligatory, even upon children, " but whoever is sick, or 
 on a journey, he shall fast the like number of days.'" The nights 
 being given up to feasting and revelry, there is no great hardship 
 in that fast when Ramadan occurs in winter; but during the long, 
 hot days of summer the suffering is very great, especially among 
 the working-classes. As the Muhammedan year is composed of 
 twelve lunar months, Ramadan retrogrades through the entire cir- 
 cuit of months in about thirty-three years and a half, so that during 
 my residence in this country that long fast has occurred in all times 
 and seasons, from midwinter to midsummer. 
 
 But the preparations for our journey through Bashan and Gil- 
 ead, and the region " beyond Jordan eastward," are completed. The 
 mules have been loaded, and the muleteers are ready to proceed, 
 for an early start is necessary this morning in order to reach the 
 place where we are to encamp to-night. 
 
 I notice that you have increased the number of our caravan. 
 
 The regions we are to pass through are entirely destitute of 
 markets, nor can our store of provisions be replenished until we 
 reach es Salt, on Mount Gilead, above the north-eastern end of the 
 Dead Sea. The needed supplies for many days were, therefore, 
 obtained here, and I have hired two additional mules to transport 
 them. One of the muleteers is a Druse, the other is a Christian, 
 and both are from the Kauran. As they are acquainted with the 
 roads and the inhabitants of that district, they will often save us 
 from the delay and annoyance of having to procure local guides, 
 and they will add to our protection in that wild and lawless region. 
 
 We are now passing through the narrow suburb of the city 
 called el Meidan, the Race-course, which extends southward along 
 this broad street, or Derb el Haj, the pilgrims' road from Damascus 
 
 ' El Koran.
 
 THE PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.— DEPARTURE OF THE HAJ. 425 
 
 to Mecca. Every Moslem who is able to do so is required to make 
 " the pilgrimage to the house of God, el Haram," at Mecca. When 
 that long journey, which usually occupies four months, is under- 
 taken in the summer or in midwinter the suffering and loss of life 
 is very great, and often only a small portion of " the pilgrims" ever 
 return to their homes. Those who survive the pilgrimage are al- 
 ways thereafter dignified with the title of Haj, an honor bestowed 
 alike upon the Muhammedan devotee from Mecca and the pious 
 Christian who visits Jerusalem, the Holy City, though the latter 
 rarely avails himself of the meritorious distinction. Damascus is 
 the starting-place of the Syrian pilgrims, and the Pasha of the city 
 is the Emir el Haj. He is expected to accompany the sacred Mah- 
 mel, or canopy, which contains the covering sent every year by the 
 Sultan for the Caaba at Mecca, but that pious duty is generally 
 relegated to his representative. 
 
 The spectacle of the departure of the Haj from Damascus for 
 that city is quite imposing, is it not? 
 
 To the European it is altogether unique, but to those familiar 
 with Muhammedan religious processions the difference is entirely in 
 the degree of reverence paid to the Mahmel, and in the greater dis- 
 play of fanatical feeling by those who take part in the showy pag- 
 eant. Motley crowds of men, women, and children of every age 
 and size throng this thoroughfare in the Meidan, line the roadway 
 on either side, fill the shops, the windows, and the roofs of the 
 houses along the whole length of Derb cl Haj — the men dressed in 
 garments of various shapes and every shade of color, the women 
 enveloped in white izars, their faces hardly concealed by thin and 
 gaudy veils, and the children decked out in tawdry tinsel and pro- 
 tected from "the evil eye" by mystic amulets and charms. 
 
 The Mahmel, carried upon the back of a special camel, is a can- 
 opy of green silk supported on silver posts and surmounted by a 
 gilded ball and crescent. It is followed by the Emir el llaj antl his 
 guard, consisting of a detachment of irregular cavalr\' and an escort 
 of Bedawin mounted on camels. Then come the pilgrims, whose 
 number is growing less every year. They perform the journey on 
 camels, though a few ride horses and mules, aiul the rich even hire 
 pakuuiuins for themselves or their families. The procession along
 
 426 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the Meidan is preceded, surrounded, and followed by a noisy and 
 tumultuous rabble of men, women, and children, which imparts 
 neither dignity nor order to the movements of the caravan. 
 
 Similar scenes are witnessed here on the return of the Haj from 
 Mecca, but the pilgrims then come in groups, straggling along, with 
 no attempt at parade or to present a grand spectacle. The burn- 
 ing sun has tanned them to a dark bronze hue ; their garments are 
 travel -stained, dusty, and ragged, and their appearance is forlorn 
 and woe -begone to the last degree. They could, indeed, fit out 
 another Gibeonite embassy with " old sacks upon their asses, and 
 [water] bottles, old and rent, and bound up ; and old shoes and 
 clouted upon their feet, and old garments upon them ; and all the 
 bread of their provision dry and mouldy" — no doubt like the "re- 
 mainder biscuit" after a voyage round the world.' 
 
 This unpretending city gate at the southern end of the Meidan 
 which we are now approaching is called Bab Allah, because through 
 it the Haj passes when commencing the long, trying, and perilous 
 journey to the " House of God," in Mecca. Bab Allah, the gate of 
 God ! " but it might, with more propriety, be named Bab el Maut, 
 the Gate of Death," as Burckhardt remarks ; " for scarcely a third 
 ever returns of those whom a devout adherence to their religion, or 
 the hope of gain, impel to this journey."'' Most of the pilgrims 
 from the northern parts of the Turkish empire now pass through 
 the Suez Canal by steamers to Jiddah, the port of Mecca on the 
 Red Sea ; and similar facilities are also availed of by the pilgrims 
 from Egypt, northern Africa, and elsewhere ; and if the merit of the 
 pilgrimage is thereby somewhat diminished, so also is the hardship 
 and loss of life in a still greater degree. 
 
 In comparing the advantages conferred upon the world by Mu- 
 hammedanism, with its attendant evils, Mr. Muir may be thought 
 to hold the balance w-ith too even a hand, but some of his observa- 
 tions are w^eighty and well worth remembering. " We may freely 
 concede," he says, " that it banished forever many of the darker 
 elements of superstition which had for ages shrouded the Peninsu- 
 lar [of Arabia]. Idolatry vanished before the battle-cry of Islam ; 
 the doctrine of the unity and infinite perfections of God, and of a 
 
 ' Josh. ix. 3-6. ■■' Travels in Syria, etc. pp. 52, 53.
 
 BENEFITS CONFERRED UPON THE WORLD RV ISLAM. 4.?7 
 
 special all-pervading Providence, became a living principle in the 
 hearts and lives of the followers of Mahomet, even as it had in his 
 own. An absolute surrender and submission to the Divine will — 
 the very name of Islam — was demanded as the first requirement of 
 the religion. Nor are social virtues wanting. Brotherly love is in- 
 culcated within the circle of the faith ; orphans are to be protected, 
 and slaves treated with consideration; intoxicating drinks are pro- 
 hibited, and IMahometanism may boast of a degree of temperance 
 unknown to any other creed. 
 
 " Yet these benefits have been purchased at a costly price. Set- 
 ting aside considerations of minor import, three radical evils flow 
 from the faith, in all ages and in every country, and must continue 
 to flow so long as the Coran is the standard of belief. First : Polyg- 
 amy, divorce, and slavery are maintained and perpetuated — striking 
 as they do at the root of public morals, poisoning domestic life, and 
 disorganizing society. Second: freedom of judgment in religion is 
 crushed and annihilated. The sword is the inevitable penalty for 
 the denial of Islam. Toleration is unknown. Third : a barrier has 
 been interposed against the reception of Christianity. They labor 
 under a miserable delusion who suppose that Mahometanism paves 
 the way for a purer faith. No system could have been devised with 
 more consummate skill for shutting out the nations over which it 
 has sway from the light of truth. Idolatrous Arabia — ^judging from 
 the analogy of other nations — might have been aroused to spiritual 
 life, and to the adoption of the faith of Jesus; Mahometan Arabia 
 is, to the human eye, sealed against the benign influences of the 
 Gospel. Many a flourishing land in Africa and in Asia which once 
 rejoiced in the light and liberty of Christianity is now overspread by 
 a gross darkness and a stubborn barbarism. It is as if their day of 
 grace had come and gone, and there remained to them ' no more 
 sacrifice for sins.' That a brighter day will yet dawn on these 
 countries we may not doubt ; but the history of the past and the 
 condition of the present is not the less true and sad. The sword 
 of Mahomet and the Coran are the most fatal enemies of civiliza- 
 tion, liberty, and truth which the world has yet known." ' 
 
 I should like to emphasize most of these remarks of Mr. Muir, 
 ' Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iv. pp. 320-322.
 
 428 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 especially the last of them ; and it would be easy to add to the list 
 of evils conferred upon the world by Muhammedanism many others 
 so weighty as to sink Islam, the religion of the "Illiterate Prophet," 
 forever in the profound gulf of utter condemnation. 
 
 We are now favored with a tolerably smooth and very wide 
 road, bordered on each side by groves of olive-trees. 
 
 It is the continuation of Derb el Haj, and extends southward in 
 nearly a straight line for more than an hour, but not at this unusual 
 width. No doubt it was made thus broad in this immediate vicinity 
 to accommodate the crowds, the pilgrims, and their camels that 
 congregate here at the commencement of the Haj. The bridges 
 over the watercourses are constructed very low and broad, to facil- 
 itate the passage of the caravans during the rainy season — a great 
 convenience, as I have found, after a heavy storm of rain in winter. 
 This district immediately around Damascus to the south, the 
 east, and the north-east is called the Ghutah. It includes the city 
 and the greater part of the region irrigated by the Barada and its 
 numerous canals. Of course it is exceedingly fertile wherever the 
 water extends over the plain. Abulfeda says of it : " The Ghutah 
 of Damascus is one of the four paradises which are the most excel- 
 lent of the beautiful places of the earth, but it excels the other 
 three." And the Moslem legend reminds us that Muhammed re- 
 fused to enter this charming region, declaring that, as man could 
 have but one paradise, he chose to have his in the other world. 
 Notwithstanding these flattering commendations, I have found many 
 places in the Ghutah neglected and barren, and, though the plain 
 of Damascus is crowded with villages, nearly a hundred by actual 
 count, most of them are wretched hamlets, with nothing attractive 
 about them, and one is surprised at the almost total absence of 
 important ruins on this great plain. To the south-east of the Ghu- 
 tah is the Merj, extending to the lakes, and west and south of our 
 road is the district of Wady el 'Ajam. 
 
 This plain of Damascus is not so level as it appears from the 
 outlook near Kubbet en Nusr, north-west of the city, and those sur- 
 rounding hills, from their dark color, must be of volcanic origin. 
 
 The range on the left is called Jebel el Aswad, the black moun- 
 tain, and the basaltic stones so largely used in building the khans.
 
 EL AAVAJ, THE PIIARI'AR.— VILLAGE OF EL KESWEH. 429 
 
 mosks, and other public edifices of Damascus are brought from 
 quarries in those hills. We have now left the plain and begin to 
 descend into the valley of the A'waj, supposed to be the Pharpar, 
 the second river of Damascus, mentioned by Naaman, the Syrian 
 leper. In about an hour we will reach the long bridge of several 
 arches over the river east of the village of el Kesweh. 
 
 The valley lies much lower than the general lev^el of the sur- 
 rounding country, and the banks of the river are bordered by thou- 
 sands of tall silver-leaved poplars, by which the course of the stream 
 can be traced both east and west for a long distance. 
 
 Its Arabic name, A'waj, means crooked, and was probably given 
 to indicate that peculiarity in the ever-winding way of the river. 
 It drains the south-eastern slopes of Hermon, traverses from west 
 to east the district of Wady el 'Ajam, and, after passing through 
 the rough and rocky region eastward from the village of el Kesweh, 
 it meanders over the plain, and is finally lost in the marshy lake 
 called Bahret Hijaneh. 
 
 What is the name of that village above us on the right ? It 
 appears to be a considerable place, with mosks, minarets, and other 
 public buildings ; and these winding and well-wooded banks of the 
 river, the tall poplar trees, and the green meadows on either side 
 of the stream, are decidedly pretty. 
 
 That is el Kesweh, and it is inhabited principally by Moslems. 
 
 Here also is a spacious khan, with many native tra\'cllcrs about 
 it, and even several Bedawin with their horses and camels. 
 
 Like them, we will rest awhile at this inn and refresh ourselves 
 with a cup of "black coffee." From here on these primitive wayside 
 institutions become few and far between, as we advance into the 
 region east of the Jordtin until we reach es Salt, on Mount Gilead. 
 
 The A'waj, or Pharpar, is a much larger stream than I expected. 
 
 Once when I crossed over this substantial bridge below el Kes- 
 weh the river was running full up to the top of the arches, and a 
 considerable part of the narrow valley was under water. Many 
 years before I had crossed and recrossed it on my way to S'as'a, 
 and then got the impression that it was a small stream, but on that 
 occasion it was everywhere unfordable, and the volume of water in 
 it appeared to be nearly equal to that of the Barada. It was then,
 
 430 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 however, exceptionally large, owing to recent rains and the melting 
 of the snow on the eastern slopes of Hermon, or Jebel esh Sheikh. 
 The main permanent tributaries of this river come from fountains 
 which rise near the villages of el 'Arny and Beit Jenn, on the south- 
 eastern slopes of Hermon, and, uniting in the neighborhood of S'as'a, 
 form the Sabirany, the local name for the A'waj between the vil- 
 lages of el Kesweh and Beit Sabir. 
 
 It is also re-enforced by small streams from that part of the 
 mountain, one of which comes down Wady Barbar, and the name of 
 that valley is supposed to preserve, in its Arabic form, the ancient 
 Hebrew word Pharpar. I visited one of those permanent sources 
 at the fountain called 'Ain Menbej, a short distance eastward from 
 Beit Jenn. The stream issues from a deep cavern extending under 
 the mountain, and at times, according to native accounts, there is 
 a great rush of water from it, accompanied with a loud rumbling 
 noise. The volume of water thus discharged is said to be full of 
 fish. When I was there the fountain was comparatively quiet, but 
 there were plenty of small fishes in the deep pool within the mouth 
 of the cavern. 'Ain Menbej is probably an intermitting fountain, 
 like those found in other places in this country. 
 
 We have thus far followed the regular Haj road, which leads 
 from Damascus to Mecca, but from el Kesweh the pilgrims con- 
 tinue southward along the ancient Roman highway to Sunamein 
 and Mezarib. Our road, however, trends a little to the eastward, 
 and gradually ascends the slope of Jebel Mani'a. 
 
 I am surprised to find the country so sparsely inhabited. There 
 is not a village in sight on either side of the path, and only a small 
 part of the land appears to be under cultivation. 
 
 The villages whose inhabitants till the land in this neighborhood 
 are hid away in the ravines of Jebel Mani'a, and the first inhabited 
 place along our route is Deir 'Aly, about two hours distant from 
 el Kesweh. As we rise to a greater elevation the views of Jebel 
 esh Sheikh, towering high above the surrounding district and rocky 
 ridges of el Bellan, are truly magnificent. Aklim el Bellan, as that 
 region is called, extends southward along the foot-hills of Hermon 
 from the dreary plateau of es Sahra, north-west of Damascus, to the 
 district of el Jeidur, the ancient Iturea. Large parts of both dis-
 
 AKLIM EL BELLAX.— kOl'AT JENDAL.— WADV EL WJXM. 43 1 
 
 tricts are encumbered with volcanic rock and incapable of profitable 
 cultivation. Bellan, as you are aware, is the Arabic name of the 
 low, tangled thorn-bush which covers a large part of this country. 
 It is the poterium spinosum, and, from its great abundance in that 
 region, it probably gave the name Bellan to the entire district. 
 
 I have repeatedly passed through Aklim el Bellan, and once, on 
 my way from Damascus to the summit of Hermon, night overtook 
 us as we entered a dark defile of the mountain, and our guide con- 
 ducted us to a ruined castle in Wady Barbar called Kul'at Jcndal. 
 near the village of the same name. That region was then in a dis- 
 turbed state, owing to an uprising of the Druses, and we found the 
 old castle occupied by a band of highway robbers. After learning 
 who we were they allowed us to enter, and we remained there 
 that night unmolested. In the morning they sent a guard of their 
 number to protect us as far on our way as they thought was neces- 
 sary. Our road led up a long ravine with a gradual ascent until we 
 reached the water-shed at the head of the pass into Wady Shib'a. 
 From the top of the pass we turned to the right and ascended 
 northward along the edge of the ridge leading up the mountain-side, 
 and in about two hours we reached the ruined temple now called 
 Kusr 'Antar, which once crowned the summit of Hermon. The as- 
 cent of Jebel esh Sheikh from Kul'at Jendal is less fatiguing, ac- 
 cording to my experience, than any other, but it is entirely desert- 
 ed, and some of the gorges that descend from the mountain east- 
 ward to the plain far below are extremely wild and picturesque. 
 
 The district south of the Ghutah, through which we have been 
 riding, and which is traversed by the river A'waj, is called Wady el 
 'Ajam, the valley of the Persians, but when and how that name 
 came to be applied to this region is unknown. The district extends 
 eastward from Aklim el Bellan to Bahret Hljaneh, and, though 
 mountainous, rough, and rocky, much of it is well watered and thor- 
 oughly cultivated. There are more than thirty villages in Wady el 
 'Ajam, many of which lie west of the Haj road, and arc principally 
 inhabited by Moslems. El Kesweh is one of the largest and most 
 flourishing, and the small hamlet of Deir 'Aly, ahead of us, one of 
 the poorest and most dilapidated. 
 
 The entire region south-west of our road to the valley of the
 
 432 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Jordan is given up to wandering tribes of Bedavvin Arabs and 
 Kurds, and even they abandon the more elevated parts of it in 
 winter, and descend to the sheltered ravines below, to escape the 
 fierce winds that then sweep over it. They are sometimes so cold 
 as to kill not only the flocks, but their shepherds also. 
 
 Many years ago we rode direct from Damascus to S'as'a, and, 
 though it was in the early part of May, we nearly perished by the 
 way-side, owing to a most pitiless gale of wind. When we reached 
 the dilapidated, castle-like khan at S'as'a my companion was speech- 
 less, and so chilled that he had to be lifted off his horse and have his 
 limbs rubbed for nearly an hour to restore the circulation. S'as'a 
 is a miserable village, about ten miles west of el Kesweh, on the 
 south side of Nahr el Jennany, a branch of the A'waj. Formerly 
 it had two large caravansaries, one of which was fortified with tow- 
 ers and buttresses, and that part of it still standing is now occupied 
 as a modern khan. We found it crowded with fellahin, or peasants, 
 who had taken shelter within it from the cold wind-storm, and had 
 kindled a large fire in one of the dingy vaults of the old khan, 
 which contributed greatly to their comfort as well as our own. 
 
 At S'as'a an ancient road from Damascus to the coast passed 
 through the middle of Aklim el Jeidur in a south-westerly direction 
 to Kuneitirah, and thence down to Jisr Benat Ya'kob over the Jor- 
 dan below Lake Huleh, and southward to Tiberias and Jerusalem, 
 or westward to the sea. There are very few villages along that 
 route between S'as'a and the Jordan ; and el Kuneitirah, w^hich is 
 the central station, is now occupied by a few peasants only. The 
 khan and other buildings are in ruins, and the place, though well 
 supplied with water, is often deserted. 
 
 It was probably along that road that the over-zealous Saul hur- 
 ried onward toward Damascus on his cruel mission. He would 
 have crossed the Jordan on the bridge of Jacob's Daughters, and 
 pressed forward by Kuneitirah and S'as'a to Juneh, where he would 
 get the first view of the plain of Damascus ; and probably, when 
 about to enter the Ghutah, not far from that village, he fell to the 
 ground overpowered by that great light which suddenly shone 
 from heaven round about him. This is, of course, mere inference 
 from the line of travel he would be likely to select. No name is
 
 jOneh.-deir "alv.— the MARCIOMTES. 433 
 
 given to the place where SauTs miraculous conversion occurred. 
 We are only told that it was "near Damascus," and before he en- 
 tered the city." Evidently the place was not the one which is now 
 pointed out on the eastern side of the city; and a tradition dating 
 back to the twelfth century places the actual spot near Juneh. 
 
 It has taken nearly five hours from Damascus to reach this 
 Druse village of Deir 'Aly, and we can spare a few minutes only for 
 rest and lunch, for half our day's ride to el Musmcih, on the north- 
 ern border of the Lejah, remains to be accomplished. 
 
 There seems to be nothing of special interest in or about this 
 forlorn and dilapidated village. 
 
 It evidently occupies the site of an ancient town, and there are 
 several Greek inscriptions on old stones built into the walls of these 
 ruinous houses. In company with a party of English and Ameri- 
 can friends, I spent a night at this place a few years ago. The day 
 had been rainy, and the evening air was chilly and uncomfortable, 
 and all night long we were serenaded by an innumerable multitude 
 of frogs in a pond near our tents. In the morning we copied some 
 of the inscriptions. According to one of them, on the lintel of a 
 door of a private house, the name of this place in the fourth century 
 was Leboda ; and its modern name of Deir 'Aly may have been 
 given to it from the ruins of a church which, according to the 
 same inscription, belonged to the heretical sect of the Marcionites. 
 There are several other short inscriptions built into the walls of 
 these miserable hovels, and over the door of a ruined apartment in 
 the court of the sheikh's house is carved an altar, a scroll with a feu- 
 Greek letters, the figure of a bird, probably meant for a dove, and 
 a palm-branch — all clearly cut and well preserved. The present in- 
 habitants are quite proud that their village had an ancient name 
 and history, even though Christian and heretical. 
 
 Who were the Marcionites? 
 
 A sect that derived the name from Marcion, a native of Sinope, 
 on the Black Sea, and a religious sceptic of the second century. 
 Marcion held that the God of the Old Testament was the creator 
 of matter which was essentially evil, and the source of evil in this 
 world, and that he was not the God of the New Testament. He 
 
 ' Acts ix. 3.
 
 434 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 also rejected all the gospels except that of Luke, and he even al- 
 tered it to accord with his own teachings. He denied the resurrec- 
 tion of the body and other essential doctrines held by the ortho- 
 dox, and by his zeal in disseminating his religious opinions he 
 caused great controversy in the Church. 
 
 Marcion was repeatedly excommunicated, and finally cut off en- 
 tirely from Christian fellowship. Subsequently he became the head 
 of the sect that bore his name, and was both dreaded and hated, 
 as the following anecdote makes sufficiently evident. He was anx- 
 ious to claim acquaintance with Polycarp, and, meeting him on one 
 occasion, Marcion asked if he knew him. " I know thee as the first- 
 born of Satan," was the repellent and curt reply. It does not ap- 
 pear that Marcion ever visited this part of the country, but his doc- 
 trines spread extensively among the Eastern churches^ 
 
 It is strange to find the name of such an ancient schismatic 
 sect established in the early days of Christianity at this now forlorn 
 and wretched hamlet of ignorant Druses, and I suppose that many 
 of the " initiated " among that peculiar people would accept most 
 of the heretical speculations of Marcion. 
 
 The district west of us is far more varied and interesting than a 
 large part of the featureless region over which we have been riding 
 since leaving Deir 'Aly. It is now called el Jeidur, and the name 
 was probably derived from Jetur, one of the twelve sons of Ishmael, 
 whose descendants appear to have inhabited that region.' In the 
 fifth chapter of ist Chronicles we read that the trans-Jordanic tribes 
 — " the sons of Reuben, and the Gadites, and half the tribe of 
 Manasseh, valiant men, able to bear buckler and sword, and to 
 shoot with bow, and skilful in war, made war with the Hagarites 
 [Ishmael's descendants], with Jetur, and Nepish, and Nodab. And 
 they were helped against them, and the Hagarites were delivered 
 into their hand, and all that were with them. And the children of 
 the half tribe of Manasseh dwelt in the land ; they increased from 
 Bashan unto Baal-hermon, and Senir, and unto Mount Hermon.'"* 
 
 Though the entire country east of the Jordan to Hermon, in- 
 cluding, of course, the possessions of Jetur, was thus practically sub- 
 dued, the Hagarites were not exterminated, but they were held 
 
 ' Gen. XXV. 15, 16. ^ 1 Chron. v. 18-23.
 
 EL JEIDUR.— ITUREA. 435 
 
 in subjection by the two tribes and a half, who dwelt in the land 
 " until the captivity." After that event, and until the return of 
 the Jews from Babylon, the inhabitants of this part of the country 
 appear to have regained their independence. But after the con- 
 quest of Syria by Alexander the Great, B.C. 333, the various tribes 
 in this region came under the sway of the Ptolemies and the Seleu- 
 cidre, and the Greeks, according to their custom, changed the name 
 of the ancient Jetur into Iturea. 
 
 During the interregnum between the revolt of the Jews against 
 the Syrian kings and the establishment of the Roman empire in 
 this land, and about the beginning of the second century B.C., we 
 learn from Josephus that Aristobulus, one of the Maccabean princes, 
 who had assumed the kingly title, "made war against Iturea, and 
 added a great part of it to Judea, and compelled the inhabitants, if 
 they w^ould continue in that country [to become Jews], and to live 
 according to the Jewish laws.'" About forty years later Syria was 
 declared a Roman province by Pompey, and Iturea was comprised 
 within it. And in Luke we read that Philip, the son of Herod the 
 Great, was tetrarch of Iturea at the time when " the word of God 
 came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness.'"'' He prob- 
 ably obtained it from his father, and it seems to have remained in 
 the Herodian family until the death of Herod Agrippa, the last of 
 that line, when it reverted to the Roman empire. 
 
 The subsequent history of Iturea is essentially the same as that 
 of Damascus, of which it became a dependency, and has remained 
 so to this day. There is no reason to doubt the identification of 
 the modern district of el Jeidur with at least a part of the posses- 
 sions of Jetur, the son of Ishmael, and of the Cireco-Roman prov- 
 ince of Iturea. The names are nearly the same, and the position of 
 the present district accords with the general situation given to it 
 in the Old and New Testaments, and by Josephus and others. 
 El Jeidur is comparatively a large district, having Wady el 'Ajam 
 and Aklim el Bellan on the north ; the lower ranges and foot-hills 
 of Hermon on the west ; el Jaulan, the ancient Golan, and el Lejah, 
 Trachonitis, on the south; the latter also forming its eastern boun- 
 dary, and separated from it by the j^rcsent Ilaj road only. 
 
 ' Ant. xiii. 11,3. '' '■"'^'' '■'• '•-•
 
 436 THE LAND AND THE BOOK, 
 
 There is no natural division between the districts of el Jeidur 
 and el Jaulan, but an imaginary line, drawn from Dan over the 
 southern end of Hermon and across the plain in a south-easterly 
 direction to the Haj road, would suf^ciently indicate their relative 
 positions. El Jaulan was called Gaulanitis by the Greeks, and that, 
 as well as its present Arabic name, was derived from Golan, given 
 by Moses to the Levites, and appointed to be one of the three 
 cities of refuge "on this side Jordan towards the sunrising." ' Its 
 length is from north to south along the shore of Lake Merom and 
 the Sea of Galilee, which form its western border down to the river 
 Jarmuk, the ancient Heiromax. 
 
 Both districts of el Jeidur and el Jaulan are lava plateaus, over 
 two thousand feet above the level of the sea, and much of the land 
 is destitute of water in summer. But, owing to the great elevation 
 of the northern portions, that region is cold in winter, and often 
 covered with snow. In the spring, however, it abounds in rich 
 pasture, and the Wuld 'Aly, a Bedawin tribe, then take possession 
 of it with their countless camels and numerous flocks of sheep and 
 goats. I have crossed both districts in different directions without 
 finding an inhabited village or an acre of land that was not covered 
 with lava bowlders. The entire country was then nearly deserted, 
 and the Kurds and Bedawins I met with were robbers: justifying 
 in that respect the traditional reputation of the ancient Hagarites 
 and the Greco-Roman Itureans. In both districts there are ruins 
 of old towns and deserted villages to the extraordinary number of 
 over one hundred and thirty; but of inhabited places there are not 
 more than fifty, and while at least three-fourths of the former are 
 to be seen in the Jaulan, the same proportion of the latter are 
 found in the district of el Jeidur. 
 
 But to return to our present surroundings. It has taken us an 
 hour, brisk riding, from Deir 'Aly to this semi-dilapidated hamlet 
 called ez Zughbar, and half an hour of slow progress through a 
 barren waste covered with black lava bowlders, the debris of a world 
 once on fire, will bring us to the village of el Merjany. That name 
 was probably given to it from the merj, or meadow, north-west of 
 it, from whence comes this little brook of good water. We must 
 
 ' Deut. iv. 41-43.
 
 EL MERJANV.— EL BL'KAK. 437 
 
 fill our " bottles" at this place, for we may not find any water fit to 
 drink at el Musmeih, where we are to encamp. The plenteous sup- 
 ply of water here accounts for the fact that these scattered ruins 
 are partially inhabited while so many other places along this ex- 
 posed frontier are wholly abandoned. El Merjany was evidently 
 an ancient site, and some of the houses and other edifices were 
 large and well built; but no inscriptions have been found among 
 the ruins to tell what name it bore in former times. 
 
 From here on, for much of the distance to Musmeih, we must 
 wade through a loose grayish soil, like the remains of a great ash- 
 heap, free from stones, and sparsely covered with clumps of south- 
 ernwood and other shrubs and bushes. Road there is none, and 
 the Druse muleteer directs our course by some landmarks on the 
 distant border of the Lejah, not far from el Musmeih, seen bj- him, 
 but which are quite invisible to me. 
 
 From the top of this hill near Merjany, though it is not very 
 lofty, we look out over what appears to be a boundless plateau 
 stretching far away to the east and south-east. What is the 
 nature of the country in that direction ? 
 
 It has been rarely visited by travellers, and comparatively little 
 is known about it. Burckhardt, in one of his tours from Damascus 
 through the Hauran, passed from cl Merjany round the eastern 
 border of the Lejah. As we shall follow the western side, a brief 
 re'suint^ of his account will be interesting, and it will also help to 
 beguile the monotony and weariness of the next two hours' ride. 
 
 In half an hour from el Merjany to the south-east Burckhardt 
 came to 'Amud es Subh, or Column of the Morning, "an insulated 
 pillar," with a high pedestal, standing in the plain, of the Ionic 
 order, built of black lava, and about thirty feet high. There were 
 no inscriptions upon it, but from broken fragments of columns 
 around the pillar he supposed that a small temple may have stood 
 there, and "the remains of a subterraneous aijueduct, extending 
 from the village towards the spot where the column stands, are yet 
 visible." Two hours from Merjany is el Binak, "a ruined town sit- 
 uated on the north-east corner of the Lejah : there is no large build- 
 ing of any consequence here, but there are many priv.ile habita- 
 tions." In the interior of one house ami on the outside wall of
 
 438 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 another, among the ruins of el Burak, Burckhardt saw two well- 
 preserved Greek inscriptions, which he copied.' 
 
 Dr. Porter, who visited el Burak many years after, and spent a 
 night in one of those "private habitations," thus describes it : "The 
 house seemed to have undergone little change from the time its 
 old master had left it, and yet the thick nitrous crust on the floor 
 showed that it had been deserted for long ages. The walls were 
 prefect, nearly five feet thick, built of large blocks of hewn stones 
 without lime or cement of any kind. The roof was formed of large 
 slabs of the same black basalt, lying as regularly and jointed as 
 closely as if the workmen had just completed them. They meas- 
 ured twelve feet in length, eighteen inches in breadth, and six 
 inches in thickness. The ends rested on a plain stone cornice, pro- 
 jecting about a foot from each side wall. 
 
 " The chamber was twenty feet long, twelve wide, and ten high. 
 The outer door was a slab of stone four and a half feet high, four 
 wide, and eight inches thick. It hung upon pivots formed of pro- 
 jecting parts of the slab working in sockets in the lintel and thresh- 
 old, and though so massive, I was able to open and shut it with 
 ease. At one end of the room was a small window with a stone 
 shutter. An inner door, also of stone, but of finer workmanship, 
 and not quite so heavy as the other, admitted to a chamber of the 
 same size and appearance. From it a much larger door communi- 
 cated with a third chamber, to which there was a descent by a flight 
 of stone steps. This was a spacious hall equal in width to the two 
 rooms, and about twenty-five feet long by twenty high. A semi- 
 circular arch was thrown across it, supporting the stone roof, and 
 a gate so large that camels could pass in and out opened on the 
 street. The gate was of stone, and in its place ; but some rubbish 
 had accumulated on the threshold, and it appeared to have been 
 open for ages. 
 
 " Such were the internal arrangements of this strange old man- 
 sion. It had only one story, and its simple, massive style of archi- 
 tecture gave evidence of a very remote antiquity. On a large stone 
 which formed the lintel of the gate-way there was a Greek inscrip- 
 tion ; but it was so high up that I was unable to decipher it, though 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., pp. 214, 215.
 
 LUFH EL JEJAII.— WADV LIWA. 439 
 
 I could sec that the letters were of the oldest type. It is probably 
 the same which was copied by Burckhardt, and which bears a date 
 apparently equivalent to the year B.C. 306." ' 
 
 According to Burckhardt, there were "two saltpetre manufacto- 
 ries at el Burak, in which the saltpetre is procured by boiling the 
 earth dug up among the ruins of the town. The boilers of these 
 manufactories are heated by brushwood brought from the desert, as 
 there is little wood in the Lejah about el Burak."' At that time 
 there were many such manufactories in all parts of the Lejah and 
 adjacent regions, but they are now nearly all abandoned. 
 
 Continuing his journey, Burckhardt "engaged a man at el Burak 
 to conduct [him] along the Lufh or limits of the Lejah. This east- 
 ern part is called el Liwa, from Wady Liwa, a winter torrent \\hich 
 descends from Jebel Hauran," far to the south-east, rising near a 
 village called Nimreh, below which for some distance it is called 
 Wady Nimreh. It flows northward along the entire eastern border 
 of the Lejah, " filling in its course the reservoirs of all the ancient 
 towns situated there. In some places Wady Liwa approaches close 
 to the Lejah, and in others advances for a mile into the plain ; its 
 banks were covered with the most luxuriant herbage, of which little 
 use is made, the Arabs of the Lejah being afraid to pass beyond 
 its limits, from the almost continual state of warfare in which they 
 live with the powerful tribe of the 'Anazeh and the government of 
 Damascus ; while the 'Anazeh, on the other hand, are shy of ap- 
 proaching too near the Lejah, from fear of the nightly robberies 
 and of the fire-arms of the Arabs who inhabit it. The laborers in 
 the saltpetre manufactories are Druses, whose reputation for indi- 
 vidual courage and national spirit keeps the Arabs at a respectful 
 distance. The Liwa empties into Bahret el Merj [or HijanehJ, 
 seven or eight hours east of Damascus."^ 
 
 Burckhardt slept at el Khulkhuleh, " like all the ancient towns 
 in the Ilauran, built entirely with stone." There he collcctetl the 
 names of several ruined villages and tells, with ruins on or around 
 them, to the east and south-east of Khulkiudeh. The direction of 
 his route from that place " was sometimes south-east, sometimes 
 
 ' The Ciiant Cities of liashan, etc., pp. 26, 27. 
 
 '■' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 214. " Travels in .'-;yria, etc., jip. 2lf), 217. 
 
 G2
 
 440 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 south, following the windings of the Lejah and the Liwa. In four 
 hours [he] reached Um ez Zeitun, a village inhabited by Druses," 
 havdng passed nine villages and towns in ruins, w^iich " prove the 
 once flourishing state of the Lejah. The advantages of a wady 
 like the Liwa are incalculable in these countries, where we always 
 find that cultivation follows the direction of the winter torrents, as 
 it follows the Nile in Egypt; and the inhabitants make the best 
 use of the water after the great rains have ceased to irrigate their 
 fields and fill the reservoirs which supply both men and cattle with 
 water till the return of the rainy season." 
 
 " Um ez Zeitun is inhabited by thirty or forty Druse families. 
 It appears, by the extent of its ruins, to have been formerly a town 
 of some note. I here copied several inscriptions." Burckhardt had 
 intended to spend the night at Um ez Zeitun, but found the Druses 
 very ill-disposed towards him. "It was generally reported," he 
 says, " that I had [previously] discovered a hid treasure at Shuhba, 
 near this place, and it was supposed that I had now returned to 
 carry off what I had then left behind. I had to combat against 
 this story at almost every place, but I was nowhere so rudely re- 
 ceived as at this village, where I escaped ill-treatment only by as- 
 suming a very imposing air, and threatening, with many oaths, that 
 if I lost a single hair of my beard, the Pasha would levy an avania 
 of many purses on the village."' From that inhospitable place 
 Burckhardt continued next day southward by Suleim and 'Atil to 
 es Suweideh, but, as we shall there come in contact with his route, 
 we need not follow it any farther at present. 
 
 It would be very interesting to pass through that region and to 
 explore the country beyond it east of the Lejah. 
 
 It was the ancient Batanaea, and is still called Ard el Bathan- 
 yeh, the land of Bathanyeh, from a town of that name which occu- 
 pies the site of Batanis, the capital of the Greek and Roman prov- 
 ince. That region is mentioned by Josephus in connection with 
 Trachonitis and Auranitis as being subject to Philip, the son of 
 Herod the Great and Cleopatra, and the same whose tetrarchy is 
 alluded to by Luke.* 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., pp. 218-220. 
 
 ^ Ant. xvii. 11, 4 : B. J. ii. 6, 3 ; ii. 12, 8 ; iii. 3, 5 : Luke iii. i.
 
 rROVINXE OF BATAXAEA.— ARD EL BATIIANVEII. 441 
 
 El Bathanyeh was explored by M. Waddington, who gives in- 
 scriptions from about forty ancient towns which he includes within 
 the province of Batanaea. But perhaps he did not intend to ar- 
 range his inscriptions with strict reference to the old geographical 
 boundaries of the provinces, for a number of places are mentioned 
 in his group which certainly belonged to Trachonitis; that is, the 
 Lejah and others on the south and west of Jebel Hauran were not 
 connected with Batanaea. The ancient names are still preserved, 
 and several sites with similar Arabic names have been identified 
 with places mentioned by classic writers. But the old towns are 
 nearly all deserted, though many of the houses, with their remark- 
 able stone walls, stone roofs, stone doors and window-shutters, are 
 still almost perfect, and would require very little repair by the 
 natives of that region to make them habitable again, 
 
 " The name Ard el Bathanyeh," says Dr. Porter, " though well 
 known to the natives, is not much used by strangers. The region 
 is generally called 'Jebel Hauran,' or 'Jebel ed Druzc.' It extends 
 from the plain near the conspicuous hill [on the north] called Tell 
 el Khalediyeh to Sulkhad on the south, and from Kunawat to the 
 borders of the great plain on the east. The whole of the province 
 is exceedingly picturesque. The mountains are well wooded, with 
 forests of evergreen oak, and the sides terraced. In the northern 
 part, around Bathanyeh and Shuka, the slopes are gentle, and the 
 soil the richest in the Hauran. Along the whole eastern sides, as 
 I was informed, and in part saw, the slopes resemble those on the 
 north. Over the mountains and through the vales the pastures are 
 the most luxuriant in Syria. There is a pleasing variety, too, in the 
 landscape that is seldom witnessed in this land, and the natural 
 beauties arc enhanced by the vast numbers of ruined towns and 
 villages. Little peaks are always in view as one wanders along, 
 crowned with temple, castle, or crumbling tower, while the graceful 
 forms of lofty columns are here and there seen shooting up through 
 the green foliage. The whole of these mountains are basalt, and 
 the two loftiest summits, Abu Tumeis |in the north] and Kuleib 
 Hauran [on the south] were probably at one time volcanoes. Their 
 elevation is about five thousand feet." ' 
 
 ' lJil)liolhcca Sacra, etc., October, 1856, \^\\ -jtyr,, Soa.
 
 ^2 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 When the Egyptian army, under Ibrahim Pasha, about forty- 
 seven years ago, conquer:ed the Lejah after several severe battles, 
 many of the Druses who had taken refuge there escaped into the 
 region of el Bathanyeh. Some of their sheikhs, with whom I was 
 acquainted, finally returned to their homes on Lebanon, and they 
 spoke in high terms of the beauty and fertility of that country. 
 They also described a region in the dreary wilderness east of it 
 called el Harrah, or the burnt district, which, they said, was en- 
 tirely destitute of water, and that even the Bedawin Arabs of the 
 desert could hardly pass through it. 
 
 That "burnt district" is a veritable terra incognita, I suppose, 
 and must ever remain an undiscovered region. 
 
 The description of the Harrah given by those Druse sheikhs 
 accords in the main with that of the only two Europeans who 
 have attempted to explore it. In the autumn of 1857 Mr. Cyril C. 
 Graham accomplished a bold and hazardous tour through a con- 
 siderable part of that district, and I remember listening with great 
 interest to the narrative of his perils and privations after his return 
 to Beirut. He subsequently prepared a report of his journey for 
 the Royal Asiatic Society, which furnishes much reliable informa- 
 tion in regard to that region. 
 
 El Harrah is mostly a dreary, undulating plain, extending east- 
 ward and southward from Jebel Hauran for several days' journey — 
 a desert waste, destitute of verdure and springs of water, with no 
 running streams and but few trees, covered with fragments of black 
 basaltic rock, and glowing under the fierce rays of the burning sun 
 like a furnace — hence its significant name. There are a great num- 
 ber of wells in that region, and the ancient inhabitants must have 
 depended mainly upon them for their supply of water ; but they 
 are now either " broken cisterns " or filled up with rubbish. 
 
 "The deserted though not ruined" places examined by Mr. 
 Graham in the Harrah were of the same general character as those 
 of similar sites in the Hauran, having the same massive stone walls, 
 stone doors, stone window-shutters, and stone roofs. But perhaps 
 the most important discovery made by him in that burnt district 
 was the finding, in different places, of numberless rock inscriptions. 
 "I found," he says, "several such places, where every stone within
 
 EL HARRAH.— ES SAFAIL— ARABS OF THE LEJAH. 443 
 
 a given space bore the mark of some beast or other figure, witli an 
 accompanying inscription." And he thinks that " we have in those 
 inscriptions specimens of a writing which, though not purely Him- 
 yaritic, is, nevertheless, very much allied to it." 
 
 "From reports brought by Arabs that there are innumerable 
 rock inscriptions in the desert between the Hauran and the Eu- 
 phrates." :\Ir. Graham is convinced "that one great race formerly 
 overran all those parts, and eventually settled in southern Arabia, 
 and formed the dynasties of the kings of whom we have more 
 specially heard under the name of the Himyri." A few years after 
 ^Ir. Graham's adventurous tour, Dr. J. G. Wetzstein, then Prussian 
 Consul at Damascus, made an excursion into the Ilarrah and the 
 Safah, north of it, a district remarkable for the number of its cone- 
 shaped tells, the craters of extinct volcanoes. He also published 
 an interesting account of his tour, especially in regard to the little 
 known regions of es Safah. 
 
 It seems to me that our guide is treating us to a specimen of 
 the Harrah, or burnt district, by the route he is conducting us. 
 Our horses have been wearily plodding through this soft volcanic 
 soil for the last hour and a half, sinking at every step over their 
 fetlocks, to the great discomfort of both horse and rider. Mine is 
 well-nigh exhausted and quite discouraged, and inclined to halt 
 every few minutes to rest and take breath. 
 
 The temple at Musmeih is in sight, and we shall soon dismount 
 at our tents, pitched in front of it. 
 
 September 17th. Evening. 
 
 The wild -looking Arabs who stared at us from amongst the 
 ruins as we rode up to our tents had a very suspicious and sinister 
 appearance. 
 
 This deserted city is only occupied now by a few Ik'dawin from 
 the Lejah, and our Druse muleteer, who is acquainted with some 
 of them, says that they will not venture to molest us. The half a 
 dozen or more petty tribes of Bedawin who inhabit the Lejah, 
 though nominally tributary to the Pasha of Damascus, have a far 
 greater respect for the Druses in this region than for the Turkish 
 authorities, and they frequently refuse to pay the annual tribute 
 levied upon them. On such occasions they retire into the fast-
 
 444 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 nesses of this rocky district, and bid defiance to the government 
 troops sent against them. But, owing to the scarcity of water in 
 the Lejah for their flocks and herds, they are eventually compelled 
 to come to terms with the authorities, and a compromise is usually 
 effected through the friendly mediation of some Druse sheikh. 
 
 During the spring and summer, the great nomadic tribes of the 
 desert, when not in open rebellion against the Pasha, generally 
 overrun the country east of the Jordan and the Hauran as far 
 north as the Ghutah of Damascus. But, as their relations with the 
 government and the Druses are about as uncertain as their own 
 with the Bedawin of this region, it frequently happens that their 
 hand is against every man, and every man's hand against them. 
 Then travel in this part of the country is unsafe. 
 
 Is it not probable that the apostle Paul passed through the 
 Lejah when he escaped from Damascus and "went into Arabia?" 
 
 It is, at least, possible. He appears to have remained in his 
 retreat for a considerable time, for he did not go back to Jerusa- 
 lem until three years after his return to Damascus. It is an inter- 
 esting thought that, perhaps during those three years, the zealous 
 apostle may have founded some of the churches which were greatly 
 multiplied in the country east of the Jordan and the region around 
 Damascus in the first and second centuries of the Christian era. 
 Those early converts seem to have been inclined to embrace va- 
 rious doctrinal heresies, and Origen, though quite advanced in 
 years, was summoned from Caesarea more than once to bring them 
 back to the orthodox faith ; and in such benevolent missions that 
 learned and eminent father was always successful. 
 
 The Lejah has been identified with " the region of Argob," a 
 part of " the kingdom of Og," the giant " king of Bashan," w^hich 
 Moses " gave unto the half tribe of Manasseh, with all Bashan, 
 which was called the land of giants."' In the time of Solomon, 
 about four hundred and thirty years later, " the region of Argob, 
 which is in Bashan," was assigned to one of his purveyors with its 
 "threescore great cities with walls and brazen bars."* We hear 
 nothing further of Argob in the Bible for a thousand years or more, 
 until after the reign of Herod the Great, when it is mentioned by 
 
 ' Deut. iii. 3-5, 11, 13, 14. 2 j Kings iv. 13.
 
 ARGOB.— TRACHONITIS.— EL LEJAH. 445 
 
 Luke under its Greek name of Trachonitis, apparently equivalent 
 to its ancient Hebrew designation of the rough or stony region.' 
 
 Josephus informs us that Uz, the great-grandson of Noah, 
 " founded Trachonitis and Damascus : this country," he says, " lies 
 between Palestine and Coelesyria.'"^ He also tells us that in the 
 time of Herod " one Zenodorus became a partner with the robbers 
 that inhabited the Trachonites, and so procured himself a larger 
 income ; for the inhabitants of those places live in a mad way, and 
 pillage the country of the Damascenes. This way of robbery had 
 been their usual practice, and they had no other way to get their 
 living." He then gives a description of the extraordinay caverns 
 of this district in which the robbers concealed themselves, their 
 cattle, and their plunder. Their raids became so destructive that 
 Augustus Caesar " wrote to Varro [then ' proconsul ' of Syria] to 
 destroy those nests of robbers, and to give the land to Herod, that 
 so by his care the neighboring countries might be no longer dis- 
 turbed with these doings of the Trachonites." ' Subsequently, Tibe- 
 rius Caesar gave this province to Philip, the son of Herod, and he 
 became tetrarch of this region, as we know from the third chapter 
 of Luke's Gospel. During the reign of Nero, Trachonitis was a part 
 of the kingdom of Agrippa.* Very little is known about it from 
 that time to the present day, except what can be inferred from 
 the numerous inscriptions which have been found amongst the 
 ruins of its temples, fortresses, and towns. 
 
 Argob and its Greek name, Trachonitis, are both supposed to 
 have been given to this region on account of its rough, stony, and 
 inaccessible nature; has its Arabic name the same significance? 
 
 Only by implication. The word Lejah, in a certain sense, refers 
 to the act of resorting to a place for the purpose of protection, 
 and Meljah would be the Arabic name for such an asylum ; and 
 this rocky wilderness of black lava is now, and probably always has 
 been, the refuge of those who have been compelled to seek safety 
 from their enemies and persecutors. 
 
 The Lejah is a district wholly unique, and is correctly described 
 by Dr. Porter as " of an irregular oval shape, about twenty miles 
 long by fourteen broad— the circumference [being] fifty-eight miles. 
 
 ' Luke iii. i. - Ant. i. 6, 4. ^ Ant. xv. lo, I. * B. J. ii. (\ 3 ; '''• 3. 5-
 
 446 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Its border is as clearly defined as the line of a rocky coast, which 
 it very much resembles. The surface is elevated from twenty to 
 thirty feet above the surrounding plain. At a little distance it 
 appears as flat as a sea ; the only hills in it are Tell el 'Amarah 
 and Tell Sumeid. The former is the loftier, and has an elevation 
 of about three hundred feet. 
 
 The physical features of the Lejah are very remarkable. It is 
 composed of black basalt, which appears to have issued from pores 
 in the earth in a liquid state and to have flowed out until the plain 
 was almost covered. Before cooling, its surface was agitated by 
 some powerful agency, and it was afterwards shattered and rent by 
 internal convulsions and vibrations. There are in many places deep 
 fissures with rugged, broken edges, while in other places are jagged 
 heaps of rock that seem not to have been sufficiently heated to 
 flow, but were forced upwards and then rent and shattered. The 
 rock is filled with air-bubbles; it is as hard as flint, and emits a 
 sharp metallic sound when struck."' 
 
 Although barren and incapable of cultivation, and almost en- 
 tirely destitute of fountains and streams, yet there are several 
 "pasturing places" in and about the Lejah, and it is dotted with 
 the remains of old towns, some of which were places of consider- 
 able size and importance. Thither the people resorted in ancient 
 times from all sides, and in this Lejah or asylum they dwelt secure 
 from the raids of lawless tribes, and bid defiance to the attacks of 
 even regular and well-disciplined armies. 
 
 ' Five Years in Damascus, pp. 281, 282.
 
 EL MUSMEIH TO EDIIRA' AND KUNAWAT. 4^7 
 
 XII. 
 EL MUSMEIH TO EDHRA' AND KUNAWAT. 
 
 Howling Jackals and Barking Dogs. — El Musmeih, Phaeno. — Rock -cut Road. — Cis- 
 terns. — Roman Legions. — An Episcopal City. — Temple at el IMusmeih. — Shell-shaped 
 Roof. — Columns with Wreaths or Bands. — Marcus Aurclius Antoninus and Lucius 
 Aurelius Verus. — Greek Inscription. — Trachonitis, el Lejah. — Governor's Palace 
 and Bishop's Residence. — Ruins of Private Houses. — Influence of External Nature 
 upon Human Character. — The Border of the Lejah. — Rocky Labyrinths. — Fountains 
 and Streams. — The Egyptian Army driven out of the Lejah. — Regular Troops of no 
 Avail in the Volcanic Clefts and Chasms of the Lejah. — Sha'arah. — Tower, Temple, 
 and Inscription. — Manufacture of Saltpetre. — The Outer and the Inner Lejah. — Oozy 
 Black Mud. — Stream from Tibny. — Scarcity of Water. — " Deceitful Brooks" and Job's 
 "Miserable Comforters." — The Guides of Ancient and Modern Caravans "Con- 
 founded and Ashamed." — Personal Experience in the Wilderness of Wandering. — 
 Deserted Villages and Partially Cultivated Plain. — Es Siinamein, the Two Idols. — 
 Mecca Pilgrims. — Aere. — Stone Walls, Doors, Windows, and Roofs. — Towers, Tem- 
 ples, and Inscriptions. — Fortuna, the Goddess of Luck. — Tell Kusweh. — Khubab. — 
 Ox Ploughing and Taxation. — Manufacture of Lava Millstones. — A Century Old. — 
 Boys' School. — Desire for Education. — Manners and Customs, Dress and Ajipearance 
 of the People in the Lejah. — Interments in Open Pens of Lava Fragments. — Shiik- 
 rah. — Muddy Causeway. — Melihat Hazkin. — Ruined and Deserted Towers. — Saints' 
 Tomb. — Gray Wolf. — Tibny. — A French Monk. — A Mass of Prostrate Buildings. — 
 Wheat Concealed in Cisterns. — Bedawin Robbers. — Storehouses of Joseph in Egypt. 
 — Luhf el Lejah. — Plain of the Hauran. — Ruins of Ancient Cities. — Ancient Fire- 
 proof Houses. — Houses Burned Down on Lebanon. — Healthy Climate and Extensive 
 Prospects. — El Hauran. — En Nukrah, el Lejah, and el Jebel. — Dr. Eli Smith's List 
 of Two Hundred and Thirty-nine Sites of Towns and Villages. — Moslems, Druses, 
 and Christians. — Greeks and Greek Catholics. — Sites of Seventy-five Villages and .An- 
 cient Towns within and around the Lejah. — "Threescore Cities Fenced with High 
 Walls." — "The Kingdom of Og in Bashan." — Approach to Edhra' through Lava Dc- 
 fdes and along a Rock-cut Road. — Site of Edhra'. — Exploits of the Hebrews in the 
 Time of Moses. — M. Waddington.— Edrei. — Zorava. — Der'a. — The Conilicl 15etwcen 
 Og, King of Bashan, and the Hebrews. — Edhra' identical with the City mentioned by 
 Moses. — Extensive Ruins, — Subterranean Residences. — Description of the Stone
 
 448 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Roofs and the Supporting Arches. — Ancient Architects. — Window-shutters and Doors 
 made of Lava Slabs. — The Church of St. Elias. — Greek Inscriptions. — The Church of 
 St. George Described by M. Waddington. — Quadrangular Structure Described by 
 Burckhardt. — Square Tower. — Columns of Green Micaceous Marble. — Ruined Vaults 
 and Prostrate Columns. — Excursion into the Lejah. — Air-bubbles of Hard Rock. — 
 Masses of Lava, and Petrified Waves. — Shivered Hills and Funnel-shaped Pits. — 
 Flocks of Sheep and Goats. — Bedawin Shepherds Professional Robbers. — "All 
 Thieves." — Scarcity of Pasture. — Deterioration of the Lejah. — No Wild Animals and 
 but few Birds. — Reservoirs in Caverns. — Native Traditions. — Few Springs and no 
 Never-failing Fountains. — Caverns mentioned by Josephus. — Subterranean Dwellings, 
 Pools of Water and Corn in Granaries. — Herod the Great. — Robbers of Trachonitis 
 and the Bedawin of the Lejah. — Greek, Cufic, and Nabathean Inscriptions. — M. Wad- 
 dington. — Harran. — Blood Feuds. — Law of Revenge. — Burckhardt's Visit to Dama. — 
 Rock-cut Cisterns. — Encampment of Medlej Bedawin. — Tents Concealed in the Crev- 
 ices and Fissures of the Rocks. — Modern Villages and Ancient Sites. — Remarkable 
 Preservation of Ruined Towns and Cities. — Pompeii. — Houses Constructed of Imper- 
 ishable Lava. — Temples and Public Edifices in the Lejah erected before the Christian 
 Era. — Ruins at Nejran. — Church with Two Towers. — Blood-money. — Terebinth-oil 
 used instead of Olive-oil. — Disappearance of the old Earthen Lamp. — Petroleum 
 from Pennsylvania. — "The Smoking Flax and the Bruised Reed." — The Servant of 
 the Lord. — Fire out of the Heel, and Ink out of the Mouth. — The Stream in Wady 
 Kunawat. — Shuhba Described by Dr. Porter. — A Roman City. — Streets and Gates, 
 Temples, Baths, and Public Buildings. — Theatre at Shuhba. — M. Waddington and the 
 Count De VogUe. — The Emperor Philip. — Philippopolis. — Shuhba and the Shehab 
 Emirs. — Nur ed Din and Saladin. — The Crusaders. — The Monguls. — The Emir 
 Beshir. — Muhammed Aly. — Civil Wars and the Massacres of i860. — A Long Pedigree, 
 from "the Beginning" to the Present Hour. — Temple at Suleim. — Neapolis. — Cav- 
 ernous Cistern. — Ruins of an Old Town. — The Village School and Native Teacher. — 
 Desire for Education. — Moments lengthened into Hours. — Proverbial Hospitality. — 
 Grseco-Roman Population East of the Jordan. — A Succession of Temples and Public 
 Buildings. — More Greek Inscriptions than in all Syria and Palestine. — Cities of the 
 Decapolis. — "Jesus went through the Borders of the Decapolis." — Roman Road. — 
 Oak Woods. — Approach to Kunawat. — River of Kunawat. — Theatre in Wady Kuna- 
 wat. — Outlook over the Plain of the Hauran to distant Hermon. — Nymphseum, or 
 Public Bath. — Round Tower. — Cyclopean Walls. — Oldest Ruins of Kenath. — Main 
 Street. — Houses with Sculptured Doors. — A Natural Fortification. — The City Wall. — 
 Paved Area. — Es Serai, or Convent of Job. — Beautiful Door-way. — Sculptured Figures 
 and Clusters of Grapes. — Colonnades. — Heathen Edifices and Christian Churches. — 
 Large Vaulted Cisterns. — Roman Prostyle Temple. — Colossal Head in High- relief. 
 — Heads of Baal and Ashtoreth. — American Palestine Exploration Society. — Worship 
 of Ashtoreth. — Syria Dea. — Ashtoreth Karnaim. — Peripteral Temple. — Dedicated to 
 Helios or the Sun. — Biblical History of Kenath. — Jair, Nobah, Gideon. — Josephus 
 and Herod the Great. — Ptolemy and Pliny. — Eusebius and the Peutinger Table. — 
 Kunawat the Biblical Kenath or Nobah. — M. Waddington. — Greek Inscriptions. — 
 King Agrippa. — Statue of Herod the Great. — Si'a. — Streams at Kunawat. — No Water
 
 EL MUSMEIH, PH^NO.-RUIXED TEMPLE. 449 
 
 even for Money. — The Population of the Hauran Increasing. — Primitive School 
 and Venerable School - master. — Boards instead of Books. — Remarkable Zeal for 
 
 Instruction. ^ , „ , 
 
 September ibtn. 
 
 Nothing more formidable than the melancholy howl of jackals 
 and the barking of the Bedawins' dogs disturbed our slumbers last 
 ni«yht. and while the servants are busy packing and the muleteers 
 are loading their animals wc will visit the ruins of this remark- 
 able and once extensive city. 
 
 What was the name of this place in former times? 
 El Musmeih was called Phaeno by the Greeks, and Pha^na in 
 the days of the Romans, and an inscription on the main entrance 
 to the temple determines the important fact that the Lejah is the 
 Trachonitis of the ancients. Pha^na was, indeed, one of its chief 
 towns, and that accounts for the size of the place as well as the 
 character of its ruins, which spread over a space nearly three miles 
 in circumference. It is situated at the northern end of the Lejah, 
 and just within its rocky border, and the road leading to it from 
 the plain was excavated in the hard lava. 
 
 Like all other cities in the Lejah, Pha^na was entirely dependent 
 on its cisterns for water, hence their number and large size. It 
 appears to have been an important place in the time of the Ro- 
 mans, for we learn from the inscriptions that a part of the Third 
 Gallic and of the Sixteenth Legions were at one time stationed 
 here. During the early centuries of the Christian era Pha^na was 
 an episcopal city, and its temple was converted into a church, 
 which subsequently was transformed into a mosk. 
 
 This temple at el Musmeih is a fine specimen of the architecture 
 of that Greco-Roman period, and it is one of the best preserved 
 ruins in this ancient " region of Argob." It stood facing the east, 
 and in front of it was a large paved court, which appears to have 
 had a colonnade on three sides of it. The fragments of those col- 
 umns are scattered about in confusion, not even the pedestals being 
 in situ. A flight of six stone steps lead up to the portico of the 
 temple, which consisted of six Doric columns— three on either side 
 of the main entrance; those on the right, or south, arc the only ones 
 still standing. The large and lofty central door, now almost en- 
 tirely walled up, was without decoration, and the small side doors
 
 450 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 had each a semicircular niche, finished at the top in the form of a 
 shell, with four columns in front supporting a series of round re- 
 ceding arches and a projecting triangular roof. 
 
 The temple was, externally, nearly fifty feet wide, over seventy 
 feet in length, and about forty feet high, and the walls are almost 
 perfect, though they have been cracked and shaken by earthquakes. 
 Within it is not quite forty-three feet square, having a large semi- 
 circular niche in the west wall opposite the main entrance, which 
 is vaulted over by a shell-shaped roof of unusual size and beauty, 
 and cut in the hard basaltic slabs. The roof, which has fallen, was 
 made of the same kind of slabs, resting upon four arches supported 
 by four Corinthian columns, still standing in the middle of the 
 edifice. The columns are about thirty feet high, with correspond- 
 ing pilasters in the side walls ; their pedestals, ornamented with 
 wreaths, are over three feet high, and the shafts about two feet 
 below the capitals are also decorated with wreaths or bands. 
 
 This temple, according to an inscription on the lintel of the 
 main entrance, was erected by a commander of the Third Gallic 
 Legion, then stationed in this city, and during the reign of the em- 
 perors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Verus, or 
 between i6i and 169 A.D. This long inscription of forty lines on 
 the left of the main entrance to the temple is addressed to the 
 people of Phaena, one of the principal towns of Trachon, or Tracho- 
 nitis, thus establishing the identity of the latter with the Lejah. 
 There are other inscriptions upon the bases of the three columns, 
 on the architrave, in the portico, and on the pedestals within the 
 temple, but none of them are supposed to be of an earlier date than 
 the first century of the Christian era. 
 
 About forty rods east of the temple is a confused mass of ruins 
 belonging to a group of buildings, one of which was three stories 
 high, and it may have been the governor's palace and afterwards 
 the residence of the bishop of this diocese. Most of the private 
 houses of Phaena are now in ruins, but there are several large 
 structures in the southern part of the city which are still in a tol- 
 erable state of preservation, and from the top of one of them the 
 outlook over this dreary wilderness of black lava is wholly unique 
 and dismal in the extreme.
 
 INHABITANTS OF ARGOB.— OUTSKIRTS OF THE LEJAH. 451 
 
 TEMPLE AT EL Ml 
 
 If external nature exercises a potent influence upon human char- 
 acter, no wonder that the inhabitants of Argob, Trachonitis, or el 
 Lejah were a wild and lawless set. Certain it is that the reputa- 
 tion which the people of this region have always borne strikingly 
 accords with its physical features. 
 
 It is high time we were on our journey. For the first hour ant! 
 a half our course will be due west along the northern border of the 
 Lejah to the site of an ancient place now called Sha'araii, where 
 the muleteers are to wait for us. 
 
 The country on the north and west sides of the Lejah, accord- 
 ing to your account, is rather desolate and uninteresting. 
 
 My remarks applied only to the few miles immediately after we 
 leave el Musmeih. We are now fairly entering upon the outskirts 
 of this wonderful basaltic wilderness of the Lejah, and the border 
 is as sharply outlined as though it were the ragged line of broken 
 cliffs extending along a rocky shore. It will give sufficient occu-
 
 452 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 pation to even a practised rider to guide his horse safely through 
 these rocky labyrinths ; conversation might even prove to be' a 
 distraction dangerous to hfe and Hmb, so I will merely say that 
 there are several fountains between el Musmeih and Sha'arah 
 whose streams irrigate the fields on the neighboring plain culti- 
 vated by the inhabitants of that village. 
 
 More than forty years ago the entire Egyptian army, under Ibra- 
 him Pasha, was driven out of the Lejah, with great slaughter, by 
 the Druses. Their boast is that they had less than two thousand 
 fighting men, while the army of Ibrahim Pasha amounted to forty 
 thousand. The reason for that signal defeat is sufficiently obvious. 
 Regular troops can do nothing amongst the clefts and chasms and 
 intricate labyrinths of this volcanic Lejah against an enemy they 
 cannot see, and where they are shot down hopelessly contending 
 with foes they cannot dislodge. 
 
 That would certainly be their fate, especially if regular troops 
 were decoyed into such a rough and rocky region as this through 
 which we have been passing for the last half hour, entangled as it 
 is with these impenetrable thorny thickets. 
 
 We are approaching Sha'arah, which, as you see, is built on 
 both sides of the valley that descends into the western plain. 
 Burckhardt spent a night here, and his description of the place will 
 answer very well for the village of to-day : " Sha'arah is inhabited," 
 he says, " by about one hundred Druse and Christian families. It 
 was once a considerable city, half an hour from the cultivated plain, 
 and surrounded by a most dreary, barren w'ar. It has several sol- 
 idly built structures, now in ruins, and amongst others a tower that 
 must have been about forty-five feet high. In the upper town is 
 an ancient edifice [a temple] with arches, converted into a mosque.'" 
 Over the door is a Greek inscription, which he copied, and from 
 which we learn that the temple was built about the same time as 
 the one at Phaena, or el Musmeih. He found a saltpetre manufac- 
 tory in the town, similar to those we passed at Sher'aya, on our way 
 here from el Musmeih, and he gives a detailed description of the 
 manufacture of saltpetre from the earth which was dug up from 
 amongst the ruins of these ancient towns. 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 114.
 
 MUSMEIH TO KIIUBAB.— DECEITFUL BROOKS. 453 
 
 From Sha'arah our route will lead southward along the western 
 margin of the Lejah ; and it is time to address ourselves to the 
 rough road over its jagged and rocky spurs towards Khubab, where 
 we take our lunch. The outer Lejah, however, is not so wild and 
 inaccessible as the inner; the rocks arc not so high, nor is the sur- 
 face so uneven, and the patches of soil are larger, more frequent, and 
 better fitted for cultivation and pasture. 
 
 I am continually reminded of the great difference between my 
 former visit to this region and our present experience in the matter 
 of rain-water. I cannot recall a more disagreeable ride than that 
 from el ]\Iusmeih to Khubab. We kept along and over the rocky 
 margin of the Lejah, and even then our animals frequently floun- 
 dered in oozy, black mud, that seemed to have no bottom; then 
 we encountered a little stream called Nahr 'Arram, coming from 
 the vicinity of the village of Tibny, and flowing in a southerly di- 
 rection, which is now quite dry; and before we reached Tell Kus- 
 weh we overtook some natives whose donkeys had actually stuck 
 fast in the mud. Now the only trouble is to obtain water enough 
 for ourselves and our thirsty animals. 
 
 Such dried-up streams suggested to Job, I suppose, one of his 
 bitter rebukes of his false-hearted friends and " miserable comfort- 
 ers." In his anguish and disappointment, when he looked for sym- 
 pathy and support from them and obtained only unkind reproof, he 
 exclaimed, " My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook, and as 
 the stream of brooks they pass away; which are blackish by rea- 
 son of the ice, and wherein the snow is hid : what time they wax 
 warm, they vanish: when it is hot, they are consumed out of their 
 place. The paths of their way are turned aside ; they go to noth- 
 ing, and perish."' 
 
 We shall see many such streams on our farther travels in this 
 region, and may sometimes look for them as did " the troops [or 
 caravans] of Tema," and be disappointed as were " the companies 
 of Sheba " who "waited for them" and "were confounded because 
 they had hoped " for water and " were ashamed " when " they came 
 thither" and found none.''' The words "confounded" and "ashamed" 
 may refer to the feelings of the over-confident guides of those an- 
 
 ' Jo!) vi. 15-1S. '' Job vi. Kj, 20.
 
 454 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 cient caravans through the desert, who were expected to know 
 where an adequate supply of water could be obtained. 
 
 When passing, many years ago, "through that great and terrible 
 wilderness" of wandering, north of en Nukhl, the water-barrels were 
 exhausted, but our Bedawin sheikh assured us that we would find 
 good water at the place where he was taking us to encamp.' On 
 arriving there in the evening, however, there was very little water 
 to be obtained, and that so brackish that we could not drink it. 
 The sheikh was "confounded," and being sharply rebuked appeared 
 to be "ashamed," and taking one of the barrels on his shoulder he 
 set off in search of better water. He returned long after midnight 
 without any, and he seemed to feel greatly mortified that his repu- 
 tation as a reliable guide had been seriously impaired. 
 
 Although there is now no habitation of man to the east of our 
 road, for the villages are all deserted and desolate between el Mus- 
 meih and Khubab, still we are favored with prospects of great 
 beauty and vast extent over the rich and partially cultivated plain 
 of the Hauran and the district of el Jeidur westward, and north- 
 ward as far as to the majestic heights of Mount Hermon. 
 
 Is there no place of historical importance out on the plain? 
 
 South-west of el Musmeih and about ten miles distant from it is 
 the large Moslem village of es Sunamein, or the Two Idols. It is 
 on the Haj road from Damascus to Mecca, and there the pilgrims 
 sometimes spend one of the first nights of their arduous journey. 
 The ruins in the village are of considerable interest, and it is sup- 
 posed to have derived its present name from two figures cut on 
 a basaltic stone near the gate; but Muhammcdan iconoclasts have 
 rendered them almost unrecognizable. We learn from a Greek in- 
 scription that the ancient name of the place was Acre, probably 
 identical with a station on the Roman road between Damascus and 
 Nowa or Neve. Some of the houses have massive stone walls, 
 stone doors and window-shutters, and stone roofs. 
 
 In and about that village there are also several square towers, 
 large buildings, and the remains of two temples, one of which, built 
 of limestone and in the Corinthian style of architecture, was once 
 used as a church. The same Greek inscription informs us that one 
 
 1 Deut. i. 19.
 
 KHUBAB.— MILLSTONES.— HABILA. 455 
 
 of those temples, built about the third century of our era, was dedi- 
 cated to Fortuna, or Tyche, the goddess of luck or chance. 
 
 Can we not stop and lunch here just as well as anywhere else on 
 this treeless plain, for I am becoming both weary and hungry? 
 
 Just as you please. Our thoughtful cook has brought a bottle 
 of water from the fountain near Tell Kusweh, which is much better 
 than any we shall find in the village of Khubab. 
 
 Edhra', where we are to spend the night, is about four hours 
 from Khubab, and as we are to pass through the latter place and 
 reach the former in time to examine the ruins there before dark, we 
 must not linger here over our lunch. 
 
 The sheikh of Khubab is a Druse, although it is a Christian vil- 
 lage and inhabited by about one hundred families of Greek Cath- 
 olics. It is situated on a rocky spur of the Lejah, terminating in 
 two low tells, and access to it from the plain is not difficult. Agri- 
 culture is the principal occupation of the people, who are taxed for 
 two hundred feddan, implying that they possess a portion of the 
 plain around and west of them which it would require two hundred 
 yoke of oxen to cultivate. 
 
 There is also a special industry carried on at this place, as well 
 as in some other villages in this region. Here the finishing touches 
 are put to the millstones which have been quarried out of the 
 basaltic rock of the Lejah for the past ages. " The stones are 
 cut horizontally out of the rocks, leaving holes four or five feet in 
 depth and as many in circumference ; fifty or sixty of these exca- 
 vations are often met with in the circumference of a mile," and, 
 as Burckhardt remarks, " the stones are exported over the greater 
 part of Syria as far as Aleppo and Jerusalem. They vary in price 
 according to their size, and are preferred to all others on account 
 of the hardness of the stone."' 
 
 On my previous visit to Khubab, Sheikh Diab, the head of the 
 village, told me that his people came there from Sulkhad one hun- 
 dred and five years before, at which time the place was deserted. 
 Consequently the houses are almost all comparatively modern, 
 though built upon and out of ancient edifices. Its original name 
 appears to have been Habila, and it must have been a considerable 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., ])]). 57, 113. 
 II 2
 
 456 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 town, though, Hke all the rest in the Lejah, having no permanent 
 fountain, it is sadly destitute of good water. 
 
 The people are rather boisterous and rude in their behavior, but 
 they do not seem to be ill-natured. 
 
 There is a boys' school in the village, and when I was here be- 
 fore, the pupils were marched down to our camp early Monday 
 morning, with banners flying and a great clapping of hands for 
 music. Arranged in front of the tent, one of the boys stepped out 
 of the ranks and made a speech, all flower and compliment, which 
 the teacher had no doubt prepared for the occasion. That over, 
 they burst forth into vociferous applause and then marched back to 
 their school-room. That was more than I expected to see in the 
 Lejah, and affords reliable evidence that a desire for education and 
 improvement is slowly penetrating into the darkest parts of this 
 dark region. Many of the people were eager to procure books, and 
 a colporteur, I was told, had actually sold some in this village. 
 
 In manners and customs, dress and appearance, very little prog- 
 ress has yet been made by the people in this region towards a 
 higher civilization. The women generally wear the long, loose shirt 
 of blue cotton cloth almost universal in the Hauran for both sexes; 
 they go barefoot to the stagnant pool and bring home large buckets 
 of cream-colored water, which is the only kind there is here. No 
 doubt it wall lose some of its color in a few days, but none of its 
 offensive odor and other deleterious qualities. 
 
 The people of Khubab treat their dead in a most shocking 
 manner. On a bare lava ridge, a short distance to the east of the 
 village, I found a number of small open pens about three feet 
 high, made by piling up loose lava fragments. Within those pens 
 the corpse is placed, without any interment or other covering what- 
 ever. There is not a handful of earth in the immediate neigh- 
 borhood, and that is their excuse for not burying the bodies of 
 the dead ; but surely they might cover them with stones. I was 
 informed that within a year the bodies become perfectly dry, and 
 the bones are then collected and placed in a large and special pen 
 prepared for their reception. I saw two of those pens quite full of 
 such bones — a most revolting spectacle — the like of which I had 
 never seen elsewhere nor even heard of before.
 
 MELIHAT IIAZKIN.— MONK AT TIBNV. 457 
 
 There is nothing to detain us here, so, leaving Khubab, we will 
 continue our journey along the road to Edhra', which at this season 
 of the year is passably good. In April I found deep mud in many 
 places, and near the village of esh Shukrah the road led through a 
 wide pond on a broken causeway made of loose stones, over which 
 our horses floundered in great perplexity. 
 
 The last time I was at Khubab I walked out in the evening to 
 examine a ruin called Melihat Hazkin, a mass of ancient buildings 
 with heavy stone doors still hanging on their hinges, Roman arches, 
 and slab roofs. I went into a room and shut the door, but was 
 rather puzzled to open it again, it moved so heavily on its stone 
 hinges. With some tribulation I copied a Greek inscription, sup- 
 posing that M. Waddington had missed it, but upon careful exam- 
 ination of his learned work found that it had not escaped his 
 thorough and indefatigable search. 
 
 Hazkin is quite within the Lejah, and the outlook from the 
 top of the ruins was dreary and desolate in the extreme. A num- 
 ber of ruined towers long since deserted were visible in various parts 
 of that melancholy volcanic wilderness, but not a human being was 
 anywhere to be seen. There is a Muzar, or saints' tomb, a little 
 to the north-west of the ruins, which is still frequented by the 
 Bedawin. Old rags and tattered flags hung about it and fluttered 
 sadly in the evening breeze, and the only living creature near was 
 a large gray wolf, who fled on my approach and soon disappeared 
 among the black lava rocks of the surrounding region. 
 
 There seems to be a great gathering of people at that village 
 which we see yonder on our right, situated on that low hill at the 
 very margin of the plain. What has brought them there? 
 
 They come from the surrounding country, probably to celebrate 
 the feast-day of one of their numerous saints. The village is called 
 Tibny, and the inhabitants are Greek Catholics, like those of Khu- 
 bab. I was surprised to find a monk stationed there who spoke 
 French fluently. He was ambitious to display his local knowledge, 
 and gave us a detailed account of the ancient history of the place. 
 The oldest ruins seen there are on the south of the villa</e, and 
 consist of a confused mass of entirely prostr.ite buildings. 
 
 In one place a number of the villagers were drawing up wheat
 
 458 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 out of a deep cistern which they had uncovered in the middle of 
 a large dunghill — the last place where a stranger would expect to 
 find such "hid treasure;" but Bedavvin robbers sometimes torture 
 the owners until they reveal the cisterns in which the grain is con- 
 cealed. The wheat was perfectly free from mould or injury of any 
 kind resulting from its long confinement in that subterranean gran- 
 ary. The monk assured me that if those cisterns were hermeti- 
 cally sealed, the grain in them would remain for many years without 
 being damaged. It is an interesting fact that the wheat of this 
 country can thus be kept from year to year ; and some such custom 
 must have prevailed in very ancient times, for we know that Joseph 
 preserved his stores in Egypt during "the seven years of famine" 
 for at least that length of time.' 
 
 We are just extricating ourselves from this lava labyrinth, and 
 for most of the way we shall skirt the western margin of the Lejah 
 southward to Edhra'. The surrounding plain is called Luhf el 
 Lejah. Lihaf is the singular for the thick cotton quilt under which 
 the natives sleep, luhf being the plural, and the application of that 
 term to the narrow border of the Lejah may express the meaning 
 that the great plain of the Hauran, on the south and west, spreads 
 up to and covers the feet of the rocky lava spurs which stretch 
 down into it in various places and on all sides. Just within the 
 Lejah, and above and beyond the Luhf, are found nearly all the 
 ruins of ancient cities; and whatever inhabitants now occupy them 
 cultivate the neighboring parts of the plain. 
 
 I suppose that the selection of those sites was originally made 
 for the purpose of protection against robbers, who appear to have 
 infested this region in all past ages, as they do at the present time. 
 The houses were all roofed with lava slabs, and probably one reason 
 for using lava instead of wooden beams, even where there were for- 
 ests at no great distance, may have been to render the dwellings 
 fire-proof. I have seen the houses in the southern half of Lebanon 
 burned down at least three times within the last forty years. As 
 they are all built of stone, had they been roofed with stone slabs 
 like these of the Lejah instead of wood, it could not have been pos- 
 sible to burn them ; and since this district of old Argob has always 
 
 ' Gen. xli. 46-48, 53-57-
 
 ANCIENT SITES IN THE HAURAN AND THE LEJAH. 459 
 
 been exposed, even more than Lebanon, to sudden invasions and 
 internal convulsions, habitations that could not be set on fire proved 
 to be necessary both for protection and defence. Of course those 
 stone -roofed rooms are also the most durable, and much cooler 
 during the summer than those roofed with wood — an important 
 consideration in a region like this of the Lejah. 
 
 Though so little elevated above the surrounding country, the 
 inhabitants of the Lejah are evidently favored with a healthy 
 climate, and they certainly enjoy prospects of great variety and 
 of almost boundless extent. 
 
 Below them is the famed Hauran, most of it as level as the sea, 
 and in the spring it is covered with golden harvests ripening for 
 the sickle, while far away to the north-west and north tower the 
 snow-clad heights of Hermon and the rugged ridges of Ante-Leb- 
 anon. Dr. Eli Smith says that the province of el Hauran " is re- 
 garded by the natives as consisting of three parts, called en Nukrah, 
 el Lejah, and el Jebel," and he gives a list of two hundred and 
 thirty-nine sites of towns and villages in it. Many, it is true, are 
 marked as deserted, but a large and ever- increasing number are 
 occupied by a mixed population of Moslems and Christians, or 
 Druses and Christians, the latter chiefly of the Greek and Greek 
 Catholic sects, and all residing together in peace. 
 
 In the Luhf which surround the Lejah on the north, east, 
 south, and west there are thirty-seven names on Dr. Smith's list, 
 and there were many others whose names he did not get ; while 
 within the Lejah itself he gives twenty-two names of sites, and 
 recent research has brought to light not a few others. There are, 
 therefore, within and around the Lejah, more than seventy-five vil- 
 lages and sites of ancient towns. 
 
 I suppose that much of the Lejah, the ancient " region of Ar- 
 gob," and all the country west of it — " the kingdom of Og, in Ba- 
 shan " — was included in the conquest by the Hebrews, and that 
 therefore the statement that they " took threescore cities fenced 
 with high walls, gates, and bars; besides unwalled towns a great 
 many" is neither improbable nor exaggerated.' Such dry lists of 
 names like those given by Dr. Smith are thus found to add impor- 
 
 ' Dcut. iii. 4, 5.
 
 460 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 tant confirmation to some of the accounts contained in the oldest 
 portions of the sacred Scriptures regarding this land. 
 
 We may at least conclude that if modern research had shown 
 that " the kingdom of Og in Bashan " was a mere barren waste, in- 
 capable of sustaining any considerable population, we should be 
 not a little perplexed with some parts of Biblical history; but no 
 such embarrassments can arise in regard to the narratives, for 
 we have before and around us this very region thickly studded 
 with sites apparently as old as the history requires, and certainly 
 quite as numerous. 
 
 Edhra', September i8th. Evening. 
 
 Our ride into this ancient city from the plain, along the rock- 
 cut road and through jagged fissures, was not a little nervous, and 
 quite dangerous to both horse and rider. The lava seems to have 
 run and spread like slag from a furnace, and in many places it is as 
 hard as adamant and as smooth as glass. 
 
 Though the site of Edhra' upon its rocky promontory is not 
 elevated more than fifty or sixty feet above the plain on the west 
 and south, yet it is surrounded on all sides for nearly two miles by 
 a wilderness of fractured lava, which would render the approach of 
 an enemy almost impossible. 
 
 Your account of the defeat of Ibrahim Pasha's army amongst 
 the rock labyrinths of the Lejah brought to mind the exploits of 
 the Hebrews in the time of Moses, and I seemed to get an entirely 
 new idea of the valor of those mighty warriors who could in a sin- 
 gle campaign overrun this whole region and take " all the cities of 
 the plain, and all Gilead and all Bashan, unto Salchah and Edrei, 
 cities of the kingdom of Og in Bashan." ' 
 
 Perhaps you are not aware that M. Waddington and others as- 
 sert that this is not the Edrei mentioned by Moses; and from an 
 inscription found here he proves to his entire satisfaction that its 
 Graeco- Roman name was Zorava. That evidence, however, is not 
 decisive. No one will maintain, I suppose, that Zorava was the 
 original name of this place; and the Greeks might have changed 
 Edrei, the ancient Hebrew name, into Zorava to distinguish it from 
 another town vyith a similar name, supposed to be identical with 
 
 ' Deut. iii. 8-10.
 
 THE HEBREW CONQUEST.— THE REGION OF ARGOB. 461 
 
 Der'a, about twenty miles north-west of el Busrah or Bozrah, and 
 which M. Waddington maintains is the Biblical Edrei. 
 
 The account of the Hebrew conquest of this part of Og's do- 
 minions seems to imply that the final battle took place near the 
 border of his territory. The record is in these words: "And they 
 turned and went up by the way of Bashan : and Og the king of 
 Bashan went out against them, he, and all his people, to the battle 
 at Edrei." ' As the Kingdom of Og appears to have extended to 
 the Lejah, and probably included this entire district, it is natural 
 to suppose that he would make his final stand somewhere along its 
 almost impregnable frontier. No more formidable position could 
 be desired than this at Edhra', and the present Arabic name is 
 much nearer the Hebrew than Der'a, the rival claimant, which ap- 
 pears also to be too far west to have been the scene of the com- 
 plete and disastrous overthrow of the king of Bashan. 
 
 The Lejah is generally admitted to be the Argob of the Bible, 
 and the term Argob — stony — pre-eminently applies to it, while it 
 does not at all describe the region round about Der'a. I am, there- 
 fore, inclined to adhere to the opinion that the conflict between Og, 
 king of Bashan, and the Hebrews took place near the border of 
 "the region of Argob," the Trachonitis of the Greeks and Romans, 
 the Lejah of the Arabs ; and, accordingly, here at Edhra' we find 
 the remains of an ancient city in a locality which meets the require- 
 ments of the Biblical narrative, and still bearing a name which may 
 be regarded as identical with that mentioned by Moses.'' 
 
 The existing ruins are nearly four miles in circumference, and 
 although many of the houses and other edifices in their present con- 
 dition are of an age comparatively modern, yet they were erected 
 on foundations and out of materials far more ancient. Most of the 
 present inhabitants reside in the vaults of old structures which may 
 fairly be said to be underground, so great is the accumulation above 
 them of the debris of ruined buildings. To reach them one has to 
 descend as into subterranean courts and caverns. 
 
 Sheikh Ibrahim, the Christian ruler of Edhra', has been specially 
 polite, and under his guidance we have been able to examine the 
 principal ruins, and also to enter some of the private houses. 
 ' Numb. xxi. 33-35. '■' 1 ><-•"'• i'i- i-?-
 
 462 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 And more wretched human habitations we have rarely seen in 
 this country. Descending down broken steps encumbered with rub- 
 bish, we groped our way into rooms black as midnight and without 
 windows for either light or air. Waiting until our optical powers 
 had become adjusted to the glimmering of daylight from the low 
 door, we took a survey of those subterranean abodes. In almost 
 every instance they are simply ancient vaults, and the low black roof 
 was composed of volcanic slabs, one end of which rests on corbels, or 
 slight projections from the walls on either side, and the other upon 
 an arch which divides the room longitudinally in the middle. The 
 slabs have been trimmed so as to fit closely, and are about six inches 
 thick, eighteen inches broad, and from six to eight feet long. Al- 
 lowing one foot for the projections from each wall, and two feet for 
 the thickness of the central supporting arch, the width of the apart- 
 ment would be nearly twenty feet. Of course the rooms could be 
 made of any desired length and breadth by using longer slabs and 
 increasing the number of supporting arches. They are, however, 
 generally square, and the stone roof is very low. 
 
 That description applies, with very little modification, to all the 
 buildings in this whole region. Those ancient architects apparently 
 had but one model, and, whether from design or from necessity, they 
 erected edifices that were absolutely fire-proof. There was nothing 
 to burn. The walls, the roofs, and the very window-shutters and 
 doors were made of slabs of lava, and whether single or double 
 leaved, they turned on pivots and in sockets cut out of the stones 
 themselves. Most of the doors were low and rude, though I have 
 seen some that are skilfully carved with elaborate designs in panel- 
 work, and high enough for any of "the giants" of Bashan to enter 
 without unnecessary abasement and humiliation. 
 
 Amongst the i^uins the most remarkable appear to be those of 
 the so-called churches in the south-eastern and north-western part 
 of the town. But the structure which attracted my attention the 
 most is near the tower, in the middle of the present village. 
 
 The roof of Mar Elyas as it is called, or the Church of St. Elias, 
 has fallen, and only the walls remain standing. The Greek priest 
 took us down about ten feet into the court of that roofless sanctu- 
 ary, where they still worship, and was careful to point out the Greek
 
 RUINED TEMPLES, CHURCHES. AND TOWERS AT EDHRA'. 463 
 
 inscriptions which even now are quite legible. From the one over 
 the entrance we learn that the church was erected during the sixth 
 century of the Christian era. 
 
 Mar Jirjis. the church of St. George, or el Khudr, as the IMos- 
 lems call that renowned saint in the north-western part of the town, 
 was originally a temple, and subsequently converted into a church, 
 but apparently never used as a mosk. M. Waddington says of it 
 that, "like the cathedral of Bozrah, which was built at the same 
 epoch [about A.D. 510-512], it has the form of an octagon inscribed 
 in a square plan. Eight columns bound by arches support the cu- 
 pola, which is surrounded on the outside by an open gallery. In 
 the four corners of the church there are small chapels, and on 
 one side a large chapel projected on the square, and here is the 
 tomb of St. George, an object of veneration to both Christians and 
 Mohammedans, Druses and Bedawin." 
 
 The quadrangular structure near the centre of the village was 
 probably a public building converted into a church and subse- 
 quently used as a mosk, " but it has long since been abandoned." 
 Burckhardt correctly describes it as " having two vaulted colon- 
 nades at the northern and southern ends, each consisting of a 
 double row of five columns. In the middle of the area stood a 
 parallel double range of columns of a larger size, forming a colon- 
 nade across the middle of the building; the columns are of the 
 Doric order, and about sixteen feet high. Over the entrance are 
 three inscribed tablets, only one of which, built upside down in the 
 wall, is legible. Adjoining this building stands a square tower, 
 about fifty feet high ; its base is somewhat broader than its top. I 
 frequently saw similar structures in the villages [of the Lejah and 
 of the Hauran] ; they all have windows near the summit; in some 
 there is one window on each side, in others there are two, as in 
 this at Edhra'. They have generally several stories of vaulted 
 chambers, with a staircase to ascend into them."' 
 
 I noticed that some of the columns in that quadrangular struct- 
 ure were of a green micaceous marble, the only specimens of the 
 kind I have seen in this region. There is a large open area on the 
 east of that edifice, like that of a modern khan, with pnjstr.itc col- 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., pp. 61, 62.
 
 464 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 umns in the middle of the court-yard, and others still supporting 
 the vaulted roofs of former chambers. It appears to have been 
 repaired at one time by the Saracens. 
 
 Our day's work has left me thoroughly wearied with ruins, and 
 as we contemplate an early start and another long ride to-morrow, 
 we had better retire to rest. 
 
 Edhra', September 19th. 
 
 To extricate our caravan from the rocky wilderness around 
 Edhra', and reach Luhf el Lejah, half an hour to the south, is the 
 first thing to be done this morning, after which the road will be 
 comparatively level and pleasant to travel upon. 
 
 At what place do we expect to encamp to-night? 
 
 Kunawat, near the north-western base of Jebel Hauran, and it 
 will take seven or eight hours to get there. 
 
 I regret that we have not penetrated farther into a region so 
 peculiar and so celebrated from remote antiquity as the Lejah, 
 
 Some years ago our party, while in Edhra', had a strong desire 
 to explore it, and finding a Bedawin in the place who offered to 
 guide us through the Lejah to Harran, a village about eight miles 
 to the north-east of Edhra', we gladly availed ourselves of his ser- 
 vices and of the opportunity to see more of the interior of that 
 wonderful district. As there is nothing along our present route to 
 require special notice, I will give you an account of that ride. But 
 how am I to describe a region totally unlike any other with which 
 to compare it ? I could not follow that winding way again, for our 
 caravan made no impression upon the hard lava rock, and we left 
 no trace of our passage behind us. And though the distance be- 
 tween the two places is not very great, it took us four and a half 
 hours to reach Harran. You know that the Lejah is entirely vol- 
 canic, and that it nowhere rises higher than a hundred feet above 
 the surrounding plain of the Hauran. But that gives no idea of the 
 real nature of that extraordinary district. 
 
 Soon after leaving Edhra' I noticed that we were riding over 
 smooth lava rock resembling an unbroken floor, considerably ele- 
 vated in the middle, as though the molten mass beneath the outer 
 crust had swelled it up like an air-bubble, but without cracking or 
 bursting the surface. Those swellings or protuberances were of
 
 INTERIOR OF THE LEJAH.— BEDAWIN SHEPHERDS. 465 
 
 frequent occurrence, extending for considerable distances, and form- 
 ing a surface as hard as iron, and giving forth a sharp metallic 
 sound when struck. Then there were places where those air-bub- 
 bles had apparently burst open, and ragged masses of lava were 
 scattered about in utter confusion. In some parts the hard crust 
 had been elevated into long rolling waves, extending at a right 
 angle to our course. Some of those petrified waves had not burst; 
 others were broken and shattered and tossed about in a manner 
 wholly indescribable. Over and amongst those adamantine air-bub- 
 bles and confused masses of broken lava our horses had to pick 
 their way as best they could. 
 
 Burckhardt penetrated farther into the interior of the Lejah, and 
 he says that " the rocks are in many places cleft asunder, so that 
 the whole hill appears shivered and in the act of falling down ; the 
 layers are generally horizontal, from six to eight feet or more in 
 thickness, sometimes covering the hills, and inclining to their curve, 
 as appears from the fissures, which often traverse the rock from top 
 to bottom.'" We also passed during our ride that day numerous 
 funnel-shaped pits, suggesting the idea that they were probably air- 
 holes for the mass of molten lava once seething below. Some of 
 those pits are now walled around with loose fragments of lava, evi- 
 dently to prevent the flocks from falling into them, and others have 
 been partially filled up, apparently for the same reason. Strange 
 as it may seem, yet it is a fact that the Bedawin of the Lejah have 
 numerous flocks of both sheep and goats in that dreary volcanic 
 region, apparently destitute of both water and pasture. 
 
 As we advanced into the interior, shepherds started up in the 
 most unexpected places and rebuked our guide roughly for bring- 
 ing "Franks" through their country. They, however, did not mo- 
 lest us, though it was evident that without our guide we would have 
 been surrounded and plundered, if nothing worse. The number of 
 those shepherds was quite surprising, and the sudden ni. inner in 
 which they appeared and again disappeared amongst the clefts of 
 lava seemed incomprehensible. Our guide, however, led the, way 
 at the head of the caravan, singing with stentorian voice some war- 
 like ditty quite unintelligible to us; but I suspect that he adopted 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 112.
 
 466 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 that method to inform the people of his tribe that we were persons 
 whom they must not molest. However that may be, I noticed that 
 some sinister-looking Bedawin who seemed to be approaching us 
 with hostile intent turned aside and disappeared as soon as they 
 came within hearing of the words of his song. 
 
 How do those Bedawin live, and where do they find pasture for 
 their numerous flocks of sheep and goats? 
 
 An incident in the visit of Dr. Porter to Kunawat will sufficiently 
 answer your first question. " In the evening," he says, " all went 
 away except one, whom I recognized as having been amongst those 
 who were lurking around us at Deir es Sumeid. 'What brought 
 you to the Deir when you saw us there?' I asked him. 'To strip 
 you,' he coolly replied. 'And why did you not do it?' 'Because 
 Mahmud [the Druse guide] was with you.' ' But why would you 
 plunder us?— we are strangers and not your enemies.' 'It is our 
 custom.' 'And do you strip all strangers?' 'Yes, all we can get 
 hold of.' 'And if they resist, or are too strong for you?' ' In the 
 former case we shoot them from behind trees, and in the latter we 
 run.' ' How do the people of your tribe live? — do they sow or feed 
 flocks?' 'We are not fellahin [farmers], thank God!' he said, with 
 dignity. 'We keep goats and sheep, hunt partridges and gazelles, 
 and steal !' 'Are you all thieves?' ' Yes, all !' These answers were 
 given with the greatest composure and quite as a matter of course.'" 
 
 As to where their flocks find pasture, that is a question easier 
 asked than answered. For many miles along the road there was 
 neither grass, bush, nor tree: nothing but lava — bare, hard, black 
 lava; but there must have been places where bushes and herb- 
 age grew, though at some distance from our track. Even as we 
 approached Harran I saw but little which either man or beast 
 could eat. I think the Lejah has deteriorated in some respects 
 since Burckhardt saw it. He mentions five small tribes of Bedawin 
 who then wandered about in it, and had from fifty to one hundred 
 and twenty tents each. They also possessed large flocks of goats, 
 " which easily find pasture amongst the rocks," some sheep and 
 cows, a (ew horses, and many camels.'* 
 
 ' Five Years in Damascus, pp. 207, 208. 
 ^ Travels in Syria, etc., pp. 1 11, 112.
 
 ROBBERS' CAVES IN TRACHOXITIS 467 
 
 We saw no goats or camels, though there were many sheep; nor 
 did we see any wild animals and but few birds. Near Harran there 
 were some partridges, but so wild and wary that we could not get 
 within shot of them. The flocks, their owners, and their families 
 must be supplied with water, without which they could not live, and 
 hence it is reasonable to suppose that there are reservoirs in caverns 
 well known to the shepherds. But we need not credit some of the 
 traditions and marvels related by the surrounding villagers. One 
 man assured me that the Bedawin could pass quite through under 
 the Lejah from end to end along subterraneous passages without 
 coming to the surface or being seen at all. 
 
 I made frequent inquiries both of our guide and the people of 
 Harran in regard to those caverns of which Josephus and some an- 
 cient writers about this region give such strange accounts. From 
 the guide I could learn nothing, but the sheikh at Harran said there 
 were vast caverns known to the Bedawin, in some of which there 
 were large reservoirs of water. That is at least probable, for in all 
 our ride there was not a drop of water to be found, and it is said 
 that there are but few springs and no never-failing fountains in the 
 inner Lejah. The description which Josephus gives of the " doings 
 of the Trachonites" and their mode of life is quite interesting. 
 
 He says that "it was not an easy thing to restrain them, since this 
 way of robbery had been their usual practice, and they had no other 
 way to get their living, because they had neither any city of their 
 own nor lands in their possession, but only some receptacles and 
 dens in the earth, and there they and their cattle lived in common 
 together. However, they had made- contrivances to get pools of 
 water, and laid up corn in granaries for themselves, and were able 
 to make great resistance by issuing out on the sudden against any 
 that attacked them ; for the entrances of their caves were narrow, in 
 which but one could come in at a time, and the places within incred- 
 ibly large and made very wide; but the ground over their habita- 
 tions was not very high, but rather on a plain, while the rocks are 
 altogether hard and difficult to be entered upon unless any one gets 
 into the plain road by the guidance of another, for these roads are 
 not straight, but have several revolutions. But when Herod [the 
 Great] had received this grant from Caesar, and was come into this
 
 468 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 country, he procured skilful guides, and put a stop to their wicked 
 robberies, and procured peace and quietness to the neighboring 
 people," including those of Damascus.' 
 
 According to that description both the Lejah and its present 
 Bedawin inhabitants correspond almost exactly with the oldest tra- 
 ditions regarding this region and the character of its people. 
 
 Our object in going to Harran was to see the Lejah itself rather 
 than the ruins of old cities with which it abounds. Yet some in- 
 scriptions in Harran are regarded with interest, and M. Waddington 
 has an extended critique concerning them. There are several in 
 Greek and one in Cufic, the latter M. Waddington considers the 
 oldest Arabic inscription he found in this country. A Nabathean 
 inscription is also said to be there which, however, I did not see, 
 and have some doubts as to its existence. 
 
 Harran occupies a conspicuous position on the summit of a 
 ridge not far from the south-eastern boundary of the Lejah, and 
 when we came in sight of it our Bedawin guide refused to go any 
 farther, because there was a blood feud between his tribe and the 
 Druses of that village; and though he himself was not the cause of 
 the feud, yet, he said, they would kill him if they could catch him. 
 The ancient law of revenge is still in full force amongst these poor 
 fragments of by-gone races. We gave him his wages, and he quick- 
 ly disappeared in the lava wilderness through which he had safely 
 guided us for the last four hours from Edhra'. 
 
 The people of Harran told us that in order to see the real Lejah 
 we should visit the region around Dama, a place a few miles north 
 of their village. Burckhardt passed that way. He travelled as a 
 native, with natives for his guides, lived with them, and did as they 
 did; and hence he could penetrate into places where such cara- 
 vans as ours could not venture. He procured two Druse guides at 
 Khubab, and went from there to Dama, and thence through the 
 centre of the Lejah to el Musmeih. The distance from Khubab 
 to Dama was nearly four hours — about the same as from Edhra' — 
 the road becoming more difficult as he approached Dama, the coun- 
 try more barren and dismal, the rocks higher, and the pasturing 
 places less frequent. 
 
 ' Ant. XV. lo, I.
 
 DAMA IN THE LEJAH.— CONCEALED TENTS. 469 
 
 " It appears strange," he says, " that a city should have been 
 built by any people in a spot where there is neither water nor ara- 
 ble ground, and nothing but a little grass amidst the stones." And 
 yet he estimated the number of houses at three hundred, and most 
 of them were still in good preservation. He mentions one large 
 building whose gate was ornamented with sculptured vine-leaves 
 and grapes, like those we shall see this evening at Kunawat. " Ev- 
 ery house appears to have had its cistern ; there are many also in 
 the immediate vicinity of the town ; they are formed by excava- 
 tions in the rock, the surface of w^hich is supported by props of 
 loose stones. Some of them are arched and have narrow canals 
 to conduct the water into them from the higher ground."' When 
 Dr. Eli Smith travelled through the Hauran in 1834, Dama "was 
 considered the capital of the entire Lejah." 
 
 Passing on from Dama, Burckhardt and his guides saw "another 
 ruined place, smaller than the former, and situated in a most dreary 
 part of the Lejah, near which we found, after a good deal of search, 
 an encampment of Bedawni Arabs of the Mcdlej tribe, where we 
 passed the night. These Arabs being of a doubtful character, and 
 rendered independent by the very difficult access of their rocky 
 abode, we did not think it prudent to tell them that I had come to 
 look at their country; they were told, therefore, that I was a man- 
 ufacturer of gunpowder in search of saltpetre. The tent in which 
 we slept was remarkably large, although it could not easily be per- 
 ceived amidst the labyrinth of rocks where it was pitched."" 
 
 That accords well with the description given to me by a Druse 
 sheikh of Beit Tulhuk, on Lebanon, of their hiding-place in the 
 neighborhood of Dama, when the Egyptian army made that disas- 
 trous attempt to penetrate into the Lejah. The fissures and crev- 
 ices in the rocks were so narrow, deep, and winding that their en- 
 campment could not be seen until one was directly above it ; and 
 in many places the bushes clinging to the sides of the crevices so 
 concealed their tents that they could not be seen at all from above. 
 Though that sheikh was there for several weeks, he never ventured 
 outside of the camp without a guide, and never dared wander out 
 of sight for fear that he would not be able to find his way back. 
 
 ■ Travels in Syria, etc., pp. no, ill. * Travels in Syria, etc., p. in.
 
 470 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Burckhardt says that he and his guides found their "Avay with great 
 difficulty out of the labyrinth of rocks which form the inner Lejah, 
 and through which the Arabs alone have the clue." ' 
 
 We have passed within sight of several villages which appear to 
 occupy the sites of ancient cities. 
 
 The most conspicuous of those along our route have been Busr 
 el Hariry, Ta'arah, and Kiratah, which we have just passed, half 
 concealed among the rocks within the Lejah, and several others 
 situated on the plain of el Hauran, the most important of which 
 is ed Dur, some distance to the south. But the whole region 
 east and south of us is dotted with old sites, and the former names 
 of many ancient places have been recovered by the aid of Greek 
 inscriptions found among their ruins. 
 
 The remarkable preservation of the remains of such towns and 
 cities is certainly very surprising. The houses are not buried under 
 mounds and hills of volcanic ashes, like those which concealed and 
 saved from destruction the private dwellings and public edifices of 
 Pompeii, but they have been exposed during long centuries to the 
 rain and frost and snows of winter, and the blazing sun in summer, 
 and yet they are still in such a condition that but few repairs are 
 necessary to render them habitable. 
 
 The explanation is, that all the dwellings and larger edifices in 
 this region were constructed entirely of stone — gate-ways, walls, 
 doors, windows, stairs, and roofs were all made of the imperish- 
 able doleritic lava, hard as adamant. They have never been over- 
 whelmed by volcanic eruption, and only partially demolished by 
 the shock of destructive earthquakes. 
 
 I suppose that the temples, theatres, and other public buildings 
 in those towns and cities of the Lejah must have been erected dur- 
 ing the time of the Romans, and before Christianity had obtained 
 any controlling influence in this part of the country? 
 
 No doubt ; and some of them may date back farther than the 
 commencement of our era. As to the sites which they now occupy, 
 many of them may be essentially the same as those upon which the 
 threescore cities mentioned in Deuteronomy were built. But let us 
 return to our interrupted description. We went from Harran to 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 112.
 
 NEJRAN.— BLOOD FEUDS.— THE BUT.M. 471 
 
 Nejran, a place about two and a half hours to the south-east of it. 
 Nejran is a much larger village than Harran, and it is inhabited by- 
 Druses and Christians of the Greek Catholic sect. Much of the sur- 
 rounding country is cultivated, and it may be regarded as near the 
 extreme southern border of the Lejah. 
 
 Nejran presents an imposing appearance, due to its position on 
 the crest of the rocky ridge upon which it is built, but there is nei- 
 ther temple, theatre, nor other public edifice of importance in it, 
 and its ancient name has not yet been ascertained. The ruins 
 spread over a rocky surface nearly two miles in circumference, and 
 some of the old houses are large and in a fair state of preservation. 
 One of them has two stories, with wings on either side of the court, 
 and there are numerous rooms on both stories. It is occupied by 
 one of the leading Druse families in the Lejah. There arc also the 
 remains of a church, which appears to have been subsequently used 
 as a mosk. It had two towers, and upon the walls of the church 
 are some Greek inscriptions, one of which bears the Bostrian date 
 458, equivalent to the year 564 of our era. 
 
 Although the people of Harran were profuse in their offers of 
 service, we found it difficult to procure a guide to Nejran. At last 
 a young sheikh declared he would go himself, and arming to the 
 teeth, he mounted his horse and we set off; but he was evidently 
 not at his ease, and as soon as we came in sight of Nejran he told 
 us he could go no farther. " Why?" "Because there is a blood 
 feud between that village and ours, and if I entered Nejran not even 
 you could save my life. One of our people unfortunately killed a 
 man of Harran, and we have not yet been able to settle the matter 
 by paying the exorbitant sum demanded from us as blood-money, 
 and until that is paid any one of our village may be murdered in 
 retaliation ;" and turning his horse homeward, he was soon out of 
 sight. That was another striking illustration of the disorganized 
 state of society in this region, and the stringency of the law of 
 blood revenge, even down to the present time. 
 
 The Lejah appears to have had more trees at the time of Ihirck- 
 hardt's visit than at present — different varieties of oak, hawthorn, 
 and other trees. He mentions the Butm, which, he says, " is the bit- 
 ter-almond, from the fruit of which an oil is extracted used by the 
 I 2
 
 472 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 people of the country to anoint their temples and forehead as a cure 
 for colds ; its branches are in great demand for pipe-stems." ' The 
 Butm is the terebinth, and near Harran there are many of those 
 trees, but of a stunted growth. I examined an ancient rock-cut oil- 
 press below the village, where the berries were ground to a pulp in 
 a stone trough or basin, and the oil expressed by a beam-press. 
 
 Butm-oil is used in that part of the country for lighting lamps 
 instead of olive-oil, but ere long both will be superseded throughout 
 this land by the cheaper and more brilliant petroleum imported 
 from America, and the old earthen lamp, with its dripping wick and 
 greasy stand, will be banished even from the homes of the poor. 
 Thus another very Biblical household article will disappear forever 
 from the Holy Land, and the humble habitations of the fellahin in 
 the Lejah and on Jebel Hauran, in the ancient kingdom of Bashan, 
 will be illuminated by "oil out of the flinty rock," procured from 
 the modern wells of Pennsylvania. 
 
 If your forecast of the near future in regard to that matter be 
 correct, then the traveller in this country will no longer see " the 
 smoking flax" mentioned by the prophet Isaiah which the Servant 
 of the Lord would not quench.^ 
 
 Not if by "the flax" the wick in the seraj or common earthen 
 lamp of the East was intended. That, of course, will disappear 
 along with the lamp itself 
 
 Have you ever noticed the conditions which appear to be re- 
 quired by the language of the prophet? 
 
 When I first travelled about in Palestine and mingled freely with 
 the people, I witnessed them every night. The ancient clay lamp 
 was then universally used by the peasants. The wick was generally 
 made of a twisted strand of flax or cotton thread, and was immersed 
 in olive-oil in the shallow cup of the lamp. When the oil was nearly 
 consumed, the lamp burned dimly, and instead of giving out a cheer- 
 ful light it emitted a very offensive smoke. If the oil in the lamp 
 was not replenished, "the smoking flax" would soon be quenched 
 and the room left in utter darkness. 
 
 Isaiah seems to imply that this was sometimes done purposely. 
 
 And so it is now. I have seen the housewife thus "quench" the 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. II2. ' Isa. xlii. 3.
 
 "THE SMOKING FLAX" AND "THE BRUISED REED." 473 
 
 spent " flax." tlirow it away as no longer worth anything, and put a 
 new wick in the lamp. The "Servant" of the Lord would not act 
 thus. He would replenish the lamp with oil, trim the wick, and 
 cause "the dimly burning" flame to spring up with fresh life and 
 brightness. That too I have often seen done in the habitations of 
 the fellahin. The moral significance of that act is perfectly obvious, 
 and it was intended to carry comfort and encouragement to the 
 poor, the weak, and the despairing, whose light and hope were ready 
 to die— a beautiful prophecy of Him who came into our world of 
 sin and sorrow to help the helpless, to lift up the fallen, and save 
 the lost. Though the earthen lamp, with its "dimly burning smok- 
 ing flax," may be quenched and disappear from this land forever, the 
 lesson taught by it will remain unchanged for all time. 
 
 The same comforting prophecy and promise are also taught by 
 the " bruised reed," and there appears to be no danger that it will 
 ever cease to exist in this country.' The banks of every brook and 
 irrigating canal are fringed with them, and we have seen thousands 
 of bruised reeds trampled underfoot and broken by man and beast, 
 cattle and heedless flocks ; nor does any one think it worth while 
 apparently to lift them from the ground and help them to regain 
 and maintain their upright position. 
 
 Even that is sometimes done, although the bruised reeds are 
 generally left by man to be utterly broken and to fall away and per- 
 ish. Not so, however, does the compassionate Servant of the Lord ; 
 and the broken reed was well chosen by the prophet to illustrate the 
 infinite condescension and kindness of Him who healed the sick, 
 cleansed the leper, and befriended the fallen and the outcast. But 
 these are only a few of the changes in the near future of this coun- 
 try that will obliterate many things familiar to the readers of the 
 Bible. Schools, books, newspapers, manufactures and machinery, 
 steam and the telegraph, are slowly yet certainly penetrating every 
 part of this land, and diffusing new ideas and customs amongst the 
 people. The younger generation even now make merry over the 
 simplicity and ignorance of their parents, which half a century ago 
 sometimes manifested itself in a most laughable manner. 
 
 I was once travelling north of Tripoli, and having occasion to 
 
 ' Isa. xlii. 3.
 
 474 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 light a match, struck it against the heel of my boot. At sight of 
 the blaze the crowd around me set up a loud shout, calling their 
 friends to come and see a man who could draw fire out of his heel ! 
 On another occasion Dr. De Forest, while writing in his note-book, 
 frequently applied the pencil to his tongue. The crowd, after 
 watching the operation for some time, exclaimed, " See ! see ! This 
 Frank carries his inkstand in his mouth !" You will not meet with 
 similar examples of ignorance at present. All now know the use of 
 percussion-caps, which used to astonish them when I came to this 
 country, and you will now rarely find the old matchlock even in the 
 hands of the Bedawin. Nor in this very region of Jebel Hauran — 
 the stronghold of the Druses — does one see nowadays a horned 
 princess or a grandly beturbaned sheikh. 
 
 It is quite evident that many things ancient and Biblical, once so 
 common in this country, are fast passing away, and this renders it 
 the more interesting to traverse the land before they fade entirely 
 out of sight and vanish forever. 
 
 No doubt that is true, and yet all that is of real importance will 
 always remain stable as the everlasting hills or the ordinances of 
 heaven and earth which cannot be changed. But this is a subject 
 which we can better discuss on some future occasion and under 
 more convenient circumstances. Let us now give some attention 
 to the region immediately around us. 
 
 Instead of passing up the hill ahead of us to Nejran, the ap- 
 proach to which is by a winding path, rough and rocky, we will de- 
 scend into Wady Kunawat. The stream which comes down that 
 valley in winter from Kunawat passes out on to the plain of el Hau- 
 ran west of Edhra', and forms one of the tributaries of the river Jar- 
 muk, which unites with the Jordan near Jisr el Mejamia' and about 
 ten miles south of the lake of Tiberias. When our party descended 
 into this wady on our way from Nejran, the stream whose dry bed 
 we have just crossed was then so swollen by the great rains and 
 melting snow on Jebel Hauran that we could not ford it, and had to 
 follow up its course for several miles to find a place where it could 
 be safely crossed. Now there is not a drop of water in it, and we 
 can take the direct course south-east to Suleim, which is the next 
 place to be visited on our way to Kunawat.
 
 RUINS AT SHUIIBA.— A ROMAN CITY. 475 
 
 A few miles east of Nejran and north of Suleim, on the crest of 
 a rocky ridge in Wady Nimreh, is a place called Shuhba, once a large 
 city. It was, says Dr. Porter, "almost entirely Roman — the ram- 
 parts are Roman, the streets have the old Roman pavement, Roman 
 temples appear in every quarter, a Roman theatre remains nearly 
 perfect, a Roman aqueduct brought water from the distant moun- 
 tains, inscriptions of the Roman age, though in Greek, are found on 
 every public building.- A few of the ancient massive houses, with 
 their stone doors and stone roofs, yet exist, but they are in a great 
 measure concealed or built over with the later and more graceful 
 structures of Greek and Roman origin. Though the city was nearly 
 three miles in circuit, and abounded in splendid buildings, its ancient 
 name is lost, and its ancient history unknown. Its modern name is 
 derived from a princely Mohammedan family [Beit Shehab], which 
 settled here in the seventh century.'" 
 
 Shuhba had two main streets running from east to west and 
 from north to south, which crossed each other in the middle of the 
 town. The streets are about twenty feet wide, and were well paved 
 with long slabs, which in many places remain in an almost perfect 
 condition. The gates at the end of the streets were formed of two 
 arches, with a pillar in the centre, and those on the east and south 
 are nearly entire. At the intersection of the streets there are the 
 remains of four massive pedestals of solid masonry, each about fif- 
 teen feet square and ten feet high. About two hundred yards to 
 the west of those pedestals, on the right of the street, are the ruins 
 of a temple, and five of the six Corinthian columns that once formed 
 the portico are still standing. 
 
 There are also the remains of other temples, baths, and public 
 buildings in that neighborhood. The entrance to the baths was 
 lofty, the walls containing the water-pipes were very massive, and 
 the various vaulted chambers were high and of different sizes. But 
 the theatre at Shuhba is the most perfect of all the public edifices. 
 It was built on a sloping site overlooking the plain, and the enclos- 
 ing walls, which were nearly ten feet thick, are still in a good state 
 of preservation. There were three doors in front, and nine x-aultcd 
 entrances on the sides leading into the interior. The arena was 
 ' Bashan and its Giant Cities, p. 37.
 
 476 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 about fifty feet square, and there were seven tiers of seats and sev- 
 en rows of benches, divided by a broad passage-way, which ap- 
 parently extended quite round the building. 
 
 From Greek inscriptions found there it appears that Shuhba 
 must have been a place of importance during the second and third 
 centuries of our era, and both M. Waddington and the Count de 
 Vogiie are of the opinion that it occupies the site of Philippopolis, 
 the birthplace of the Emperor Philip. He is said to have been the 
 son of a celebrated Arab chief of Trachonitis, and was chosen em- 
 peror by the Roman army which he commanded in the East about 
 the middle of the third century; and one of his first acts was the 
 founding of a city in this region which he dignified with the name 
 of Philippopolis in honor of himself. 
 
 To those of us who have been familiar for nearly half a century 
 with the fortunes and misfortunes of the Shehab Emirs on Lebanon 
 and elsewhere, Shuhba is invested with peculiar interest. Accord- 
 ing to one tradition the ancestors of that family left Arabia about 
 the time of Muhammed, with whose tribe of Kureish they claimed 
 relationship, and settled in Shuhba, to which place they gave their 
 own name. The tradition may be true, but Tannus esh Shidiak, 
 the native historian and unlimited panegyrist of the family, makes 
 Edhra' their adopted home, adding that they were called Edhra'ites 
 from the place of their abode, and says nothing about Shuhba. 
 The Shehabs, however, may have removed from Shuhba to Edhra'. 
 
 Their migration still farther westward in the twelfth century 
 was occasioned by the wars between Nur ed Din and Salah ed Din, 
 the great Saladin. The historian informs us that, owing to their 
 fear of Nur ed Din in Damascus, the entire Shehab family, with fif- 
 teen thousand followers, set out for Egypt to seek the protection 
 of Saladin. But when they reached Jisr Benat Ya'kob, over the 
 Jordan, they were overtaken by messengers from Nur ed Din, urg- 
 ing them to remain in the country and granting them permission 
 to reside wherever they desired. They acceded to his request, and 
 chose the valley of the upper Jordan as their abode; and after many 
 conflicts with the Crusaders, whose head-quarters in that region 
 w^ere then at the castle of esh Shukif, they succeeded in establish- 
 ing themselves at Hasbeiya and Rasheiyet el Wady, where they
 
 FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES OF THE SHEHAB EMIRS. 477 
 
 continued to reside and misgovern the country down to the pres- 
 ent century in and around the valley of the upper Jordan. 
 
 When the Mongols under Hulagu Khan, the grandson of the 
 great Genghis Khan, invaded Syria in the thirteenth century, the 
 Shehabs, according to their historian, sent their families for safety 
 from the districts of Wady et Teim to that of esh Shuf, and thence- 
 forth they began to play an important part in the affairs of the Leb- 
 anon. The celebrated Emir Beshir, after the defeat and death of 
 his Druse rival, Sheikh Beshir Jumblat, of el Mukhtarah, in the early 
 part of this century, became sole Prince of Lebanon. He, from 
 necessity rather than choice, sided with Muhammed 'Aly of Egypt 
 in his rebellion against the Sultan, and when the combined fleets 
 of Europe came, in 1840, to restore Syria to the Turks, the Emir 
 Beshir surrendered to the English at Sidon and was taken to 
 Malta, whence he was allowed to go to Constantinople to intercede 
 with the Sultan for his restoration, and there he died. 
 
 The Shehab emirs who remained on Lebanon attempted to re- 
 gain their lost power by exciting those civil wars which have con- 
 vulsed that whole mountain more than once and covered Lebanon 
 with many burned villages. The terrible massacres of i860 com- 
 pleted the overthrow of the Shehabs both in Wady ct Teim and 
 in Lebanon. They have now sunk into ruin more utter and hope- 
 less than that which overwhelmed Shuhba, their traditional abode 
 in the Hauran, and the later catastrophies in their disastrous his- 
 tory I have myself witnessed. But we must not forget that they 
 claimed the longest pedigree of any "house" on earth. By the aid 
 of their kinship to Muhammed, Abraham, and Noah, they override 
 the Deluge and sail triumphantly down the stream of Time from 
 "the beginning" to the present hour. 
 
 Had our arrangements permitted I should have liked to visit 
 Shuhba, for it seems to abound with ancient remains of many kinds, 
 and of special interest to the traveller and the archaeologist. 
 
 The road to it leads through a wild and rocky region, and we 
 shall have repeated opportunities in the near future to examine 
 temples, theatres, and colonnades far greater and grander than those 
 of Shuhba. Let us, therefore, rest contented for this da)' with the 
 temple at Sulcim and those at Kunawat.
 
 478 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 We have fallen temples and prostrate churches on either hand. 
 Nearly every hamlet has some of those monuments to show, and I 
 feel as though we were travelling through wonderland with the fos- 
 silized antiquities of by-gone ages and untold generations crumbling 
 to ruin all around and about us. 
 
 There is nothing to suggest such melancholy thoughts in the ap- 
 pearance of this temple at Suleim which we are now approaching. 
 
 It is indeed a beautiful edifice, though the cornice is, perhaps, 
 too lofty and quite overburdened with architectural ornamenta- 
 tion. One is surprised to find it in such an isolated position. 
 
 The walls of the temple are still standing and nearly perfect, 
 with the exception of the central portion and the portico on the 
 east side, where there has been a perfect avalanche of large stones, 
 occasioned by the falling in of the roof and the upper parts of the 
 walls. The temple appears to have been profusely decorated, judg- 
 ing from the number of these large blocks covered with scroll-work, 
 and garlands and wreaths of fruits, flowers, and leaves in bass-relief. 
 On one of the stones found in front of the temple there is a well- 
 preserved Greek inscription of six lines, the last of which is to the 
 effect that this temple was erected by Sadus of Neapolis. From 
 which it has been supposed that Suleim occupies the site of the 
 Episcopal city of that name, whose bishop was present at the coun- 
 cils of Chalcedon and Constantinople. M. Waddington, however, is 
 of the opinion that it was called Selsema during the Greeco-Roman 
 period — only another form of its present Arabic name. 
 
 This cavernous cistern in front of the temple is one of the larg- 
 est we have seen in this region. 
 
 It is about twenty-five feet square and nearly thirty feet deep. 
 The stone slabs forming the roof rested on corbels and were sup- 
 ported by three arches. The interior appears to have been covered 
 with cement, and the cistern was probably a large reservoir for the 
 supply of the temple, though it might have been used for the stor- 
 age of grain. The ruins of the old town around the modern village 
 of Suleim, situated on that low tell a short distance south of this 
 temple, are almost two miles in circumference ; but, with the excep- 
 tion of the foundations of another temple and the remains of a bath, 
 we shall see nothing there to attract our special attention.
 
 TEMPLE AT SULEIM. 
 
 479 
 
 TEMPLE AT SUI.EIM. 
 
 Here come charging down upon us the pupils of the village 
 school, I suppose, a noisy band of thirty or forty boys, with their 
 native teacher bringing up the rear. He can speak a little Eng- 
 lish, it seems — and both are a most unexpected sight and sound in 
 this wild " mountain of the Druses." 
 
 Both are easily explained. A benevolent English gentleman has 
 sent the teacher here to open a school amongst his own people, and 
 he acquired his knowledge of English, such as it is, in the mission- 
 ary institutions on Lebanon. He says the people are anxious to 
 have their children educated, and the number of scholars certainly
 
 480 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 confirms his statement. We must decline the invitation to rest and 
 partake of a cup of coffee and other refreshments which the gather- 
 ing company press upon us with such persistency. I am sorry to 
 disappoint them, but I know by experience that their " two mo- 
 ments" would lengthen into as many hours, and we cannot spare 
 the time even to enjoy the proverbial hospitality of the Druses of 
 the Hauran. So, with the usual profusion of regrets and salams, we 
 will bid good-bye to Suleim and follow our caravan. 
 
 We shall take the most direct road to our destination, which 
 leads up through the open country in a direction nearly south-east, 
 and most of the way through a well-wooded region. Kunawat, situ- 
 ated upon the western slope of Jebel ed Druse, is about two hours 
 distant, and we must quicken our pace that we may have time be- 
 fore dark to inspect the extensive remains of that ancient city. 
 
 These numerous temples and public buildings in this region are 
 apparently of Greek or Roman origin, and the question continually 
 arises, not so much in reference to the architects who erected them, 
 but as to the character of the people who required such edifices 
 for their religious worship and secular entertainment. 
 
 The population is now and has been for many centuries Arabic, 
 and nothing but that language has been spoken here for unnum- 
 bered generations. The inference is, therefore, inevitable that even 
 before the time when those structures were erected, and during the 
 first centuries of the Christian era, there was a large Graeco-Roman 
 population in this region. In all directions, from el Musmeih on 
 the north to 'Amman on the south, there was a continuous succes- 
 sion of such temples and public buildings. There are more Greek 
 inscriptions in this general region east of the Jordan than in all 
 Syria and Palestine together. But that foreign population has en- 
 tirely disappeared. There is not, I suppose, one drop of Greek or 
 Roman blood in any of the present inhabitants, nor a trace of their 
 language either. These facts may corroborate and explain the pe- 
 culiar linguistic condition that prevailed amongst the people who 
 dwelt east of the Jordan and the Lake of Tiberias. 
 
 That " great and wide " region at and before the commencement 
 of our era was called "the Decapolis," from a group of ten of the 
 principal cities within it, which appear to have been endowed with
 
 THE DECAPOLIS.— ROMAN ROAD.— OAK FOREST. 48 I 
 
 certain privileges b}' the Romans. Of tliose cities Damascus was 
 the one farthest to the north, Canatha or Kunawat to the east, and 
 Gerasa, or Jerash, the most southern. 
 
 Those ten important cities must have exerted a controlHng in- 
 fluence upon the commerce, the civilization, and the language of 
 this part of the country for several centuries. 
 
 The region of the Decapolis is mentioned more than once in the 
 New Testament. When "Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching 
 and preaching and healing all manner of sickness among the people, 
 his fame went throughout all Syria: and they brought unto him all 
 that were taken with divers diseases, and he healed them. And 
 there followed him great multitudes of people from Galilee, and 
 from Decapolis, and from beyond Jordan."' 
 
 After the drowning of the swine by the entering into them of 
 the devils which Jesus had cast out of the demoniac whose name 
 was Legion, " and when Jesus was come into the ship, he that had 
 been possessed with the devil prayed him that he might be with 
 him. Howbeit Jesus suffered him not, but said unto him. Go home 
 to thy friends, and tell them how the Lord hath had compassion on 
 thee. And he departed, and began to publish in Decapolis how 
 great things Jesus had done for him: and all men did marvel."' 
 Our Lord himself visited parts of that region, and upon one occasion 
 " he went out from the borders of Tyre, and came through Sidon 
 unto the Sea of Galilee, through the midst of the borders of Decap- 
 olis."^ That is, he went northward, then eastward, and probably 
 crossed the Jordan at Dan and came down through the region east 
 of that river until he reached the shores of the Lake of Tiberias. 
 
 We have been following along the remains of a Roman road, 
 and now we are entering a beautiful forest of evergreen oaks which 
 seems to extend a great distance over the range of Jebel Hauran. 
 
 Kunawat itself is surrounded by it, and many of the ruins are 
 embowered beneath wide-spreading sindian trees, as these scrub- 
 oaks are called by the natives, and here and there some of the col- 
 umns are seen rising above the dense foliage. How different is our 
 present approach from that on my former visit. In half an hour 
 after leaving Suleim we came to this rattling brook, then not easy 
 ' Matt. iv. 23-25. 2 Mark v. 1-20. ^ Mark vii. 31, R. V.
 
 482 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 to cross. Now there is not a drop of water in its rocky bed. Ten 
 minutes farther there was another stream equally boisterous, and in 
 fifteen minutes more we came to the main stream of the Kunawaty. 
 It had overflowed its banks, and we floundered into and out of deep 
 pools and rocky channels through which the river made its way 
 northward amongst these oak-trees. Now^ we shall find no water in 
 the deepest of those pools to refresh our tired and thirsty animals. 
 
 Our day's journey, after crossing this modern bridge, is nearly 
 over, for we are entering the narrow lanes that lead up into the 
 town, having high-walled gardens on either side. We will hand our 
 horses to the servants and walk, for the road, though broad and 
 well paved, is worn and slippery, and there are some important ruins 
 to claim attention before we enter the town. 
 
 You notice that the general direction of Wady Kunawat, in this 
 part of its course, is northward, and that the city proper was on the 
 western side of it. Before passing to the tents, therefore, we may 
 as well cross to the eastern side of the wady and examine two 
 structures there that well merit our attention. 
 
 This edifice in Wady Kunawat above the bridge and the river is 
 a pretty little theatre partly hewn out of the surrounding rock. 
 It was about sixty feet in diameter, and had nine tiers of seats, 
 which are still in a good state of preservation ; and there was a cis- 
 tern in the middle of the arena. From a long Greek inscription, in 
 very large letters, which runs round the entire wall back of the 
 arena, we learn that this theatre was constructed at the expense 
 of a Roman officer named Marcus Oulpius Lusias, and presented by 
 him to the citizens of Canatha. 
 
 The view to the north -west over the oak woods and the plain 
 of the Hauran to the distant mountains and to the snowy summit 
 of Hermon beyond them is superb; and those seated on these bench- 
 es could not only witness the spectacle in the arena of the theatre, 
 but they could also gaze upon a varied and beautiful prospect of 
 great extent and special interest. 
 
 This other building a few rods higher up the wady was construct- 
 ed with large, well-cut stone, and it had a fountain within the court 
 wdiich was supplied with water from a small stream flowing under- 
 ground behind it, and which formerly supplied the theatre also.
 
 Ts'YMPHiEUM.— ROUND TOWERS.— CONVENT OE JOB. 483 
 
 The water from tliis fountain so overflowed the court when I was 
 here in April that I could not examine this singular structure. It 
 is supposed to have been a small temple or Nymphaeum, but it was 
 probably designed for a public bath. 
 
 On the mountain ridge east of it is a conspicuous and massive 
 round tower, which is reached from this bath by a long and winding 
 stair-way cut in the rock. It is about one hundred feet in circum- 
 ference, and in its present condition not over twenty feet high. 
 Within it are heavy stone doors, some of them having well -cut 
 mouldings and panels, and ornamented with sculptured wreaths of 
 flowers and fruits. There are similar towers occupying command- 
 ing positions upon the surrounding hills, and which were evidently 
 constructed for purposes of defence. The large rough stones with 
 which they were built are bevelled, and the walls were very thick, 
 suggesting the name cyclopean. The remains of some of those 
 towers are probably among the oldest ruins of ancient Kenath. 
 We will now return to the west side of the wady and rest awhile in 
 our tents, pitched in- the oak woods north-west of the town. 
 
 Refreshed and invigorated, let us resume our examination of the 
 extensive remains of Canatha. 
 
 A walk of five minutes will bring us to the northern entrance of 
 the main street, which rises gradually southward, leading towards 
 the principal group of ancient buildings in Kunawat. The street is 
 quite wide and is paved with large slabs of lava, which in some 
 places are still well preserved. 
 
 Some of the houses on the west side of this street, with their 
 sculptured stone doors ornamented with panels and floral designs, 
 were evidently very substantial edifices. 
 
 Below us on the east is the deep wady, with almost perpendicu- 
 lar banks, which must have served as a natural fortification, and 
 they appear to have been farther strengthened by the city wall 
 which ran along the top of the cliffs in that direction. 
 
 Continuing the ascent southwards, we come to where the street 
 ends abruptly at a large paved area in front of an imposing group 
 of buildings called by the natives es Serai, or the palace, and also 
 Deir Eyub, the convent of Job. It is now almost impossible to de- 
 cide what this group of buildings was originally intended to repre-
 
 484 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 sent, since only three of them are still in a tolerable state of preser- 
 vation, and the remains of others must be buried under these con- 
 fused masses of ruins. The exterior walls appear to have enclosed 
 an area nearly square, and the space within was evidently occupied 
 by three edifices whose external walls, running north and south, 
 were almost parallel to each other. 
 
 The one we will first enter, through this beautiful door-way on 
 the eastern side so richly ornamented with wreaths of flowers and 
 fruit, is almost one hundred feet long and seventy feet wide. It 
 stood upon a raised basement, and had a portico on the north con- 
 sisting of eight Corinthian columns about thirty feet high, with 
 brackets on the shafts for statues. This edifice had few architectu- 
 ral ornaments except those on the door-way, and it appears to have 
 been converted at one time into a church. 
 
 The second and middle structure is about eighty feet long and 
 seventy feet wide, and it had a receding portico of six Corinthian 
 columns. Curious sculptured figures surrounded by wreaths of vine- 
 leaves and clusters of grapes are seen upon portions of the frieze 
 and cornice of the portico now lying among the ruins of the fallen 
 pediment. A colonnade of eighteen columns having plain square 
 capitals ran round the four sides of this edifice at a distance of about 
 twelve feet from the interior walls. 
 
 The third edifice is larger than either of the others, and was en- 
 tered through an elaborately ornamented and beautiful gate-way in 
 the south wall of the middle structure. A double colonnade of 
 seven columns, with plain square capitals, ran down the eastern and 
 western sides of this edifice, and at its southern end there was a 
 semicircular apse about fifteen feet in depth. But the interior is 
 filled with confused heaps of fallen masonry, and much of it is so 
 overgroAvn with bramble -bushes and scrub-oaks that it cannot be 
 examined. From Greek inscriptions found among the ruins, but 
 which are now difificult to decipher, it would appear that some of 
 these edifices were dedicated to heathen gods and subsequently con- 
 verted into Christian churches ; and here we see the emblem of the 
 cross placed over the entrance of ancient idol temples. 
 
 Leaving this impressive group of ruined edifices, with their pros- 
 trate walls and standing columns, their fallen pediments and ancient
 
 ANCIENT CISTERNS.— TEMPLE AT KUNAWAT. 
 
 485 
 
 portals so curiously and beautifully sculptured, we will proceed a 
 short distance to the south-west and examine the remains of what 
 must once have been a splendid temple. In front of the so-called 
 Convent of Job, and also between it and this temple, there are large 
 cisterns, once entirely vaulted over by long slabs of lava resting 
 upon parallel lines of arches. There are at least ten of these lines, 
 and in many places the slabs are still quite perfect. These cisterns 
 were probably intended to supply the temples and other edifices 
 in that neighborhood with water during the autumn. 
 
 fclU*"' *4I*'*- '"*''^ 
 
 TKMl'I.K AT KONAWAT, 
 
 Like most of the other public buildings at Kunawat, this temple 
 
 faced the north; and it is considered a fine si)ecinicii of the Roman 
 
 prostyle— that is, a temi)le whose portico extended along the entire 
 K 2
 
 486 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 front of the edifice. Four Corinthian columns, over fifteen feet in 
 circumference and more than thirty-five feet high, supporting a ped- 
 iment, formed the portico, and back of them, between the extended 
 side-walls or wings of the temple, was the pronaos or vestibule, with 
 two smaller columns in front. In the east and west walls of the 
 vestibule there were two niches, one above the other, and in the 
 south wall of the temple, opposite the entrance to the naos or body 
 of the edifice, there were two similar and larger niches. The walls 
 of this temple are mostly in ruins, and of the six columns in front 
 of it only four still remain standing. 
 
 Among some fragments of sculptured figures lying about in front 
 of the temple. Dr. Porter discovered a colossal head in high -relief: 
 " The face is broad and the cheeks large. The eyes are well formed, 
 but the forehead is low, and the brows prominent and contracted. 
 On the forehead is a crescent, with rays shooting upwards ; the face 
 is encircled with thick tresses. The mouth and chin are broken 
 away. It struck me at the time," he says, " that this was probably 
 intended to represent Ashtoreth," perhaps once the chief idol of this 
 temple.' More recently Mr. Charles F. Tyrwhitt Drake obtained 
 here a fragment of an altar, with the supposed heads of Baal and 
 Ashtoreth " boldly cut in high-relief upon the closest basalt, with 
 foliage showing the artistic hand."* Since then the members of the 
 American Palestine Exploration Society passed through this region 
 during a reconnoissance of the country east of the Jordan in the 
 autumn of 1875, and they found a fine antique head here, apparent- 
 ly the same as that seen and described by Dr. Porter, and they ob- 
 tained an excellent photograph of it. 
 
 Regarding the worship of Ashtoreth, Dr. Porter remarks that 
 she " was the goddess of the Phoenicians, the Philistines, and, in- 
 deed, the whole inhabitants of Syria.' Her worship was introduced 
 among the Israelites during the rule of the Judges, was practised 
 by Solomon, and was abolished by Josiah.' She was the repre- 
 sentative of the moon, hence the crescent and the rays seen upon 
 figures on early Phoenician and Roman coins; hence, too, Jeremiah's 
 
 ' Five Years in Damascus, pp. 212, 213 ; Giant Cities of Bashan, p. 43. 
 
 2 Unexplored Syria, vol. ii. p. 166. ^ I Kings xi. 5, 33; I Sam. xxxi. lO. 
 
 ■* Judg. ii. 13 ; I Sam. vii. 4 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 13.
 
 WORSHIP OF ASHTORETH. — TERIPTERAL TEMPLE. 
 
 487 
 
 reference to her as 'queen of heaven." In classic authors she is 
 called Astarte, Aphrodite, and Syria Dca.^ In the country east of 
 the Jordan, and especially in Bashan, Ashtoreth was worshipped 
 from a very early age. One of its principal cities was called Ashto- 
 reth Karnaim, 'Ashtoreth of the two horns' or crescent, and this 
 city was one of the cap- 
 itals of the Kingdom of 
 Bashan at the Exodus. 
 It is, consequently, high- 
 ly interesting to find in 
 Kenath [or Kunawat], 
 one of the most ancient 
 cities of Bashan, monu- 
 mental evidence of the 
 worship of Ashtoreth.'" 
 
 Continuing our walk 
 north along the city wall 
 and down these terraced 
 fields for about twenty 
 minutes, we will come to 
 the remains of one of the 
 most striking and pictu- 
 resque peripteral temples 
 in this part of the coun- 
 try. It stands facing the 
 
 east, on a slight eminence in this thickly wooded valley, a short 
 distance beyond the western gate of the ancient city; and it was 
 built upon a stylobate or raised platform eighty feet by fifty and 
 about twelve feet high, beneath which are massive vaults and at 
 least one cistern, which still holds water. 
 
 A broad flight of steps led up to the portico, which consisted of 
 two rows of columns, six in each row; and the temple itself was 
 surrounded — hence its name — on the east, south, and west by a 
 range of sixteen columns, six on each side counting the corner col- 
 umns twice. These, with those of the portico, made twenty-eight 
 
 ;\^v;3«'T^:&^-^^ 
 
 ^s-jliilH 
 
 ANTIQUE HEAD AT kOnAWAT. 
 
 ' Jer. vii. 18 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 4. 
 ^ Five Years in Damascus, p. 213. 
 
 * Lucian : Do Syria Dea; Paus. i. 14.
 
 488 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 columns in all, and they stood upon pedestals five feet high, were 
 six feet in circumference, had Corinthian capitals, and a total height 
 of more than thirty-five feet. Of all those columns only seven, and 
 the bases and pedestals of a few others, remain standing. 
 
 PEKIPlEkAL TKMPLK AT KUNAWAT. 
 
 This temple was about forty-five feet long and thirty feet broad, 
 and there were eight pilasters along the exterior walls correspond- 
 ing to the same number of columns opposite to them. From in- 
 scriptions found here it is supposed that this temple was dedicated 
 to Helios, or the sun, but most of those seen upon the pedestals 
 of the columns are quite illegible. We will now return through the 
 open fields to our tents. 
 
 September igth. Evening. 
 Kunawat has been generally regarded as the modern representa- 
 tive of the ancient Kenath and the Hebrew Nobah. Is there any 
 valid objection to that identification?
 
 THE BIBLICAL KEXATII AND THE ROMAN KANATHA. 489 
 
 Under that name Kenath is mentioned but twice in the Bible. 
 We read in Numbers that during the conquest of the land of Ca- 
 naan, "Jair took the small towns" of Gilead "and called them Ha- 
 voth-jair;" and that Nobah also "went and took Kenath and the 
 villages thereof and called it Nobah, after his own name.'" Also 
 that "Jair took all the country of Argob and called them [the towns] 
 after his own name — Bashan-havoth-jair," the towns of Jair in Ba- 
 shan ; and in i Chronicles, ii. 23, Kenath is mentioned in connection 
 with those towns of Jair.'' Two hundred years later we learn that 
 Gideon, in pursuit of the two kings of Midian, " went up by the way 
 of them that dwell in tents on the east of Nobah" — by which, of 
 course, Kenath is meant — "and smote the host."' 
 
 Though Nobah probably was not so called by the people who 
 then inhabited it, the name of its Hebrew conqueror was still fa- 
 miliar to the Israelites; but, like so many others imposed by foreign 
 rulers, it soon fell into disuse, and the place appears ever after to 
 have retained its original name — Kenath. From those incidental 
 notices it would appear that Nobah or Kenath was between Gilead 
 and Argob, and within the territory of Bashan. This is all its Bibli- 
 cal history, and we hear nothing more about it until the time of the 
 Romans, about the commencement of the Christian era. 
 
 Josephus relates that Herod the Great, through the machina- 
 tions of "Athenio, one of Cleopatra's generals," was defeated "at 
 Kanatha, a city of Coelesyria," by the inhabitants of the place, as- 
 sisted by the Arabians, who had assembled there "in vast multi- 
 tudes."' Ptolemy also locates Kanatha in Ccelesyria, and Pliny 
 mentions it among the cities of the Decapolis. But we get more 
 definite information regarding its actual position from Eusebius and 
 the Peutingcr Table. In the latter it is the third station on the 
 Roman road from Damascus to Bostra ; and the former speaks of it 
 as " situated in the province of Trachonitis, near to Bostra." 
 
 It therefore seems to be fairly established that Kunawat occu- 
 pies the site of the Biblical Kenath or Nobah, and that the ancient 
 name has remained almost unchanged during a period of more than 
 three thousand years. M. Waddington, however, is inclined to qucs- 
 
 ' Numb, xxxii. 41, 42. - Dcut. iii. 14 ; Josh. xiii. 30. 
 
 * Judg. viii. 4, 5, II. •• 15. J. i. kj, 2.
 
 490 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 tion the identification mainly on the ground that its location is too 
 far east for it to have ever been in the possession of the Hebrews. 
 That objection can have but little weight, since even he admits that 
 Sulkhad, which is still farther east than Kunawat, is the Salcah, or 
 Salchah, of the Bible mentioned by Moses. 
 
 M. Waddington found more than thirty Greek inscriptions on 
 various parts of the ruins in this place; most of them, however, are 
 brief, and do not throw much light on the history of either the 
 Biblical Kenath or the Graeco-Roman Kanatha. One of them seems 
 to connect the name of King Agrippa with Kunawat, and this is 
 confirmed by inscriptions which M. Waddington discovered at Si'a, 
 where the names of both Herod the Great and of Agrippa are found 
 in Greek and Aramaic upon the ruins of a remarkable temple at that 
 place, a discovery of special interest and importance. 
 
 The Herodian inscription was found upon the base of a broken 
 statue in front of the temple, and M. Waddington interprets it thus : 
 I, Obaesatus, son of Saodus, have set up this statue of King Herod, 
 our ruler, at my own expense. "This monument," says M. Wad- 
 dington, "is the earliest in which Herod is mentioned, and the 
 [Greek] word Kurio shows that it was erected during his life," more 
 than nineteen hundred years ago. It is an interesting fact that all 
 this region was granted to Herod the Great by Caesar, as Josephus 
 informs us in the fifteenth book of his Antiquities.' 
 
 Si'a may have been regarded as a suburb of Kunawat, for it is 
 not more than half an hour's walk from it towards the south-east. 
 When I was here in the spring w^e did not go to Si'a, because that 
 place was buried under the snow ; and not only was the river of 
 Kunawat a foaming torrent, but much of the country was flooded 
 by the melting snow on the Hauran mountains, and banks of snow 
 were still seen in these streets. Three different streams, quite for- 
 midable to cross, then descended through the woods north of Kuna- 
 wat and united with the river in the wady below, which thus became 
 altogether unfordable. It then seemed incredible that in the late 
 autumn one could scarcely procure sufficient water for himself and 
 his horse even for money, and yet such had been the experience of 
 one of our party in this region. 
 
 ' Ant. XV. lo, I. 2.
 
 PRIMITIVE SCHOOL.— BOARDS FOR BOOKS. 49 1 
 
 Kunawat is a fair illustration of the fact that the population of 
 this part of the Hauran has steadily increased during the last half 
 century. Burckhardt, in 1812, found here "only two Druse fam- 
 ilies, who were occupied in cultivating a few tobacco-fields." Forty 
 years later Dr. Porter was " favored with a visit from the village 
 school-master" — the first he had heard of in the Hauran — "a vener- 
 able old man, with sparkling eyes and a flowing beard. 
 
 "His school consisted of some twenty children; and I had seen 
 them bawling over their lessons on a house-top. The scholars had 
 no books, and [their 'master'] was obliged to teach them by writ- 
 ing letters and words on little boards, which they carried about and 
 rhymed over till form and sound became familiar. I afterwards saw 
 the little urchins walking through the city, proud of their boards, 
 which were strung round their necks. 
 
 " Here there was a zeal for instruction altogether remarkable. I 
 could not but sympathize with these poor children, forced to learn 
 the first principles of their language from rude letters scratched 
 upon rough boards ; and I could not but look with a feeling of re- 
 spect and admiration on the man who, without remuneration, gave 
 him.self up to the self-imposed task of instructing youth. I learned 
 that most of the boys and young men in the village could read, and 
 not a few of them write." ' 
 
 But it grows late, and 
 
 "The deep night is crept upon our talk. 
 And nature must obey necessity." 
 
 ' Five Years in Damascus, p]). 206, 207.
 
 4Q2 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 KUNAWAT TO EL BUSRAH. 
 
 The Druses in the Hauran. — Bedawin Incursions.— Moslem and Christian Villages.— 
 Desire for Education.— Local Feuds.— Oak Woods.— 'Atil.— Temple.— Bilingual In- 
 scription. — Athila. — Greek Inscription. — Emperor Antoninus Pius. — Zenodorus. — 
 Equestrian Statue. — Head of Baal. — Astarte. — Iconoclastic Vandalism. — El Kiisr, 
 Ruined Temple.— Impure Water.— Ague.— Column at 'Atil.— Roman Road.— Oak 
 ■ Grove. — Mud and Dust. — Palmyrene Inscription. — Tomb of Chamrate. — Ode- 
 nathus. — Count de Vogue. — M. Waddington. — Roman Bridge. — Flour- mills.— Es 
 Suweideh.— Large Reservoirs.— Mecca Pilgrims.— Temple.— Triumphal Arch. — Nym- 
 phseum.- Emperor Trajan.— Aqueduct.— Mosk and Temple.— Greek Inscriptions.— 
 Ancient Trading Companies. — A Temple of Minerva. — Church and Monastery. — 
 Donkeys Floundering in the Mud. — Theatre. — William of Tyre. — Bildad the 
 Shuhite. — Job.— Greek Inscriptions. — M. Waddington. — Soada.— Dionysias.— The 
 Capital of Jebel ed Druse.— Square Tower.— Roman Road.— An Agricultural Region. 
 — Megeidel and er Resas. — Nahr 'Ary. — Flour-mills. — Kuleib Hauran. — Extinct 
 Volcano.— Burckhardt.— El 'Afineh. — Hebran. — Ancient Aqueduct.— Roman Road. 
 — Heavy Rains and Lively Streams. — El Kureiyeh. — Kerioth. — 'Ary, Ariath. — Isma'il 
 el Atrash.— Burckhardt and Shibly Ibn Hamdan.— Druse Hospitality.— Mujeimir and 
 Wetr.— Deir Zubeir.— Roman Road.— Roman Bridge.— Mosk of el Mebruk.— El 
 Koran.— The Instinct of the Camel— Incident in the Career of Muhammed.— Ruins 
 at Urn el Jemal Described by Dr. Merrill.— Bedawin Encampment. — Hundreds of 
 Camels. — Heavy Robbery. — The Perpetual Desert. — Scores of Ruined Towns.— 
 Swallows and Gazelles.— Ruins at Um el Jemal.— City Gate.— Streets and Avenues. 
 —Private Houses.— Churches and Crosses.— Greek, Latin, and Nabathean Inscrip- 
 tions. — Ninth Dalmatian Horse. — Vexillarii. — Square Tower. — Uriel, Gabriel, and 
 Emmanuel.— Genii of the Cardinal Points.— The God Dusares. — Camels laden with 
 Stones from the Ruins at Um el Jemal.— Deserted for Centuries. — Fragments of 
 Black Pottery.— Beth-gamul.— Plan of the City of Bozrah. — The Castle.— Cisterns. — 
 Subterranean Vaults. — Theatre within the Castle. — Outlook from the Seats in the 
 Theatre. — Dr. Porter's Description of the View from the Keep of the Castle.— Roman 
 Highways.— Towns and Villages on the Plain. — "Without Inhabitant and without 
 Man."— Corinthian Columns near the Centre of the City.— Colonnade or Temple.— 
 Ruins of a Bath. — Triumphal Arch. — Julius, Prefect of the Parthian Legion.— 
 Deserted Bazaar.— The Khalif 'Omar.— Mosk at el Busrah. — House of the Jew.— Col- 
 umns of Green Micaceous Marble. — Cufic and Aralnc Inscriptions. — Convent and
 
 THE DRUSES IX THE HAURAN— BEDAWIN INCURSIONS. 493 
 
 House of Boheira. — Burckhardt's Account of the Monk Boheiia. — The Instructor of 
 Muhammed. — Stifling Sirocco. — Bedawin Shepherds and their Flocks. — Cathedral at 
 Busrah. — Sergius, Bacchus, and Leontius. — Archbishop Julianus. — Job. — Leper Hos- 
 pital. — The Emperor Justinian. — Beautiful Cufic Inscription. — Triumphal Arch. — 
 Palace of the Yellow King. — Bab el Hawa. — Roman Guard-house. — 'Aiyun el Merj. 
 — Temple. — Antonia Fortuna, Wife of Caesar. — Springs and Fountains. — Large 
 Reservoirs. — Mercantile Caravans. — Masons' Marks. — Aramaic Letters. — History of 
 el Busrah. — Bozrah of Edom. — El Busaireh. — Tophel. — The Judgments of Jeremiah. 
 — "The Line of Confusion and the Stones of Emptiness." — Judas Maccabeus slew 
 all the Males of Bosora. — The City Burned. — Carnaim. — A. Cornelius Palma. — Nova 
 Trajana Bostra. — A Military Colony. — Roman Highways. — The Euphrates and the 
 Persian Gulf. — The Bostrian Era. — Philip the Arabian. — Roman Emperor. — Early 
 Introduction of Christianity into Bozrah. — Origen. — Bishop Beiyllus. — Ecclesiastical 
 Councils held at Bozrah. — Trading Caravans. — Visits of Muhammed to el Busrah. — 
 Abu Talib. — The Monk Boheira. — Khadija. — Capture of el Busrali by the Moslems. 
 — Khalid, the Sword of God. — Treachery of Romanus. — Baneful Rule of Islam. — 
 Sulkhad. — Salcah. — Moses, Joshua. — Og reigned in Salcah. — The Castle at Sidkhnd 
 Described by Dr. Merrill. — The Crater. — Interior of the Castle. — Inscriptions. — 
 Masons' Marks. — Busts of Animals. — Lions and Palm-tree. — A Frontier Fortress. — 
 The Ancient Town at Sulkhad. — Druses from the Lebanon. — Sulkhad Visited by Dr. 
 Porter. — Deserted Houses and Streets. — View from the Castle. — Bashan, Moab 
 Arabia. — Thirty Deserted Towns. — "Judgment upon the Plain and the Cities of 
 Moab, far and near." — El Kureiyeh, Kerioth. — Biblical and Secular History of 
 Kerioth. — Ruins at el Kureiyeh. — Triple Colonnade. — Greek Inscriptions. — Seat 
 of a Bishop. — Burckhardt. — Dr. Porter. — Isma'il el Atrash. — Druse Families. 
 
 .Septeml)er 20lh. 
 
 We have held quite a levee this morning, and I have been at a 
 loss to discover the motive of such friendly demonstrations on the 
 part of these polite and courteous Druses. 
 
 They are always anticipating trouble with the government, and 
 they hope that we maybe able to speak a good word in their behalf 
 to those who have influence with the Turkish authorities in this 
 country. The Druses, from their warlike character and almost im- 
 pregnable position upon and around the mountains of the Ilauran, 
 may be regarded as exerting a favorable influence over this entire 
 region. The Bedawin tribes north, east, and south are more afraid 
 of them than of the Turkish Government, and hence their destructive 
 incursions are held in check. Were it not for that, there wotdd be 
 but few inhabited villages in this part of the country. /Xnd as the 
 number of the Druses is steadily increasing by emigration from the 
 Lebanon and Ante- Lebanon, their influence is constantly increas-
 
 494 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ing also, and places not long since deserted are now reoccupied. 
 It is also largely owing to this growing power of the Druses that 
 Moslem and even Christian villages are multiplying. 
 
 The Druses, in fact, constitute the nucleus of a power which, 
 rightly directed, might ultimately redeem this beautiful region from 
 the devastations of the Bedawin. But they are themselves a fierce 
 and lawless generation, and are sadly in need of the higher civilizing 
 influence of Christianity and of Christian schools. There is, how- 
 ever, some reason for hope in regard to them, for they are not 
 Moslems nor fanatical, and in several places they are beginning to 
 appreciate the benefits of education and to ask earnestly for schools. 
 That was one of the subjects broached this morning by the sheikhs 
 of Kunawat, and I promised to submit their request to those to 
 whom that work naturally belongs. 
 
 It seems to me that Kunawat presents a fair field for such be- 
 nevolent and philanthropic work. 
 
 It is quite central, and certainly high enough to be cool and 
 healthy, and from it a large number of villages could be reached. 
 But those who would undertake such an enterprise should be pre- 
 pared to deal with a rude and lawless population, and to overcome 
 many obstacles. Some of the most formidable will arise from local 
 feuds between neighboring villages, and also from quarrels among 
 the inhabitants of the same village. The people of Kunawat are 
 famous for such quarrels, and not long since the rival parties had a 
 desperate encounter in which several persons are said to have been 
 killed and many more were wounded. 
 
 And now, as those courteous Druses have bidden us farewell and 
 godspeed in their characteristic fashion and in a style eminently 
 Oriental, we will mount our horses and proceed on our way. 
 
 It is pleasant to ride through these oak woods, which appear to 
 extend far up the mountains to the east and north of Kunawat. 
 
 An easy descent westward of nearly three-quarters of an hour 
 will bring us to 'Atil, where we shall find the remains of an equestri- 
 an statue, fragments of statuary in bass-relief, two ancient temples, 
 and several inscriptions well worthy of examination. 
 
 The village appears to be quite small, but it is prettily situated 
 on the western border of these eversfreen woods.
 
 TEMPLE AT "ATIL. 
 
 495 
 
 'Atil is occupied at present by a few Druse families, and a portion 
 of this temple, in the south-eastern part of the village, has been con- 
 verted into a dwelling, and is now the residence of the sheikh of 
 the place. The temple, constructed of hard basalt, stood upon a 
 platform or stylobate about ten feet high. It was small but well- 
 proportioned, and the shell-work and other ornamental carving 
 
 TEMPLE AT 'ATIL. 
 
 about the front was rich and beautifully executed. The order of 
 architecture is Corinthian, and the walls of the temple projected 
 on either side of the portico, which consisted of two fluted col- 
 umns, with two plain ones in front and square pilasters or anta: at 
 the corners of the edifice. There are brackets nearly half-way up 
 the pillars and columns, apparently placeil there for statues.
 
 496 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 From a curious bilingual inscription, discovered at Trevoux in 
 France, it appears that the Greek name of this place was Athila. 
 M. Waddington found here eight inscriptions, some of them re- 
 markably well preserved and others mere fragments. This inscrip- 
 tion on the base of the pilaster at the southern corner of the temple 
 is quite perfect, and from it we learn that the edifice was built about 
 the fourteenth year of the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius, 
 corresponding to A.D. 151. Inscriptions have also been found here 
 in honor of heathen deities, Roman emperors and centurions, and 
 one which contains the name of Zenodorus, a famous person who, 
 according to Josephus, figured largely in the history of this region 
 about the commencement of our era. 
 
 Here, in this field, just south of the temple, are the remains of 
 the equestrian statue and of the bass-relief representing a female 
 figure with wings. A third fragment, quite large, is supposed to be 
 the head of Baal ; and a fourth, with the crescent moon rising from 
 the shoulders, may have represented Astarte. Similar fragments 
 are built into the walls of the gardens and dwellings in the neigh- 
 borhood. All the statues have been broken by fanatical Moslems, 
 and the sight of these fragments excites one's indignation against 
 the iconoclastic vandalism that has so wantonly destroyed them. 
 
 The other temple, at the northern end of the village, is a com- 
 plete ruin, and as these noisy lads are anxious to show us the way 
 to el Kiisr, or the palace, as they call it, we will gratify them, and 
 thereby furnish occasion to distribute bakhshish. Some of these 
 Druses are from the Lebanon, and claim to be old acquaintances. 
 
 This temple appears to have been inferior in every respect to 
 the one in the southern part of 'Atil ; and nothing now remains 
 standing except a part of the main entrance. There are no inscrip- 
 tions, but if the large blocks that lie about were turned over, some 
 might be found; and if the debris was cleared away, the side portals, 
 now buried under the rubbish, and the foundations of the temple 
 would then be fully exposed to view. 
 
 We will now go to see the fragments of a very curious column 
 just east of the village. Portions of it are built into a garden-wall 
 near this birkeh, or stagnant pool, the drainage of the surrounding 
 terraces, that supplies the inhabitants of 'Atil with water.
 
 COLUMN AT 'ATIL.— ROMAN ROAD.— TOMB OF CIIAMRATE. 497 
 
 If the people drink this yellowish- green fluid, no wonder that 
 half of them have the ague, and all look pale and cadaverous. 
 
 They can procure better water by going for it only a short 
 distance, but most of them are too lazy and shiftless to do so. 
 There are the fragments of the column which, as you perceive, are 
 carved in imitation of the bole, or stem, of the palm-tree. It is 
 wholly unique, and when erected must have been quite high, as 
 appears from the different portions, if, indeed, they all belonged to 
 one single column. And now we must bid these polite attendants 
 a formal farewell and pursue our ride southward to es Suweideh, 
 about an hour and a half distant from 'Atil. 
 
 We are again on a well-defined Roman road, and it is bringing 
 us into a beautiful grove of oak and other evergreen trees. 
 
 It will take us an hour to ride through this grove, and after we 
 pass out of its grateful shade, the country becomes quite bare and 
 loses much of its picturesqueness. During the time of the Romans 
 that ancient road led to es Suweideh, then one of the principal 
 cities in this region, though now reduced to a mere village and 
 almost buried under the remains of its former greatness. 
 
 In the spring, the road was impassable in many places, owing 
 to deep mud, and we often had to pick our way through the fields 
 on either side in order to afford a sure footing to our perplexed 
 horses. Now it is dry and dusty, and far from being cither smooth 
 or agreeable. Like nearly all the Roman roads in this country, 
 the pavement of this one has been broken up by the heav)' rains 
 in winter, and has almost entirely disappeared. 
 
 The massive ruins of es Suweideh begin to appear ahead of us 
 in the distance, and before entering their bewildering lab\Tinths 
 we will turn to the left and ascend the northern side of the wady 
 to examine one of the most singular monuments in this region. It 
 is called ed Debusiyeh by the natives, and was built of solid masonry 
 upon a base approached by two steps. In shape it was a cube of 
 about thirty -three feet side, and finished above in the form of a 
 pyramid, and when perfect it must have been nearly forty feet 
 high. There are six pilasters, or semi -columns, of the Doric order 
 on each side, supporting a plain cornice; and upon the walls be- 
 tween them are sculptured emblems and ancient armor represent-
 
 498 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ing coats of mail, helmets, and shields in bass-relief. The pyramid 
 has fallen, but the sides of this monument are nearly perfect, and it 
 appears never to have had an entrance of any kind. 
 
 There is a Greek inscription on the northern side, and one in 
 Palmyrene on the eastern side. Both are to the same effect, and 
 briefly state that " Odenathus, son of Annelos, built this tomb to 
 Chamrate his wife." That Odenathus was a different person from 
 the husband of Zenobia, who ruled in Palmyra more than two 
 hundred and fifty years after the time of Herod the Great. Count 
 de Vogiie supposes that he was an Arabian chief whose tribe had 
 possession of this region before the reign of Herod ; and M. Wad- 
 dington thinks that this monument is one of the most ancient 
 structures in the Hauran, though he does not believe that it dates 
 much further back than the commencement of the Christian era. 
 
 We will now cross over to the other side of this deep wady of 
 Suweideh, and examine the ruins of that ancient town. 
 
 The river in the wady is now dry, yet it is spanned by a well-built 
 Roman bridge of a single arch, whose height implies that the stream 
 is sometimes quite a formidable torrent. 
 
 It is so during the winter and early spring, and then the volume 
 of water is more than sufficient to drive the flour-mills of the village 
 in the valley below the bridge. Suw^eideh was built, as you see, 
 entirely on the south bank of the wady and upon a low, rocky 
 ridge, which extends westward to the plain of el Hauran. The 
 first object that attracts attention in advance of that wilderness of 
 ruins is this large reservoir on our right, from which the present 
 inhabitants of es Suweideh are supplied with water, there being 
 no springs or permanent fountain in the village. This reservoir is 
 nearly a thousand feet in circuit and at least thirty feet deep. It 
 was full when I was here in the spring, but now it is almost empty, 
 and has by no means an inviting appearance. 
 
 There is a larger reservoir south-west of the village, called Birket 
 el Haj because formerly it was one of the watering-places of the 
 Mecca pilgrims. Both reservoirs were lined with stone, and stone 
 steps led down to the bottom of them. Above us on the left, at 
 the east end of the town, are the remains of a temple, once sur- 
 rounded by a colonnade of twenty -two Corinthian columns, only
 
 TEMPLE, ARCH, AND NYMPH.EUM AT ES SUWEIDEH. 
 
 499 
 
 about half of which now remain standing. From the disposition 
 of the columns, their various styles of workmanship, and different 
 dimensions, the entire edifice was apparently constructed out of 
 materials which belonged to other and more ancient structures. 
 
 1 
 
 TEMPLE AT ES SUWEIDEH. 
 
 When I was here, several years ago, the interior was a mass of 
 ruins, but it has recently been transformed into the divan of the 
 sheikh, whose humble dwelling is just east of it. 
 
 The main street commences near this temple, at a large gate- 
 way probably intended for a triumphal arch, and leads down towards 
 the south-west through the midst of the town, with fallen houses 
 on either side, and the ruins of several public edifices that merit 
 attention in passing. This semicircular structure, with niches and 
 Corinthian pilasters, a short distance below the gate-way, was prob- 
 ably a nymphncum, or a public bath, and upon it is an inscription 
 from which we learn that it was erected during the reign of the
 
 500 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Emperor Trajan, about the beginning of the second century of our 
 era. The aqueduct with which it was connected, and which sup- 
 pHed it with water, may have been constructed at the same time. 
 
 This building, with arches and short columns which once sup- 
 ported the roof, is supposed to be a mosk, and it probably occupies 
 the site of a temple or other public edifice. It is said to contain 
 two Greek inscriptions, mentioning the names of certain trading 
 companies of merchants who flourished in this region during the 
 Graeco- Roman period. According to another inscription found in 
 that low building a short distance east of the mosk, there was 
 erected here a temple dedicated to Minerva. And here, near the 
 centre of the ancient city, is a large structure which appears to 
 have been a church, probably erected during the fourth century, 
 with perhaps a monastery attached to it. The street on the right, 
 below this edifice, is a mere quagmire in the spring, and I saw sev- 
 eral donkeys loaded with wheat floundering in it ; nor could they 
 be extricated until the ropes that bound the sacks upon their pack- 
 saddles were cut loose and their loads removed. 
 
 A short distance farther down the street are the remains of a 
 theatre. The walls are broken down, the seats all gone, and the 
 entire edifice is too dilapidated to be described. 
 
 Has es Suweideh no ancient historic record? 
 
 It is nowhere alluded to in the Bible, at least not under any of 
 the names by which it is now known or has been in times past. A 
 tradition mentioned by William of Tyre, in the twelfth century, 
 connects this place with Bildad the Shuhite, and the natives of 
 Suweideh believe that Job himself was the first prince of their 
 town. The remains of temples, churches, and other monuments 
 prove that it must have been a flourishing city of the Graeco-Roman 
 period, having a mixed population of heathens and Christians dwell- 
 ing together for a long time in comparative peace and quietness. 
 M. Waddington found here twenty-five Greek inscriptions, most of 
 which are, however, mere fragments; but from an extended analysis 
 of them he throws much light upon the age of these remains and 
 the probable history of the city itself. 
 
 Some of the inscriptions date- back to the time of Herod the 
 Great, and the Greek name of the place appears formerly to have
 
 SOADA.— AGRICULTURAL REGION.— KULEIB HAURAN. 50I 
 
 been Soada ; but J\I. Waddington identifies it with the Dionysias 
 mentioned in the Notitiae of various ecclesiastical councils, from 
 which it would seem that Soada was an episcopal city belonging to 
 this part of Arabia. Hid away amongst these ruins of the ancient 
 town, there is a mixed population said to number about five hundred 
 Druses and a few Christians. Suweideh has long been regarded as 
 the capital of Jebel ed Druse, as this portion of the Hauran is 
 called, and the ruling sheikh still resides here. 
 
 The main street, through which we are passing, is not only very 
 dry at present, but also quite dusty and disagreeable. 
 
 There is nothing of much interest in this wilderness of prostrate 
 houses at the lower end of it, not even that tower which was about 
 twenty feet square and thirty feet high. Beyond it the Roman 
 road from Damascus to el Busrah or Bozrah passes southward 
 through the country in almost a straight line. 
 
 We v.ill now resume our ride. It is six hours from Suweideh 
 to Bozrah, and the country between the two places is neither level 
 nor mountainous, but agreeably diversified with hills, valleys, and 
 plains. This is, in fact, a fine agricultural region and, during the 
 winter season at least, abundantly supplied with water. But the 
 greater part of it is destitute of trees and uncultivated. There are 
 but few villages, and none of them are of much importance. Ere 
 long we shall pass through the small village of Megeidel,and a short 
 distance beyond it, to the left, is the hamlet of er Resas, situated 
 on the western slope of the Hauran mountain. 
 
 I remember er Resas chiefly from the fact that on a former tour 
 through this region we there left the direct road to Bozrah and 
 turned eastward towards the lower declivities of Jebel Hauran, on 
 our way to Sulkhad. In less than an hour we crossed what was 
 then a considerable stream called Nahr 'Ary. Keeping up the 
 southern side of it, we passed a succession of small flour-mills, all 
 busily improving the unusual flow of water from the eastern moun- 
 tains. From the higher ridges over which the path led we had 
 distinct views of the great conical peak called Kuleib Hauran. 
 
 We have seen that high mountain from many places along our 
 
 route during the past few days, and it has all the appearance of a 
 
 volcanic cone of great size and height. 
 L 2
 
 502 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 It dominates this entire region, and was once, no doubt, in the 
 distant past an active volcano, and from it a great part of the lava 
 and volcanic debris which cover the surrounding country were prob- 
 ably discharged. The entire eastern side of the mountain is quite 
 bare, but it is covered with a straggling forest of oak, terebinth, and 
 other evergreen trees and bushes on the south, west, and north, and 
 the interior of the crater itself is said to be well -wooded. The 
 south-western side of the crater appears to have been broken away, 
 probably during a violent eruption in pre -historic times, leaving a 
 wide and deep cavity in that part of the cone. 
 
 Kuleib Hauran rises more than five thousand five hundred feet 
 above the sea, and though the ascent is not difficult, only a few 
 travellers have made the attempt, owing principally to the lack of 
 time and its isolated position. Burckhardt spent a night in a Bed- 
 awin camp at its base, but he became too ill to ascend to the sum- 
 mit. He was told that the Mediterranean could be seen from the 
 top on a clear day, probably through the plain of Esdraelon, and 
 out upon the Bay of Acre beyond the cape of Mount Carmel. 
 The prospect eastward over the Arabian desert was said to be 
 boundless and exceedingly impressive. 
 
 Owing to deep mud our progress towards Sulkhad was slow, 
 and as it began to rain we stopped at el 'Afineh, a small village 
 situated on a projecting ridge of the mountain, and only partly in- 
 habited by Druses. Hebran, a much larger place on the top of the 
 ridge, is just above it to the north-east, and there are other ancient 
 sites in all directions. We busied ourselves in copying some Greek 
 inscriptions among the ruins, supposing that M. Waddington had 
 not visited 'Afineh, but subsequently I found them printed in full 
 in his great work. From one of them we learn that the Emperor 
 Trajan caused the water from Kunawat to be conducted to 'Afineh ; 
 and some of the arches supporting that ancient aqueduct are still 
 to be seen east of the village, and not far from the Roman road 
 that led straight from Bozrah towards el Kufr. 
 
 As the night came on dark and stormy, the Druse sheikh of 
 'Afineh urged us to share with him his gloomy and smoky habita- 
 tion, but we chose rather to trust to our tents! The rain continued 
 through the night, and by morning the tents were thoroughly satu-
 
 IMPASSABLE ROADS.— SULKHAD AND EL KLRKIVEH. 503 
 
 rated, and in no condition to be folded up until they were partially 
 dried by kindling small fires within them. 
 
 The people of the village assured us that the road to Sulkhad 
 was quite innpassable, and we were reluctantly obliged to abandon 
 the idea of going there. Obtaining a guide we struck across the 
 country, along an unfrequented pathway, directly southward towards 
 el Kureiyeh, the site of an ancient city midway between el Busrah 
 and Sulkhad. The path was at first very spongy, and fatiguing to 
 our horses, but when we reached the level plain, the marshy nature 
 of the soil ceased, and the road became more firm and solid. We 
 had noticed the fact in other places that during great rains the 
 ground became so saturated on the hill -sides that travelling was 
 very disagreeable to both the horse and his rider. 
 
 It is less than two hours from 'Afineh to Kureiyeh, yet in that 
 short distance we crossed several lively little streams descending 
 from the declivities of Kuleib Hauran and the eastern mountains 
 in deep and tumultuous torrents. Our guide, however, assured us 
 that in a few weeks they would all be. quite dry. In most of that 
 region the land is thickly strewn with volcanic bowlders, but the soil 
 is naturally fertile though treeless and uncultivated, nor is there a 
 single village between 'Afineh and Kureiyeh. 
 
 From many points along the road the great mound of Sulkhad 
 was clearly seen from summit to base and appeared surprisingly 
 near. It was in reality not more than four miles south-east of us, 
 and with the glass we could distinguish the broken walls of the 
 castle that occupies the entire summit of the mound. 
 
 Did you find anything of special interest at Kureiyeh? 
 It was once a large city, and some of the remains appear to be 
 ancient. The streets and lanes were quite impassable, owing to 
 bottomless mud, and the few inhabitants we found there seemed to 
 be miserably poor and shiftless. They were engaged mainly in 
 sunning themselves on the walls of a large reservoir, to dry their 
 tattered garments after the great rain of the previous night. Ku- 
 reiyeh has been identified with Kerioth, one of " the cities of the 
 land of Moab;" but there are some grave objections which rcciuirc 
 to be removed before the identification can be accepted. Similar 
 difficulties, however, attach to el Busrah, and while there we can
 
 504 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 examine the two questions together, and discuss other matters of 
 interest connected with the Biblical history of that region. 
 
 What is the name of the village which we are now approaching, 
 situated upon the low hill to the left of our road ? 
 
 'Ary, supposed to occupy the site of Ariath, an episcopal city 
 during the fourth century mentioned in the Notitis or old ecclesias- 
 tical records. The ruins of the ancient city are extensive but quite 
 insignificant, and the modern village is now an inconsiderable place, 
 the residence of a Druse family of recent origin, but formerly of 
 great power and influence. It was the home of Isma'il el Atrash, a 
 Druse warrior very celebrated in this region about thirty years ago. 
 He was summoned to Beirut by the Governor -general of Syria, 
 and astonished the natives with his wild band of Hauran Druses. 
 Small of stature, the personal appearance of Sheikh Isma'il gave 
 no indication of the daring chieftain, yet he was the terror of the 
 Bedawin all over this region; and his three sons are still leading 
 sheikhs in Jebel ed Druse. Isma'il el Atrash died more than ten 
 years ago, and his tomb is just without the village. 
 
 Long before his day Burckhardt visited 'Ary on two separate 
 occasions, and the Druse sheikh of the place appeared to be greatly 
 pleased to see him. " Sheikh Shibly Ibn Hamdan," he says, " is the 
 kindest and most generous Druse I have known in Syria; and his 
 reputation for these qualities has become so general that peasants 
 from all parts of the Hauran settle in his village. The whole of 
 the Christian community of Suweideh, with the Greek priest at their 
 head, had lately arrived, so that 'Ary has now become one of the 
 most populous villages in this district. The high estimation in 
 wdiich the sheikh is held arises from his great hospitality, and the 
 justice and mildness with which he treats the peasants, upward of 
 forty of whom he feeds daily, besides strangers, who are continually 
 passing here on their way to the Bedawin encampments ; the coffee- 
 pot is always boiling in the menzul, or strangers' room. He may 
 now, in fact, be called the Druse chief of the Hauran, though that 
 title belongs in strictness to his father-in-law, Hussein Ibn Hamdan, 
 the sheikh of Suweideh." * Times and persons have greatly changed 
 since Burckhardt visited 'Ary, and though the family of Hamdan 
 
 1 Travels in Syria, etc., p. 225.
 
 MUJEIMIR AND WETR.— DEIR ZUBEIR.— FIRST MOSK IN SYRIA. 505 
 
 Still exists in this region, its present sheikhs have lost most of their 
 property, their ancient renown, and their former pre-eminence. 
 
 We have passed during the last hour the villages of Mujeimir 
 and Wetr, situated on their tells a short distance to the left of our 
 road, and for another hour we shall have the shattered walls and 
 dark, massive towers and battlements of the celebrated city of el 
 Busrah, upon the wide-spreading plain of Bashan, constantly in view. 
 To the right of our road are the ruins of Deir Zubeir, a large square 
 edifice with thick walls, and which, as its name implies, was probably 
 once a monastery. And here we come upon the remains of the 
 Roman road that led from Bozrah, or el Busrah, northward to Da- 
 mascus. Traces of it, extending in a straight line across the plain, 
 are distinctly visible, and in some places the solid pavement, com- 
 posed of well-squared slabs of stone, is still almost perfect. 
 
 After crossing the small stream in Wady Zeidy, on the old Roman 
 bridge of three arches, below Jemurrin, we will turn aside and in- 
 spect the famous mosk called el Mebruk, the kneeling- place. 
 Burckhardt gives the following account of its origin : " Ibn 'Affan, 
 who first collected the scattered leaves of the Koran into a book, 
 relates that when Othman, in coming from the Hedjaz, approached 
 the neighborhood of Boszra with his army, he ordered his people 
 to build a mosque on the spot where the camel which bore the 
 Koran should kneel down." And he adds: " It is of no great size; 
 its interior was embellished, like that of the great mosque [at el 
 Medina], with Cufic inscriptions, of which a few specimens yet 
 remain over the mehrab, or niche towards which the face of the 
 imam is turned in praying. The dome or kubbch which covered 
 its summit has been recently destroyed by the Wahabi." ' 
 
 If the tradition be reliable, this edifice occupies the site of the 
 very first mosk which the Muhammedans erected in Syria. The 
 method of being guided by the instinct of the camel was a favorite 
 device of the early Moslem leaders, copied from the example of 
 their Prophet. He thus pretended to ascertain at whose house he 
 should alight in Medina when he fled thither from Mecca, in the 
 first month of the first year of the Muhammedan era. Mr. William 
 Muir has given an amusing description of that singular incident 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 235.
 
 5o6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 which decided as well the location of the first mosk that was ever 
 built in the Muhammedan world." And now we may alight at our 
 tents, pitched under the shadow of the castle at el Busrah, on the 
 south side of the town, where we can rest in quietness and safety 
 during the coming Sabbath. 
 
 Sunday, September 2ist. 
 
 With the exception of a few low hills in the distance, el Busrah 
 stands out alone in the centre of this great plain of Bashan. The 
 castle of Salkhad is clearly seen crowning the summit of its lofty 
 volcanic cone, about twelve or fourteen miles nearly due east, and 
 the shattered walls of Um el Jemal, though five hours' ride across 
 the southern desert, are said to be visible on a clear day from the 
 top of the highest tower in the castle. 
 
 Um el Jemal, which many travellers have longed to visit, but 
 failed in the attempt to do so, is supposed to occupy the site of the 
 Beth-gamul mentioned by Jeremiah, is it not? 
 
 There appears to be some doubt in regard to the claim of that 
 place to Biblical notice. It has been visited by Mr. Cyril C. Graham, 
 M. Waddington, and the gentlemen of the American Palestine Ex- 
 ploration Society. Dr. Selah Merrill, the archaeologist of the party, 
 gives an interesting account of the ride through the desert to Um 
 el Jemal, and a detailed description of the ruins at that place. 
 They were encamped here at el Busrah, and, as an early start w^as 
 necessary. Dr. Merrill says, " We left our camp at five o'clock, and, 
 guided by a man wath a lantern, made our way over the ruins and 
 among the walls and columns of ancient palaces and temples to the 
 castle here; for the officer in command, Ibrahim Effendi, proposed, 
 as he had never visited the place, and was 'very much interested in 
 antiquities,' to accompany us with some soldiers. Fortunately the 
 morning, and the whole day, as it proved, was quite cool, so that 
 our ten hours and forty minutes in the saddle were less tedious 
 than they might otherwise have been. We were in all twenty men, 
 well mounted and well armed. Besides the animals we rode we 
 had three extra ones for photographic apparatus and water. 
 
 " About two miles outside of Bozrah we came upon a large en- 
 campment of Bedawin, numbering over one hundred long black 
 ' Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. g.
 
 BEDA\VIN ENCAMPMENT.— THE PERPETUAL DESERT. 507 
 
 tents, and judging from the deafening howl, there were three or 
 four dogs to every tent. Several hundred camels were scattered 
 about in groups, and there was evidently excitement of some kind, 
 for men were shouting and running about in all- directions. Some 
 of them ran up to our soldiers and told of a heavy robbery that 
 had been committed during the night, and of the great loss 
 they had suffered in cattle and camels. Our soldiers gave chase 
 in the direction indicated by these men, and it was a fine sight to 
 see them, with such of the Bedawin as were mounted, dashing over 
 the plain in their efforts to discover the robbers. These, however, 
 had done their work too near morning, or else had taken more than 
 they could manage, and had fled, leaving the camels, or most of 
 them, to return at leisure to their masters. I counted, in a single 
 string, one hundred and fifty camels thus making their way back. 
 During the next hour or two we saw as many as half a dozen groups 
 of camels at different places on the plain, that had passed through 
 the experience of being stolen the night previous. 
 
 "Three miles south of Bozrah we struck the perpetual desert, 
 the region of desolation. Not that the soil is barren, but in all 
 this wide and naturally fertile district no man dare plough, plant, 
 or build. Yet this desert shows signs of former cultivation, for the 
 stones in many parts have at some time been gathered into long 
 rows, evidently to serve as boundaries for fields. The plain is 
 covered with a small alkali shrub, which resembles the sage -bush 
 so common on the plains of the far West. The crocus also ap- 
 peared in many places, and the contrast between the barren, burnt 
 surface of the plain and these beautiful flowers was very striking. 
 On the way we passed several ruins, the names of which we could 
 not learn; and the same was true on our return, as we came the 
 most of the way by a different route. There are scores of these 
 ruined towns scattered about this plain awaiting the careful ex- 
 plorer. Far in the north-east the fortress of Sulkhad loomed up, a 
 magnificent object on the horizon, commanding a view of all this 
 wide plain to the north, east, south, and west. I noticed that the 
 common barn-swallows were very abundant ; and we also saw dur- 
 ing the day ten or more gazelles, to some of which our men gave 
 chase, but without success.
 
 5o8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 " We reached Um el Jemal after a ride of about five hours. The 
 ruins do not abound in columns and temples, like those of Kunawat 
 and Gerash; still they are imposing and make a peculiar impression 
 upon one, because they stand alone in the desert. They are remark- 
 able, in the first place, from the fact that they present only two 
 prominent styles of architecture — namely, Roman and Christian, or 
 Byzantine — and not half a dozen, as is so often the case in other 
 places. They are remarkable, again, because they afford a good 
 example of an unwalled town. But the walls of the houses in many 
 cases join each other, and this would give the appearance of a city 
 wall separate from the houses. If there was no wall, there was at 
 least a gate to the city. This was broad, and composed of four 
 arches. When perfect it was one of the principal ornaments of the 
 place. The dwellings and edifices were not huddled together. 
 There has been no building and rebuilding on the ruins of former 
 buildings, according to later Oriental style. 
 
 " The open spaces about the houses were large, and the streets 
 were broad, and at least two avenues ran through the city from 
 north to south, one of which was one hundred feet wude, and the 
 other nearly one hundred and fifty feet. Nothing appears crowded ; 
 everywhere there is a sense of roominess. It must have been a city 
 noted for broad streets, spacious avenues, large courts, fine gardens 
 and promenades. Again the houses, which were built of stone, 
 were not only the finest, but the best preserved, of any in the 
 Hauran. Some of them were three or even four stories high. 
 Eleven or twelve feet was a common height for the ceiling in the 
 first story, ten feet in the second, and in two or more cases the 
 height in the third story was also ten feet. The doors of the rooms 
 on the second floor, as well as on the first, were, as a rule, seven and 
 a half or eight feet high. The rooms w^ere not small, but spacious, 
 — that is, spacious for private houses. A number of those that I 
 measured were ten by twenty- five feet or twelve by twenty- four. 
 There were, of course, both larger and smaller rooms than these. 
 The roofs were supported by arches, and by increasing the number 
 of these a long hall could be covered as well as a small apartment. 
 
 "A common style of building seems to have been a group of 
 houses with a wide space around the outside and a large open
 
 RUINS AT UM EL JEMAL. 
 
 509 
 
 CHURCH AND CONVENT AT UM EL JEMAL. 
 
 court on the inside. These courts were fifty feet by seventy- five, 
 and sometimes larger. Stone stairs on the outside of the houses, 
 facing the court, led up to the second and third stories. Many 
 of these are in as good condition as if they had been built but 
 a year ago. There are no decided marks of great antiquit)\ In 
 the large reservoir before mentioned there are some bevelled stones, 
 with the fullest rough face. Very many of the stones of which the 
 houses are built are simply split, and not faced at all; yet it should 
 be observed that the splitting was remarkably regular. It was 
 evidently at one time, and I should judge for a long time, a prom- 
 inent Christian city. I found the remains of what I consider to 
 have been three Christian churches. One of these at least had a 
 portico, and columns were lying about the front of it. In no other
 
 5IO THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 city east of the Jordan that I have visited do so many crosses ap- 
 pear on the hntels of the doors of private houses as here. 
 
 "Then, again, the inscriptions are by no means the least im- 
 portant fact connected with these ruins. M. Waddington has pub- 
 Hshed several Greek and Latin inscriptions from this place, and 
 during my visit I found seven others, which he has not given, be- 
 sides several in the Nabathean language. Among those which M. 
 Waddington has given I find that one is in honor of M, Aurelius 
 Antoninus. Another shows that the troops or garrison stationed 
 here were cavalry, belonging to the Ninth Dalmatian Horse, who 
 were under the command of one Julius, an officer attached to the 
 court of the prince. They formed a section of the body of troops 
 known as Vexillarii — veterans upon whom was conferred special 
 honor. Possibly a hint may be obtained as to the character of the 
 place by the kind and rank of the soldiers that were assigned to it. 
 This inscription belongs probably to A.D. 371. 
 
 *'0n the four faces of a square tower, belonging to a large build- 
 ing which may have been a monastery, are several inscriptions in 
 Greek, chiefly of a religious nature. One is a fragment taken from 
 the Twenty-first Psalm ; others contain the names of Uriel, Gabriel, 
 and Emmanuel. M. Waddington refers to the use of the names 
 Uriel, Gabriel, Raphael, and Michael in the early Jewish writings. 
 Four angels were placed at the corners of the throne of God, who 
 were the genii of the four cardinal points. Uriel was the angel of 
 the north, consequently his name appears on the north face of this 
 tower. Gabriel is the name on the east face, and the edifice is put 
 under the protection of these two angels. Among the Nabathean 
 inscriptions is one from a monument dedicated to the god Dusares, 
 who was extensively worshipped in these regions. 
 
 "The Arabs are every year carrying off the stones of this city 
 to other places. As many as six men were at work while we were 
 there, throwing down the walls and getting the long roof- stones, 
 which were to be taken away on camels. Just before we reached 
 the place we met thirty or forty camels that had started with loads 
 of stone from these ruins. It is easy to see how important inscrip- 
 tions may be carried off, and thus valuable historical material forever 
 lost. This practice of removing stones from one place to another
 
 RED AND BLACK POTTERY.— UM EL JE>L\.L, liETII-GAMUL. 511 
 
 has gone on for centuries. Indeed, it prevailed in Bible times; and 
 we may be justified in concluding that the citizens of the Hauran 
 possessed, in their day, much finer private houses than any which 
 now appear among the ruins. 
 
 " The place appears to have been deserted for centuries. I should 
 judge that the desertion was sudden and complete. There are no 
 traces of there having been any lingering deteriorating remnant of 
 people, or of any wretched subsequent inhabitants, to mutilate it, 
 as is frequently the case in these large ruined cities. I noticed an 
 interesting fact in regard to the pieces of pottery with which the 
 surface of the ground here, as in all ruined towns, is covered. In 
 most cases one sees only the red pottery, but in Um el Jemal the 
 black was the prevailing kind, and the red decidedly the exception. 
 There are but few places in Syria where the black pottery is made. 
 In the first century, according to the Talmud, the black kind was 
 considered superior to the red, and brought a much higher price 
 in the markets; and what is also interesting in this connection, a 
 certain town in Galilee had the monopoly of its manufacture. 
 
 " So far as I am at present aware, there are no means of knowing 
 what the ancient name of this place was, or whether it corresponds 
 to the 'Beth-gamul' of Jeremiah xlviii. 21-24. In the passage 
 referred to, it is stated that 'judgment is come upon the plain 
 country,' and in the list of eleven cities there specified, Beth-gamul, 
 Beth-meon, Kerioth, and Bozrah are mentioned. 'Judgment is come,' 
 it is said, ' upon all the cities of the land of Moab, far or near.' But 
 it is not known how far the country designated extended. If 
 Bozrah, in the passage in question, corresponds to the place where 
 we now are [that is here at el Busrah], which is doubtful or at least 
 has not yet been proved, then there would be no difficulty in making 
 Um el Jemal, or ' Mother of the Camel,' correspond to Beth-gamul, 
 or ' House of the Camel,' of Jeremiah. 
 
 " On our way back, as we had no guide, and paths do not exist, 
 we took the wrong direction, and when we had ridden five hours we 
 did not find our camp. We ascended a slight elevation, which 
 commanded a view of a wide region. We had a choice of seven 
 ruined cities, which were in sight from where we stood ; but as 
 night was rapidly approaching, even our effendi could not tell
 
 512 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 which was el Busrah. We made a guess, which proved a lucky 
 one, and after one hour and a half hard riding in the dark we 
 reached our tents in safety. The color of the basalt rock of which 
 these Hauran towns are constructed gives one at first the impression 
 that they have been blackened by fire," and as they approached 
 the ruins of el Busrah on that dark night, the black and broken 
 walls of these deserted houses reminded Dr. Merrill of the burned 
 portion of a large city after a great conflagration.' 
 
 As very few travellers have ever been to Um el Jemal, that 
 account of Dr. Merrill's visit is invested with special interest, and 
 I fully agree with him when he says that, if Bozrah corresponds 
 to this el Busrah, " then there would be no difficulty in making 
 Um el Jemal correspond to the Beth-gamul of Jeremiah ;" but that 
 has not yet been fully established. 
 
 September 22d. 
 
 We find ourselves this morning surrounded by a wilderness of 
 ruins that sets all description at defiance. There seems to be 
 neither beginning, middle, nor end to them, and one is at a loss 
 to know where to commence his explorations. 
 
 That question is easily settled w^ien you become acquainted 
 with the plan of the city of Bozrah, the direction of the main streets, 
 and the location of the principal buildings. The walls surrounding 
 the ancient city were very thick, and their greatest length was from 
 east to west. The space enclosed by them was more than a mile 
 square, divided into four unequal parts by two main streets running 
 north and south and east and west, which crossed each other near 
 the middle of the southern part of the city. Other streets ran 
 parallel to them, and the most important ruins are now found on 
 the eastern side and towards the middle of the town. The black 
 ruins of private houses are to be seen in all directions, mostly 
 towards the south-east and south, their walls still standing, but 
 the roofs have fallen in long ago. 
 
 There were extensive suburbs beyond the walls on the east, 
 north, and west ; but the most imposing, and in some respects the 
 most interesting, structure now seen at Busrah is this great castle 
 near which our tents are pitched. It occupies a commanding posi- 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 79-87.
 
 ROMAN THEATRE WITHIN A SARACENIC CASTLE. 513 
 
 tion outside of the south wall of the city, and directly opposite to 
 the principal street leading northward through the town. The 
 commander of the Turkish garrison in the castle, who called upon 
 us last night, has sent one of his soldiers to accompany us over 
 the fortress, and we may as well commence our examination of the 
 ruins at el Busrah by first visiting the castle and the remains of a 
 Roman theatre within its walls. 
 
 The only entrance to this strong fortress is through a large 
 gate -way with an iron -plated door studded with nails. It is in a 
 deep recess in a retired angle near the east end, and is reached by 
 a causeway or bridge of six arches across the moat that surrounds 
 the castle, and which could formerly be filled with water from the 
 reservoir near by, with which it was connected by an aqueduct. 
 
 Look well to your footsteps as we grope our way up this dark 
 and crooked staircase to the upper platform ; and now we can ex- 
 plore the narrow passage-ways, mouldy, subterranean vaults, numer- 
 ous chambers of different sizes, once used for various purposes, the 
 courts, and the massive towers. The whole interior of the castle is 
 in a ruinous condition, everywhere encumbered with heaps of rub- 
 bish, and beneath the vaults are large cisterns capable of containing 
 a supply of water sufficient to last the garrison for many months. 
 Some of these subterranean vaults, I suppose, were connected with 
 the theatre. Others were made by the builders of the castle for 
 store-rooms and stables, and the chambers in the upper stories were 
 probably for the use of the garrison. 
 
 This was one of the largest and best-built castles in Syria, and 
 its massive external walls are nearly perfect and evidently Saracenic. 
 Its construction probably dates from early Muhammedan times, and 
 in its present form it differs from all other castles in this country. 
 Here, near the central part, it contains a large and well-preserved 
 Roman theatre, certainly far more ancient than the castle which 
 now includes it. I suppose the theatre was erected upon a tell or 
 mound elevated about sixty feet above the surrounding country. 
 When the Moslem conquerors wanted a castle at this central and 
 important city of el Busrah, they availed themselves of this theatre 
 as a nucleus, added strong towers at both the east and west ends, 
 and walled in the front of the theatre, as we now see it. The
 
 514" 
 
 THE LAND AND THE ROOK. 
 
 wonder is that the Muhammedans, who hold in utter abomination 
 all such edifices, allowed this theatre to remain almost perfect, 
 without attempting to remove or destroy it. 
 
 The theatre occupies a space upon this platform about two hun- 
 dred and fifty feet long and two hundred feet wide. It was semi- 
 circular in shape, and supported by massive piers and groined 
 
 thp:ai kp: within the castle at el busrah. 
 
 arches. On either side of the stage, which was about one hundred 
 and forty feet long and sixty feet wide, there was a large chamber 
 sixty feet square, whose exterior wall was adorned with Doric 
 pilasters. There were six tiers of seats, now partly covered up by 
 Saracenic buildings, and a colonnade of nearly sixty Doric columns 
 ran around and above the upper tier of seats, but most of them 
 have disappeared. The theatre faced the north, and the audience 
 not only witnessed the spectacle on the stage, but they could over- 
 look the entire city in front and below them, and beyond it was the
 
 VIEW FROM THE KEEP OF THE CASTLE AT EL HUSRAIL 515 
 
 wide-spreading plain of the Hauran, stretching far away northward 
 to the foot-hills of Mount Hermon. 
 
 Before leaving this fortress let us ascend the tower at the north- 
 west angle. From the top of it wc can surve)- not only the ex- 
 tensive ruins of el Busrah, but also the surrounding countr)- for 
 nnany miles in all directions. 
 
 "The keep," says Dr. Porter, "is a huge square tower, rising 
 high above the battlements [of the castlej and overlooking the 
 plains of Bashan and Moab. From it I saw that Bozrah was in 
 ancient times connected by a series of great highways with the 
 leading cities and districts in Bashan and Arabia. They diverge 
 from the city in straight lines, and my eye followed one after an- 
 other until it disappeared in the far distance. One ran westward 
 to the town of Ghusam and then to Edrei ; another northward to 
 Suweideh and Damascus; another north-west up among the moun- 
 tains of Bashan ; another to Kerioth ; and another eastward, straight 
 as an arrow, to the castle of Salchah, which crowned a conical hill 
 on the horizon. 
 
 "Towns and villages appeared in every direction, thickly dotting 
 the vast plain; a few of those to the north arc inhabited, but all 
 those southward have been deserted for centuries. I examined them 
 long and carefully with my telescope, and their walls and houses 
 appeared to be in even better preservation than those 1 had already 
 visited." And among other ruined towns, he saw, from the top of 
 this tower, Um el Jemal, the supposed Beth-gamul of the Scriptures. 
 "The plain," he says, "extends to the horizon, and is rich and fer- 
 tile; while the ruins prove that it was at one time densely populated. 
 But the cities are ' without inhabitant,' the houses are ' without man," 
 the land is 'utterly desolate,' judgment has come upon it all far 
 and near, and the whole of Bashan and Moab is one great fulfilled 
 prophecy." ' 
 
 Let us now descend from this lofty outlook, and examine some 
 of the ancient edifices in the city whose ruins lie in such bewildering 
 confusion almost at our feet. We need not stop to decipher the 
 Greek inscriptions; they have been copied by Hurckhardt, Wadding- 
 ton, and others. M. Waddington collected at el Busrah nearly sixty 
 ' Bashan and its Giant Cities, pp. 68-70.
 
 5l6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 of them, some of great length, but most of them are brief and im- 
 perfect, and of no special historic value. 
 
 And now for our ramble amongst the ruins of ancient Bozrah. 
 We will first visit those tall columns which stand out so conspicu- 
 ously near the centre of the town. They occupy the opposite corners 
 of the two main streets which divided the city nearly in the middle, 
 one running from east to west, the other from north to south. 
 These four columns on the left stand diagonally across the north- 
 west corner of the street, but there is no trace of the structure to 
 which they belonged, and without excavations it is impossible to 
 determine the original plan and purpose of an edifice apparently 
 occupying so unusual a position. The columns are about twelve 
 feet in circumference and over forty-five feet in height. The capi- 
 tals are perfect, but the entablature has fallen. These four beauti- 
 ful columns are regarded as amongst the best specimens of the 
 Corinthian order in Syria, and second only to the six columns in 
 the peristyle of the temple of the sun at Ba'albek. 
 
 Those two lofty columns on the opposite, or north-east, corner 
 of the street probably belonged to a colonnade or a temple, but 
 only a part of the front wall remains standing, showing three tiers 
 of niches, one above the other. These columns are too slender 
 for their great height, being about nine feet in circumference and 
 nearly fifty feet high, and they are otherwise not in the most per- 
 fect style of classic architecture. They stand at the ends of the 
 edifice with which they were connected, on a base of white marble, 
 and had Corinthian capitals. One of them still supports a pro- 
 fusely ornamented entablature which rests upon a pilaster in the 
 front wall of the building. 
 
 If we followed the main street westward we would soon come to 
 a large ruined structure, on the south side of it, which from its thick 
 walls and vaulted chambers was probably a bath. A short distance 
 beyond it, on the same side of the street, and facing north, is a well- 
 preserved triumphal arch, partly concealed by the remains of private 
 houses. It was about forty feet long and twenty feet wide, and 
 had three arches, the central one of which was over forty feet high. 
 At the sides and between the arches there are square pilasters, and 
 niches for statues, and a vaulted passage-way led through under the
 
 DESERTED BAZAAR.— HOUSE OF THE JEW.— MOSK OF 'OMAR. 517 
 
 arches lengthwise. From a Latin inscription on one of the pilasters 
 we learn that the triumphal arch was erected about the middle of 
 the third century of our era in honor of Julius Julianus, prefect of 
 the first Parthian Philippine legion. 
 
 Leaving these columns, and the ruins of the temple to which 
 they belonged, let us now^ thread our way northward along this , 
 narrow' street, which appears to have been occupied by shopkeepers 
 whose little stalls were v^aulted over, the arches in many cases rest- 
 ing on short columns. This proves that they are comparatively 
 modern and consequently of no special interest. Our object in 
 passing through this deserted bazaar, which, even in Muhammedan 
 times, was the centre of extensive trade and traffic for several hun- 
 dred years, is to visit the great mosk at el Busrah, said to have 
 been built by order of the Khalif 'Omar. 
 
 Here, on the left, are the ruins of the so-called Beit el Yehudy, 
 the house of the Jew\ Nothing remains but the gate-way which 
 once led into the dwelling-place of that peculiarly fortunate, but 
 execrable, Israelite. Tradition affirms that he was deprived of his 
 original habitation by the governor of el Busrah, who built a mosk 
 upon the site. The Jew appealed to the Khalif 'Omar at Medina, 
 who gave him an order WTitten upon the jawbone of an ass, to this 
 effect: "Pull down the mosk, and rebuild the house of the Jew." 
 Consequently, he became "an execration, and an astonishment, and 
 a reproach " to every true believer from that day to this. 
 
 We will now cross to the western side of the street, and enter 
 the court of the great mosk. This small door, near the minaret at 
 the north-east corner of the edifice, will lead us into the interior. 
 Within, the mosk was nearly square, and the roof was supported 
 by a colonnade that ran round the three sides north, west, and 
 south, but on the east there was a double row of columns forming 
 the porch or vestibule. Most of the columns are of well- polished 
 white marble, with Corinthian capitals. They are all about eighteen 
 feet in height, and the shafts consist of a single stone. Two of the 
 columns have Ionic capitals, and some of the shafts are of green 
 micaceous marble, a rare variety, of which there are but few speci- 
 mens in this country. The basaltic columns in the colonnade are 
 coarse, unpolished, and badly executed.
 
 5i8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 A beautiful frieze in stucco, and Cufic and Arabic inscriptions 
 in bass-relief, ran round the walls on the interior of the mosk. Two 
 of the marble columns have Greek inscriptions; one of them bears 
 the date 383 of the Bostrian era, corresponding to A.D. 489, and 
 the other contains the name of Christ. All the material of which 
 this great mosk of the Khalif 'Omar was constructed evidently 
 belonged to more ancient edifices, and the columns were brought 
 here from some Christian church or heathen temple. 
 
 We will not visit the ruined bath on the opposite side of the 
 street, nor extend our walk to the east and north-east of it to visit 
 the Deir and Dar, the convent and the house of the monk Boheira. 
 At the bath we would only find traces of the pipes that conducted 
 the water into it, and upon the door of the " convent " and over 
 that of the "house" we would see a Latin and a Greek inscription, 
 neither of which is of any special importance. It may be well to 
 mention, in passing, that the ruined walls and fallen roofs of those 
 two buildings are probably those of a former church and chapel. 
 The objects most worthy of notice in this vicinity are the cathedral 
 of Busrah — called by the natives the church of the monk Boheira — 
 and the Cufic inscription in the court of a small mosk near it. We 
 can examine them on our way back to the tents, as they are but a 
 short distance to the south-east of this mosk. 
 
 Who was the monk Boheira ? 
 
 Burckhardt says: "This is a personage well known to the bi- 
 ographers of Mohammed, and many strange stories are related of 
 him by the Mohammedans, in honor of their Prophet, or by the 
 eastern Christians, in derision of the impostor. He is said to have 
 been a rich Greek priest, settled at Boszra, and to have predicted 
 the prophetic vocation of Mohammed, whom he saw, when a boy, 
 passing with a caravan from Mecca to Damascus. According to the 
 traditions of the Christians, he was a confidential counsellor of Mo- 
 hammed in the compilation of the Koran."' It is supposed that 
 Boheira accompanied the youthful Prophet to Mecca, and afterwards 
 became his instructor, and that Muhammed derived from him that 
 imperfect knowledge of the Bible which his absurd and puerile 
 stories in the Koran so abundantly display. 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 22S.
 
 STIFLING SIROCCO. — CATHEDRAL AT BUSRAH. 519 
 
 The massive and circular interior of this cathedral affords us a 
 grateful shelter from the hot wind. I have felt its enervating pres- 
 ence all the morning during our rambles among the ruins, and it 
 appears to be increasing in violence every hour. 
 
 Such stifling sirocco winds, with clouds of suffocating dust, are 
 not uncommon at this season of the year, and Busrah, situated on 
 the verge of the Arabian desert, is entirely exposed to their full 
 force and their irritating and debilitating effects. During a sirocco, 
 therefore, men and animals seek refuge from the fierce wind and 
 oppressive heat in the vaulted chambers, and behind the thick walls 
 of these ruined edifices, and I am not surprised to see that those 
 Bedawin shepherds and their flocks have found safe shelter within 
 the enclosure of this ancient cathedral. 
 
 They are certainly a startling illustration of the change that has 
 come over place and people since this edifice was erected. 
 
 This Greek inscription, on the west side of it, over the main 
 entrance, is still quite perfect, and from it we learn that the cathe- 
 dral is one of the oldest in this region, that at Edhra' antedating it 
 by about two years. M. Waddington has copied it, and, together 
 with the text, he gives a brief account of the three martyrs, Sergius, 
 Bacchus, and Leontius, in whose honor the church was built by the 
 Archbishop Julianus in 407 of the Bostrian era, corresponding to 
 A.D. 513. The cathedral was square externally and circular within. 
 The walls are nearly perfect, but the domed roof has fallen, and the 
 interior is encumbered with the debris. The altar was at the cast 
 end, and the apse was supported by short Corinthian columns with 
 low arches. In the walls arc several sculptured stones which must 
 have belonged to a more ancient building. On either side of the 
 entrance, and to the right and left of the chancel there are large 
 niches, and the circular walls of the rotunda were adorned with 
 many smaller niches and other architectural ornaments common to 
 all Oriental churches in early Christian times. 
 
 M, Waddington gives the text of an inscription found at Busrah, 
 in honor of the patriarch Job, and in his comments upon it he tells 
 us that a very ancient tradition makes the neighborhood of this 
 city the home of the patient man of Uz. He adds that Job was, 
 and still is, the patron of hospitals, especially for lepers, and he sup-
 
 520 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 poses that the inscription belonged to such an institution founded 
 at Bozrah by the Emperor Justinian during the sixth century. It is 
 certainly interesting to hear of a tradition associating the name of 
 that ancient patriarch with this region — the supposed land of Uz. 
 In the court of that mosk, north of this cathedral, is the basaltic 
 stone mentioned by Burckhardt, "covered with a long and beautiful 
 Cufic inscription, which is well worth transporting to Europe ; the 
 characters being very small, it would require a whole day to copy 
 it.'" An excellent photograph of that inscription was secured by 
 the gentlemen of the American Palestine Exploration Society when 
 at el Busrah in the autumn of 1875, but I am not aware that any 
 attempt has been made to ascertain its purport. 
 
 UJLImJlgj>2JiL^5jL:J^j.l^AAJIj^JL4UlA>^ 
 
 gill ^ L^^ b/i^Pc^ 0^1^^^ A^gAJl^^^U.-^' 
 
 CUFIC INSCRIPTION AT EL BUSRAH. 
 
 Turning our steps southward from the cathedral, we will pass by 
 the house of the sheikh of el Busrah on the right, and here, on the 
 left, spanning the main street which ran through the city from east 
 to west, is another triumphal arch, much smaller than the one 
 farther west, and only remarkable for the thickness of its walls. 
 South of this Roman arch is Kusr Melek el Asfar, the palace of the 
 Yellow King. It is a large ruined house with several courts, strewn 
 with sculptured stones and fragments of columns. Nothing is to 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 232.
 
 GATE OF THE WIND.— ROMAN GUARD- HOUSE. 52 I 
 
 be seen in the south-eastern part of the town but the prostrate 
 ruins of former habitations, so we will pass on, without further de- 
 lay, to our tents near the castle. 
 
 September 22d. Evening. 
 
 Here at Busrah the distances are so great, and the ruins over, 
 under, and among which one must find or force his way are so con- 
 fusing, that exploration is rendered particularly fatiguing. 
 
 Especially in such a prostrating sirocco as this. It is more than 
 a mile from the east gate to Bab el Hawa at the opposite or west- 
 ern end of the street, but that is the longest diameter of the city. 
 The western half of the town appears to have been occupied princi- 
 pally by private dwellings, which are now entirely prostrate, and 
 the only remarkable structure in that neighborhood is Bab el Hawa, 
 the Gate of the Wind. It consists of a well-preserved Roman arch, 
 with shell-shaped niches and square pilasters on either side. Traces 
 of the ancient pavement are still visible, but the gate-wa\- is choked 
 up with rubbish and hewn stones. 
 
 Outside the gate, on the north, there is a round tower, or guard- 
 house, whose walls are in a ruinous condition. According to Burck- 
 hardt, the tower was built by Yiisuf Pasha, of Damascus, to com- 
 mand the springs called 'Aiyun el Merj, which rise some distance 
 to the north-west of it and within the walls of the town. But the 
 pasha probably only repaired the old Roman guard -house. Near 
 the springs is a meadow, and there appears to have been a small 
 temple or nymphaeum built over the fountain of el Jeheir, a little 
 stream which rises in that neighborhood. A large pedestal has 
 recently been discovered near the city wall in that \'icinit}', with 
 a Latin inscription dedicating it to "Antonia Fortunata, the wife 
 of Antonius Caesar." East of the springs are the ruins of a small 
 mosk called el Khudr, the Moslem name for St. George, and near 
 it are the remains of an old tomb. 
 
 It may well be that this city original!)' owed its existence to 
 those springs and fountains both within ami without the walls of 
 the town, for such "a blessing" is rarely found in these regions. 
 They, however, did not prove sufficient for the wants of ci Husrah 
 when it became the capital of the province of Arabia, else the com- 
 munity would never have constructed such large and expensive
 
 522 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 reservoirs on the east side of the city. The one not far from our 
 tents, and near the south-east corner of the city wall, is about five 
 hundred feet long, four hundred feet wide, and even now over 
 twenty feet deep. The surrounding walls are more than ten feet 
 thick, and a staircase led down to the bottom. On the north and 
 east sides of the reservoir there are remains of former habitations, 
 and some public buildings, whose massive stone doors were nearly 
 ten feet high and about a foot thick, and near the north-east angle 
 is a ruined and deserted mosk with a dilapidated square minaret. 
 
 RESERVOIR .A.ND RUINED MOSK AT EL liUSRAH. 
 
 Burckhardt supposes that " this reservoir is a work of the Sara- 
 cens," intended for the use of the Moslem pilgrims, who as late as 
 the seventeenth century passed by this city on their way to Mecca: 
 but it appears to be ancient, and was probably constructed for the 
 supply of the great mercantile caravans that made el Busrah one of 
 their principal stations ages before the rise of Muhammedanism. 
 Burckhardt is mistaken when he says that " the basin is never com- 
 pletely filled." I have seen the reservoir full to the brim, and the 
 wavelets upon its surface, wafted by the wind, were like those on a 
 small lake. Some distance farther north, on the east side of the
 
 BOZRAH OF EDOM AND BOZRAII OF MOAB. 523 
 
 town and outside of the walls, is another reservoir, nearly four hun- 
 dred feet square and fifteen feet deep. But heaps of rubbish en- 
 cumber the sides and centre, and it is only remarkable for the num- 
 ber of "masons' marks" upon the stones in the walls. "These 
 characters," says Dr. Merrill, " strongly resemble Aramaic letters 
 of the seventh or eighth century before Christ." ' 
 
 Is it not strange that so little is known about the ancient history 
 of this great city, and that its claim to Biblical notice should be dis- 
 puted by some modern critics? 
 
 Like everything else in these days, Busrah must submit to the 
 scrutiny of enlightened and impartial criticism. The objections, 
 against its being the Bozrah mentioned by Jeremiah are, however, 
 not convincing, though it is but fair to admit that there remains a 
 certain degree of doubt with regard to the claims of this city to 
 Biblical celebrity. It must not be confounded with the Bozrah 
 referred to in the well-known passage, "Who is this that cometh 
 from Edom, with dyed garments from Bozrah."^ That place has 
 been identified with el Busaireh, or Little Busrah, as its name im- 
 plies, in the mountainous district to the south-east of the Dead Sea, 
 and about eight miles south of Tufileh, the ancient Tophel.' 
 
 But as the Bozrah mentioned by Jeremiah is associated with 
 Beth-gamul, supposed to be Um el Jemal, five hours to the south 
 of this place, and also with Kerioth, identified with el Kurciych, 
 a few miles east of el Busrah, and near the road to Sulkhad, the 
 undoubted Salchah of the Bible, it is reasonable to believe that 
 it may be the Bozrah intended by the prophet. The judgments of 
 Jeremiah were against the Moabites, who appear to have been ex- 
 tremely haughty and arrogant. " We have heard of the pride of 
 Moab (he is exceeding proud), his loftiness, and his arrogancy, and 
 his pride, and the haughtiness of his heart."* The Moabites were 
 apparently rich and prosperous at that time, and there nia\' have 
 been flourishing colonies of them in 13eth-gamul, in Kerioth. and in 
 Bozrah. And the prophet assures them that the judgment of the 
 Lord would overtake them wherever tliey dwelt ; for it is come 
 " upon all the cities of the land of Moab, far or near." ' 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 55. ' Isa. Ixiii. i. 
 
 * Deut. i. I. * Jer. xlviii. 29. ' Jer. xlviii. 24.
 
 524 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 He has certainly stretched out upon Bozrah or el Busrah " the 
 line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness." ' 
 
 That prediction is far more Hterally fulfilled in the appalling 
 desolation of this city than in the entire obliteration of its insignifi- 
 cant namesake of el Busaireh, to which the prophecy is now gen- 
 erally applied. But whatever may or may not be the facts in 
 regard to the identity of el Busrah with the Biblical Bozrah, the 
 historic notices of the Grsco-Roman, Christian, and Moslem city 
 are numerous and explicit enough. 
 
 Judas Maccabeus, previous to the conquest of this region by 
 the Romans, in his expedition east of the Jordan, extricated great 
 numbers of his brethren who " were shut up in Bosora, and Bosor, 
 and Alema, Casphor, Maked, and Carnaim." And " he slew all the 
 males [of Bosora] with the edge of the sword, and took all their 
 spoils, and burned the city with fire." ' A similar fate befell Car- 
 naim, which is supposed to have been at Tell 'Ashtarah, north of 
 Der'a. Judas took the city; slew the inhabitants, and burnt their 
 temple. During the reign of the Emperor Trajan, and about A.D. 
 105, his general A. Cornelius Palma, then governor of Syria, conquer- 
 ed all this region east of the Jordan, and made Busrah the capital 
 of the new Roman province, which was called Nova Trajana Bostra. 
 
 The Romans beautified the city, and adorned it with temples, 
 theatres, baths, and other public edifices, and under them it became 
 a military colony, and remained an important commercial centre 
 for many centuries. They also made public highways extending 
 in all directions, and especially eastward across the desert towards 
 the valley of the Euphrates. One of those roads started from 
 Bostra and, passing by Sulkhad, ran, it is said, in a straight line 
 through the desert to the head of the Persian Gulf. 
 
 The so-called Bostrian era originated in this city about the com- 
 mencement of the first century A.D., and after Bozrah had been 
 constituted the metropolis of this part of Arabia ; and it was ex- 
 tensively used upon the coins and inscriptions now found in the 
 cities and towns east of the Jordan. Towards the middle of the 
 third century, Philip the Arabian, a native of Bozrah, as is gener- 
 ally supposed, became Roman emperor, and, as was natural, he con- 
 
 ' Isa. xxxiv. II. - I. M.icc. v. 24-2S, 42-44 : Jos. Ant. xii. 8, 3, 4.
 
 VISIT OF ORIGEN TO EL BUSRAH. 
 
 5-3 
 
 ferred many privileges upon his native city. There are, however, 
 two other claimants in this region for the honor of being the 
 birthplace of that Arabian emperor of Rome. 
 
 RUINS OF EL BUSRAH. 
 
 After the establishment of Christianity in the empire it was 
 early introduced into Bozrah, and spread rapidly throughout all 
 this region. The great Origen made a visit to Bozrah in order to 
 restore to the orthodox faith the bi.shop Beryllus, who had taught 
 certain speculations regarding the pre -existing nature of Christ, 
 which were considered heretical. He presided over at least one of 
 the councils held here, and his mission was entirely successful. 
 This city became the seat of a metropolitan archbishop, after the 
 time of Constantine, having dependent upon it a large number of
 
 526 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 bishops scattered over the entire province of Northern Arabia, and 
 Reland finds the names of several of its occupants in the lists of 
 various ecclesiastical councils. At present there is not a single 
 Christian family residing in el Busrah. 
 
 Previous to the Moslem era, or el Hegira, this city was frequented 
 by trading caravans and merchants from Mecca and other places 
 in western Arabia, and Muhammed himself visited it at least twice ; 
 once, when twelve years old, in company with his uncle, Abu Talib, 
 when — if ever — he had his famous interview with the monk Boheira. 
 Again, when twenty-five years old, he came hither in the employ of 
 Khadija, who eventually rewarded his mercantile success with her 
 hand and fortune. After the subjugation of Arabia, and soon after 
 the death of the Prophet of Islam, a Muhammedan army attacked 
 this city. The Moslems advanced under the leadership of the fierce 
 and impetuous Khalid, renowned as the Sword of God, and shouting 
 the fanatical cry, " Fight, fight, victory or paradise !" they fell upon 
 the Christians and drove them into the city. 
 
 The terrified inhabitants might have long resisted the Arabian 
 hordes, but the town was betrayed by Romanus, the governor, who 
 had been deposed from office, and who afterwards embraced the 
 faith of Islam. El Busrah was the first fortified city in Syria that 
 fell by treachery into the hands of the Muhammedans, and from 
 that day to this they have held uninterrupted possession of it. 
 Under their baneful rule it has gradually dwindled down to its 
 present insignificant condition, and only thirty or forty families of 
 poor Moslem fellahin and Bedawin shepherds now find shelter 
 amidst the vast ruins of the Roman capital of Arabia. 
 
 Do you suppose that Sulkhad occupies the site of Salchah or 
 Salcah, mentioned by Moses and Joshua in connection with the 
 Hebrew conquests on this "side Jordan toward the sunrising?" 
 
 Almost nothing is known about the long history of Salcah, ex- 
 tending over a period of more than three thousand years, and 
 some writers have not accepted the traditional identification, but 
 I think their objections are based upon insufficient grounds. In 
 "the story of the conquest" Moses says, "Then we turned and 
 went up by the way of Bashan : and Og, the king of Bashan, came 
 out against us, and we took all his cities and all Bashan unto Sal-
 
 THE SALCAH OF THE BIBLE.— FORTRESS AND ANXIENT TOWN. 527 
 
 chah.'" Joshua mentions Og as reigning in Salcah, and includes 
 in his territory "all Bashan unto Salcah."' About one hundred 
 and fifty years later we read that " the children of Gad dwelt in 
 the land of Bashan unto Salcah."' These are all the Biblical 
 notices, and from them we arc justified in locating Salcah some- 
 where in this neighborhood, at the extreme eastern limit of the 
 Hebrew territory on this side Jordan. 
 
 "The most striking feature of Sulkhad," says Dr. ^Merrill, " is its 
 great castle, which, indeed, is one of the most prominent landmarks 
 in all the Bashan plain. It is built in the mouth of an extinct 
 crater, on a conical swell or rise composed of porous lava rock. The 
 hill itself is three hundred feet high, and the rim of the crater con- 
 sists of ashes and cinders, while near the foot of the mound the 
 volcanic rock appears. As the crater is bowl-shaped, there is a deep 
 natural moat entirely around the castle, and the fortress is ap- 
 proached by a bridge over this moat. 
 
 " The walls of the castle are from eighty to one hundred feet high. 
 The interior is a perfect labyrinth of halls, galleries, chambers, and 
 vaults, which are now in a very confused and ruined state. There 
 is a long Arabic inscription here, and also several in Greek, and on 
 the stones many masons' marks appear. There are a good many 
 busts, lions, eagles, and other figures sculptured upon the walls. 
 Near the gate [and on the exterior wall] are two colossal lions facing 
 each other, and between them is a palm-tree. [The importance of 
 Sulkhad] as a frontier fortress must always have been great, and 
 there are good reasons for regarding it as the fortress captured by 
 Judas Maccabeus after he had taken Bosora, the modern Busrah." ' 
 The ancient town was on the eastern side of the mound, and is 
 entirely hidden by it from view. In the early part of this century 
 the place was quite deserted, owing principally to its lack of good 
 water; but it has been gradually reoccupicd, and it now has a con- 
 siderable population composed mostly of Druses from the Lebanon. 
 It was visited by Dr. Porter in 1854, and he has given a graphic 
 description of the impression its deserted condition made upon his 
 mind at that time. "On approaching Sulkhad," he says, "we rode 
 
 ' Deut. iii. i-io. '^ J^^H- "'>• 5 ; "'''• "• 
 
 3 I Chron. v. 11. * ^ast of the Joitlaii, pp. 50. 53.
 
 528 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 through an old cemetery, and then, passing the ruins of an ancient 
 gate, entered the streets of the deserted city. The open doors, the 
 empty houses, the rank grass and weeds, the long straggling bram- 
 bles in the door-ways and windows formed a strange and impressive 
 picture. . Street after street we traversed, the tread of our horses 
 
 KULA T SULKHAD — CASTLE OF SALCHAH. 
 
 awakening mournful echoes and startling the foxes from their dens 
 in the palaces of Salcah. Reaching an open paved area, in front 
 of the principal mosque, we committed our horses to the keeping 
 of Mahmood, who tied them up, unslung his gun, and sat down to 
 act the part of sentry, while we explored the city. 
 
 "The view [from the castle] is wide and wonderfully interest-
 
 VIEW FROM SULKHAD CASTLE.— EL KIREIVEH, KERIOTIL 529 
 
 \ng; it embraces the whole southern slopes of the mountains, which, 
 though rocky, are covered from bottom to top with artificial ter- 
 races, and fields divided by [low stone walls or] fences. From their 
 base the plain of Bashan stretches out on the west to Hermon ; the 
 plain of Moab on the south to the horizon ; and the plain of Arabia 
 on the east, beyond the range of vision. Wherever I turned my 
 eyes, towns and villages were seen. Bozrah was there on its plain, 
 twelve miles distant. The towers of Beth-gamul [Um el Jemal] 
 were faintly visible far away on the horizon. To the south-east 
 an ancient road runs straight across the plain far as the eye can see. 
 From this one spot I saw upwards of thirty deserted towns! Well 
 might I exclaim with the prophet, as I sat on the ruins of this 
 great fortress and looked over that mournful scene of utter desola- 
 tion, 'Judgment is come upon the plain country, upon Keriathaim, 
 and upon Beth-gamul, and upon Kerioth, upon Bozrah, and upon 
 all the cities of the land of Moab, far and near.' " ' 
 
 The village of el Kureiyeh, in this neighborhood, is supposed to 
 be the modern representative of the ancient Kerioth included in 
 the judgment upon Beth-gamul, Bozrah, and all the other cities in 
 the land of Moab, is it not ? 
 
 W^hen the identity of el Busrah and Um el Jemal themselves 
 can be established with Bozrah and Beth-gamul, then it may 
 fairly be inferred that el Kureiyeh is merely the Arabic form of 
 the Hebrew Kerioth, and that both places are the same in name 
 as well as in location. It appears to have been a doomed city 
 in the time of Amos, for we read, " Thus saith the Lord, I will 
 send a fire upon Moab, and it shall devour the palaces of Kirioth ;" 
 and besides the judgment pronounced upon it, nearly two hundred 
 years later, by Jeremiah, that prophet informs us that " Kerioth is 
 taken, and the strongholds [in Moab] are surprised." '■' But we 
 know even less of its Biblical story than that of Salchah, and 
 scarcely anything of its secular history. 
 
 The ruins at el Kureiyeh, though not important nor imposing, 
 are quite extensive, and consist of several square towers, a large 
 reservoir, the remains of a few public buildings, antl main- private 
 
 ' Jer. xlviii. 21-24 '< Uashan nnd its (jiant Cities, pp. 76, 77. 
 '^ Amos ii. i, 2 ; Jcr. .\Iviii. 41.
 
 530 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 habitations, some of which have very thick walls and heavy stone 
 doors. The reservoir is near the centre of the town, and was sur- 
 rounded by a stone wall. Adjacent to it is a singular structure, 
 with a portico consisting of three rows of columns, six in each row, 
 supporting a flat roof. A broad flight of seven steps, extending 
 the whole length of the portico, led from the first row of columns 
 up to the third. From a Greek inscription on a stone upon one of 
 the steps we learn that the reservoir was constructed during the 
 second century of the Bostrian era, or about A.D. 296. 
 
 In the fourth century el Kureiyeh appears to have been the 
 seat of a bishop in one of the ecclesiastical districts dependent 
 upon Bozrah, and from its position on the confines of the eastern 
 desert it must always have been a frontier town of considerable 
 importance. Since the conquest of this part of the country by the 
 Muhammedans, el Kureiyeh has dwindled into insignificance, and, 
 like most of the ancient towns in the Hauran, it has often been 
 entirely deserted. When Burckhardt visited it, only four of its seven 
 or eight hundred houses were inhabited, but thirty years ago Dr. 
 Porter spent a night at el Kureiyeh, and was hospitably entertained 
 by the celebrated Druse sheikh Isma'il el Atrash, who then resided 
 in the place, and he found upward of one hundred houses occupied 
 by at least as many Druse families.
 
 EL BUSRAH TO UER'A AND JEKASH. 531 
 
 XIV. 
 
 EL BUSRAH TO DER'A AND JERASH. 
 
 The Countrj' between el Busrah and Jerash. — Plain of el Hauran. — Roman Road. — 
 Boundary Line between Gilead and Bashan. — Few Villages. — Volcanic Waste. — 
 Waving Wheat and Barley. — Broken Lava. — Remarkable History of the Hauran. — 
 Migration of Abraham. — The Region West and East of the Jordan. — \ Fierce Race. 
 — The Rephaims, Zuzims, Emims, Horites. — The Invasions of Chedorlaomer. — March 
 around the South End of the Dead Sea.— En-misphat. — Amalekites, Amorites.— Defeat 
 of the Five Kings. — Capture of Sodom. — Lot carried away Captive. — Pursuit of Chedor- 
 laomer by Abraham. — Night Attack.— Recovery of Lot and Restoration of the other 
 Captives.— Melchizedek. — Salem, Jerusalem.— A March of about two thousand Miles. 
 — Arrival of the Hebrews led by Moses.— Moabites, Ammonites, Amorites. — Sihon 
 and Og.— Reuben, Gad, and the Half Tribe of Manasseh.— Captives in Mesopotamia. 
 — Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. — Alexander the Great.— The Ptolemies and 
 the Seleucidze. — The Romans. — Byzantines and Muhammedans. — Illustration of the 
 Sacred Record by the Physical Features of the Country and the Manners and Customs 
 of the People. — Ishmael.— The Promise to Hagar wonderfully fulfdlcd.- Ishmaelites. 
 — Muhammedanism.— Ishmael the Ancestor of the Moslems.— Divine Predictions con- 
 cerning the Descendants of Abraham.— The River Zeidy.—Ghusam.— Central Parts 
 of Plains destitute of Villages. — Agricultural Hamlets.— Various Native Races.— 
 Nebaioth, Nabatheans.— Caravan Trade between Arabia, India, and Africa.— Pctra, 
 Sellah.— The Nabatheans unconquered by the Persians, Greeks, or Romans.— Expedi- 
 tion of yElius Gallus.— Ruin of the Nabatheans by the Abandonment of the Arabian 
 Caravan Lines. —Aretas. — Paul. — Herod Antipas.— John the Baptist.— The Ghas- 
 sanide.— Palmyra.— Zenobia.— Indigenous Tribes.— Roman Bridge over the Zeidy.— 
 Traces of Chariot-wheels.— Et Taiyibeh.— Large Tower.— Urn el Mciyadin.— Volcanic 
 Rock and Cretaceous Limestone.— Hill-sides aglow with red Anemones. —Villages.— 
 Ghurs.— Camels carrying Wheat to Acre.— Caravan Route.— Company nf Ishmaelites. 
 —Balm of Gilead.- Joseph sold into Egypt. — Fanatical Moslems.— Turki.>,li Firman.— 
 M. Waddington.— The Capital City of Og.— The Hebrew Invasion and the Conquest 
 of Bashan. — Edhr'a, Edrei. — Der'a, Adara.— The Onomasticon and the Pentingcr 
 Table.— Eusebius.—Muhammedan Conquest.— Situation of the Ancient Town ami the 
 Modern Village of Der'a.- Extensive Cemetery.— Prospect from Icll Kcrak.— El 
 Jaulan, Lake Iluleli, and Mount Ilcrmon.— Tell 'Ashtarah.— Aslitcrolli Kaiiiaiin.— 
 
 N 2
 
 532 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The principal Divinity of the Phoenicians. — Temple at Carnaim. — The Maccabees. — 
 Atargatis. — Twenty-five Thousand slain at Carnaim. — Josephus. — The Onomasticon. 
 — Eusebius. — Dr. Merrill's Description of Tell 'Ashtarah. — A strongly fortified Place. 
 — Cyclopean Remains. — Massive Entrance. — Timotheus's defeated Army. — Large rock- 
 cut Reservoir. — Roman Baths. — Aqueduct. — Mosk and square Tower. — Sarcophagus 
 with Lion's Head. — Church and Monastery. — Remains of an ancient Structure. — 
 Masons' Marks. — Three Cities, one beneath the other. — Dr. Wetzstein's Subterranean 
 Residence of Og. — Crusaders at Der'a. — Ragged Arab Tents. — Bedawin, Gypsies, and 
 Vagabonds. — Fortune - telling. — Burning Straw. — Romping Children. — Abundant 
 Harvests. — Blasted Plain. — Luxuriant Grass, waving Wheat, and brilliant Flowers. — 
 Mountainous and wooded Region. — Cities of the Decapolis. — The Zeidy. — Cascades 
 and Rapids. — Country east of the Jordan dotted with Villages, abandoned to the 
 Bedawin. — Dr. Merrill's Search for the ancient Golan. — Wady or Nahr 'Allan. — Beit 
 er Ras, Capitolias. — Roman Road. — Ruins of Public Buildings and great Arches. — 
 Corinthian and Ionic Columns. — Ornamental Work and fine Eagles. — Inscriptions. — 
 Underground City. — Subterranean Dwellings. — Irbid. — Cyclopean Walls described by 
 Dr. Merrill. — Substructures of strong Towers. — Arbela. — Beth-arbel. — Eidun, Dion. 
 — Haj Road. — Pilgrim Caravan to Mecca. — Burckhardt at Remtheh. — Last inhabited 
 Village of the Hauran. — Cavernous Habitations at Remtheh. — Dr. Merrill's Experi- 
 ence at Remtheh. — No Water for Ten Hours. — Migration of the Wulid 'Aly. — "One 
 hundred thousand Camels." — Contrivance for the Comfort of the Sheikhs' Wives. — 
 The Ship of the Desert. — Bedawin Migrations and Hebrew Invasions. — Distress of 
 Moab. — Pasture and Provender for the Camels and Caravans of the Bedawin. — Life 
 of the wandering Ishmaelites. — Contempt for the Fellahin. — The Denizens of the 
 Desert number Hundreds of Thousands. — Wooded Hills. — Hawarah. — Beautiful and 
 Productive Region. — Tell Husn. — Ruined Castle. — Church and Columns. — Rock-cut 
 Tombs. — El Husn. — No Fountains. — Dry Cisterns. — Greeks, Muhammedans, and 
 Protestants. — No Distinction in Dress and Manners between the different Sects. — 
 Freedom of Speech and Action. — Extensive Forest. — Mahneh. — Canon Tristram. — 
 Biblical References to Mahanaim. — A Levitical City. — The Capital of Ish-bosheth. — 
 The Refuge of David. — The Chamber over the Gate at Mahanaim. — David's Grief 
 at the Death of Absalom. — A Station of Solomon's Purveyors. — Josephus. — Site of 
 Mahanaim described by Modern Writers. — Beisan. — Suggestion of Dr. Porter and 
 Conclusion of Dr. Merrill. — Jegar-sahadutha and Mizpah. — Galeed or Watch-tower. — 
 Josephus. — The Land of Gilead. — Covenant between Laban and Jacob. — False Gods 
 in the Family of Jacob. — The Call of Abraham. — Jacob at Mahanaim. — Jacob hideth 
 the Strange Gods. — Worship of the True God at Beth-el. — Oppressive Heat. — Birket 
 ed Deir. — Thousands of Flowers. — Cultivated Region. — Forest of Oak, Pine, Tere- 
 binth, and Hawthorn. — Um el Khanzir. — Shepherds, Milk, and fine Flocks. — Ride 
 through the Forest in the Land of Gilead. — Pine-trees. — Forest Fires. — Wheat 
 amongst Blackened Stumps. — Wady ed Deir. — Camp amongst Olive-trees. — Village 
 
 of es Suf. — Jerash Deserted and Unsafe. 
 
 September 23d. 
 
 As Jerash — the most important place we wish to reach from 
 here — is nearly south of el Busrah, why do we take this long
 
 GILEAD AND BASHAN.— ROMAN ROAD.— PLAIN OF EL HAURAn. 533 
 
 circuitous route of over seven hours to the north-west ? W'c shall 
 be farther, I suppose, from Jerash at Der'a, where you propose 
 to spend the night, than we are now. 
 
 The country between el Busrah and Jerash is an uninhabited 
 desert — a no man's land — over which roam only bands of lawless 
 Bedawin. Even caravans rarely venture to cross it, and we must 
 necessarily take this route to get round it. But the time will not 
 be lost ; our course will take us across the plain of el Hauran, at its 
 broadest part, and will make us better acquainted with it than 
 otherwise we should have been. The old Roman road, also, which 
 we shall follow for some distance, is not without interest, especially 
 because it passes near the boundary -line between Bashan and 
 Gilead, the two great districts into which the region cast of the 
 Jordan was divided in ancient times. 
 
 Those names are familiar to readers of the Bible, and the fact 
 that we shall have both districts in view will relieve the mo- 
 notony of our ride through this dreary region, Der'a, also, I sup- 
 pose, occupies the site of an old town, and must be well worth 
 visiting for its own sake. There seem to be very few villages along 
 the road, and none of any importance, and the plain is apparently 
 as bare and lifeless as the desert itself. 
 
 The crops have all been gathered in, and the surface now pre- 
 sents only a dry volcanic waste; but when the autumn rains com- 
 mence, the whole aspect of this vast plain of el Hauran will quick- 
 ly change, as if by magic, to a brilliant green. Pass this way in the 
 spring, and you will find it a boundless expanse of waving wheat 
 and barley, promising abundant harvests a few months later. 
 
 I notice that the ground is everywhere strewn with fragments of 
 broken lava in countless numbers, but they are not large enough, 
 evidently, to injure the crops. 
 
 They do not interfere with the growth of the grain, and the 
 yield is as great here as in those central portions of the plain where 
 the soil is composed of dark volcanic ashes. Desolate and forlorn 
 as most of the Hauran is at present, it has been connected with 
 some remarkable events, originating in the earliest historic times of 
 which there is any authentic record. Our acquaintance with the 
 country west of the Jordan begins with the arrival of Abraham at
 
 534 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Shechem. But previous to his migration from Haran to Canaan 
 the region east of that river was inhabited by a fierce race of men 
 divided into several tribes, who may have dwelt in this part of 
 the country from remote antiquity, and long before the invasions 
 of Chedorlaomer and his confederate kings. 
 
 From the fourteenth chapter of Genesis we learn the names of 
 various tribes who then occupied this land. The Rephaims dwelt 
 in Ashteroth Karnaim, a place probably at or near Tell 'Ashtarah, 
 which we shall see this evening from the hill above Der'a. A peo- 
 ple called the Zuzims lived in Ham, wherever that may have been ; 
 the Emims dwelt in Shaveh Kiriathaim, " and the Horites in their 
 mount Seir, unto El-paran." Chedorlaomer and his confederate 
 kings extended his invasion as far south at least as the Dead Sea, 
 including Sodom and its associate cities. Twelve years the inhab- 
 itants submitted, and then they rebelled against their foreign con- 
 querors. In the fourteenth year after Chedorlaomer's first invasion 
 he returned, "and the kings that were with him," to quell the re- 
 bellion and re-impose his own authority. 
 
 Chedorlaomer smote all those tribes, and continued his victorious 
 march around the south end of the Dead Sea and out into the wilder- 
 ness, and then " returned and came to En-misphat which is Kadesh," 
 where Moses, four centuries later, encamped when he sent the spies 
 to explore the land of Canaan. Having subdued the Amalekites 
 in that region, Chedorlaomer led his army back homeward along 
 the west side of the Dead Sea, " and smote the Amorites that dwelt 
 in Hazezon-tamar" or En-gedi. From that place he proceeded to 
 attack the kings of the five cities of the plain, captured Sodom, and 
 carried away the inhabitants, including Lot, the nephew of Abra- 
 ham. Continuing his march northward, up the valley of the Jordan, 
 Chedorlaomer was overtaken by Abraham and the " three hundred 
 and eighteen trained servants, born in his own house," and utterly 
 defeated at Dan, under Mount Hermon. 
 
 It was a night attack, and Abraham smote the host of Chedor- 
 laomer "and pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left of 
 Damascus." Having recovered Lot, Abraham returned and restored 
 the other captives to the king of Sodom, and he was blessed by 
 Melchizedek, " the priest of the most high God," who reigned in
 
 THE ANCIENT NATIONS EAST OF THE JORDAN. 535 
 
 righteousness and peace at Salem — generally supposed to be Jeru- 
 salem. Thus ended one of the first military expeditions of which 
 there is any detailed account in authentic histor\'. Including the 
 more distant countries over which Chedorlaomer and the confed- 
 erate kings reigned, their invasion of this region, " beyond Jordan, 
 eastward," from the distant valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates, 
 implies a march of about one thousand miles — an extraordinary 
 undertaking for that early day, and one that could only have been 
 achieved by the despotic ruler of a nation with a stable govern- 
 ment and a well-appointed military organization. 
 
 What occurred here during the four succeeding centuries after 
 that invasion can be partly inferred, or imagined, from the condi- 
 tion of the country when the Hebrews, led by Moses through the 
 wilderness east of Aloab, arrived from Ezion-gabcr, " and pitched in 
 the mountains of Abarim, before Nebo." The old inhabitants had 
 all disappeared; we hear no more of the Zuzims, the Emims, and 
 the Horites. Instead of them the names of new races and tribes 
 occur: Moabites dwelt on the high plateau east of the Dead Sea, 
 and Ammonites had possession of the region around the head- 
 waters of the Jabbok, while the warlike Amorites occupied the cen- 
 tral parts of the country between them, with Sihon, their king, on 
 the south, and Og, king of Bashan, on the north. 
 
 Those two kings were destroyed by the Hebrews, and their ter- 
 ritory divided between Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manas- 
 seh. They, in their turn, were harassed and gradually overcome by 
 the Syrians of Damascus, and ultimately carried away captive to 
 Mesopotamia by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the Persians. 
 After them came Alexander the Great and the Gra.'co-Macedonians. 
 and the Ptolemies and the Seleucidai held possession of the coun- 
 try down to the advent of the all-conquering Romans, shortly be- 
 fore the beginning of our era. Their Byzantine successors main- 
 tained a feeble and doubtful sway over the land until the early part 
 of the seventh century, when the fierce and fanatical Muhammedans 
 from Arabia swept them away, and overran the entire country east 
 of the Jordan; and they have held it ever since, to its utter ruin 
 and entire demoralization. 
 
 In glancing thus briefly at the various races, tribes, and nation-
 
 536 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 alities that have occupied this region during the four thousand years 
 and more of the past, we do not depart from the main purpose of 
 our travels. In no other way can some of the ancient records in 
 the sacred volume be so strikingly verified and illustrated as by 
 studying the physical features of this country and the manners and 
 customs, the law^s and religions of the people who once occupied it, 
 and compare them w'ith the regions we pass through and the in- 
 habitants of the land as we see them to-day. 
 
 The latter are the direct, remote, or collateral descendants of 
 Abraham and the other patriarchs mentioned in the Bible, and they 
 still dwell in the regions originally assigned to them in those early 
 historic times. Ishmael, the son of Hagar, the Egyptian bondwom- 
 an, was the first-born to Abraham, and in regard to him the prom- 
 ise of the Lord made to his outcast mother has been most won- 
 derfully fulfilled: — "I will multiply thy seed exceedingly, that it 
 shall not be numbered for multitude. And he will be a wild man ; 
 his hand will be against every man, and every man's hand against 
 him; and he shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren,'" 
 
 One hundred and forty years after the invasion of Chedorlaomer 
 we find that the Ishmaelites had greatly multiplied and had spread 
 over the southern desert, " from Havilah unto Shur, that is before 
 Egypt," according to the promise." And there they are to this day, 
 possessing the special characteristics of their great ancestor, follow- 
 ing the same mode of life, dwelling in tents, wearing the same kind 
 of garments, and speaking substantially the same language. Mu- 
 hammedanism, which crushed out of existence so many other races 
 and tribes between the upper and nether millstone of its sanguinary 
 creed, has effected no essential change among the Ishmaelites during 
 the past twelve centuries of Moslem domination. In some impor- 
 tant respects it has not only perpetuated their peculiar traits but 
 contributed greatly to the expansion of the race itself. 
 
 Do you include the followers of the Arabian Prophet in that 
 multitude of Ishmael's descendants that could not be numbered? 
 
 Without accepting the Muhamm.edan legends in regard to the 
 founding of Mecca and the erection of the Caaba by Abraham and 
 his son Ishmael, still the fact remains that the Muhammedans claim 
 ' Gen. xvi. lo, 12. - Gen. xxv. 18.
 
 PROMISE TO HAGAR.— EZ ZEIDV.— VILLAGES ON THE PLAINS. 537 
 
 Ishmael as their remote ancestor and profess to be Ishmaelites, in- 
 heriting the reHgion of Abraham, with its promises and blessings 
 included; and in their long and varied career they have exhibited 
 the very same characteristic traits ascribed to Ishmael. Their hand, 
 also, has been against every man, and everj' man's hand against 
 them, and yet they still dwell in the presence of all their brethren, 
 in the centre of the Old World, a defiance and a menace to the 
 surrounding nations whether pagan or Christian. 
 
 The promise to Hagar thus expanded is, to say the least, very 
 suggestive and exceedingly impressive. 
 
 It would be easy to show that the divine predictions concerning 
 the other descendants of Abraham and the patriarchs — the Edom- 
 ites, Moabites, and Ammonites — were remarkably fulfilled, both as 
 to their homes in these regions and to their rapid extension and 
 multiplication ; but we may have occasion to resume this subject 
 when we come to the lands which were occupied by those peo- 
 ple; and though these and kindred topics are quite appropriate to 
 the country through which we are journeying we must not be so 
 absorbed in subjects far away as not to notice the objects of inter- 
 est that lie along our present pathway. 
 
 I have been wanting, for the last half hour, to inquire the name 
 of the river on our right and of the pretty village upon its bank. 
 
 The river is called Nahr ez Zeidy, and it drains the country west 
 of the Lejah and most of the slopes of Jebel Hauran to the north-- 
 east of el Busrah. We crossed it on the bridge near Jemurrin, half 
 an hour north of el Busrah, and shall soon cross it again. The 
 name of the village is Ghusam, and it, no doubt, occupies the site 
 of an ancient town, as shown by the ruins of some large buildings — 
 the remains of a church and the existence of high gates with massive 
 stone doors. There are many other hamlets near by and far away 
 on the plain, but there is nothing remarkable about them. 
 
 We have noticed before this that the central parts of such plains 
 were generally destitute of large villages, important ruins, or ancient 
 monuments, and at this day we see around us only small agricultural 
 hamlets, the homes of the peasants who cultivate the fields adjacent 
 "to their habitations. But it is important to remember that there 
 has always been an indestructible, native clement in the population
 
 538 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 of this region. Various native races and tribes have existed here 
 from remotest times, and they survived the tide of foreign nationali- 
 ties that ebbed and flowed around them down to the last centuries 
 before our era. The most celebrated native tribes, in times compar- 
 atively modern, were the Nabathean and the Ghassanide. 
 
 Who were the Nabatheans? We hear of them in this region, 
 and have seen their inscriptions in some of the places we have 
 visited during our journey south of Damascus. 
 
 They are supposed to have been the descendants of Ishmael's 
 eldest son, Nebaioth, and were originally a nomad tribe — a pastoral 
 people much like the Bedawin Arabs of the eastern desert. They 
 appear to have occupied Northern Arabia, and probably extended 
 from the lower valley of the Euphrates and the shore of the Persian 
 Gulf to the Red Sea and the confines of Egypt. Eventually most 
 of the Nabatheans seem to have abandoned tent -life and built 
 towns and cities. They became actively engaged in commerce, and 
 for many centuries almost the entire trade between Arabia, India, 
 and Eastern Africa was carried on by their countless caravans — 
 north to Syria, east to the Persian Gulf, west to Gaza and Egypt, 
 and southward through Central Arabia to the Indian Ocean. The 
 celebrated Petra — the Sellah, probably, of the Bible — was their 
 capital and the centre of their trade and traffic. 
 
 They became wealthy, civilized, and powerful, able to defend 
 themselves against foreign enemies — whether Persians, Greeks, or 
 Romans — nor were they ever effectually conquered by them. The 
 Persian invaders were always defeated, and the only Roman expedi- 
 tion into their dominions — that of yElius Gallus, in the time of Au- 
 gustus — was an utter failure. A more insidious enemy, however, 
 against which the unconquerable deserts could not protect the 
 Nabatheans, ultimately overpowered the entire race. They grew 
 great and wealthy through commerce alone, and when that failed 
 they succumbed and sunk into insignificance. The Graeco-Roman 
 merchants discovered that the passage through the Gulf of Suez 
 and Egypt was shorter, cheaper, and safer for Oriental commerce, 
 and thus the Elanitic branch of the Red Sea was forsaken, and the 
 Arabian caravan lines of trade were abandoned. 
 
 Some of the Nabathean princes rose to high station and were
 
 JOHN THE BAPTIST.— THE GHASSANIDE.— ROMAN BRIDGE. 539 
 
 recognized as kings even by Roman emperors, and one is mentioned 
 under the title of Aretas as early as the reign of Antiochus.' 
 
 Was the Aretas whose governor " kept the city [of Damascus] 
 with a garrison, desirous to apprehend " Paul, a Nabathean?^ 
 
 No doubt, and probably he was the same Aretas whose daughter, 
 married to Herod Antipas, was divorced by him at the instigation 
 of Herodias, his brother Philip's wife. To avenge that insult to his 
 daughter, Aretas declared war against Herod and utterly defeated 
 him — a calamity which, Josephus says, was generally regarded by 
 the Jews as a judgment upon Herod for the murder of John the 
 Baptist, whom he beheaded to please the vindictive Herodias.' 
 
 The Ghassanide were of Arabian origin, mostly immigrants from 
 the central and western parts of the peninsula. They settled along 
 the southern and eastern borders of Syria, and finally spread over 
 the desert to the valley of the Euphrates. They were divided into 
 many distinct tribes, some of which became civilized and occupied 
 large and flourishing cities. We need only instance Palmyra and 
 its noble queen, Zenobia, who belonged to the Ghassanide people. 
 At one time they professed Christianity and built numerous monas- 
 teries, but the irruption of the Muhammedans into this countr\' 
 ultimately extinguished the Ghassanide dynasty, and their name 
 and fame ceased to appear in Arabian history. Similar indigenous 
 tribes, however, still exist, and we may come in contact with them 
 as we penetrate farther into the region east of the Jordan which 
 they claim as their special domain. 
 
 We are now approaching the bridge over the Zeidy, and as it is 
 about midway between el Busrah and Der'a we will rest there and 
 take our lunch in the shade near its eastern buttress. 
 
 The river seems sluggish and not very deep. 
 
 1 have passed this way in early spring, and the Zeidy was quite 
 unfordable. This bridge, of two arches, is broad and substantial 
 and apparently Roman. The traces of chariot-wheels on the stone 
 pavement establish its claim to a certain antiquity, for no wheeled 
 vehicles have passed over it, I suppose, for many a centur\'. 
 
 That village on the south is called et Taiyibeh, and farther west 
 you can see a large tower, which gives the name of Um el Mci- 
 
 ' 2 Mace. V. 8. '2 Cor. xi. 32. ' .\nt. xviii. 5, 2 ; Matt. xiv. 3-12.
 
 540 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 yadin — Mother of Minarets — to the village near it. The nature of 
 the country from here to Der'a changes from level to hilly, and 
 from volcanic rock to cretaceous limestone. In the spring the hill- 
 sides are all aglow with red anemones and other flowers, bright and 
 gay; now they are burned and brown under the scorching rays of 
 the sun during the rainless months of summer. 
 
 As usual, villages increase on the hills that border the plain, 
 and more life and activity are manifest among the inhabitants. 
 
 In this valley into which we are now descending, south of that 
 village called Ghurs, I once found a large caravan of camels that 
 were carrying wheat to Acre. The caravan had stopped here to 
 rest, and the camels were allowed to brouse upon the luxuriant 
 pasture. The men were asleep on the ground by the side of the 
 loads, and I was reminded, by their appearance and the road -they 
 were travelling, that this had been a caravan route from remote 
 antiquity. They would descend into the profound gorge of the 
 Jarmuk and cross the Jordan on the bridge called Jisr el Mejami'a, 
 the only one now available south of the Lake of Tiberias. Thence 
 they would pass westward through the plain of Esdraelon to their 
 destination at Acre. It was probably by this route that the " com- 
 pany of Ishmaelites came from Gilead, with their camels bearing 
 spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt," to 
 whom Joseph was sold by his cruel brethren.' The road to Egypt 
 then left the plain of Esdraelon at Dothan, as it does still. 
 
 We have been making a rapid descent towards the Zeidy, and 
 that village on the hill beyond it must be Der'a, which we have 
 come to visit. It occupies a very commanding position. 
 
 We shall find our tents at the south-eastern extremity of the 
 town, where I spent a Sabbath many years ago. The inhabitants 
 are rude, fanatical Moslems, and it was not easy to find a suitable 
 place to encamp. No one would allow us to pitch in any of their 
 fields, and we were obliged to apply to the sheikh in the name of 
 the Sultan, whose Turkish firman we had with us for just such 
 emergencies. With evident reluctance and disgust he pointed out 
 a vacant spot which we then found quiet and well protected. There 
 is time enough to make the circuit of the place before it grows 
 
 ' Gen. xxxvii. 25-2S.
 
 CAPITAL OF OG.— HEBREW CONQUEST.— DERA AND EDREI. 54 1 
 
 dark, and in the evening we will look into the history of the old 
 town and its surroundings. 
 
 Der'n, September 231I. Evening;. 
 
 Der'a is a much larger place, and there are more remains of an- 
 tiquity about it than I had expected to find. 
 
 You are aware that M. Waddington and others have maintained 
 that this is the true site of the Biblical Edrei in which Og, the king 
 of Bashan, dwelt when the children of Israel invaded his territory, 
 in the time of Moses. But it appears to be improbable that Og would 
 locate his capital upon a hill in the open country, on the south-west 
 border of his kingdom, at a place that could be so easily surrounded 
 and captured, when his dominions extended over all Bashan, in- 
 cluding "the region of Argob " or the Lejah, with its bewildering 
 labyrinths and extensive caverns. 
 
 The Israelites came up from the south, and Og probabh- retired 
 before them to a town in the natural fortresses of the Lejah, and 
 there, as we have seen, are the ruins of a large and ancient cit}-, 
 at Edhr'a — a name almost identical with the Biblical Edrei. But 
 there are no data, either in the Bible or elsewhere, sufficiently ex- 
 plicit to settle that question. Der'a, however, is undoubtedly the 
 Adara of the Onomasticon and the Peutinger Table, said to have 
 been twenty-four miles from Bosrah ; and it was probably regarded 
 by Eusebius as the Edrei of the Bible. After the Muhammedans 
 conquered the country, in the early part of the seventh century, 
 Der'a is no longer mentioned as an important place, and has no 
 special history down to the present day. 
 
 The ancient town was situated upon a hill in a bend — almost a 
 loop — of the river Zeidy, but the modern village occupies only a 
 small part of the former site. Including the hill just north of the 
 village, the circuit of the old town must have been more than three 
 miles. On a former occasion I had a long ramble about the i)lace, 
 accompanied by the son of the sheikh. We went first to an ex- 
 tensive cemetery, the largest I have seen in this region — a perfect 
 wilderness of Muhammedan tombstones. We next ascended the 
 hill, which was once fortified, and the whole surface is covered by 
 the debris of a city apparently of great antiquity. 
 
 The prospect from Tell Kerak, as the hill is called, over the sur-
 
 542 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 rounding country is very extensive. I could see with my glass most 
 of those lofty, conical tells which form so striking a feature of the 
 plateau of the Jaulan, east and south-east of Lake Huleh, with 
 snow-capped Hermon, in all his glory, for background on the north 
 — a panorama of great interest, and as vast as it was varied. On 
 the plain below us, which stretches north and east to the horizon, 
 are numerous tells, each with a significant name, but the one which 
 chiefly attracted my attention was Tell 'Ashtarah. It is nearly 
 north, and apparently about ten or twelve miles distant. 
 
 Is it supposed to occupy the site of the city where the Rephaim 
 dwelt in the time of Abraham?' 
 
 As already remarked in the account of Chedorlaomer's invasions, 
 a place called Ashteroth Karnaim existed in this region at that very 
 early day, and it is supposed to be identical with Ashtaroth men- 
 tioned in Deuteronomy, Joshua, and elsewhere as a city in Bashan 
 and not far from Edrei. If Tell 'Ashtarah could be identified with 
 both Ashtaroths it would impart additional interest to that site ; 
 but aside from the similarity in name and location, the Biblical and 
 other notices of the two places are not sufficiently decisive. We 
 hear no more of Ashteroth Karnaim until the time of the Maccabees. 
 Ashtoreth was the principal female divinity of the Phoenicians, and 
 her worship prevailed over Western Asia. A temple dedicated to 
 her, apparently, at Ashteroth Karnaim was well known in later 
 Hebrew times, and both the city, then called Carnaim, and the 
 temple are mentioned in Maccabees: Judas Maccabeus "took the 
 city, and burnt the temple with all that were therein.'"" 
 
 The same achievement is referred to in 2 Maccabees, where the 
 temple is called that of Atargatis— another name for Ashtoreth— 
 and the number of the slain, in both city and temple, is said to have 
 been twenty-five thousand.' Josephus also mentions the exploits of 
 Judas at Carnaim, the capture of the city, the slaughter of his 
 enemies, and the burning of the temple.' In the Onomasticon 
 Ashteroth Karnaim is said to be six miles from Edrei, by which 
 Eusebius must have meant this Der'a, for Edhr'a, or Edrei, in the 
 Lejah is much farther from Tell 'Ashtarah. 
 
 ' Gen. xiv. 5. "^ i Mace. v. 26, 42-44. 
 
 2 2 Mace. xii. 21, 26. ■* Ant. xii. 8, 4.
 
 TELL 'ASHTARAH.— ASHTEROTH KARXAnL— RUINS AT DER'A. 543 
 
 Dr. Merrill carefully examined that interesting site. " The sum- 
 mit of the mound," he says, " is one thousand nine hundred feet 
 above the sea-level, sixty or more above the surrounding plain, and 
 is longer from north to south than from east to west. There is an 
 irregular depression on the summit, running from north-east to 
 south-west, which divides it into two portions. It is very probable 
 that this depression was much more marked in ancient times than 
 at present. The remains of the wall around the brow of the sum- 
 mit we examined with care, and the indications are that it has been 
 a strongly fortified place. 
 
 " On the south-west side of the hill there still exist some Cyclo- 
 pean remains of great interest. These consist chiefly of two lines 
 [of walls] formed of immense, unhewn blocks of stone, starting from 
 a point in the plain about twenty-five yards from the base of the 
 hill, and running thence to the base and up the side of the mound, 
 till they meet the wall, already mentioned, around the summit. At 
 the point in the plain where we have said these walls commence, 
 they turn towards each other at right angles, and space is left for a 
 great gate. This gate and passage may have served as the entrance 
 to a castle; and if the massiveness of the entrance affords any hint 
 as to the character of the place, it must have been one of unusual 
 strength. Being fortified, it is the only place in all that immediate 
 region whither a defeated army would flee, as is related of Timo- 
 theus's army in i Maccabees, 5, and there is no objection to regard- 
 ing it [that is, Tell 'Ashtarah] as the Carnaim of those times.'" 
 
 Descending from Tell Kerak we came to a large reservoir be- 
 tween it and the village. It was excavated in the solid rock, and 
 is about five hundred feet long, two hundred feet wide, and now 
 partially filled up with rubbish, but originally it may have been fifty 
 feet deep. Near the south-west corner of the reservoir are the 
 remains of ancient baths, probably Roman. I was told that the 
 reservoir is called Birket Siknany, because of the echoes made by 
 the walls. That "birkeh" is now dry, but it was formerly filled by 
 an aqueduct that was carried over the river gorge on a bridge. The 
 bridge, of four arches, is seen below Tell Kcrak, ami a line- of what 
 appears to have been an aqueduct, which the natives call Kanatir 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 320. 33"-
 
 544 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Far'aun — the Arches of Pharaoh — stretches across the plain beyond 
 it towards the north-east for several miles. 
 
 Returning through the village towards the south-east we tried to 
 enter the mosk, whose tall, square tower forms such a conspicuous 
 object in the general view of the place, but it was closed, and we 
 could only look into the large court from a terrace above it. The 
 mosk is about one hundred and fifty feet long and one hundred 
 feet wide, with three gates, and a double colonnade of many short 
 columns ran around it. In the north-east corner of the court is a 
 remarkable sarcophagus, adorned with the heads of lions and other 
 decorations in bass-relief. The mosk was built out of the ruins of a 
 church and monastery, and just south of it are the solid foundations 
 of a semicircular structure, probably the apse of the church. The 
 chord is nearly one hundred and twenty feet, and the edifice, which 
 faced the north, was divided into aisles by columns and piers. 
 
 At the south-eastern border of the village are the remains of 
 an ancient structure, which are well worth examining ; but the frag- 
 ments have been built into modern houses, and large pieces of the 
 cornice are scattered about in utter confusion, so that it is impos- 
 sible to make out the plan of the edifice. The son of the sheikh 
 said that there were many inscriptions on the walls of native houses, 
 and led the way through narrow, crooked, and filthy lanes to show 
 them ; but they were all mere masons' marks, consisting of a single 
 letter, cut into the face of stones which probably belonged to the 
 houses of the old city. I noticed, however, that some of those 
 marks were found on large, unhewn blocks of stone. That Der'a 
 must have been an important city in the Gr^eco-Roman times no 
 one can doubt who examines the existing remains. 
 
 Dr. Merrill remarks that " Dra'a ought to be a rich field for ex- 
 cavations, because at least three cities exist there, one beneath an- 
 other," and he translates Dr. J. G. Wetzstein's " interesting account 
 of his visit to the extensive underground dwellings which exist 
 here," and which Dr. Wetzstein calls " the subterranean labyrinthine 
 residence of Og," king of Bashan.' But neither Dr. Wetzstein nor 
 M. Waddington found any important inscriptions, and Dr. Merrill, 
 who recently attempted to explore that subterranean city, was not 
 
 ' East cf the Jordan, pp. 349-352.
 
 CRUSADERS AT DER'A.— FORTUNE-TELLING.— BURNING STRAW. 545 
 
 more successful than either of the others. Dr. Merrill relates the 
 historical fact " that when King Baldwin III. (1144-1162) and his 
 crusaders made their wild chase to Bozrah, they went by way of 
 Dra'a. The weather was hot, and the army was suffering terribly 
 for want of water; but as often as they let down their buckets, by 
 means of ropes, into the cisterns here, men concealed on the inside 
 of the cisterns would cut the ropes and thus defeat their efforts. 
 Probably the underground city has connection with all the impor- 
 tant cisterns of the place."* 
 
 Der'a, September 24th. 
 
 We have a ride of ten hours before us to-day from Der'a to the 
 village of Suf, near Jerash, where we are to spend the night. 
 
 I am surprised to see around the outskirts of this village so 
 many ragged Arab tents, with occupants equally ragged. 
 
 They belong to remnants of indigent Bedawin tribes, roving 
 gypsies and Mograbian vagabonds, who gather about such places 
 to beg and to steal. When we were here before, a Mograbian 
 woman came to the tents one afternoon and offered to tell our 
 fortunes and perform sundry tricks of legerdemain. She was the 
 only one of that people I have seen in this region who could speak 
 Arabic like a native of the country. 
 
 What is the cause of those clouds of black smoke that float 
 down the hill-side towards the river? 
 
 The shiftless natives are trying to get rid of the great heaps 
 of old straw and manure that overtop their houses by burning in- 
 stead of carrying them out onto the fields. It is the usual custom, 
 and they were doing the same thing when I was here years ago. 
 Then some small boys and naked children were romping in the 
 smouldering mass until they became nearly as black as the ashes 
 they were tossing about in their rude sport. Such great mounds 
 of refuse straw and chaff show that the wheat-fields around Der'a 
 are very extensive and yield abundant harvests. 
 
 The direction of our ride appears to be nearly south-west, and 
 the first village we shall pass through, you say, is Remtheh ? 
 
 It is an hour and a half brisk riding from Der'a, and at this 
 season of tlie year the brown and blasted plain, whicii we must 
 ' East of the Joiilan, j). 352.
 
 546 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 traverse to reach it, is a dreary and desolate waste. But I have 
 passed this way in the spring, when those swelling uplands and 
 broad fields were covered with luxuriant grass and waving with 
 green wheat, and these rugged hill-sides were fairly glowing with 
 thousands of red anemones, scarlet ranunculuses, and other gay and 
 brilliant flowers, presenting a beautiful appearance. 
 
 The country between our line of travel and the valley of the 
 Jordan northward and westward is wild and mountainous, and in 
 some parts it is well wooded with noble oak forests. It is the 
 region of the ancient Decapolis, and all but one — Scythopolis — of 
 the ten confederate cities were on this side of the Jordan. The 
 list includes Hippos, identified with Fik ; Gadara, the modern Um 
 Keis; Pella, Tubukat Fahil ; Capitolias, or Beit er Ras; Damascus; 
 Canatha, Kunawat ; Gerasa, or Jerash ; Dion, probably Eidun ; Phil- 
 adelphia, 'Amman ; and Raphana, which has not yet been identified. 
 There are several other sites of Biblical and historic interest, such 
 as Irbid, the ancient Arbela; Ibl, the Abila of Peraea; and el Mahneh, 
 possibly the Mahanaim where Jacob was met by the angels. 
 
 The Zeidy, after passing around the north side of Der'a, makes 
 a tremendous descent, by a succession of cascades and frequent 
 rapids, of more than two thousand feet in twenty miles down to 
 where it joins the river Jarmuk, and thence onward to the Jordan. 
 Numerous tributaries from the north and east find their way into it 
 through profound gorges, which render that region and that around 
 the Jarmuk north of it among the wildest and most picturesque east 
 of the Jordan. Much of the land, however, is capable of cultiva- 
 tion, and in ancient times it appears to have been dotted over with 
 villages and towns. At present it is mostly abandoned to the Bed- 
 awin, and large tracts are literally without settled inhabitants. 
 
 Dr. Merrill has made several excursions through different parts 
 of it. One of them was from Fik, the Aphek of the Bible, above 
 the south end of Lake Tiberias, northward to Nowa, and thence 
 southward to el Mezarib, Tell 'Ashtarah, Der'a, el Husn, and 'Ain 
 Jenneh in Wady 'Ajlun. In the first day's ride he was searching 
 for the ancient Golan, and though he could discover no site bear- 
 ing that name, he found a " Wady or Nahr 'Allan " in the region 
 where the city of Golan was probably situated. As in the case of
 
 CAPITOLIAS.—IRBID. -CYCLOPEAN WALLS. 547 
 
 Wady Yabis and Jabesh-gilead, Dr. Meirill suggests that the name 
 Gollan is preserved in that of Wady or Nahr 'Allan — an identifica- 
 tion which may be accepted as sufficiently probable so far as the 
 mere name and locality are concerned.' 
 
 Some fifteen miles, nearly west, of Der'a is Beit er Ras, supposed 
 to mark the site of Capitolias. Dr. Merrill, who visited it also, says 
 that "it occupies the slopes and summits of two or three low hills, 
 and extends far to the east on the line of the Roman road [between 
 it and Um Keis, or Gadara] which is still quite perfect. The pub- 
 lic buildings were numerous and imposing, but are now mere piles 
 of ruins. Great arches exist here, also columns, Corinthian and 
 Ionic capitals, a vast amount of carved ornamental work, and 
 large, fine eagles, still perfect, whose wings spread three feet. There 
 are also some inscriptions [one Nabathean, the rest Greek] among 
 the ruins. The road leading east was lined with columns, and the 
 building-material was chiefly basalt rock. Evidenth' a great deal 
 of the old city is underground, for twelve fine arches in succession 
 could be traced which are below the surface, and indeed people 
 live in these underground apartments. This place has a special 
 interest, because it was one of the cities which belonged to the 
 Decapolis." ^ 
 
 About an hour south of Beit er Ras is Irbid, now a small village 
 on the south side of a large tell or mound, upon which are the 
 ruins of a castle. "There are here fine Roman ruins and some e\'i- 
 dent marks of great antiquity," Dr. Merrill says; "the cyclopean 
 walls about this hill are a great curiosity. The)' arc relics of an 
 ancient people who once occupied this region, and as but few of 
 them exist east of the Jordan valley, they are on that account all 
 the more interesting. These here are formed, for the most part, 
 of bowlders laid into walls. In one section I counted five courses, 
 which reached altogether a height of twelve or fifteen feet, ami else- 
 where I counted three courses which reached nearly the same height. 
 In a few places the walls are formed of great blocks of unhewn 
 stone instead of bowlders, and these vary from ten to eighteen feet 
 in length and are of proportionate witllh and thickness. 
 
 "At certain points large foundations jjroject from the main wall, 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 325, 326. ' East of tlic iDidaii, pp. 297, 29S. 
 
 O2
 
 548 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 in at least one or two cases for sixty feet. These are evidently 
 the substructures of strong towers. It is in these foundations that 
 the largest stones appear. The most perfect section of this ancient 
 wall is at present on the east side of the mound, and extends un- 
 broken for over three hundred feet." ' The Graeco-Roman name of 
 that place is supposed to have been Arbela. There was a city of 
 the same name — the Beth-arbel of Hosea and the Arbela of Josephus 
 — north-west of Tiberias and near Kuriln Hattin, whose ruins are 
 believed to be at a place also called Irbid. 
 
 " A little less than one hour south of Irbid, in the midst of a 
 fertile tract well supplied with water, is a large double village with 
 ruins, called Eidun," which. Dr. Merrill is confident, " should be 
 regarded as the ' Dion ' or ' Dium ' of the Decapolis." ^ 
 
 That large, wretched village on the hill-side ahead of us is er 
 Remtheh, and I call your attention to the Haj road which passes 
 below it, with its many well -beaten parallel tracks made by the 
 great pilgrim caravan on its weary way to Mecca. In former times 
 the Haj road passed by el Busrah, but for many years since it has 
 kept along the western side of the Hauran, and from el Mezarib it 
 leads through the hill country west of Der'a, and thence trending 
 to the south-east reaches Remtheh and passes on over the plain to 
 Kul'at ez Zerka, near one of the sources of the Jabbok. 
 
 Burckhardt spent a night at Remtheh on his way to Jerash, and 
 he thus speaks of its inhabitants: "We met with a very indifferent 
 reception at the sheikh's house, for the inhabitants of the villages 
 on the Hadj route exceed all others in fanaticism; an old man was 
 particularly severe in his animadversions on Kafers [infidels] treading 
 the sacred earth which leads to the Kaabe, and the youngsters echoed 
 his insulting language. I found means, however, to show the old 
 man a penknife which I carried in my pocket, and made him a 
 present of it before he could ask it of me ; we then became as 
 great friends as we had been enemies, and his behaviour induced 
 a like change in the others towards me. Remtha is the last in- 
 habited village on this side of the Hauran ; the greater part of 
 its houses are built against the caverns with which this calcareous 
 country abounds, so that the rock forms the back of the house 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 294. ' East of the Jordan, p. 29S.
 
 NO WATER AT REMTHEH.— MIGRATION OF THE WILD AI.V. 549 
 
 while the other sides are enclosed by a semicircular mud wall whose 
 extremities touch the rock." ' 
 
 We have no occasion to visit those cavernous habitations, or 
 subject ourselves to the insolence of their fanatical inmates. We 
 must not neglect, however, to fill our "water bottles" and to give 
 drink to our horses, for there is no water to be found at this season 
 of the year between this and Suf. Dr. Merrill says that "the water 
 at Remtheh was very poor, and had it not been for some friendly 
 Turkish soldiers, who aided us in obtaining it, we should have had 
 none at all. The morning of the day that we left this place for 
 Jerash our animals had no water, nor did they or ourselves have 
 any until near sunset, although our march was about eight hours 
 for ourselves and about ten for our mules, and the thermometer 
 was 87° in the shade. 
 
 "When at last we found water it was a dirty, stagnant pool, 
 hardly eight feet in diameter. Our animals were frantic and entire- 
 ly unmanageable until, having crowded and almost tumbled over 
 each other in their efforts to reach the water, they had quenched 
 what must have been their burning thirst. Then came our turn. 
 We all drank freely. I fancied I never before was so heartily thank- 
 ful for any blessing as for the two or three glasses of the muddy, 
 dirty stuff which I drank here. But half an hour beyond this place 
 [or pool], and only a few minutes from Jerash, we found a small spring 
 of cool, fresh, delicious water, where, of course, we drank again."* 
 
 When passing through this region on a former occasion our 
 party beheld a sight never to be forgotten — one, indeed, worthy of 
 a long journey to witness. Some time before reaching Remtheh 
 our curiosity was excited by the appearance of a great caravan, ex- 
 tending, in an unbroken line, from south-east to north-west, farther 
 than the eye could reach in either direction. On coming up to it 
 we found that the Wuld or Wulid 'Aly, a branch of the Mnazeh 
 tribe of Bedawin, were upon their annual spring migration to the 
 Hauran, and subsequently to el Jaulan and the region south of Da- 
 mascus. Their camels, mostly accompanied by young ones of various 
 ages, seemed innumerable. The sheikh of the tribe, surrounded by 
 several horsemen, took up a position on the hill-side to overlook the 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 247. '■' East of the Jordan, p. loi.
 
 550 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 march of the caravan, and he assured us that they had one hundred 
 thousand camels— no doubt a great exaggeration. We stood on the 
 hill and watched the countless numbers pass by for more than an 
 hour, and they came on eight or ten abreast, and with a steady and 
 rapid march, many thousands of them, old and young. 
 
 The men and larger boys were on foot, but the women and chil- 
 dren were perched upon the camels. Most of them were seated on 
 the ordinary rough, wooden saddle, but there were many extraordi- 
 nary contrivances for the comfort and protection of the wives of the 
 various sheikhs. The one in common use was made of two slabs, 
 or planks of wood, about ten feet in length, which were fastened 
 upon the frame of the saddle and at right angles to it. From the 
 ends of those slabs ropes were stretched over upright posts fixed 
 above the middle of the saddle, to support an awning under which 
 the women sat upon quilts and cushions. The swinging gait of the 
 camels gave to those curious tents an undulatory motion like that 
 of small boats on the ruffled surface of the sea. The camel, you 
 know, is called " the ship of the desert," and those extraordinary 
 contrivances certainly gave a new meaning to the adage. 
 
 The migration of such a formidable host, or caravan, of Bedawin 
 Arabs must be quite alarming to the agricultural population. 
 
 No cultivated country can bear them. I was reminded at the 
 time of the distress of Moab because of the invasion of his territory 
 by the children of Israel. No wonder that he said " unto the elders 
 of Midian, Now shall this company lick up all that are round about 
 us, as the ox licketh up the grass of the field." ' Those Wulid 'Aly 
 Bedawin followed the Haj road as far as I could see them with my 
 glass, and north-west of Der'a they would spread themselves over 
 the districts of el Jaulan and el Jeidur up to the southern foot-hills 
 of Hermon, where they would find pasture during the summer. In 
 the autumn they would retire again to their winter-quarters in the 
 great desert that stretches away eastward towards the valley of 
 the Euphrates and the head of the Persian Gulf.' 
 
 How can sufficient food be found for so many mouths? 
 The camels of the Bedawin furnish an important part of it, and 
 one object of those annual migrations is to procure wheat and other 
 
 ' Numb. xxii. 4.
 
 WANDERING ISHMAELITES.— VII. LACK OF EL HISN. 55 I 
 
 necessaries upon which those " children of the East " subsist, ami 
 which they take with them to their home in the desert. A strange 
 Hfe is that of the wandering Ishmaehtes! Yet they glory in it, and 
 look down with contempt upon the poor fcllahin who dwell in 
 houses and till the soil. We greatly underrate the number of those 
 denizens of the desert. The 'Anazeh alone spread over Northern 
 Arabia and the regions between Syria and the valley of the Euphrates, 
 and must amount to several hundred thousand. 
 
 Since leaving Remtheh we have been riding over wooded hills 
 for two hours, without meeting a single wayfarer or seeing a human 
 habitation, nor even a deserted village. 
 
 There is a miserable hamlet ahead of us, situated on the plain, 
 called Hawarah, but with nothing attractive about it. The sur- 
 rounding country, however, is beautiful, and if properly cultivated 
 much of the soil would no doubt be productive. It was covered 
 with rich pasture when I passed this way in the spring. We must 
 now turn southward towards the village of el Husn, the capital of 
 this large district of Belad Beni 'Obeid. 
 
 What is there to be seen at that place ? 
 
 Husn means castle, and the most remarkable thing about the 
 village is a large and lofty mound, called Tell Husn, the summit 
 of which is overspread with the debris of a Saracenic castle, proba- 
 bly built upon the site of a far more ancient fortress. There are 
 remains of an old wall surrounding the top of the hill, and at the 
 south-western base of the mound are a few ordinary columns, but 
 without capitals or anything about them to indicate the character 
 of the edifice to which they belonged. In the village are also a few 
 short columns connected with a ruined church afterward transformed 
 into a mosk, but now deserted. Besides great stones, fragments of 
 pottery, and other ancient remains found in all directions, numerous 
 rock-cut tombs in the village and its neighborhood indicate that cl 
 Husn occupies the site of a very old city. 
 
 The village extends along the side of a hill u liich slopes eastward 
 towards a wady that passes around the south end of it and then 
 turns westward and descends into the Jordan valley. There are no 
 fountains in el Husn, and the inhabitants depend for water entirely 
 upon cisterns. Those are always e.xhausted in the latter part of
 
 552 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 summer, and water has then to be brought from a long distance. 
 Of the seventy or eighty famiHes that reside at el Husn two-thirds 
 are Christians belonging to the orthodox Greek Church, the rest are 
 Muhammedans. A considerable number of the Christians had de- 
 clared themselves Protestants not long before I was there, and had 
 placed themselves under the care of the English mission at es Salt. 
 In appearance, dress, manners, and occupations there is no apparent 
 distinction between the different sects — and the same may be said 
 of all the fellahin in this region — nor do the Moslems assume any 
 superiority over the Christians in their general intercourse. During 
 a quarrel the latter will not hesitate to curse and even beat the 
 former — a freedom of speech and action not indulged in by the in- 
 habitants of any part of the country except those on Lebanon. 
 
 We will follow a road over the hills, a little to the east of el Husn, 
 by which we shall the sooner reach the friendly shelter of the great 
 forest which extends from it quite to Jerash and indeed far beyond. 
 About five hours from el Husn, in a south-westerly direction, and 
 two hours north-east from Kul'at er Rubad, according to Dr. Merrill, 
 is a ruin called Mahneh, in a w^ady of the same name, which, some 
 have supposed, marks the site of Mahanaim, where Jacob met the 
 angels after parting with Laban. 
 
 It is certainly remarkable that a place so distinguished in the 
 history of the patriarch, and subsequently in that of Ish-bosheth and 
 David, should be entirely lost. 
 
 And almost equally strange that the name, or one nearly identi- 
 cal with it, should be found, after so many centuries, clinging to 
 such a featureless locality as that of Mahneh is said to be. Yet 
 Canon Tristram, who visited the place, says, " There is every proba- 
 bility that the name of Mahanaim has been preserved in Mahneh, 
 and that these grass-grown mounds represent all that is left of the 
 capital of Ish-bosheth and the refuge of David." ' From the Bibli- 
 cal narrative, in Genesis and elsewhere, Mahanaim appears to have 
 been north of the Jabbok and east of the Jordan, within the terri- 
 tory of Gad and near the border of the half tribe of Manasseh.' 
 
 It was a Levitical city after the time of Jacob, and the fortified 
 
 1 Land of Israel, pp. 487. 488. 
 
 5 Gen. xxxii. i, 2 ; Josh. xiii. 24, 26, 29, 30.
 
 KING DAVID AT MAHANAIM.— LABAX AND JACOB AT MIZTAII. 553 
 
 capital of a district, perhaps, in the days of Ish-bosheth and David.' 
 It was to Mahanaim that David fled from before Absalom, and 
 seated there " between the two gates" of the city they brought him 
 " tidings " of the death of his son after the battle in " the wood of 
 Ephraim."' And it was "to the chamber over the gate" at Maha- 
 naim that David went up, " and as he went, thus he said, O my son 
 Absalom ! my son, my son Absalom ! would God I had died for 
 thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!"' After that memorable day 
 Mahanaim is mentioned but once in the Bible, and then merely as a 
 station of one of Solomon's twelve purveyors/ 
 
 The incidental notices of Mahanaim by Josephus furnish no ad- 
 ditional particulars regarding the location of that cit)', and the site 
 is but vaguely referred to by more recent writers as lying about 
 half a day's journey nearly due east of Beth-shcan or Bcisan, which 
 seems to be much too f^ir north of the Jabbok. Dr. Porter suggests 
 the possibility that Jerash may be the true site of Mahanaim, and 
 Dr. Merrill concludes that " if any exi.sting ruin in the Jordan val- 
 ley, or in the foot-hills bordering on it, is to be chosen as the site 
 of Mahanaim, Khirbet Suleikhat perhaps answers the conditions 
 better than any other."' It is possible that future research will yet 
 bring to light some place between the Jordan valley, the ruins of 
 Jerash, and in the neighborhood of Wady Mahneh, that will prove 
 to be the real site of the lost city of Mahanaim. 
 
 Laban called the place where the covenant between him and 
 Jacob was made Jegar-sahadutha and Mizpah, " for he said. The 
 Lord watch between me and thee, when we are absent one from 
 another."" But Jacob called it Galeed, the meaning in both cases 
 being that of a witness or watch-tower. Josephus tells us that " they 
 erected a pillar [upon certain mountains] in the form of an altar, 
 whence that hill is called Gilead; and from thence they call that land 
 the land of Gilead at this day." ' Whether we attach any importance 
 to that explanation or not, it is sufficiently certain that we are now 
 passing through the region of Mount Gilead where those remarkable 
 events occurred, and that fact imparts peculiar interest to our ride. 
 
 > I Chron. vi. 64, 80 ; 2 Sam. ii. 8, 12, 29 ; xvii. 24, 27 ; i Kiii^js ii. 8. 
 
 * 2 Sam. xviii. 24, 31, 32. ^ 2 Sam. xviii. 33. ■* i Kin^js iv. 14. 
 
 " East of the Jordan, p. 438. « Gen. xxxi. 47, 49. ' Ant. i. ly, 11.
 
 554 I'HE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Is there reason to believe that the covenant between Laban and 
 Jacob was held to have been permanently binding upon the descend- 
 ants of the contracting parties? 
 
 It was a formal and final separation between the members of the 
 Abrahamic family and the original race from which they sprang; 
 and they never afterwards intermingled, nor were there any more 
 intermarriages between them. It would appear strange that a mere 
 family compact should have received such an extended description 
 in the Biblical record, could we not discover in that covenant a 
 higher and more important significance. Laban's entire tribe were 
 then idolaters, and the family of Jacob had been led astray and al- 
 ready worshipped the same false gods. 
 
 Rachel, the favorite wife of the patriarch, stole the images of her 
 father's gods and brought them with her in their flight ; and had 
 Jacob's family remained in Padan-aram they would, in all proba- 
 bility, have apostatized from the true God. Thus the divine pur- 
 pose in the call of Abraham, the leaving of his kindred and his 
 migration into Canaan, would have been frustrated. The breaking 
 off of all intercourse, therefore, with the Mesopotamian branch of 
 his race had become absolutely necessary for the preservation of 
 Jacob's descendants from lapsing into the worship of idols. 
 
 Nor was that flight of Jacob sufficient of itself to effect the all- 
 important result. The wonderful experiences of Jacob at Mahanaim 
 and at Peniel had no doubt greatly quickened the religious life in 
 Israel himself, but the Mesopotamian idols were still in his family. 
 When, however, a second migration had become necessary soon 
 after, in consequence of the cruel and treacherous slaughter of the 
 people of Shechem by Simeon and Levi, Jacob took advantage of 
 that occasion to exterminate from his family those abominable idols 
 and their worship. "Then Jacob said unto his household, and to 
 all that were with him. Put away the strange gods that are among 
 you, and be clean, and change your garments. And they gave unto 
 Jacob all the strange gods which were in their hand, and all their 
 earrings which were in their ears; and Jacob hid them under the oak 
 which was by Shechem." ' "Jacob and all the people that were with 
 him [went up to Beth-el, and there he dwelt] and built an altar," and 
 
 ' Gen. XXXV. 2, 4.
 
 SHEPHERDS AND FLOCKS.— OAK FORESTS OF c.ll.FAD. 555 
 
 established the worship of the God of his fathers, at the place where 
 " God appeared unto him, when he fled from the face of his brother.'" 
 Thus was the great reformation completely effected, and we hear no 
 more of that kind of idolatr\' in the household of Israel. 
 
 We have now reached the regular road from el Husn to Suf 
 and Jerash, and will have the shade of this noble forest of oak, 
 pine, and other trees for the rest of our ride. 
 
 There is not a breath of air in these thick woods, and the heat is 
 most oppressive both to ourselves and our weary animals. 
 
 Very different, indeed, is this stifling atmosphere from that in 
 April, when our party came direct from cl Husn to Birket cd Deir, 
 which we have just passed on our right. Then it was a wide pool, 
 where we watered our horses and gathered some of the thousands 
 of flowers that overspread and glorified the hills in all directions. 
 Now the pool is diy, the hill-sides are blasted, and even the grass 
 has disappeared. Up to this point — an hour and a half from el Husn 
 — much of the country is cultivated, but from this on to Suf the forest 
 is uninterrupted, and is composed mostly of evergreen oaks, inter- 
 spersed occasionally with pine, terebinths, and hawthorn. 
 
 In another hour we shall reach a very large pool called Um cl 
 Khanzir— Mother of the Hog or Boar— but which might with more 
 propriety be named Mother of Goats, for it was surrounded by many 
 flocks of them in the spring. There we lunched, and the shepherds 
 brought us plenty of fresh milk. Those were the only animals we 
 found in the woods, and I never saw more beautiful flocks in any 
 other part of the country — goats black as the raven, with clean 
 limbs, long, pendent ears, and large, liquid eyes. We need not turn 
 aside to visit that pool, for it is now empty, dry, and solitary. 
 
 From Um el Khanzir to Suf is nearly two hours, and in spring 
 nothing can be more delightful than a ride through these forests, 
 the grandest in this land of Gilead ; and we need not wonder at the 
 encomiums lavished by all travellers that have passed this way on 
 the beautiful woodland scenery of these regions, for even the most 
 enthusiastic have not said enough mi its praise. 
 
 I notice that pine-trees are becoming more numerous, and the 
 grove on our left has apparently been swept by an extensive fire. 
 
 ' Gen. XXXV. 6, 7.
 
 556 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Such fires are not always accidental. When going from Jerash 
 to 'Ajlun I saw a part of the forest which had evidently been burnt 
 over by the peasants in order to clear the ground for cultivation ; 
 and young wheat was springing up vigorously amongst the black- 
 ened stumps of the trees — very much like what is often seen in the 
 far West in our own country — and I have no doubt that large tracts 
 of Mount Gilead might thus be brought under profitable cultivation. 
 
 Our road begins to descend southward towards Wady ed Deir, 
 having a high, wooded hill on the left and a more open country on 
 the right, and in half an hour we shall reach our place of encamp- 
 ment amongst the olive-trees on the west side of Suf. 
 
 As Jerash is only an hour farther on, why do we camp at this 
 miserable village instead of near the ruins at that place ? 
 
 Jerash is entirely deserted, and only robbers and one or two 
 millers are found there. And though travellers have become more 
 numerous in these days, and the danger less, our muleteers would be 
 very reluctant to take their animals and encamp amongst the pros- 
 trate columns and solitary remains of that remarkable city.
 
 JERASH TO 'AJLCx, AND ES SALT. 557 
 
 XV. 
 
 JERASH TO 'AJLUN, AND ES SALT. 
 
 The Sheikh of Suf. — Experience of Canon Tristram and his Party. — The "Adwan levy a 
 Fine on the Sheikh of Suf. — Remains of Antiquity at Suf. — Stream in Wady ed Deir. 
 — Olive-trees and Woods of Oak and Pine. — Muzar Abu Bekr. — Old Coins for Sale. — 
 Broken Sarcophagi. — Cemetery of Ancient Gerasa. — Entering Jerash through a Breach 
 in the Wall. — General Survey of the City. — Seil Jerash. — The Site and the City of 
 Jerash. — Remains of Private Houses and Public Buildings beyond the City Gate. — The 
 Triumphal Arch. — The Emperor Trajan. — The Stadium. — Naval Combats. — The City 
 Gate. — Ruins of a beautiful Temple. — Remains of a large Theatre. — Grand Colonnade 
 of the Forum. — Fifty-tive Columns still standing. — The Main Street lined with Col- 
 umns. — The Pavement and the Ruts made by Chariot-wheels. — Side Street, Gate in 
 the West Wall, Bridge across the Stream. — Pedestals for Colossal Statues. — Sections of 
 the Colonnade along the Main Street. — The Apse of a Beautiful Building.— Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus. — Side Street and Bridge. — The Propylceum. — Antoninus Pius. — 
 Temple of Jupiter or of the Sun. — Earthquake Shocks. — Burckhardt. — The City Wall, 
 small Temple, and Church. ^Rovvs of Prostrate Columns and others still standing with 
 their Entablatures. — Square Pedestals covered with a low Dome. — Portico of a Theatre. 
 — Ruined Theatre designed for Gladiatorial Combats. — Northern Gate of the Ciiy. — 
 Guard-house. -^Street Pavement. — Groups of Columns with Ionic Capitals. — Ruins of 
 a Bath with Columns in Front. — Aqueduct. — 'Ain Jerwan. — Original Site of Jerash. — 
 Great Clumps of Oleander. — Ruins on the Eastern Side of the Stream. — Temple and 
 Church. — Spring and Aqueduct. — Bridge and Bath. — Jerash a City of Columns. — Not 
 mentioned in the Bible and almost unknown to History. — Dr. Porter. — Mahanaim. — 
 Dr. Merrill. — Ramoth-gilead. — Gerasa. — Josephus. — Alexander Janna;us. — A City of 
 the Decapolis. — Gerasa burnt by the Jews and captured by Vespasian. — Gerasa a 
 flourishing City for half a Century. — The Seat of a Bishop. — No Trace of Muhammedan 
 Work or Worship. — William of Tyre. — The Crusaders. — Jerash deserted in the Thir- 
 teenth Century. — Trading Caravans and Mercantile Stations. — Ezion-geber. — Pctra. — 
 Palmyra. — A Store-city of Solomon. — The Nabatheans. — Superior Skill and Enlcrjirise 
 of the Greeks and Romans. — Western Civilization and Classic Taste. — The stately 
 Forum and the luxuriant Bath. — Decline of Commerce and Abandonment of the 
 Grseco-Roman Cities East of the Jordan. — Prophecy translated into History. — The 
 Lord's Sacrifice in Bozrah. — Fulfilment of Prophecy. — The Olive Groves of Suf and 
 the Oak Woods of Jebel 'Ajlun. — Dr. Eli Smith. — Luxuriant Pasture and brilliant 
 Wild Flowers.— 'Ain Jenneh.— The Walnut and Olive.— Great Variety of Fruit-trees.
 
 558 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 — Large Fountains and Abundance of Water. — Evening Ride through venerable Oak 
 Forests. — Jebel 'Ajlun. — "The Land of Gilead." — Jacob and Laban. — Mizpah and 
 Galeed. — Mahanaim. — Shechem and the Damieh Ford. — Wady 'Ajliin and the Jordan 
 Valley. — A Present of Sheep and Goats, Camels and Cattle for Esau. — Meeting between 
 Esau and Jacob. — Interview between Joseph and his Brethren. — Peniel. — City and 
 Tower at Penuel. — Gideon. — Jeroboam built a Palace at Penuel. — Josephus. — Dr. 
 Merrill locates Penuel at Telliil edh Dhahab. — The Hills of Gold. — Canaan's Ford. — 
 The Wood of Ephraim. — "A Great Oak" with "Thick Boughs." — The Death of 
 Absalom and the Biblical Narrative of the Battle. — Kul'at er Rubud. — Outlook from 
 the Fortress. — From Hermon to Hebron, and from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, 
 while Jordan rolls between. — Famous Historical Events. — From Chedorlaomer to 
 David. — Elijah and Elisha. — From Judas Maccabeus to Herod the Great. — The Baptist 
 and the Redeemer. — The Moat and Foundations of Kiil'at er Rubiid. — Indications of 
 a more ancient Fortress. — The present Castle. — Saladin. — The Crusaders. — Abulfeda. 
 — A singular Transposition of Names. — The Village of 'Ajlun. — Modern Chapel and 
 Old Mosk. — Unsafe Region between 'Ajlun and es Salt. — Villages on the Plain of 
 the Ghor and upon the Hills of Samaria. — Sunken Channel of the Jordan. — Kefrenjy. 
 — The Course of the Jabbok through the Plain to the Jordan. — Dr. Merrill. — Succoth 
 and Tell Deir 'Alia. — Jacob encamped in Wady Fari'a. — 'Ain Thaluth. — Khirbet 
 Thaluth.— Indications of former Cultivation. — 'Ain Um el Jalud. — El Khiidr, St. George. 
 — Dibbin, et Tekitty, and Reimun. — Um el Jauzeh. — Limestone Strata. — Dense Oak 
 Woods. — Kiisr Nejdeh. — Captain Warren. — Tropical Climate. — Fruit - trees and 
 Flowers. — Burmeh. — Olive Groves.— Sandstone Formation.— The Zerka in Spring and 
 Summer. — Luxuriant Wild Oats and thriving Clover. — Impenetrable Thickets of tall 
 Oleander.— The Ford of the Christian Woman. — Visit from the Sheikh of a Bedawin 
 Encampment.— Bulls of Bashan.— Bedawin Boys and Girls. — Bakhshish. — Gorge of the 
 Zerka.— El Belka and Jebel 'Ajlun.— Sihon and Og.— The Zerka or Blue River. — 
 Wooded Heights and Fertile Plain of the Belka. — Waving Wheat and Barley, and 
 Wild Flowers bright and gay.— Clumps of Oak and Pine trees. — Many Birds and large 
 Coveys of Partridges. — "Ain 'Allan. — Green Fig-trees. — Khirbet 'Allan. — Sihan. — 
 Khirbet ez Zi.— Neby Osh'a.- Pilgrims and Votive Offerings. — Sacrifice and Feasting. 
 —Annual Fair. — Es Salt a Commercial Centre. — The Prophet Hosea. — Elijah and 
 Joshua.— Outlook from Jebel Osh'a described by Dr. Merrill.— From Mount Hermon 
 to the Dead Sea. — Jebel Osh'a and Mount Nebo.— The Spot where Moses stood. 
 
 Es Suf, September 25th. 
 
 Contrary to my expectations, we have had no occasion to 
 complain as others have of the behavior of the Moslem inhabitants 
 of this village during the past night. 
 
 Travellers have often been annoyed by their fanatical insolence 
 and by the importunate attempts of the sheikh, a notorious scamp, 
 to levy black-mail upon them, and once I had no little difficulty in 
 bringing him to reason. He was determined that we should not 
 visit Jerash at all unless we paid a large bakhshish. Then, as now,
 
 ES SC'F TO JERASH.— ENTERING JKRASH. 559 
 
 I finally convinced him that we were able to take care of ourselves 
 and could dispense with his services as protector and guide. 
 
 Canon Tristram and his party were insulted, threatened, and 
 nearly robbed here. They were compelled to pay an exorbitant 
 sum before they were allowed to leave, and had to abandon all idea 
 of visiting Jerash. Subsequently, however, under the protection of 
 the 'Adwan Arabs, they were more successful, and Sheikh 'Abd el 
 'Aziz, with a strong party, recovered the money, levied, as a fine, 
 the sheikh's best cow, and brought him and his friends under com- 
 pulsion to be their guards to Pella, whither the 'Adwan could not 
 accompany them.' The village has not improved in any respect 
 during the last fifty years, and there arc no remains of antiquity 
 about it with the exception of a ruined square building, a few broken 
 columns, and one or two Greek inscriptions almost illegible. 
 
 Let us now start for Jerash, where we shall spend a day of un- 
 usual interest amongst the wonderful ruins of that once splendid 
 city. The site is about four miles to the south-east of Suf, and the 
 road to it winds along the west bank of this stream in Wady cd Deir, 
 and around the heads of shallow valleys, amongst olive-trees and 
 through straggling woods of pine, oak, and evergreen bushes, for 
 nearly an hour to Muzar Abu Bekr, a Moslem saint's tomb. 
 
 These people coming out to the road to meet us are some of the 
 temporary occupants of the Muzar, and they offer a few old coins 
 for sale, but none of them are of any special value. From Abu Bekr 
 there is a long and steep descent of about a mile to the north wall 
 of the city. On the left of the road and not far from the city wall 
 are many sarcophagi — upwards of fifty — scattered, as you see, far 
 and wide over the hill-side. The inscriptions upon them, and the 
 sculptured festoons and genii in bass-relief, have been nearly obliter- 
 ated and defaced ; but careful search and excavation might bring to 
 light some interesting relics of a by-gone age, for that must have 
 been the cemetery of ancient Gerasa. 
 
 We have now entered Jerash through this breach in the wall, 
 near the north-west corner, and from here we can lake a gcncr.d 
 survey of this once beautiful cit>': groups of columns standing 
 around the fallen walls of ancient temples; shapeless ruins of private 
 
 ' Land of Israel, p. 567.
 
 560 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 dwellings, and massive remains of great theatres ; the main street, 
 with a long double colonnade, terminating at the southern end in 
 the forum, with its grand circle of a hundred columns or more ; the 
 triumphal arch near the entrance to the town from the south, and 
 the crumbling walls of the city with their ruined towers and shat- 
 tered battlements — these are some of the principal features which 
 strike the beholder as he gazes upon this wonderful picture of ruin 
 and desolation. But the little stream, called Seil Jerash, that winds 
 through the town with its foaming rapids and rocky banks fringed 
 with green oleanders in full bloom, imparts life and beauty to the 
 scene and relieves the dreariness of this deserted city. 
 
 For the purpose of examining these ancient edifices in consecu- 
 tive order and to the greatest advantage, let us make our way south- 
 ward, as best we can, over great masses of ruins half concealed by 
 tall grass and rank weeds, to the triumphal arch about a quarter of 
 a mile beyond the city gate in that direction. 
 
 Jerash was almost surrounded by mountains, and was built upon 
 uneven ground on both sides of the shallow valley called Wady ed 
 Deir. The walls, nearly eight feet thick, enclosed an irregular area 
 about a mile square, which was divided into two unequal parts by 
 Seil Jerash, the purling stream that flows southward through the 
 valley on its way to join the Zerka — the ancient Jabbok — some dis- 
 tance below the town. The principal part of the city was on the 
 western side of the stream, and most of the important edifices stood 
 upon the rising ground on the west of the main street. The remains 
 of private houses and public buildings extend for some distance 
 beyond the city gate, but the only ruins of importance are those of 
 the stadium, or race-course, and these of this triumphal arch which 
 we have now reached and from whence we will start northward on 
 our tour of inspection through the city. 
 
 In thus approaching Jerash from the south, this structure is the 
 most imposing and the first to claim our attention. The Bedawin 
 Arabs call it Bab 'Amman, because the road from Jerash to that city 
 passed by or through it. The entire gate-way was about eighty feet 
 wide and forty feet high, and consisted of a central arch thirty feet 
 in height, and two smaller side arches with rectangular niches for 
 statues above them. On the front or south side are four Corinthian
 
 TRIUMPHAL ARCH.— STADIUM.— THE CITY GATE. 
 
 ;6i 
 
 semicolumns, occupying the spaces between the arches; but portions 
 of the shafts, all their capitals, and the frieze and cornice of the 
 structure have fallen. The remarkable and unusual feature about 
 
 TKIUMPUAL ARCH AT JKKASII. 
 
 those columns is the vase-shaped pedestal of acanthus leaves above 
 their bases, supposed to indicate that this tri[)le gatc-waj' is not older 
 than the time of the Emperor Trajan. 
 
 Near the triumphal arch, to the left of the roadway ami between 
 that structure and the gate of the city, is the stadium or race-course. 
 It was about three hundred feet wide and se\-en hundred feet long, 
 considerably depressed below the surface, had steps or seats, and 
 was semicircular at its northern end. The canal that passes along 
 its eastern side seems to indicate that it was sometimes fdlcd with 
 water from Seil Jerash, and used for the ])urp()se of representing 
 naval combats. I'rocecding northward we soon reach the cit\' gate, 
 a triple entrance resendjling the triumphal arch, and originally con-
 
 562 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 nected with the massive walls of the town. It is now blocked up 
 by great heaps of fallen stones, and rendered almost impassable. 
 
 On the left, as we enter the city, are the remains of a beautiful 
 temple, which stood, fronting the north-east, upon a large mound 
 overlooking the main street and commanding a fine view of the 
 greater part of the town. This temple was surrounded by Corinthian 
 columns, only one of which — at the south-east angle — remains stand- 
 ing, and the portico was composed of two rows of columns, eight in 
 each row. The portal was about fifteen feet broad, and the walls were 
 nearly eight feet thick. The temple was fifty feet wide, and seventy 
 feet long, and the walls had square pilasters with a plain cornice on 
 
 TEMPLE Al JEKASH.
 
 TEMPLE AND THEATRE AT JERASH. 
 
 56: 
 
 THEATRE AT JERASH, 
 
 the inside, and a row of six rectangular niches with round arches for 
 statues on the outside. The roof, the front and rear of the temple, 
 a portion of the side walls, especially on the west, and all the col- 
 unrins, appear to have been thrown down by an earthquake, and the 
 ruins — heaps of stones, fragments of the frieze and cornice, capitals, 
 bases, and sections of the shafts — lie scattered about and piled to- 
 gether in utter confusion. At the north-west corner of this temple 
 is a side-entrance leading towards a large theatre a few rods distant, 
 built against the side of a small hill and close to the city wall. 
 
 This theatre fronted towards the north and comnKuuled a mag- 
 nificent outlook over the city, so that those of the spectators occu- 
 pying the highest row of benches enjoyed an uninterru[)tcd prospect 
 of the surrounding mountains and of the principal puiilic buildings 
 and private residences in the town. Steps led up to the entrance of 
 the theatre at the ends of the proscenium and between it and the 
 semicircular walls. There were side-doors also, and the gallery was 
 P 2
 
 564 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 reached by means of vaulted passages running under the upper tiers 
 of benches. The proscenium was embelHshed on the inside with 
 pilasters and Corinthian columns in pairs, supporting a plain entabla- 
 ture, and between the pilasters were ornamented niches for statues. 
 Twenty -eight tiers of benches are exposed to view, divided into 
 sections by narrow aisles, and above the tenth tier a broad passage 
 ran around the theatre, upon which were small chambers or private 
 boxes. The benches are almost perfect, and the theatre probably 
 accommodated upwards of five thousand spectators. 
 
 Descending eastward to the more level part of the city, we come 
 to the grand colonnade surrounding an oval area, probably the forum, 
 at the southern end of the main street and almost in front of the 
 theatre. This colonnade consisted of about one hundred columns, 
 fifty-five of which remain standing— on the west twenty-one, and 
 then four; on the east eighteen, seven, and five with their en- 
 tablatures. The columns have Ionic capitals but no pedestals, are 
 about six feet in circumference and from fifteen to twenty feet high, 
 in order to preserve the uniform level of the entablature. This 
 colonnade was paved, and probably open at the south, in front of the 
 theatre, and on the north, where the main street leads into the city. 
 Leaving the forum and proceeding northward, we will follow 
 along the main street towards the gate of the city in that direction. 
 The columns which once lined this splendid thoroughfare on either 
 side, for about a mile, were mostly Corinthian, but nearly all of them 
 have been overthrown by earthquakes, and many of those which 
 still remain standing are of different styles and vary in height from 
 twenty to twenty-five and even thirty feet. In some places the en- 
 tablature of the shorter columns rests upon a bracket set into the 
 shafts of the higher, and no attempt was made to preserve a uniform 
 height in the construction of the colonnade. That feature, together 
 with the difference in the size and height of the columns and their 
 various styles, has led to the conclusion that this colonnade was 
 built at different times and of material which had once been used 
 for other purposes. Although this street is rendered almost im- 
 passable by heaps of rubbish, blocks of stone, fallen entablatures, 
 fragments of capitals, and parallel rows of prostrate columns, the 
 roadway was not entirely destroyed, and the pavement can still be
 
 THE OVAL FORUM.— THE MAIN STREET. 
 
 56: 
 
 seen in some places, with the ruts made by chariot-wheels in the 
 long ages of the past deeply worn into its hard surface. 
 
 This side street which we have now reached was also lined with 
 similar columns, and it led from a gate in the west wall of the city 
 to a bridge which crossed the stream upon three substantial arches, 
 the central one being the largest and highest. And here, at the 
 angles where these two streets met and crossed each other, there 
 
 SECTION OF THK COLONN.VDE ALONG THE M.VLV STREET AT JERASII. 
 
 were four cubical masses of stone, about seven feet high and fourteen 
 feet side, with niches for statues. They probabl)' were pedestals 
 for colossal statues, or columns may have been placed upon them 
 supporting a dome, under the centre of which a statue stood. Con- 
 tinuing northward along the main street we pass sections of the 
 colonnade on the right and left, composed of successive rows of 
 seven, three, and two columns, nearly all of which still support their 
 entablatures; but the three large columns on the right are without
 
 566 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 entablatures, and they are the first we have seen, thus far, amongst 
 the remains at Jerash standing upon bases or pedestals. 
 
 Here on the left are the ruins of what apparently was once a 
 beautiful building. In the rear wall of this edifice — the only part 
 of it still standing, though in a ruinous condition — there is a large 
 semicircular recess, or apse, with two rows of niches one above the 
 
 mm t'-^^knjk^t /, , . 
 
 NICHES IN THE SEMICIRCULAR RECESS OF AN ELEGANT BUILDING. 
 
 Other. Each row consists of three round and two intervening rec- 
 tangular niches, above which was an elegant cornice with broken 
 pediments. Masses of stone lie in confused heaps within the 
 building, and from an inscription found upon a pedestal in the 
 portico it is supposed to have been constructed during the reign 
 of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, or towards the latter 
 part of the second century of our era.
 
 EXTRANXE TO THE COURT OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER. 567 
 
 PROPYL^UM OF THE TEMl'LK OF THE SUN. 
 
 We are now approaching a group of ruins near the centre of the 
 town, the most imposing of which are the remains of the propykvum, 
 or entrance to the court of the Temple of Jupiter or of the Sun. A 
 bridge crossed the stream below us on the right, and this side street, 
 lined with columns on either side, evidently led up from it to the 
 propyhneum. Sculptured blocks, sections of columns, and broken 
 capitals, and pedestals lie scattered about the front of this grand 
 gate-way, of which most of the facade still remains standing. On
 
 568 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 either side of this lofty portal there were small entrances, or windows, 
 and above them shell -shaped niches with projecting cornice and 
 broken pediments. The gate -way was rectangular and is nearly 
 perfect, but lintel and architrave have fallen, though enough remains 
 of the latter to give a good idea of its highly ornamental character. 
 From inscriptions found here it appears that this propylaeum was 
 constructed during the first half of the second century, in the time 
 of Antoninus Pius, and that the temple was dedicated to the Sun. 
 
 As that noble edifice stands upon higher ground and is not visi- 
 ble from here, we will leave the main street and find our way to it 
 up the hill westward and over great masses of ruins. And now we 
 can form some idea of the magnificent effect produced upon the 
 beholder as he advanced up the hill from the propylaeum, and the 
 temple with its surrounding columns and courts suddenly came into 
 view. The great court was encompassed, except perhaps on the 
 west, by a double colonnade, and the Temple of Jupiter or of the 
 Sun stood in the middle of it, facing the east, upon a stylobate, or 
 platform, about five feet high, surrounded by the columns of the 
 peristyle, and those of the magnificent portico in front. The corner 
 columns in the second row of the colonnade around the court 
 were heart-shaped — that is, they were double in front and gradually 
 tapered to a point in the rear. Of the many columns of the peri- 
 style only two remain, one on either side of the portico. 
 
 A flight of steps led up to the portico which consisted of two 
 rows of colossal Corinthian columns, six in each row. Five still 
 remain standing in the first, and four in the second row ; and those 
 nine columns, together with the two in the peristyle, are the largest 
 at Jerash, being about forty feet high and eighteen feet in circum- 
 ference. The shafts of most of the columns were composed of five 
 pieces, or sections, of the ordinary limestone of the neighborhood, 
 which takes an excellent polish, and the capitals were admirably 
 executed and beautifully ornamented with acanthus leaves. The 
 capitals of two of these eleven columns have fallen, and the shafts 
 of all of them are slightly out of place — a striking evidence of the 
 unmistakable action of severe earthquake shocks. According to 
 Burckhardt, "the number of columns which originally adorned the 
 temple and its area was not less than two hundred or two hundred
 
 riMI'I.K OK jriMTlK f>K "1 Nil. .-.l.N.
 
 TEMPLE OF JUPITER.— NORTHERN rilEAlKE. 569 
 
 and fifty," but without careful examination and extensive excava- 
 tions it is impossible to ascertain the exact number.' 
 
 The temple was about eighty feet long and sixty feet wide, but 
 the roof and most of the front wall have been thrown down ; the 
 other three walls, however, are almost entire. The interior is en- 
 cumbered with the remains of the fallen roof, and with the exception 
 of a row of six plain niches on the side walls, was apparently without 
 any architectural ornamentation. In the rear wall opposite the en- 
 trance of the temple there is a double arch and a vaulted recess with 
 a small dark chamber on either side. 
 
 The city wall is a short distance to the west of this temple of the 
 Sun, and not far from it, towards the south, arc the remains of a 
 small temple and probably those of a church. Returning to the 
 main street we will follow it northward to the cross street that led 
 to a large theatre in that part of the town. 
 
 There are rows of prostrate columns, and others still standing 
 with and without their entablatures on either side of this great 
 thoroughfare ; and now that we have reached the cross street there 
 appears to have been another set of pedestals here, at the intersect- 
 ing angles, like those we saw a short distance above the forum. 
 
 These, as you perceive, are square on the outside and rounded 
 within, and covered with a low dome beneath which a statue may 
 have stood, while others were probably placed upon those projecting 
 pedestals in the sides of the rotunda. Let us turn to the left and 
 pass up this side street westward. 
 
 These seven large Corinthian columns are all that remain of the 
 original twelve that formed the portico of this theatre. There were 
 two rows of them, six in each row, but now only five are still stand- 
 ing in the first, and two in the second row. Though the arena is 
 larger, and apparently designed for the exhibition of combats be- 
 tween gladiators or wild beasts, this theatre could not have accom- 
 modated as many spectators as the one near the forum. It had 
 sixteen tiers of benches and a row of six arched recesses, ov private 
 boxes, between the tenth and eleventh tiers, counting from liu' toj). 
 This theatre was comparatively low, but a fine view of the Temple 
 of Jupiter behind it, to the south-west, could be obtained from the 
 
 ' Travels in Syria, etc., p. 254.
 
 5/0 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 highest tier of benches, and the tops of the columns of the portico 
 are visible from the arena. The exterior wall of the theatre was 
 built of bevelled stones, and there appear to have been two lofty 
 main entrances to the benches and a smaller side door on the right. 
 
 NORTHERN THEATRE AT JERASH. 
 
 As there are no other ruins of any importance in this northern 
 part of the town, and but few of special interest across the stream 
 on the eastern side of the wady, we will return to the rotunda and 
 retrace our steps along the main street towards the south gate. 
 
 The northern gate of the town, though now in ruins, was a plain 
 but substantial structure, and within the massive city wall, on the 
 right of it, are the remains of the guard-house. Proceeding from 
 that gate southward to this rotunda, the ancient pavement of the 
 street is still to be seen in some places in a tolerable state of preser- 
 vation. About twenty columns in detached groups, most of them 
 with Ionic capitals and supporting entablatures, remain standing on
 
 RUINS OX THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE STREAM AT JERASH. 571 
 
 the west side of the street, but on the left side the colonnade has 
 been almost entirely overthrown, and only two small columns with 
 their entablatures are now to be seen. 
 
 A short distance east of this rotunda, on the south side of the 
 cross street and above the right bank of the stream, are the ruins 
 of a large bath and the remains of a row of columns in front of it. 
 The walls were massive, and it had numerous chambers with high 
 vaulted roofs. It was supplied with water by an aqueduct, traces 
 of which still remain. Below the bath, near the bed of the stream, 
 is a fine fountain, called 'Ain Jerwan, with an abundant supply of 
 delicious water. The existence of that copious spring may have 
 led to the selection of this place for the site of the beautiful city 
 of Jerash, since there is nothing else to recommend it. 
 
 There is a good deal of heavy masonry in the wady near the 
 fountain, and the stream is half concealed by great clumps of ole- 
 ander, twenty feet high and more, that border it on either side. 
 That part of the town situated on the eastern side of the stream, or 
 Seil Jerash, presents the appearance of a confused mass of ruins — 
 the prostrate remains of a few public edifices and those of numerous 
 private dwellings. Near the left bank of the stream, and a short 
 distance to the south-east of the northern gate of the cit}', arc the 
 ruins of what originally appears to have been a small temple, and 
 which may subsequently have been converted into a church. Only 
 a portion of the wall, a vaulted entrance, and one of the interior 
 columns remain ; but from the number of broken columns, sculptured 
 cornices, and heaps of stones, that edifice when completed must 
 have presented quite an imposing appearance. 
 
 Farther down the valley there is a spring, a broken aqueduct, a 
 ruined bridge, and the remains of a bath which may have had a 
 colonnade of Corinthian columns around the exterior court. Still 
 farther south the stream is spanned by a bridge of three arches, but 
 both those bridges we have already noticed from the western part 
 of the town, together with the streets lined with columns which loil 
 down to them. Indeed Jerash was pre-eminently a city of columns, 
 the number of those still standing and the prostrate remains of 
 others strewn everywhere on both sides of the stream in such 
 bewildering confusion far exceeding three hundred.
 
 572 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 The astonished and amazed visitor longs to know something 
 definite and satisfactory about the history of this wonderful city. 
 
 It is not mentioned either in the Old Testament or in the New; 
 neither its ancient name nor that of its founder have yet been dis- 
 covered, and it is almost unknown to history. The existing remains, 
 however, indicate plainly enough who were its builders in compara- 
 tively modern times, and by the aid of a few imperfect inscriptions 
 we conclude that most, if not all, of its public edifices were erected 
 after the beginning of our era. It is not of this Graeco-Roman town, 
 however, that the Biblical student desires special information ; there 
 was a previous city here, but no record of it exists, and travellers 
 and archaeologists are obliged to have recourse to mere conjecture 
 in regard to its ancient name and former history. 
 
 Dr. Porter thinks that it is reasonable to conclude that this city 
 occupies the site of Mahanaim ; but the topographical indications in 
 the various Biblical narratives suggest a position for that long-lost 
 place nearer the Jordan. Dr. Merrill identifies Ramoth-gilead with 
 Gerasa, and supports his theory with numerous references to Biblical 
 and historical authorities which certainly claim careful consideration. 
 We can examine that subject, however, when we reach es Salt, which 
 has been generally accepted as the site of Ramoth-gilead. 
 
 But whatever uncertainty there may be regarding the Biblical 
 history of Jerash, all agree that it is identical with Gerasa in Gilead, 
 a city of the Decapolis, and upon the eastern confines of Peraea. 
 Gerasa, however, was in existence long before the conquest of this 
 region by the Romans, and it is first mentioned by Josephus, who 
 relates that Alexander Jannaeus, king of the Jews in the last century 
 before Christ, marched against it, built a triple wall about the gar- 
 rison, and took the place by force.' The Romans included Gerasa 
 among the cities of the Decapolis, and it seems to have been burnt 
 by the Jews in retaliation for the massacre of over twenty thousand 
 of their number at Caesarea.^ Before the siege of Jerusalem, Ves- 
 pasian sent his general, Lucius Annius, to Gerasa, who took the 
 city, slew a thousand of its young men, carried their families away 
 captive, and permitted his soldiers to plunder them, after which 
 he set fire to their houses.^ 
 
 ' B. J. i. 4, 8. " B. J. ii. i8, i. =* B. J. iv. g, i.
 
 A FLOURISHING CITV.— TRADING CARAVANS. 573 
 
 For half a century or more after that Gerasa appears to have 
 been a flourishing city, one of the largest and strongest on this side 
 of the Jordan; and probably during the early centuries of our era 
 it was adorned with those public edifices and private dwellings 
 whose deserted and prostrate ruins now astonish the beholder. 
 Though Gerasa became the nominal seat of a bishop, Christianity 
 has left few evidences of its existence upon the ruins, and the Mu- 
 hammedans seem never to have established themselves here, for we 
 find no trace either of their work or worship. According to William 
 of Tyre, the crusaders, under Baldwin II., in 1 121 destroyed a castle 
 here which was built by the king of Damascus ; and an Arabian 
 writer informs us that J crash was deserted in the thirteenth century, 
 and the few mills which wc see on the border of the stream to-day 
 were then, as now^ the sole representatives of this once populous 
 and splendid Graeco-Roman and pagan city. 
 
 One is tempted to venture into the debatable regions of con- 
 jecture and inference in search of the origin and story of this un- 
 known city. History informs us of a time when the commerce of 
 Southern India, Western Arabia, and Eastern Africa was brought 
 to Ezion-geber, the modern Akabah, at the head of the Elanitic 
 gulf of the Red Sea. Thence it was carried to Petra, and from that 
 city the great north-eastern caravan route led through Moab to 
 'Amman. The well -watered vale of J crash offered the next con- 
 venient halting-place, or station, for the caravans north of 'Amman 
 to el Busrah, Damascus, Palmyra, and their dependencies. Caravan- 
 saries, storehouses, and the necessary habitations for the mercii.mts 
 gradually rose up in the neighborhood of the fountain of Jerwan. 
 as they did elsewhere at similar stations, including even that at 
 Palmyra, the store city which " Solomon built in the wilderness." ' 
 
 This great caravan commerce was in the hands of the Nabathcans 
 for centuries, both before and after the commencement of our era, 
 and probably they did not originate those stations, which we may 
 • suppose began to be formed at a very early age, but they merely 
 availed of what was already established. Tluis the sckclion of those 
 mercantile stations was not made by the Greeks and Romans, but 
 their superior .skill, enterprise, and wealth enabled them to control 
 
 ' I Kings ix. 18; 2 Cliioii. viii. 4-
 
 574 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 not only the business, but also to obtain complete possession of the 
 places where it was principally conducted. Greek and Roman 
 merchants began to visit those trading -stations, and growing rich 
 by the rapid increase of commerce they finally settled in them, 
 bringing with them Western civilization and classic taste. Hence 
 arose the stately forum, the magnificent colonnades, the great 
 theatres, the splendid temples, and the luxurious baths. Thus what- 
 ever ancient material they found available was used in the con- 
 struction of those grand edifices ; and those cities along the line 
 of that caravan route ultimately became wholly Roman, and all 
 trace of their former existence entirely disappeared. 
 
 This condition of things would naturally continue as long as the 
 commerce which sustained it lasted ; but when the route was changed 
 by which the commodities of the East were transferred to the West, 
 these cities necessarily declined, and they were abandoned by the 
 wealthy and forsaken by all. To translate prophecy into history, 
 the Lord's " sacrifice in Bozrah " and his " great slaughter in the 
 land of Idumea" have been completed. He hath stretched "out 
 upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness. Thorns 
 [have come up] in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses 
 thereof," and there dwell " the owl and the raven. The wild beasts 
 of the desert " are there, and there " the great owl makes her nest 
 and lays, and hatches and gathers under her shadow."^ 
 
 Certainly those desolations present a convincing testimony to 
 the fulfilment of divine prophecy. 
 
 That is emphatically true. No mere human sagacity could 
 have foreseen the utter ruin of 'Amman, Jerash, el Busrah, and 
 other magnificent cities along the extended caravan line from 
 Petra to Palmyra. Let us, therefore, carry away with us the im- 
 pressive lesson which they teach, and the most important which 
 they now confer upon mankind. 
 
 Instead of spending another night at Suf we will pass on to 
 'Ajlun, two hours and a half west of it, to which place our muleteers 
 have already preceded us. After leaving the olive groves of Suf 
 we shall be overshadowed by an uninterrupted forest of venerable 
 oak and other evergreen trees for more than an hour to 'Ain Jen- 
 
 ' Isa. xxxiv. 6, ii, 13-15.
 
 •AIN JEXNEH.— VENERABLE OAK FORESTS.— JEI5EL 'AJLCn. 575 
 
 neh, where there are several fine fountains, which water the flourish- 
 ing gardens and orchards and irrigate the fields of that village. 
 
 These forests extend a great distance both to the north and 
 south, and a large part of the country might be brought under culti- 
 vation by clearing away the trees. The substratum is everywhere 
 limestone, the soil is naturally fertile, and in the spring of the year 
 the surface is clothed with luxuriant pasture. " Jebel Ajlun," says 
 Dr. Eli Smith, "presents the most charming rural scener\- that I 
 have seen in Syria : a continued forest of noble trees, chiefly the 
 evergreen oak, sindian, covers a large part of it, while the ground 
 beneath is clothed with luxuriant grass, a foot or more in height, 
 and decked with a rich variety of wild flowers." 
 
 'Ain Jenneh certainly has the largest walnut-trees we have seen 
 east of the Jordan, and the gardens and orchards contain a great 
 variety of other trees — the olive, fig, apple, plum, quince, pear, apricot, 
 and lemon — all of which are loaded with fruit. 
 
 That is owing entirely to the abundance of water from the large 
 fountains under the cliffs farther up the wady, and the same cause 
 gives to this region around the village of 'Ajlun its well -wooded 
 appearance and rural beauty. 
 
 '.\jlun, September 25th. Evening. 
 This has been a day of varied and uninterrupted enjoyment, and 
 the evening ride through those venerable oak woods, when 
 
 " Tw ilight gray 
 Had in her sahle livery all things clad," 
 
 was singularly impressive, and m\' fancy was busy recalling some 
 of the historic events which have rendered those great forests 
 memorable, especially during the earliest Biblical times. 
 
 The thickly wooded mountain range as far north as the Jarmuk 
 or Heiromax, and south to the Zerka or Jabbok, is now called Jebel 
 'Ajlun, and it is certainly one of the most picturesque regions east 
 of the Jordan. It is also distinguished by some remarkable incitlents 
 in the early history of the Hebrew people. Jebel 'Ajlun is in the 
 northern half of " the land of Gilead," and it is first mentioned in 
 the Bible in connection with the history of Jacob. Laban overtook 
 Jacob in Mount Gilead, and before parting they set up a heap of
 
 576 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 stones as a witness between them, '' Laban called it Mizpah, or 
 watch-tower, but Jacob called it Galeed, the heap of witness ;" and 
 " from thence they call that land the land of Gilead at this day." ' 
 "And Jacob went on his way, and the angels of God met him. And 
 when Jacob saw them, he said, This is God's host : and he called 
 the name of that place Mahanaim [the two hosts or camps]. And 
 Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his brother unto the 
 land of Seir, the country of Edom."' 
 
 Jacob was coming from the north with the intention of descend- 
 ing into the Jordan valley, and probably crossing that river, on his 
 way to Shechem, at the well-known ford of ed Damieh, where the 
 road from Gilead to that city has always passed. This Wady 'Ajlun 
 would offer one of the best lines of descent to the Jordan valley 
 north of the Zerka or Jabbok, and here Jacob, after leaving Maha- 
 naim with its divine manifestations, would find ample supply of 
 water for his large household and his numerous flocks and herds, 
 camels and cattle, as well as abundant pasture. 
 
 Descending to the Jordan valley, and directing his course through 
 it southward for about a day's journey, Jacob met his returning 
 messengers, and learned with dismay that Esau was coming to meet 
 him, " and four hundred men with him. Then Jacob was greatly 
 afraid and distressed," and he halted on the north bank of the Jab- 
 bok, " and he lodged there the same night ; and took of that which 
 came to his hand a present for Esau his brother." He well knew 
 the character of Esau, and adopted the right means to propitiate 
 him and to gain the desired reconciliation with him. He selected 
 and sent forward a large present of sheep and goats, camels and 
 cattle, such as his brother would be likely to appreciate.' 
 
 And not only was the present large, but there was wisdom in 
 the method adopted to render it effective. "And he said unto his 
 servants. Pass over before me, and put a space betwixt drove and 
 drove. And he commanded the foremost, saying. When Esau my 
 brother meeteth thee, and asketh thee, saying. Whose art thou ? 
 and whither goest thou? and whose are these before thee? then 
 thou shalt say, They be thy servant Jacob's ; it is a present sent 
 unto my lord Esau : and, behold, also he is behind us. And so 
 
 ' Gen. xxxi. 46-49 ; Ant. i. ig, 11. '' Gen. xxxii. 1-3. ^ Gen. xxxii. 6, 7, 13-15.
 
 JACOB AND ESAU.— PENIEL AND PENUEL. 577 
 
 commanded he the second, and the third, and all that followed the 
 droves. For he said, I will appease him with the present that goeth 
 before me, and afterward I will see his face ; peradventure he will 
 accept of me. So went the present over before him ; and himself 
 lodged that night in the company." ' 
 
 As he expected, Esau was appeased. The next day "Jacob lifted 
 up his eyes, and looked, and behold, Esau came, and with him four 
 hundred men. And Jacob passed over and bowed himself to the 
 ground seven times, until he came near to his brother. And Esau 
 ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell on his neck, and kissed 
 him : and they wept.'"* The meeting of the two brothers after their 
 long separation was altogether unique, and the description of the 
 scene reads now, after more than three thousand years, like a page 
 out of some Oriental romance. In simplicity, naturalness, and touch- 
 ing pathos there is nothing equal to it in the Bible, unless it be 
 the account of the interview between Joseph and his brethren in 
 Egypt when he made himself known to them.^ 
 
 On the supposition that Jacob descended to the valley of the 
 Jordan through Wady 'Ajlun, where would Peniel be — the place 
 where his name was changed from Jacob to Israel? 
 
 It was, apparently, on the north side of the Jabbok and not far 
 from the ford where Jacob's household crossed that stream. There 
 probably was no inhabited place near it at that time, but the spot 
 where that mysterious conflict occurred may have been marked by 
 "a heap of stones," or pillar like that at Mizpah. In the time of 
 Gideon, about five hundred years later, there was a city and a tower 
 at Penuel, and Gideon " beat down the tower, and slew the men of 
 the city."' Nearly three hundred years later Penuel was rebuilt by 
 Jeroboam, the son of Nebat and the first king of Israel; and accord- 
 ing to Josephus, he built him a palace at Penuel, a city so called.' 
 Dr. Merrill places the site of Penuel at Tellul edh Dhahab, or Hills 
 of Gold, in the valley of the Jabbok, about four miles east of Mush- 
 ra'a Kana'an, or Canaan's P^ord. " They are covered with ruins, and 
 on the eastern of the two are the remains of an ancient castle."" If 
 that identification is correct, tiien the scene of Jacob's mysterious 
 
 ' Gen. xxxii. 16-21. "^ Gen. xxxiii. 1-4. ^ Gen. xlv. 1-15. 
 
 * Judg. viii. 8, 9, 17. ' i Kings xii. 25; Ant. viii. 8, 4. * East of the Jordan, p. 3(_)i. 
 Q2
 
 578 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 conflict must have been nearer the crossing of the Jabbok and some 
 distance from the supposed site of the ancient city. 
 
 Here, at 'Ajlun we are in the midst, I suppose, of that "wood of 
 Ephraim " in which the battle between the armies of David and 
 his rebellious son Absalom was fought, and which " devoured more 
 people that day than the sword devoured." ' 
 
 We shall see during our ride to-morrow many "a great oak" and 
 terebinth with ^' thick boughs," and low, wide- spreading branches 
 large enough to have caused that fatal accident to Absalom, and 
 which proved so disastrous to his cause. One can scarcely read the 
 narrative of that battle, as recorded in the eighteenth and nineteenth 
 chapters of 2d Samuel, without pausing to dwell upon some of the 
 many reflections which are suggested by it; but they are too obvious 
 to require illustration or comment. 
 
 It grows late, and I will only add that early to-morrow morning 
 we will visit Kul'at er Rubud, north-west of 'Ajlun, situated on a 
 high and prominent peak directly above the Jordan valley, and which 
 commands a more extensive outlook over the Land of Promise than 
 even Pisgah, where Moses stood and viewed the landscape o'er. 
 We will make the ascent in time to see the rising sun light up the 
 mountains and hills, the valleys and fertile plains of " Canaan's fair 
 and happy land." 
 
 Ajlun, September 26th. 
 
 The cool and bracing air of the morning will render the ride up 
 the mountain-side to Kul'at er Rubud less fatiguing, and the trans- 
 parency of the atmosphere will lend enchantment to the extensive 
 view from the top of the castle. 
 
 It has taken three-quarters of an hour from our tents to reach 
 the summit of the ridge,' winding up for the last fifteen minutes, by 
 a zigzag path, the steep side of the lofty peak which is crowned by 
 this ruined castle of er Rubud. 
 
 The outlook from this fortress is, indeed, magnificent and im- 
 pressive beyond anything we have seen " on this side Jordan toward 
 the sunrising," and one never to be forgotten. 
 
 The mountain descends abruptly, on the west, sheer down to the 
 valley of the Jordan, and the river itself can be traced by a "line of 
 
 ' 2 Sam. xviii. 6-8.
 
 VIEW FROM KUL'AT ER RUBUD.— HISTORICAL EVENTS. 579 
 
 luxuriant verdure " from the Sea of Galilee on the north to the 
 Dead Sea on the south, a distance of about seventy miles from sea 
 to sea, but of over two hundred miles following the sinuosities of 
 that remarkable river. That high mountain on the extreme north 
 is Hermon, and the billowy ranges south and west of it include the 
 picturesque hills of Galilee and Nazareth, and Mount Tabor. By the 
 aid of your glass you can see the plain of Esdraclon, and beyond it 
 is Mount Carmel, with its bold promontory projecting far into the 
 blue Mediterranean, that " great and wide sea." 
 
 The mountains of Gilboa, the hills of Samaria, Ebal and Gerezim 
 enclosing the vale of Nablus — the Shechcm of Jacob's time — are all 
 plainly visible nearly due west ; and southward stretches the rocky 
 region of Ephraim and Benjamin to the Mount of Olives, behind 
 which is Jerusalem, the city of the Great King. The hills around 
 Bethlehem and those still higher between it and Hebron close the 
 prospect in that direction, while below and beyond all else, from 
 north to south, lies the sea-coast from the Ladder of Tyre to the road- 
 stead of ancient Joppa, and the land of the Philistines fades away 
 into the sandy desert between Palestine and Egypt. 
 
 " Thus as we look down from Kul'at er Rubud — the watch-tower 
 of Gilead — upon this river and valley, the Sea and the Lake, our eyes 
 rest upon the scene of a multitude of famous historical events, in 
 which many of the great men of antiquity bore a part : Chedor- 
 laomer, Abraham and Lot, Jacob, Joshua, Gideon and Jephthah, 
 David and Solomon, Absalom and Joab [Elijah and Elisha], Judas 
 Maccabeus, Pompey, Vespasian and Herod the Great, John the 
 Baptist, and Christ, the Redeemer of the world."' Li reality this 
 prospect includes more points of Biblical and historical interest 
 than any other on the face of the earth. Deeply impressive as it 
 • is, we cannot linger here, but must descend to 'Ajkm and resume 
 our ride over the oak-clad mountains of Gilead to cs Salt, upon 
 the south-eastern side of the lofty peak of Jcbel Osh'a. 
 
 Has this castle of er Rubud no history, sacred or secular? 
 
 It is highly probable that a position so commanding and so easily 
 defended was occupied from remote antiquity by a fortress of some 
 kind. The moat is broad and deep, and it was partly excavated in 
 
 ' East of tlie Jorrlan, p. 365.
 
 58o THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the solid rock upon which the castle stood ; and in the foundations 
 there are large stones, similar in character to those " in the lower 
 portions of the castle at Shukif and Banias.'" Those indications 
 point to an older fortress than the present castle, still they are less 
 distinct than what one would expect to find. 
 
 In its present form Kul'at er Rubud is a rectangular fortress, 
 nearly square, with thick walls and flanking towers or bastions. 
 An Arabic inscription within the walls of the castle ascribes its con- 
 struction to Saladin, the renowned antagonist of the crusaders ; it 
 is, therefore, Saracenic and comparatively modern. Abulfeda, the 
 Arabian historian who flourished during the first half of the four- 
 teenth century, says, " 'Ajlun is a fortress, and its suburb Riibud is 
 called el Ba utheh. The fortress is distant from the town about a 
 horse-race." And thus "a singular transposition of names seems to 
 have occurred between the two places."" The castle is now de- 
 serted and partially in ruins, but in the early years of this century 
 it was the residence of the governor of the district of 'Ajlun. 
 
 The village of 'Ajlun lies principally on the right side of Wady 
 Jenneh, and the inhabitants are mostly Christians of the Greek sect. 
 The only objects of interest about the place are a new building, in- 
 tended as a chapel to accommodate a few families who have become 
 Protestants, and this old mosk, with its strange and rather dilapi- 
 dated square minaret, on the bank of the brook. Built into the 
 walls are some fragments of sculpture and portions of inscriptions, 
 and about the mosk are a few indications of antiquity. 
 
 It is well that we are to reach a safe asylum at the end of our 
 day's ride, for there is but a single inhabited village, through which 
 we pass along the route we are to follow, between 'Ajlun and es Salt. 
 
 What was the controversy about between you and our guide 
 this morning before we left 'Ajlun ? 
 
 The man declared that he could not accompany us alone, not 
 from any fear while with us, but because the country between this 
 and es Salt was so unsafe that he must have two companions to 
 return with him. As his assertion was confirmed by the Greek 
 priest and others I was obliged to consent, and thus we have three 
 armed men with us. Dr. Merrill, wishing to send some of his im- 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 375. * Rob. Res. vol. iii. Sec. App. p. 166.
 
 THE JORDAN AND THE JABOK.— SUCCOTH AND WADV FARrA. 58 1 
 
 pedimenta from 'Ajlun to es Salt, experienced the same difficulty, 
 and no doubt these wild Gilcad mountains are sometimes unsafe. 
 
 Our guide is leading us up the steep mountain-side to the south- 
 east of 'Ajlun, and as we rise higher and higher the prospect over 
 the valley of the Jordan and the country west of it widens rapidly, 
 and every moment becomes more varied and impressive. 
 
 Several villages begin to appear far below us on the plain of 
 the Ghor, and others upon the many-shaped hills of Samaria, on 
 the western side of the river; the Jordan itself, however, is not 
 visible. Its channel is sunk so deep below the level of the plain 
 through which it meanders that it cannot be seen even from its 
 own upper banks. Its ever-winding way, however, can be traced 
 in many places by the verdant fringe of willows and other trees 
 and bushes that line its borders. 
 
 What is the name of that village below us on the right, and 
 which we saw from Kul'at er Rubud ? 
 
 It is called Kefxenjy; a considerable place, and the only one that 
 merits a passing notice in the beautiful valley of 'Ajlun. 
 
 Before passing into the thick forest ahead of us let me direct 
 your attention to the course of the Zerka or Jabbok across the plain 
 of the Jordan until it unites with that river, a short distance north 
 of the ruined Roman bridge near the ford of ed Damieh. Dr. Merrill 
 thoroughly explored that region in search of Succoth, and is in- 
 clined to locate it at a conspicuous mound, called Tell Deir 'Alia, 
 "just north of the Jabbok" and east of the Jordan, and he may be 
 right.' But one would naturally expect that Jacob would hasten to 
 put the Jordan between him and his brother, whom he had deceived 
 and whose resentment he might justly dread. Instead of recrossing 
 the Jabbok and erecting his booths on the north of it, in the open 
 plain, I think that Jacob crossed the Jordan and made his winter 
 encampment somewhere in Wady Fari'a and on the banks of the 
 little stream that descends through that valley and enters the Jor- 
 dan near the Damieh ford. The road to Shechem has always fol- 
 lowed up that valley, and no better or safer place could Jacob have 
 desired than the beautiful Wady Fari'a. 
 
 A short distance ahead of us is a fine fountain, called 'Ain Tha- 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 387.
 
 582 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 luth. It is an hour from 'Ajlun, and near it is a ruin bearing the 
 name of Khirbet Thaluth. Thus far there are indications of former 
 cultivation along our route, and the outlook westward is very wide 
 and varied. Kul'at er Rubud is quite a prominent and striking 
 feature in the distance far below us to the north-west. We shall 
 come in half an hour, through a dense wood, to another fountain, 
 called 'Ain Um el Jalud, where there is a Moslem muzar dedicated 
 to el Khudr, St. George, and around it are many olive-trees, whose 
 olives and oil are devoted to the maintenance of that sacred shrine 
 or saint's tomb. It is the only one we shall see to-day. 
 
 We are wandering through a veritable wilderness in this oak 
 forest, and without any visible road or pathway. 
 
 By following down the stream from the fountain we shall come, 
 in about half an hour, to a well-travelled road from Suf which de- 
 scends westward to the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, and across it 
 to the ford of ed Damieh. Between the place where we cross it and 
 Suf are the three villages of Dibbin, et Tekitty, and Reimun, and 
 our guide says that this large open space in the woods is called Um 
 el Jauzeh. I remember it on account of the great thickness of the 
 strata in the cliffs on our left. They are composed of compact lime- 
 stone, and some of the large blocks I measured were more than 
 twenty feet thick. The guide warns us to look well to our safety 
 and that of the loaded mules for the next hour, as the ascent 
 through these woods is very steep. Road there is none, and the 
 oak forest is more dense and tangled than any other in this region. 
 
 On a former occasion those of us on horseback escaped through 
 these woods without being caught amongst the branches like Absa- 
 lom, but the muleteers were greatly troubled by the bewilderment 
 of their animals, and some of the loads were overthrown by project- 
 ing rocks and the low branches of the trees. The only indication 
 of man's presence in this extraordinary wilderness is a small ruin, as 
 of a tower, called Kusr Nejdeh, on the top of the hill half a mile 
 west of us. We have now reached the highest part of this great 
 dividing range of the Gilead mountains, and it commands magnifi- 
 cent prospects in every direction. Captain Warren, of the British 
 Palestine Exploration Fund, says that " this line of hills is a remark- 
 able feature in the country, and is somewhat higher than the Jebel
 
 VILLAGE OF BURMAH.— THE ZERKA.— LUXURLANT WILD OATS. 583 
 
 Husha range," or Mount Gilead, north-west of cs Salt. From this 
 point there is a very steep descent of nearly an hour to the vil- 
 lage of Burmeh, where we will rest and lunch. 
 
 This has, indeed, been a great descent, and it has brought us 
 into an entirely different climate. 
 
 We are here fairly within the profound gorge of the Jabbok, 
 and the climatic transition was far more marked in April than at 
 this season in September. From shivering in the cold wind on the 
 mountain top, by a single hour's descent we found ourselves rejoicing 
 in the balmy atmosphere of this village of Burmeh, embowered as 
 it is by fruit-trees and semitropical bushes and flowers. To us, 
 at present, the one thing most delightful is this noble fountain with 
 its clear, cold water. Burmeh is a prosperous village, inhabited by 
 Moslems and Christians of the Greek sect, and surrounded by olive 
 groves, many of the trees exceptionally large, indicating a peaceful 
 existence in by-gone generations. 
 
 The descent from Burmeh to Mukhadat en Nusraniyeh, the Ford 
 of the Christian Woman, over the Zerka or Jabbok is more than two 
 thousand feet, and it will take an hour and a half to accomplish it. 
 We shall pass through many olive groves, and for part of the dis- 
 tance the road leads over sandstone, the only specimen of the kind 
 we have yet seen east of the Jordan. We will find the Zerka com- 
 paratively low, but in the spring, on a former visit, it was a formida- 
 ble stream and very rapid. It had recently been quite unfordable, 
 as could be seen by the grass and bushes lodged on the banks. 
 
 We spent the night encamped in a level field just below the ford. 
 It was then covered with a luxuriant growth of wild oats, so like the 
 cultivated cereal that we at first hesitated to enter it ; but it was of 
 nature's own sowing and had no owner to claim possession. The oats 
 were three feet high, and grew so thickly together that our horses 
 could hardly wade through them. Of course they revelled in such 
 exuberant pasture, and the weary mules, after their loads and pack- 
 saddles had been taken off, rolled and tumbled about upon it in 
 mere wantonness of animal enjoyment. 
 
 Amongst the wild oats grew clover more than two feet high, 
 with red tufts three inches long and large in proportion, whilst the 
 rushing, roaring river just beyond was hidden beneath impenetrable
 
 584 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 thickets of blooming oleander from ten to fifteen feet high. We 
 found the air oppressively hot during the first half of the night, and 
 no wonder, for we had descended from the top of Mount Gilead, 
 west of es Salt, to the ford — a descent of at least three thousand 
 five hundred feet. Mukhadat en Nusraniyeh must be nearly on a 
 level, if not actually below, the surface of the Mediterranean Sea, 
 and that extreme depression accounts for the luxuriant and almost 
 tropical vegetation in that part of the Zerka valley. 
 
 Soon after going into camp we were visited by the sheikh of a 
 Bedawin encampment with a villanous-looking following. But they 
 did no harm, and after the usual smoking of pipes and sipping coffee 
 they quietly retired to their camp, pitched upon a shelf of the stu- 
 pendous and overhanging cliffs a short distance below our tents. 
 Just before sunset a herd of black cattle suddenly invaded our camp, 
 fat and frolicsome and sufficiently large to remind us of the famous 
 bulls of Bashan. Their keepers, half-clad boys and girls, grinned 
 and laughed at us from the cliffs above, but ere night set in they, 
 too, betook themselves with their cattle to the Bedawin encamp- 
 ment. Although we were not particularly satisfied with our neigh- 
 bors, they did not molest us during the night nor pester us with 
 importunate demands for bakhshish the next morning. 
 
 This last steep descent has brought us to the bank of the Zerka, 
 and we will now cross the river at the ford, not a very formidable 
 undertaking at this season of the year. 
 
 The gorge of the Zerka is exceedingly wild and picturesque, and 
 the cliffs rise almost perpendicularly to a great height on either side. 
 
 This mighty chasm now forms the boundary between the district 
 of el Belka on the south and that of Jebel 'Ajlun on the north, as 
 in ancient times it divided the kingdom of Sihon from that of Og, 
 king of Bashan. The perennial source of the Zerka, or Blue River, 
 owing to the peculiar color of the water, is near 'Amman, and its 
 course north-east to Kul'at ez Zerka; from there it trends round 
 to the north-west, and above the junction with Seil Jerash its direc- 
 tion is changed to nearly west until it reaches the Jordan valley, 
 when it turns to the south-west and enters that river a short dis- 
 tance above the ruined Roman bridge near the Damieh ford. 
 
 We cannot linger in this remarkable gorge, for there remain four
 
 FERTILE TLAIN. -FLOWERS AND BIRDS.— MUKA.M NEBY OSH'A. 585 
 
 hours to be travelled before we reach our tents at es Salt. The 
 ascent from the valley of the Zerka is exceedingly steep after leav- 
 ing Mukhadat en Nusraniyeh, but in about an hour we shall enter 
 upon a wide and nearly level plateau, the commencement of the 
 famous wooded heights and fertile plain of the Bclka. Much of 
 the forest has been cleared away, leaving only picturesque clumps 
 of oak and pine trees, here and there, in places too rocky for the 
 pick and the plough. It is good land for agricultural purposes, and 
 some parts are covered with flourishing wheat and barley in the 
 spring. The fields which now appear so burnt and bare are then 
 exuberant and verdant, and all aglow with an infinite number and 
 great variety of wild flowers bright and gay. Here, for the first 
 time in this region, we saw many birds : pigeons, turtle-doves, jays, 
 blackbirds, and thrushes, and large coveys of red-legged partridges. 
 
 It will take more than an hour to cross this upland plateau to a 
 fine fountain called 'Ain 'Allan, which issues from a large cave 
 amongst the rocks, and is overshadowed by several green fig-trees 
 laden with fruit in their season. Near the fountain are the ruins of 
 a considerable village, to which the name of Khirbet 'Allan is given, 
 and another site, some distance to the east, bears the Biblical name 
 of Sihan — Sihon, king of the Amorites. 
 
 From 'Ain 'Allan a long and tedious climb of an hour and a half 
 will bring us to the highest part of the road over this Gilead range, 
 or Jebel Jil'ad, and near it is Khirbet ez Zi, where are the remains 
 of a few columns and the ruins of some ancient buildings. Had 
 we the time, we might leave the direct road to es Salt not far from 
 there and turn off westward to visit mukam en Neby Osh'a, near 
 the highest point of Jebel Osh'a, as that loftiest peak of this moun- 
 tain range east of the Jordan is called. The mukam is a plain 
 Muhammedan structure, consisting of a vaulted room containing 
 the reputed tomb of the prophet Hosea, and it is venerated by 
 Moslems, Christians, and Jews. The tomb is of ordinary masonry, 
 about twenty feet long, three feet high, and three feet broad, cov- 
 ered with the usual colored cloths presented to the saint as votive 
 offerings by devout pilgrims and " true believers." 
 
 A noble oak-tree overshadows the mukam, and around it are the 
 graves of a few Moslem devotees. Adjoining the building is a large
 
 586 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 cistern, and near it is a small spring of impure water. Formerly the 
 Bedavvin, the inhabitants of es Salt, and others made pilgrimages 
 to the shrine of Neby Osh'a, and there they sacrificed, prayed, and 
 feasted, and a fair was generally held in the neighborhood on such 
 occasions. But the zeal of all sects has greatly declined in these 
 degenerate days, pilgrimages are less frequent, the annual fair has 
 dwindled to nothing, and es Salt has become the commercial centre 
 of all this region east of the Jordan. 
 
 What possible connection was there between the prophet Hosea 
 and that solitary and lofty summit of Jebel Osh'a on Mount Gilead ? 
 
 None apparently; nor is there anything in the history of that 
 prophet to invest his name and memory with special interest to the 
 Muhammedans or the Bedawin Arabs of the desert. The name 
 Osh'a attached to that mountain -peak, if ancient, probably refers 
 to Joshua. Dr. Porter suggests that of Elijah, but none of his re- 
 corded acts were connected with this region, while the great Hebrew 
 captain may have made that his central station when engaged in 
 his military expeditions against Sihon and Og, and the memories 
 of such an occupation would naturally have been preserved 
 amongst the traditions of the people. 
 
 "Jebel Osh'a," says Dr. Merrill, "is perhaps the most sightly 
 place in Palestine after Mount Hermon. Mount Hermon, Safed, 
 the hills behind Tiberias, and the plateau which slopes towards 
 Hattin, Tabor, the hills about Nazareth, those of Naphtali, Ephraim, 
 and Manasseh, Little Hermon, Ebal and Gerizim, Neby Samwil, and 
 Massada are in sight, and in fact nearly every prominent point in 
 the unbroken range of mountains from Jebel esh Sheikh [Hermon] 
 clear around to the south end of the Dead Sea. All the Jordan 
 valley, more than four thousand feet below us, is at our feet ; the 
 plain of Beisan, the tells at the mouth of Wady 'Ajlun and Wady 
 ez Zerka, all the Nimrin and the Shittim plains and the tells upon 
 them, the mouth of the Jordan, the entire Dead Sea, including the 
 extreme south end and el Lisan, the rolling country of Moab, or 
 the 'Mishor' of the Bible, the hills about 'Amman, the Hauran, 
 and the mountains of Gilead are in full view. 
 
 " In this wide and comprehensive prospect the eye sweeps over 
 the country to the north, the west, the south, and the east — a sweep
 
 JEBEL OSH'A AND MOUNT NEBO. 587 
 
 of eighty to one hundred miles in extent. If one utterly ignorant 
 of the Bible record should go east of the Jordan to find the point 
 commanding the most extensive view on all sides, he would select 
 Jebel Osh'a. It is eight hundred to one thousand feet higher than 
 Mount Nebo itself. 'The hill over against Jericho' could just as 
 well be this place as Jebel Neba, and this would meet the conditions 
 of the thirty-fourth chapter of Deuteronomy better than any other 
 point. These are claims or facts which belong to this mountain, 
 independent of any claim of Jebel Neba [now generally identified 
 with Blount Nebo] to be the spot where Moses stood." ' 
 
 From this turn in the road at the top of the ridge above Khirbet 
 ez Zi, it will take us three-quarters of an hour to reach our tents at 
 es Salt, and by a very steep descent. 
 
 They will be a welcome sight after our fatiguing ride of nearly 
 ten hours from 'Ajlun over the loftiest parts of Mount Gilead. 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 194, 279.
 
 588 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 ES SALT TO 'AMMAN. 
 
 Es Salt. — Situation of the Town. — Capital of the Belka and only Inhabited Place in that 
 District. — Population of es Salt. — Warlike and Independent. — Protestant Church and 
 Schools. — Subterranean Bath. — Es Salt overthrown by Wars and Earthquakes. — Na- 
 tive Houses. — Shops. — The People of es Salt resemble the Arabs of the Desert. — 
 Vineyards and Olive-groves. — Fruit-trees and Vegetable Gardens. — Wheat and Barley. 
 — Products of the Flocks purchased from the Bedawin. — The Castle of es Salt. — Daher 
 el 'Omar. — Turkish Garrison. — Abundance of Water. — 'Ain Jeidur. — Ramoth-gilead. 
 — Cities of Refuge. — Levitical City. — One of Solomon's Purveyors. — Gilead and the 
 Region of Argob. — Ahab, Jehoshaphat, and Ben-hadad. — Ahaziah, Joram, and Hazael. 
 — Jehu. — Elisha. — " Watchman on the Tower of Jezreel." — " The Driving of Jehu." 
 — Region around es Salt not Adapted to the Use of Chariots. — Ramoth-gilead north 
 of the Jabbok. — Gerasa, Jerash. — Dr. Merrill. — Jerash opposite to Shechem. — No Mar- 
 kets south of es Salt. — 'Adwan Guards and Guides. — Scarcity of Water. — Wady Jeidiir. 
 — Prospect over the Land of Gilead. — Rolling Plain, deep Valleys, and Oak Woods. — 
 Fertile Fields and Abundant Harvests. — 'Amman to 'Arak el Emir. — Roman Bridge. — 
 Large Pool, Source of the Jabbok. — High, rolling Plateau. — Bedawin Battle -ground. 
 — Khirbet Sar. — Ancient Jazer. — Wady es Seir. — Oak Forest. — Rock-tomb or Dwell- 
 ing. — Captain Warren. — Rock-hewn Chambers at Petra. — Bedawin Robbers. — Rock- 
 bound Amphitheatre. — 'Arak el Emir. — Castle of Hyrcanus described by Josephus. — 
 Ruins of the Castle. — "A Lovely Landscape." — Rev. A. E. Northey. — Canon Tris- 
 tram. — Great Stones. — Colossal Lions.— Ionic Cornices and Egyptian Capitals. — Rock 
 Dwellings and Stables excavated in the Limestone Cliffs. — Cisterns, Caves, and Up- 
 right Stones, with Checker Pattern. — Ruins of Public Buildings and Private Dwellings. 
 — Aqueduct and Large Reservoir. — Fossils and Curious Petrifactions. — Oleanders over 
 Thirty Feet high. — The Dead Sea. — Wady Sha'ib. — Bedawin Encampments. — The 
 Stolen Pitchfork and the Christian Guide. — Mukam of Neby Sha'ib. — Votive Offer- 
 ings. — Resentful Wrath of a Moslem Saint. — Abundance of Water and Luxuriant Vege- 
 tation. — Golden Daisies and Wild Lupins. — Heavy Crops of Wheat and Barley. — 
 Flour -mills. — Plain of el Buk'ah. — Favorite Camping -ground of the Bedawin. — El 
 Buk'ah described by Captain Warren. — Flocks of Sheep and Goats. — Khirbet el Basha. 
 — Khirbet es Safut. — The Gate of 'Amman. — Ard el Hemar. — A Rough and Unculti- 
 vated Region. — From Kul'at ez Zerka to Yajuz. — Permanent Fountains of the Zerka. 
 — The Jabbok. — The Strong Border of Ammon. — Kiirat ez Zerka. — The Haj. — En- 
 campment of Bedawin. — Migration in Search of Pasture. — Bedawtn Women moving
 
 ES SALT. 589 
 
 Camp. — Biblical References to taking down and setting up Tents and Tabernacles. — 
 An Uncultivated Region. — Storks and Partridges. — Fine old Oaks. — Extensive Pros- 
 pect. — Hermon, Sulkhad, and Kuleib Hauran. — Shouting Shepherds and Barking Dogs. 
 — Bedawin Encampment. — Forests of Oak and Terebinth Trees. — Yajuz. — Exuberant 
 Pasture. — Fountains and Flocks. — Small Roman Temple. — Great Terebinths. — Large 
 Stone in the Trunk of a Tree. — Open Enclosures with Massive Walls. — Bedawin Ceme- 
 tery. — The Grave of Nimr el 'Adwan. — Ruins at Vajuz. — Large Disc or Millstone. — 
 Extensive Quarries. — Female Statue broken by the 'Adwan. — The Moabite Stone. — 
 Sculptured Eagles and Lions. — Gadda. — El Jebeiha, Jogbehah. — Outlook over Reu- 
 ben, Gad, and Manasseh. — Hermon, Jerash, and el Buk'ah. — Ruins buried beneath the 
 Surface at el Jebeiha. — Highly Cultivated and Densely Populated Region. — Curious 
 Rock Strata. — Wady el Haddadeh. — Noisy Torrent. — Total Desolation and Utter 
 Loneliness at 'Amman. — Rabbath Ammon and the Graeco-Roman City of Philadelphia. 
 — The Site of a Great Capital. — Situation of the City. — Overthrown by Earthquakes. 
 — Corinthian Temple or Tomb. — Large Caravansary, Church, and Mosk. — The Basilica. 
 — Imposing Structure. — Roman Bridge. — Banks of the Stream lined with Masonry. — 
 Full of Fish. — Primitive Fishing by the Bedawin. — Ruins of an Old Mill. — The Great 
 Theatre. — Seats for Eight Thousand Spectators. — The Forum. — Colonnade of over 
 Fifty Corinthian Columns. — Odeon. — Northern Wall of the City. — Gate-way of the 
 City. — Remarkable Rock-cut Tomb. — Large Temple. — Main Street lined with Col- 
 umns. — Ruined Houses upon the Steep Declivity of the Hill. — "The Line of Confu- 
 sion, and the Stones of Emptiness." — The Citadel-hill. — Square Watch-tower. — Pe- 
 ripteral Temple within the Citadel. — Greek Inscription in Large Letters. — Beautiful 
 Church or Mosk within the Citadel described by Canon Tristram and Captain Conder. 
 — Massive Walls of the Citadel. — Large and Deep Cisterns. — Underground Reservoir. 
 -Concealed Passage. — Antiochus the Great. — Biblical Interest in Rabbath .-Vmmon. — 
 The Iron Bedstead of Og. — Captain Conder's Suggestion regarding Og's Throne. — In- 
 dependence of Rabbath Ammon. — The Siege of Rabbath by Joab. — Duration of the 
 Siege. — Capture of the City of Waters. — Joab's Message to David. — The Citadel taken 
 by David. — Remarkable Fulfilment of Prophetic Denunciations. — Droves of Camels, 
 and Numerous Flocks. — Ammon denounced by the Prophets. — Nothing but Ruins at 
 Rabbath, and Ammon a Perpetual Desolation. — Ptolemy of Egypt. — Philadelphia men- 
 tioned by Greek and Roman Writers and Josephus. — The Citadel Besieged and Cap- 
 tured by Antiochus and Herod the Great. — A City of the Decapolis. — Seat of a Bishop. 
 — Sunday amongst the Ruins at 'Amman. — Reproduction of Patriarchal Times. — The 
 Solemn Storks. — Three Sabbaths at 'Amman. — Old Woman and her Daughter. — 
 Grain preserved in the Theatre. — Absence of Trees. — A Plough for Firewood. — Nat- 
 ural Phenomena. — Disappearance and Re-appearance of the Stream between 'Amman 
 and Kul'at ez Zcrka. 
 
 September 27th. 
 
 Es Salt is so completely surrounded by high mountains and 
 deep valleys that the town cannot be seen until one is right above 
 it, and then it presents a very striking and picturesque appearance. 
 It is built on both sides of a narrow and precipitous wady which
 
 590 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 descends rapidly eastward ; but the greater part of the houses cHng 
 to the decHvities of the steep and isolated hill, the summit of which 
 is crowned by a modern Saracenic castle. It is the capital of the 
 Belka, the residence of a Turkish governor, and now the only in- 
 habited place in that district. The population of es Salt consists 
 of about two thousand five hundred Moslems, and five hundred 
 Christians of the Greek sect ; and owing to their isolated position 
 amongst the Bedawin east of the Jordan, the inhabitants of this 
 town are both warlike and independent. 
 
 Many of the Christians have become Protestants, and they have 
 built a substantial church, with a house adjoining for a parsonage, 
 with rooms for schools and for other religious purposes. To obtain 
 a foundation for the church, they dug through rubbish for more 
 than thirty feet, and then came upon an ancient bath, the chambers, 
 arches, and pavement of which were quite perfect. That indicates 
 not only great antiquity, but also numerous overthrows by wars, 
 earthquakes, and other catastrophies by which this narrow valley 
 has been filled up to a surprising depth. 
 
 The houses of es Salt resemble those seen in many mountain 
 villages throughout this country, though there are some of a more 
 respectable kind, and amongst them are a few shops where the arti- 
 cles in most demand by the Bedawin are made and sold. The ma- 
 jority of the people do not differ in dress, appearance, and manners 
 from their neighbors, the Arabs of the desert, and the women gene- 
 rally wear a single, loose, blue cotton garment, with long flowing 
 sleeves, like their Bedawin sisters of the 'Adwan and other tribes. 
 The chief occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture, and the sur- 
 rounding olive-groves, the carefully terraced hill-sides covered with 
 extensive vineyards producing large clusters of grapes and fine 
 raisins, and the fruit and vegetable gardens of es Salt, are justly 
 celebrated throughout all this region. Most of the wheat and 
 barley grown in the valleys and on the plains in all directions be- 
 longs to the inhabitants of es Salt, and some of their fields are as 
 far east as 'Amman. From the Bedawin they purchase wool, but- 
 ter, skins, and other products of their flocks and herds; but the 
 amount formerly furnished by them has greatly decreased in re- 
 cent times.
 
 CASTLE OF ES SALT.— RAMOTH-GILEAD. 591 
 
 The castle on the summit of the hill above the town is a very 
 conspicuous object, but it is in a ruinous condition, and only a 
 portion of it is now serviceable. It was surrounded by a moat 
 excavated in the solid rock, and the substructions are ancient ; 
 but in its present form — a rectangular fortress with square towers 
 at the corners — it is comparatively modern. It was repaired, if 
 not entirely rebuilt, during the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century by Dhaher el 'Omar, the predecessor of the infamous 
 Jezzar Pasha, surnamed the Butcher, and he resided in it for sev- 
 eral years, until finally driven out by the united efforts of the ri- 
 val factions in the town. It is now occupied by a Turkish garri- 
 son whose martial music wakes up strange echoes amongst these 
 hills of Gilead. Es Salt is abundantly supplied with water, and 
 may have owed its existence originally to the large spring near 
 the middle of the town. The stream from it, together with that 
 from the noble fountain of 'Ain Jeidur, in the deep wady below, 
 serves to irrigate the extensive fruit orchards and large vegetable 
 gardens along the valley. 
 
 What evidence is there to prove that es Salt occupies the site 
 of Ramoth-gilead, the second city of refuge east of the Jordan ? 
 
 There is no resemblance between the modern and the ancient 
 name of the two places; but the situation of the former, on the 
 declivities of a steep and lofty hill in Gilead, accords with the sup- 
 posed position of the latter, upon the " heights of Gilead," as the 
 name Ramoth-gilead implies. If the Jewish tradition be correct, 
 that the three cities of refuge on the east side of the Jordan were 
 opposite to the three on the west side of that river, then we must 
 look for Ramoth-gilead about a day's journey farther north, so as 
 to place it opposite to Shechem, the modern Nablus. Besides be- 
 ing appointed a city of refuge, Ramoth-gilead was allotted to the 
 Levites, and in the time of Solomon it was the seat of one of his 
 purveyors.' " To him pertained the towns of Jair the son of Ma- 
 nasseh, which are in Gilead, and the region of Argob, which is in 
 Bashan, threescore great cities with walls and brazen bars." His 
 territory would thus extend as far north as the Lejah, and es Salt 
 would, therefore, be too far to the south of the natural line of 
 ' Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xx. 8 ; xxi. 38 ; i Chron. vi. 80 ; i Kings iv. 13.
 
 592 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 communication which must have existed at that time between 
 Jerusalem, Gilead, and " the region of Argob." 
 
 Nothing is heard of Ramoth-gilead after the reign of Solomon 
 for about one hundred years, and then Ahab, the king of Israel, 
 proposes to Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to "go up" and "take it 
 out of the hand of [Ben-hadad II.] the king of Syria.'" The com- 
 bined attack failed ; Ahab was mortally wounded in his chariot, 
 "and died at even. And there went a proclamation throughout 
 the host about the going down of the sun, Every man to his city, 
 and every man to his own country."' A few years later, " Ahaziah, 
 the king of Judah, went with Joram, the son of Ahab, to war against 
 Hazael, king of Syria in Ramoth-gilead." ' King Joram was wounded 
 by the Syrians, and went back to be healed of his wounds in Jez- 
 reel ; yet it appears that he took Ramoth-gilead, and was able to 
 keep it, for immediately after the battle we read that Jehu and 
 " the captains of the host " were in possession of the city." Elisha 
 the prophet sent to Ramoth-gilead and anointed Jehu king of Is- 
 rael. " So Jehu rode in a chariot, and went to Jezreel. And there 
 stood a watchman on the tower in Jezreel, and he spied and said, 
 I see a company, and the driving is like the driving of Jehu the son 
 of Nimshi ; for he driveth furiously."" 
 
 In all those Biblical notices of the battles around Ramoth-sfilead 
 mention is made of chariots; not only do they take part in the 
 contests, but the kings and the captains come and go in chariots. 
 Those battles could not have been fought at es Salt, nor even in 
 its immediate vicinity, for the region for several miles around is 
 too rough and mountainous for the use of chariots, and this fact, 
 amongst others already mentioned, tends to invalidate the claim 
 of es Salt to be the modern representative of the ancient Ramoth- 
 gilead. These objections to es Salt have led to the belief that we 
 must look elsewhere for the site of Ramoth-gilead, and to the con- 
 clusion that it must have been north of the river Jabbok. 
 
 Ramoth-gilead has been placed by some at Gerasa, a city of the 
 Decapolis, and the modern Jerash ; and by numerous citations from 
 the Bible, the Talmud, and other authorities, Dr. Merrill has sought 
 
 ' I Kings xxii. 3, 4. '^ i Kings xxii. 29-36. ^ 2 Kings viii. 28. 
 
 * 2 Kings ix. 14, 15, and 5. ^ 2 Kings ix. i-io, 16-20.
 
 NO MARKETS SOCTH OF ES SALT. 593 
 
 to prove that the identification is correct. The region around 
 Jerash accords better than that in the vicinity of es Salt with the 
 requirements of some of the important events that occurred at 
 Ramoth-gilead. Jerash " would be suitable for a city of refuge," 
 says Dr. Merrill, " because it was on one of the main routes which 
 would be kept open, according to the command in Deuteronomy 
 xix. 3. For the same reason it would be an appropriate point at 
 which to station a commissariat officer who was to command East- 
 ern Gilead and Bashan. There chariots could be used, as we learn 
 they were extensively in two notable campaigns," and the ancient 
 Jewish testimony would be verified respecting the cities of refuge, 
 for Jerash is almost exactly opposite to Shechem or Nablus.' 
 
 We make rather a late start; what is the cause of the delay? 
 
 South of es Salt we shall not find a market where our exhausted 
 supply of provisions can be replenished, and, therefore, our cook 
 has been busy since early morning purchasing from the miserable 
 shops in the town whatever was available for his department. But 
 as the ride to 'Amman is only one of five or six hours, the deten- 
 tion will occasion us no serious inconvenience. 
 
 We are now under the protection of the 'Adwan, and Goblan, 
 the sheikh of that tribe, has sent his son, Fahd, and his cousin, 
 'AH, to act as our guards and guides from es Salt through the 
 region of the Belka, which they claim as their special domain. 
 
 Let us stop and water our horses at this noble fountain of 
 'Ain Jeidur, and fill our water bottles; for though in the spring 
 there is far too much water along some parts of the route for 
 the comfort of either horse or rider, all ephemeral streams are 
 now dried up, and we will not find a drop of water until we 
 reach the Jabbok, which flows between the ruins of 'Amman. 
 
 Having climbed the steep path which winds its way over slip- 
 pery limestone rocks up the profound gorge of Wady Jeidur, and 
 reached this elevated plateau above and east of es Salt, the pros- 
 pect over the southern portion of " the land of Gilead " appears to 
 be boundless, stretching away southward to the horizon. 
 
 I have traversed large parts of that vast region, which appears 
 from here like a great rolling plain, without an inhabited village 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 2(jo. 
 
 R 2
 
 594 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 or even a ruin in sight. The country, however, is far from level. 
 Deep valleys descend in various directions, north and east to the 
 Jabbok, and west and south-west to the Jordan and the Dead Sea, 
 and the hill-sides, in some places, are covered with noble oak woods. 
 The soil is generally fertile, and broad fields of wheat and barley 
 promise abundant harvests. On one occasion I passed through the 
 region from 'Amman to 'Arak el Emir, on my way to the latter 
 place. The path led southward from 'Amman, through the green 
 vale of the Jabbok, for about a mile, and then turned westward at 
 a point where some ancient ruins attract attention. About half a 
 mile farther on up the valley the stream of the Jabbok is crossed 
 by a very low and broad Roman bridge of three arches. 
 
 Another mile brought us to the large pool where the Jabbok 
 rises silently out of the bed of the wady. Around the pool are the 
 foundations of ancient walls, and west of it the valley is dry, even 
 in the spring of the year. That pool, therefore, is the true fount- 
 ain-head and the real source of the Jabbok, and it is only about 
 two miles to the south-west of 'Amman. From the valley we as- 
 cended the western hills, and continued our ride over a high rolling 
 plateau stretching for many miles to the south and east, but tree- 
 less and entirely deserted. It has been " the battle-ground of the 
 Bedawin tribes in that region for several generations." After cross- 
 ing that plateau we came to an inconsiderable ruin called Khirbet 
 Sar, where are " the remains of a mausoleum with arches, also a 
 square tower of hard flinty stone." Dr. Merrill and others identify 
 Khirbet Sar with the ancient Jazer mentioned in the thirty-second 
 chapter of Numbers and elsewhere, and the plateau west of 'Amman 
 with "the land of Jazer," "which the children of Reuben and Gad 
 asked for because it was a place for cattle.'" 
 
 Immediately beyond Khirbet Sar we began to descend into 
 Wady es Seir by a very steep path, through a magnificent forest 
 of large oak-trees. That valley is very beautiful, and the mount- 
 ains rise higher and higher on either side, covered to their sum- 
 mits with thick groves of evergreen oaks, terebinths, and other 
 trees. Having reached the lively stream at the bottom of the 
 valley, we followed along its banks for several miles until our at- 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 404, 405, 484.
 
 ROCK TOMB OR CHAMBER.— CASTLE OF HVRCAXUS. 595 
 
 tention was called to what appeared to be the front of a house, 
 with a door and several windows, all hewn in the perpendicular 
 cliff high up the south side of the wady. We had not the time 
 to ascend to it. but Corporal Phillips, who was sent by Captain 
 Warren to examine it, while encamped near Khirbet Sar, gives 
 the following description of it : 
 
 "The rock is scarped, and there are seven windows — the four 
 upper ones have a cross-bar to them cut out of the rock, the three 
 below are plain. There is a narrow door at the bottom ; inside, 
 the chamber is about twelve feet square, and divided into two by a 
 wall running up the centre ; there were originally three floors, of 
 which only two cornices remain for supporting the joists ; on the 
 upper one pieces of wood are now resting, on which the shepherds 
 make their beds. On each floor are seven rows of pigeon-holes 
 cut in the walls on every side; they are triangular in form." Cap- 
 tain Warren calls it "a rock-tomb," but it differs essentially from 
 all such tombs in this country, and its remarkable facade, seen at 
 a distance, bears a certain resemblance to that of the rock-hewn 
 chambers at Petra. It was occupied by some Bedawin Arabs, 
 whose wild appearance and suspicious actions were not very as- 
 suring, and our guide supposed that they were robbers. 
 
 About an hour farther on in the valley below that singular 
 rock-tomb or dwelling, the mountain recedes on the north side of 
 the wady, leaving a large open space in the form of an amphithea- 
 tre, commanding a wide prospect westward, and surrounded on the 
 north, east, and south by wooded hills, cavernous cliffs, and jagged 
 crags of limestone rock. That rock- bound amphitheatre or ele- 
 vated platform is about two thousand five hundred feet above the 
 Dead Sea, and the rugged site is now called 'Arak el Emir, the 
 crag of the prince. The south-western part of it was once occu- 
 pied by " the strong castle " of Hyrcanus, a Jewish prince of the 
 Maccabean family, who " retired beyond Jordan and there abode, 
 because of the jealousy and hatred of his brethren." He built a 
 castle at 'Arak el Emir, and there " he ended his life by slaying 
 himself with his own hand." 
 
 We are indebted to Josephus for all we know about that castle, 
 the construction of which he thus describes: "Hyrcanus erect-
 
 596 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ed a strong castle, and built it entirely of white stone, to the very 
 roof; and had animals of a prodigious magnitude engraved upon it. 
 He also drew around it a great and deep canal of water. He also 
 made caves of many furlongs in length, by hollowing a rock that 
 was over against him, and then he made large rooms in it, some 
 for feasting, and some for sleeping and living in. He introduced 
 also a vast quantity of waters, which ran along it, and which was 
 very delightful and ornamental in the court. But still he made 
 the entrances at the mouth of the caves so narrow that no more 
 than one person could enter by them at once ; and the reason 
 why he built them after that manner was a good one ; it was for 
 his own preservation, lest he should be besieged by his brethren, 
 and run the hazard of being caught by them. Moreover, he built 
 courts of greater magnitude than ordinary, which he adorned with 
 vastly large gardens. And when he had brought the place to this 
 state he named it Tyre. This place is between Arabia and Judea, 
 beyond Jordan, not far from the country of Hesbon." ' 
 
 Did you find that the existing remains at 'Arak el Emir cor- 
 responded to the description of them given by Josephus? 
 
 The great canal which Hyrcanus drew around the palace may 
 yet be found buried under the accumulated rubbish, and the caves 
 are still there in the rocks over against the palace ; but the state- 
 ment that they were many furlongs in length is a gross exaggera- 
 tion. The ruins of the palace itself are considerable. It stood upon 
 a raised platform in the south-western part of the rocky amphithea- 
 tre, "in the middle of a walled enclosure of ten or twelve acres, 
 of which the traces can still be seen. The position and scenery 
 around are beautiful, and Hyrcanus was a wise man to choose so 
 charming a spot for his enforced retirement. The glen to the 
 north-east, above Wady Seir, the cliffs, the sides of the hills cov- 
 ered with oaks and terebinths, with the undulating verdant slopes 
 below [and the purling stream flowing through the midst, fringed 
 with dark-green oleander-bushes in full bloom], make a lovely land- 
 scape," peculiarly characteristic of this region east of the Jordan.^ 
 
 "The entrance gate-way [of the palace was] built of large stones 
 
 ' Ant. xii. 4, li. 
 
 " Expedition East of the Jordan. By the Rev. A. E. Northey.
 
 PALACE AT 'ARAK EL EMIR.— LIONS OF COLOSSAL SIZE. 597 
 
 squared and finished with the Jewish bevel. ['The frieze of this 
 portal is Ionic, and is formed of enormous slabs of stone. One of 
 which was twenty feet by ten.'] ' The aperture of the gate was 
 twelve feet wide ; one stone measured eleven feet in length by five 
 feet in width. From this gate-way to the castle was a raised cause- 
 way, with some [large] perforated stones [as if for bars or rails] 
 placed on it at intervals." The palace itself measures about one 
 hundred and twenty- five feet from north to south, and sixty- five 
 feet from east to west. It faced the east, and had, according to 
 Canon Tristram, "a colonnade in front, and there are many frag- 
 ments of pillars, some fluted and others plain, strewn about. Only 
 a portion of the front wall has stood the test of more than two 
 thousand years, but this is in wonderful preservation. It is com- 
 posed of great slabs. One in situ measured fifteen feet [long], by 
 ten feet high ; another, prostrate, was twenty feet long. 
 
 " These stones have been bound together, not by lime or clamps, 
 but by numerous square knobs or bolts, left in the different sides 
 of the stone, which fitted tightly into corresponding sockets cut to 
 receive them in the next block. Many loop-holes for archery pro- 
 vided for the defence of the place. About twenty feet from the 
 basement runs a beading of Doric ornaments, and above this is 
 a colossal frieze, some twelve feet high, formed of enormous slabs, 
 with lions sculptured in alto-relievo of colossal size. [They are 
 about six feet high and nine feet long.] Over these has been a 
 Doric entablature and frieze, but this has been thrown down, as also 
 have been many of the lions. It seems probable that earthquakes 
 alone have caused their overthrow, for human agency could scarce- 
 ly have overturned without destroying them. The building must 
 have been a strange medley architecturally, for we noticed many 
 Ionic cornices and Egyptian capitals of the Ptolemaic order with 
 the palm leaf."' 
 
 About half a mile from Kusr el 'Abd, the palace of the black 
 slave, as the castle is now called, are the rock-dwellings and sta- 
 bles which Hyrcanus caused to be excavated in the limestone cliffs. 
 " Great chambers," says Mr. Northey, " have been hollowed out, per- 
 haps originally natural cavities, but greatly enlarged and shaped by 
 
 ' Land of Israel, p. 534. ' Land of Israel, pp. 534, 535.
 
 598 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 COLOSSAL LIONS ON THE FACADE OF THE PALACE OF HYRCANUS. 
 
 artificial means. One which we measured was forty-five by thirty- 
 five feet, and about twenty feet high; another fifty-four feet by 
 thirty-six feet, and twenty-eight feet high. To each of these cham- 
 bers there were two openings: one a kind of square window, twelve 
 feet high by six feet wide; the other a rough, square door -way 
 below. At the side of the entrances was an inscription in ancient 
 Samaritan, the same in both cases. Beyond these was another 
 chamber, longer, narrower, and lower, which had been used as a 
 stable. It is ninety-six feet in length ; round the sides is a range 
 of mangers cut out of the solid rock, about three feet high. 
 
 " Close by is a round cistern, twelve feet in diameter, as well as 
 many other caves and passages, the entrance to some of which was 
 purposely made by Hyrcanus as difficult as possible. Two large 
 square stones, standing up edgeways, with a checker pattern on 
 them, puzzled us, as they have puzzled every one who has seen 
 them." Below those caverns in the cliffs is a large platform or
 
 EXCAVATED LIMESTONE CLIFFS AT 'ARAK EL EMIR. 599 
 
 an elevated ter- 
 race, on which 
 there are the re- 
 mains of public 
 edifices and the 
 ruins of private 
 residences, most 
 of which appear 
 to have been 
 surrounded by 
 a wall ; and a 
 flight of steps, 
 cut in the rock, 
 led down from 
 that terrace to- 
 wards Wady es 
 Seir. On the 
 hill -side to the 
 south-west, be- 
 tween those re- 
 mains and the 
 castle, are the 
 ruins of houses, 
 and fragments of 
 a few columns, 
 and the traces 
 of an aqueduct. 
 " Here," accord- 
 ing to Dr. Mer- 
 rill, "was one of 
 the largest res- 
 ervoirs in the 
 country ; it was 
 almost a lake, 
 and when full 
 of water, even 
 ships could easi-
 
 600 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 \y have floated in it. Nowhere else have I seen a wall of such 
 strength as the one to the south and east of this reservoir.'" 
 
 The cliffs in which those excavations were made abound with 
 various kinds of fossils in perfect preservation, and one might col- 
 lect specimens enough at 'Arak el Emir to fill a considerable cabi- 
 net ; for the rocks, and some of the blocks of stone amongst the 
 ruins, are literally a mass of curious petrifactions. I can corrobo- 
 rate Mr. Northey's description of the oleanders in that vicinity, 
 both as to size, abundance, and beautiful flowers. Along Wady 
 Sha'ib, midway between 'Arak el Emir and es Salt, I saw oleanders 
 which had grown into large trees. Some were nearly two feet in 
 circumference, and more than thirty feet high. 
 
 From the top of the ridge north-west of 'Arak el Emir, we had 
 an impressive view of the Dead Sea, which appeared surprisingly 
 near, though in reality it was more than two thousand five hundred 
 feet below us. From that magnificent outlook we had a long and 
 winding descent into Wady Sha'ib, which we followed northward for 
 several miles, and then climbed the lofty mountain south of es Salt. 
 'Arak el Emir is nearly four hours distant from es Salt, most of 
 the way through a rough, wild, and deserted region. We passed 
 several small encampments of Bedawin, but there is not an inhab- 
 ited village nor important ruin along the entire route. 
 
 Our guide found a pitchfork in one of the caverns at 'Arak 
 el Emir, where tibn, or straw, is stored by the Bedawin, which he 
 took possession of without scruple. But when we came near the 
 first Arab encampment he was afraid that some of them would 
 claim it and give him a thrashing. He begged to be allowed to 
 conceal the pitchfork in one of the loads on our mules, but that I 
 would not permit him to do, so he left us and made a long detour 
 to escape observation. He had not expected to find any Bedawin 
 camps along that unfrequented pathway. 
 
 It was impossible to convince him that he was guilty of theft ; 
 he stoutly maintained that he had a right to appropriate to his 
 own use all such stray plunder. The guide was a Christian from 
 es Salt, and yet, when we came to the Muhammedan Mukam of 
 Neby Sha'ib, in the wady of the same name, where votive offerings 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 107.
 
 \YATER AND VEGETATION.— PLAIN OF EL BUK'AH. 6oi 
 
 to the saint, and ploughs, ox -yokes, goads, and other agricultural 
 implements lay around the sacred tomb without any protection, 
 he did not dare to steal a single article. The resentful wrath of 
 that Moslem saint is greatly feared by all sects, and no one will 
 venture to take anything left for safe-keeping at his tomb. 
 
 The grave of Neby Sha'ib has no building over it, nor is it 
 protected by a wall or an enclosure of any kind, and it is nearly 
 concealed by weeds and bushes, which grow in Wady Sha'ib with 
 surprising luxuriance, owing, mainly, to the abundance of water. 
 In all directions noisy brooks come tumbling down the tributary 
 ravines, and swell the stream in the valley into a roaring mountain 
 torrent. I have rarely seen vegetation more luxuriant than in that 
 region. For long distances we had to force our way through patches 
 of golden daises, wild lupins, and thorny thistles nearly as high as 
 our horses, and so thickset as to quite perplex them. 
 
 The crops of wheat and barley in many places were as heavy 
 as any I ever saw either in this country or elsewhere. In the 
 valley below and south of es Salt there are numerous flour-mills 
 driven by the stream from the noble fountains which burst forth 
 on all sides in that vicinity, and the region between 'Arak el Emir 
 and that town is very beautiful and romantic, and it is not sur- 
 prising that " the children of Reuben and the children of Gad," 
 who " had a very great multitude of cattle," when they saw tiie 
 land should have eagerly poveted possession of it.' 
 
 We have now been riding two hours and a half from es Salt, 
 and may rest a while and lunch under the shelter of that solitary 
 and conspicuous terebinth-tree ahead of us, the only one of its 
 size in this part of our route. When I passed this way in the 
 spring, much of the country was flooded with water, and that 
 beautiful plain of el Bi:ik'ah, many hundred feet below us on the 
 left, and surrounded on all sides by high mountains, looked like a 
 lake with large islands in some parts of it. Owing to the abun- 
 dance of water and the rich pasture, el Buk'ah is a favorite camp- 
 ing-ground of the surrounding Bedawin. Captain Warren passed 
 through it on his way to J crash from Wady es Scir. 
 
 " The view from these hills to the north," he says, " is rcmarka- 
 
 ' Numb, xxxii. i.
 
 602 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ble ; fifteen hundred feet below us is an oval, depressed plain, nine 
 miles long and six broad, giving about forty-five square miles of the 
 richest meadow-land. It appears to be the dried-up bed of a lake 
 whose waters have cut their way to the Zerka, years ago, by wadies 
 on the north-west side." He found "the plain well cultivated in 
 parts, and elsewhere it swarms with flocks of sheep and goats." 
 There are several ruins on and around el Buk'ah, the most impor- 
 tant of which are Khirbet el Basha, " nearly in the centre of the 
 plain," and Khirbet es Safut, "on the side of the hill to the east." 
 At the former are " the remains of an extensive village or town of 
 soft stone, and some vaults," and "the principal object" still re- 
 maining in the latter " is a gate-way, eight feet high and seven feet 
 six inches wide, with a lintel over it, called the Gate of 'Amman ; 
 there are bevelled stones about." 
 
 El Buk'ah is now dry, and the vegetation on that depressed 
 plain has been withered by the long summer heat. The same is 
 true in regard to the region on our right, called Ard el Hemar, 
 which is clothed with luxuriant pasture in the spring ; and the 
 road, now so dusty, is then almost impassable from deep mud. 
 
 Our ride for the last hour, since leaving the large tree above the 
 plain of el Buk'ah, has been quite featureless; but picturesque hills 
 begin to appear to the north and in the east, and vary the mo- 
 notony. What is the nature of the country on our left? 
 
 Most of it is a rough, barren, and uncultivated region. In com- 
 pany with Dr. Selah Merrill, archaeologist of the American Palestine 
 Exploration Society, I came through it from Kul'at ez Zerka, some 
 twelve miles north-east of 'Amman, where the river Zerka, or Jab- 
 bok, trends round westward on its way to unite with the Jordan. 
 We had spent the preceding night encamped on a pretty grassy 
 meadow near some large fountains, the second permanent source 
 of the Zerka. Below the fountains the river winds round the base 
 of the ridge on which the castle of ez Zerka is situated, and then 
 begins its headlong descent of three thousand feet to the Ghor, 
 through abrupt and lofty mountains. 
 
 The Jabbok has always formed the natural boundary of the dis- 
 tricts north and south of it down to the present day. In the time 
 of Moses it was "the border of the children of Ammon [which]
 
 KULAT EZ ZERKA.— BEDAWfN CAMP. 603 
 
 was strong;" and it now separates the district of the Belka from 
 that of Jebel 'Ajlun. Kul'at ez Zerka stands on the top of the hill, 
 some distance north of those fountains, and is one of the stations 
 of the Haj, or Muhammedan pilgrims, to Mecca. The Haj had 
 been there a short time previous to our visit, and had so effectually 
 swept up every article of food and provender that we could not 
 obtain any barley for the horses nor even an egg for ourselves. 
 
 There was a large encampment of Bedawin on the bank of the 
 river below our tents, and I was quite interested in their movements 
 the next morning. The "elders" having decided, apparently, to 
 emigrate in search of better pasture, the men set off with about 
 eighty camels; but neither they nor their animals carried any of the 
 camp equipage. Immediately after their departure, however, the 
 women in the camp broke out into bustling and noisy activity. As 
 if by magic the tents fell to the ground, were bundled up and placed 
 on the few camels left for that purpose, and in an inconceivably 
 short time the whole caravan passed up the river and disappeared. 
 1 had often heard that the Bedawin, when alarmed by the approach 
 of an enemy, could vanish, tents and all, in a few minutes; and 
 though not hastened by any fear of danger, I was glad to have seen 
 the feat thus accomplished. The women did the whole work, while 
 those " lords of creation," their masters, sauntered off in utter un- 
 concern. There appeared to be very little baggage of any kind to 
 be cared for, and no doubt the women got on all the better for 
 the absence of their lazy lords. 
 
 Biblical writers have drawn some affecting imagery from some- 
 what similar scenes. Thus Jeremiah exclaims: "Destruction upon 
 destruction is cried ; for the whole land is spoiled : suddenly are 
 my tents spoiled, and my curtains in a moment." ' And again : 
 " My tabernacle is spoiled, and all my cords are broken : my chil- 
 dren are gone forth of me, and are not : there is none to stretch 
 forth my tent any more, and to set up my curtains."' Our own 
 tabernacles, also, soon disappeared from the green meadow by the 
 river, taking a different route to Yajuz, some four hours to the west 
 of Kul'at ez Zerka. There was no lack of paths for some distance 
 in the direction that we took, made, I suppose, by camels and flocks 
 
 ' Jer. iv. 20. - Jlt. X. 2u.
 
 604 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 coming down to the Zerka for water. Our guides — the same sheikhs 
 who accompany us now — paid no attention to them, however, but 
 cHmbed up rocky ridges and plunged into deep ravines, with a reck- 
 lessness which sometimes we hesitated to follow. 
 
 That part of Ammon's inheritance never was, and never could 
 be, cultivated, nor was there any indication of man's presence and 
 work for several miles. What the storks, which so solemnly range 
 over those barren hills, find to eat I cannot imagine ; nor what 
 entices thither the partridges, that cackle from the steep cliffs, 
 unless it be the hope of escape from man, their natural enemy. 
 In about two hours a steep climb raised us above the surrounding 
 country into a well-wooded region of fine old oaks, and opened out 
 a prospect of vast extent. We saw not only the ruins of Jerash 
 but the high castle -crowned tell of Sulkhad, the volcanic cone of 
 el Kuleib, in Jebel ed Druse, and many other places of interest on 
 the distant plain of el Hauran, and beyond it the snowy summit of 
 Hermon far away to the north. 
 
 After leaving that commanding stand -point on the top of the 
 ridge, the country began to assume a less forbidding aspect. The 
 shout of the shepherds and the barking of their dogs gave notice 
 that we were approaching a Bedawin encampment. The dogs 
 came charging down upon us with loud uproar; but the bark of 
 an Arab dog is worse than his bite, and upon second thought, 
 concluding that discretion was the better part of valor, they kept 
 at a respectful distance and finally fled at our advance. 
 
 From that encampment we descended into a well-wooded valley, 
 which inclines towards the south-west. The country improved 
 rapidly, and it was quite refreshing to ride through fine forests of 
 oak and terebinth trees. After riding four hours from Kul'at ez 
 Zerka we stopped to rest under the wide-spreading branches and 
 the "shadowing shroud" of the largest and most beautiful tere- 
 binths I have ever seen, and our horses regaled themselves upon 
 the exuberant pasture around the trickling fountain of Yajuz. 
 
 Yajuz is a singular place, with a name quite unknown to fame ; 
 but the ruins scattered about the shallow valley for a mile or more 
 are of considerable importance. Near the large terebinth- trees 
 there are three fountains, or rather holes in the ground, into which
 
 OPEN ENCLOSURES AND LARGE TEREBINTHS AT VAJUZ. 605 
 
 the water collects in sufficient quantity to supply the numerous 
 flocks that gather about them. On the lower side of the fountain 
 farthest south once stood an ornamental structure of some sort, 
 probably a small temple. From the number and size of the blocks, 
 the fragments of columns, capitals, cornices, lintels, and carved 
 stones with various designs, it is evident that the edifice was of 
 Roman construction and of the Corinthian order of architecture. 
 
 But the most remarkable structures about Yajuz are the massive 
 walls of three large, open enclosures a short distance to the north- 
 east of the fountains. All three are overshadowed by terebinths 
 of very great size, from ten to fifteen feet in circumference, and of 
 rare beauty of outline. Some of the trees spring from the bottom 
 of the walls, and the largest among them has grown around and 
 lifted up from its position to a considerable height above the 
 ground a stone about two feet square and weighing at least half 
 a ton. Those enclosures seem to be far too wide to have been 
 roofed or vaulted over. The central of the three is about one 
 hundred and forty feet square, and the walls were built of large 
 and well -cut blocks of stone laid up without mortar. The other 
 two enclosures are smaller, and more of the surrounding walls re- 
 main standing in their original position. 
 
 I have nowhere else seen any structures similar to those, and 
 the character of the work seems to indicate that they are more 
 modern than the ancient town. The interior space is now mainly 
 occupied by the graves of the Bedawin. The great-grandfather of 
 our guides, a celebrated sheikh, died under one of those terebinth- 
 trees, and his grave is still well preserved, with its inscription, in 
 an open f^eld a little south of the central enclosure. The " family" 
 of our Bedawin guides owns the land in common at Yajuz, and 
 Sheikh Fahd performed the customary religious ceremony at the 
 grave of his great ancestor, whose name was Nimr el 'Adwan. 
 
 There is a fourth enclosure on the hill-side, about forty rods to 
 the eastward of the three others. It is smaller, but built of the 
 same large blocks of stone, and like them it is overshadowed by 
 great terebinth -trees. The ruins of the town itself cover a large 
 space on both sides of the shallow valley which declines gradually 
 towards the south-east. The houses on the left side are prostrate,
 
 6o6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 but on the opposite slope of the hill many of them are still stand- 
 ing, and all were vaulted over, though in a rough and irregular 
 manner. In one I found a Bedawin family living, the only resident 
 inhabitants of that once large town ; other houses are used to store 
 tibn and grain. Short columns lie here and there among the ruins, 
 and the outline of what may have been a small church can still 
 be traced. Rock -cut tombs of various forms abound, and there 
 are many chambers sunk in the face of the rock as if for the 
 storing of grain ; but there are no inscriptions on the ruins to 
 throw any light upon the history of that remarkable place. 
 
 Dr. Merrill found reservoirs at Yajuz, "with substantial roofs 
 supported upon arches;" also "the remains of one temple and two 
 churches." He saw a large disc or millstone, eight feet in diame- 
 ter, lying in one of the extensive quarries, and "a great many 
 square stones laid out ready for use ; but for some reason they 
 were left, and remained untouched to the present day."' 
 
 Besides Sheikh Fahd we had with us two other sheikhs of the 
 'Adwan ; and they turned over a large block of stone to show us 
 the battered outline of a human figure sculptured upon it, in regard 
 to which they gave the following account : The figure was that of 
 a woman, appropriately draped and of life-size. It was quite per- 
 fect when first discovered, but the sheikhs themselves broke it up 
 and mutilated it, after the famous Moabite stone had been simi- 
 larly dealt with by the Beni Sakhr at Dihban or Dibon, In excuse 
 for that act of vandalism they said that they had heard that a well- 
 known person in Jerusalem had negotiated with a sheikh of their 
 tribe to carry away that statue, without the permission of the other 
 sheikhs. Fearing a quarrel among themselves similar to that be- 
 tween the Beni Sakhr about the Moabite stone, they went to 
 Yajuz in the night and broke up and mutilated the statue. 
 
 Our guides were of the party, and they showed us the head, the 
 feet, and part of an arm, all of which had belonged to that statue. 
 They also turned over other large blocks of stone, upon one of 
 which was an eagle with outstretched wings, and on two others 
 were the sculptured figures of lions in tolerable preservation. Those 
 sculptured fragments only increase the interest in Yajuz, and it is 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 273, 274.
 
 EL JEBEIHA, JOGBEIIAH.— CURIOUS ROCK STRATA. 607 
 
 to be hoped that future explorers will be able to discover the 
 ancient name and former history of that remarkable town. 
 
 Yajuz, then, has not been identified with any Biblical site? 
 
 I believe not ; in fiict but few travellers have either seen or 
 mentioned it. Dr. Merrill thinks " there are good reasons for re- 
 garding this place as the ancient Roman town Gadda," mentioned 
 in the Tabula Peutingeriana as thirteen miles from Philadelphia or 
 Rabbath-amman, the present 'Amman.' 
 
 About an hour's ride west of Yajuz, on the road to es Salt, 
 are the ruins of another Roman town. The site is now called el 
 Jebeiha, which at once suggests the name Jogbehah, a fenced city 
 built by the children of Gad before they accompanied their breth- 
 ren to the conquest of the country west of the Jordan.* The 
 situation of the town, on a broad hill-top, is a very fine one, com- 
 manding a magnificent outlook over a large part of the territory 
 of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh. Hcrmon, in the far-off distance, 
 and the ruins of Jerash nearer at hand are again visible, and the 
 beautiful little plain of el Buk'ah lies almost at one's feet. Though 
 far older than Yajuz, the ruins at Jebeiha are mostly buried beneath 
 the surface, and there are very few remains above ground. Foun- 
 dations of buildings, numerous low, massive vaults, and demijohn- 
 shaped cisterns are found here and there on the top of the hill, 
 but the remains are not so extensive as those at Yajuz. 
 
 As we descend towards 'Amman w'e shall see many indications 
 that this region was once highly cultivated and densely inhabited, 
 but none of the existing ruins of ancient towns and dilapidated 
 towers are of sufficient importance to merit even a passing notice, 
 so we will not turn aside to examine them. 
 
 We have entered a winding wady, which sinks deeper and deep- 
 er every moment below the general level of the country, and the 
 cliffs on either side present a very curious appearance. 
 
 The rock strata have been upheaved, distorted, twisted, and 
 crumpled like the leaves of a dog-eared book. We are near the 
 end of our day's ride, and high up on our left you can see the 
 massive walls of the castle at 'Amman. This valley is called 
 Wady el Haddadeh, and there is a similar one on the north-west 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 227. ^ Numb, xxxii. 35.
 
 6o8 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 side of the citadel-hill, where the strata are equally contorted and 
 remarkable. In the spring, water trickles from under the rocks 
 and cliffs in this valley, and the little rills soon swell into a noisy 
 torrent, rushing eastward to join the pretty river that flows through 
 the ruins at 'Amman. We shall find our tents pitched on the 
 north-west side of the river, and nearly opposite the great thea- 
 tre, one of the principal attractions of the place. 
 
 No one can visit 'Amman without being deeply impressed with 
 its total destruction and utter loneliness. I have come to it from 
 different directions, and the impression is always the same. The 
 traveller sees nothing along the way hither that can in the slight- 
 est degree prepare his mind for the melancholy desolation and 
 oppressive silence that brood over the prostrate ruins of this once 
 '* royal city." There is still time before dark to take a general 
 survey of the ruins of this " city of waters," and to visit the cita- 
 del on the summit of the hill directly above it. 
 
 Of the " Rabbath of the children of Ammon," where the iron 
 bedstead of Og was kept, there are no remains above ground to 
 be examined. What the astonished traveller now sees belonged 
 to the Graeco- Roman city of Philadelphia. There is no doubt, 
 however, as to the identity of the place itself with both those 
 ancient cities ; and it is marked out by nature for the site of a 
 great capital. These are some of its advantages : a strong posi- 
 tion, shut in by high mountains and surrounded by deep valleys; 
 an abundance of good water flowing through a narrow vale from 
 the south-west to the north-east, with a sufficient space on the 
 left bank of the stream for edifices of all kinds, public and pri- 
 vate ; while a large isolated hill, some three hundred feet high, 
 overhangs it on the north-west and north, affording on its sum- 
 mit a broad platform for a large and almost unassailable citadel, 
 and fertile hills and broad plains lie around it in all directions to 
 supply its inhabitants with many of the necessaries of life. 
 
 Philadelphia occupied not only the narrow vale on the left bank 
 of the little river, but most of the private dwellings, erected upon 
 arched vaults, rose tier above tier up the steep slope of the citadel- 
 hill. Many of those vaults are nearly perfect, but the houses have 
 all been thrown down by successive earthquake shocks, and the
 
 RUINED TEMPLE OR TOMB. 
 
 609 
 
 u. ^^ 
 
 entire hill -side is one confused mass of shapeless ruins. Com- 
 mencing our survey of the ruined city from the extreme south- 
 west, the first structure that especially attracts our attention is 
 a tomb or small temple. It stands, isolated, in the midst of this 
 green meadow, through which glides the little river of 'Amman. 
 The temple was 
 square, with mas- 
 sive walls, and Co- 
 rinthian pilasters 
 at the corners, sur- 
 mounted by an 
 elaborate cornice, 
 most of which has 
 fallen. It was cir- 
 cular within, and 
 had shell -shaped 
 niches and arched 
 windows profuse- 
 ly and elegantly 
 carved. An orna- 
 mental frieze sup- 
 ported a domed 
 roof, but it was 
 thrown down long 
 ago, and only a feu- 
 layers of w'cll-cut 
 stone of the lower 
 tiers of masonry 
 now remain. 
 
 On the rising ground at the northern end of the meadow arc 
 several large edifices, the walls of which are partly standing. The 
 first is a rectangular building about two hundred and fifty feet 
 long and one hundred and twenty- five feet wide, and near it is 
 another nearly two hundred feet long and one hundred and twen- 
 ty feet wide. It was divided into two unequal parts by a wall, and 
 had three entrances and four windows, with rounded arches ; and 
 near the north-west corner there is a square tower with a spiral 
 S 2 
 
 RUINED TEMl'Lli OR TUMH.
 
 6io 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 stairway within of thirty-three steps. From the top of it there is 
 a fine view of the valley of 'Amman, with its striking ruins and 
 pretty stream, for a mile or more towards the north. The first of 
 
 EXTERIOR OF AN IMPOSING STRUCTURE. 
 
 those buildings may have been a great caravansary, and the second 
 was probably a large church, afterwards converted into a mosk. 
 Between those buildings and the stream are the prostrate walls 
 of other edifices difficult to explore or describe. 
 
 East of the mosk, and built upon the bank above the stream, 
 is the basilica. Within, it was about one hundred and fifty feet 
 long and eighty feet wide, and it had a nave and two side aisles, 
 with a small apse at the east end. The interior of the basilica 
 appears to have -been frescoed or plastered, to judge from the 
 many small holes in the stones in that portion of the apse and 
 side walls which still remains standing. Externally the basilica 
 must have resembled a strong fortress, for the eastern wall was
 
 IMPOSING STRUCTURE. 
 
 6ll 
 
 very massive, and rose to a great height above the stream. North 
 of the basiUca are the remains of a building with pointed arches, 
 and beyond it are the ruins of the most imposing structure at 
 'Amman. It consists of curved walls, round towers, and angular 
 bastions of great thickness and strength, towering above the left 
 bank of the stream, and completely dominating the entire city. 
 
 Near one of the round towers is an arched passage which 
 served to convey the winter torrent from W'ady el Haddadeh 
 through the town and under the walls to the river. From the 
 existing remains and the crumbling ruins of another round tow- 
 er, this structure appears to have extended for some distance far- 
 ther north, and along the bank of the stream. Externally the 
 walls were constructed of well-dressed, bevelled stones, and with- 
 in, there were semicircular and arched recesses with two rows of 
 
 IMKKKJK or AN I.MI'USINC; STliL'CTl.RK. 
 
 niches between, and there are numerous small holes along the 
 walls, above and below the niches, for the support of the stucco 
 or plaster, which covered a part, at least, of the surface of the en- 
 tire structure. Two columns without capitals still remain standing
 
 6l2 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ROMAN BRIDGE, AND BANKS OF THE STREAM. 
 
 nearly opposite the highest part of the structure, and the shafts 
 of three others are a sliort distance to the right, but they have 
 been moved out of the perpendicular by the shock of earthquakes. 
 Farther north is the round arch of a Roman bridge still span- 
 ning the stream. It is a plain semicircle of single stones, with- 
 out abutments or parapets, and appears to have been the only 
 one in the city. The numerous blocks of stones, and fragments 
 of columns lying in the bed of the stream, however, afford easy 
 stepping-stones, so that it is not difficult to get across in many 
 places. The banks of the stream both above and below the 
 bridge were lined with masonry, and vaulted over in some places ; 
 but if the bed of if was ever paved, the winter torrents have long 
 since carried away the stones with which the pavement was con- 
 structed. The stream is full of minnows and small fishes, which 
 the Bedawin sometimes catch by throwing stones at them — a very 
 primitive way of fishing.
 
 THEATRE AND ODEOX, 
 
 6l 3 
 
 Let US cross the bridge and visit the great theatre nearly a quar- 
 ter of a mile to the north-east of it. The wall which lined the right 
 bank of the stream is almost perfect, and here on our left are the 
 ruins of an old mill, and beyond them the shapeless remains of some 
 undefined structure. This theatre is the largest and best preserved 
 of its kind in the country. It was almost entirely excavated in 
 the side of the hill, and partly hewn out of the overhanging cliff, 
 and the seats or benches were made of trap-rock, which never dis- 
 integrates. The front of the theatre was about three hundred feet 
 long, and the walls, including the corridors, nearly ninety feet thick. 
 
 
 lliEAlkE A.NlJ OlJhD.S Al AMMAN. 
 
 Within, the arena was over one hundred and twcnt}- feet long and 
 about one hundred feet in diameter. There were more than forty- 
 three rows of benches, rising upward from the arena in grand and
 
 6 14 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ever widening semicircles, divided into sections by several flights 
 of steps, and separated into three tiers by broad passages which 
 con:imunicated with arched corridors running round the entire 
 semicircular structure under the seats in each tier. 
 
 Resting thus against the hill, says Mr. Northey, " nothing can 
 exceed the grandeur of the large theatre, crowned by the rocks out 
 of which its semicircle has been hewn. With its tiers of seats, its 
 passages, corridors, galleries, and vestibules, it must have been a 
 splendid building, capable of holding eight thousand persons." 
 
 In front of the theatre was the forum, over three hundred feet 
 in length and about two hundred feet broad, surrounded bv a col- 
 onnade of fifty or more Corinthian columns. Eight of those col- 
 umns are still standing, with their entablature, opposite the south- 
 western wall of the theatre, and parts of four others, at an angle to 
 them, extend along the south side of the forum. Nearly opposite 
 the north-western wall of the theatre, and fronting the north-east- 
 ern part of the forum, was the Odeon. Portions of the walls and 
 the three entrances in front, with their lintels and round arches, 
 remain, but the roof has fallen, the semicircular interior is a mass 
 of shapeless ruins, and the benches are buried under heaps of rub- 
 bish and piles of square stones. The Odeon, however, is the best- 
 preserved ruin at 'Amman, and it appears to have been a good 
 specimen of a small theatre in the Corinthian style of architecture. 
 
 The northern wall of the city extended from cliff to cliff about 
 forty rods north of the Odeon, and the gate -way on the left 
 bank of the stream is well defined. It led out of the street of 
 columns which ran parallel to the cliffs of the citadel-hill, and not 
 far from the hill itself. Half a mile farther north, near the spot 
 where the ravine on the northern side of the citadel-hill unites with 
 the river vale, is a remarkable tomb having an ornamental facade 
 not unlike that of a triumphal arch, with small side entrances ; but 
 the interior is merely a large, rock -cut, sepulchral chamber with 
 several sarcophagi in situ arranged along the sides. 
 
 We will now recross the bridge and climb the steep hill above 
 the city, in order to examine the remains of the citadel and the 
 ruins of some remarkable structures upon its summit. This com- 
 paratively level space on the left, between the bridge and the
 
 RUI.NKD TEMl'Li:. 
 
 615 
 
 citadel -hill, is strewn with confused masses of ruins, but none of 
 them appear to be of any importance. On the right, and close to 
 the foot of the hill, are the ruins of a large temple. Part of the 
 rear wall, ornamented by a large square niche, with a smaller, shell- 
 shaped one above it, and surmounted by a beautiful cornice with 
 elegant broken 
 pediments, sup- 
 ported by two Co- 
 rinthian columns 
 with their entabla- 
 tures, still remains 
 standing. That 
 temple faced the 
 east, and in front 
 of it are the brok- 
 en shafts of a few- 
 columns. With its 
 portico and spa- 
 cious court that 
 temple appears t< < 
 have extended al- 
 most to the main 
 street, lined with 
 columns and run- 
 ning northwards, 
 on an elevated ter- 
 race, parallel with 
 the river, until it 
 reached the north 
 gate of the city. 
 
 Look well to your footsteps as we ascend the steep hill-side, so 
 completely covered with the remains of prostrate houses, lest you 
 stumble over the ruined walls or tumble into one of the broken 
 vaults upon which, many of tlie private residences of this ancient 
 city were built. Like those at es Salt, these houses rose tier above 
 tier, the roofs of those below forming the courts of the om-s above 
 them, and so on up this steep declivity to the top of the hill. 
 
 KI.AK W \l.l. I U A I -AKl.K IK.M I'l.K
 
 5i6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 But they have all been thrown down in an overwhelnning mass 
 by the shock of earthquakes, and nothing now remains of them 
 but some foundations and a few side walls. As in the case of el 
 Busrah or Bozrah, so here "judgment has come" upon Rabbath- 
 ammon, and the Lord has stretched " out upon it the line of con- 
 fusion, and the stones of emptiness."' 
 
 And now that we have reached the watch-tower or guard-house 
 on the top of the ridge, you can see that the hill extends from 
 south-west to north-east and is almost a mile in length, with a 
 broad, irregular platform on the summit having somewhat the shape 
 of a right angle. The deep Wady Haddadeh protects it on the 
 south-west, and it is defended by a profound ravine on the north- 
 west and north. The only available point of attack or approach 
 is along the narrow neck of land which connects it with the hill 
 farther west. Broad, level fields extend northward from the ditch 
 or moat near the north-east angle of that platform, along the top 
 of the ridge, and the surface declines rapidly to the river vale, about 
 half a mile beyond the north wall of the city. This square watch- 
 tower stands on the eastern side of the platform and overlooks the 
 entire city, the river, and the valley nearly three hundred feet below. 
 A short distance west of it we shall find the foundations and pros- 
 trate columns of a large and noble temple. 
 
 "According to our measurements," says Dr. Merrill, this temple 
 "was fifty feet wide by one hundred and sixty feet long. It had 
 four columns at each end and eight on each side," and was, there- 
 fore, a peripteral temple surrounded by twenty columns. They 
 were " forty-five feet high, and the capitals were of rich Corinthian 
 work. The columns were six feet in diameter, and on the end of 
 two sections was engraved, in very large letters, [a Greek word 
 which] signifies ' from a present, or gift,' showing that the column 
 was a contribution from some wealthy or benevolent person. 
 Around the entire building there appears to have extended an 
 architrave which was three feet wide, and under a portion of it at 
 least was a Greek inscription, beautifully carved, in two lines, the 
 single letters being six inches in length. The stones composing 
 this architrave were badly broken when the building fell, and some 
 
 ' Isa. xxxiv. II.
 
 PERIPTERAL TEMPLE WITHLN THE CITADEL. 
 
 617 
 
 PERIPTERAL TEMPLE WTrHlN THE CITADEL. 
 
 of them are covered in the earth, while others, half buried, project 
 from the ground; the inscription [upon the architrave] is much 
 mutilated and can be copied only in fragments."' 
 
 This low, square structure, a short distance to the north-west 
 of the temple, and half buried by a mass of rubbish, is supposed 
 to have been a church or a mosk. It was first described in detail 
 by Canon Tristram as " a perfect Greek church of the late Byzantine 
 type," and it has since been carefully examined by Captain Conder, 
 of the Palestine Exploration Fund. " The beautiful little Moslem 
 building on the citadel hill," he says, " is one of the most interest- 
 ing monuments of the town. It appears to be an erection all of 
 one period, although the south wall has been injured and perhaps 
 partly rebuilt. The building measures eighty-five and a half feet 
 north and south by eighty and a half feet east and west. It has 
 a central court, thirty- three feet square, and an arched chamber 
 leads back from each side of the court, measuring about eighteen 
 feet either way. There are four other chambers in the finir corners, 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 264. 265.
 
 6i8 
 
 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and on the north-west was a staircase to the roof. The total 
 height is twenty -seven feet, and it [does] not appear that the 
 central court had ever been roofed in. 
 
 "■ The interest of this building consists in the architectural style 
 of iis details. Each alcove, or chamber, opening into the court has 
 a fine arch of peculiar shape, being very nearly semicircular, but 
 having that same slightly elliptical form at the top which can be 
 recognized in the arches of the Dome of the Rock at Jeri^salem. 
 On each side of the arch is a panel decorated with bas-reliefs in 
 stone. These represent arches supported on slender coupled pil- 
 lars. The arch in this case is represented of horseshoe form and 
 decorated with a dog-tooth moulding. It stands on a sort of 
 cornice supported by three small sculptured arches, each with 
 
 DECORATED ARCHES IN THE CHURCH OK MOSK ON THE CITADEL-HILL. 
 
 dwarf twin -pillars. Above the large arch is a second order of 
 these arches, also on dwarf twin -pillars. The spaces under all 
 these arches, between the pillars, are elaborately ornamented with 
 geometric designs which have a somewhat Byzantine appearance. 
 The existence of a mosque in the valley, with round arches, seems
 
 WALLS OF tup: CrrADKL'.-UNDERClRULM) KKSERVOIR. 619 
 
 to show that the Moslems already were building here in or before 
 the ninth century, when they first began to use the pointed arch, 
 and as there is no distinctly pointed arch in the building under 
 consideration, we shall in the first instance be inclined to ascribe 
 its erection to the same period." ' 
 
 Beyond this singular and interesting structure, to the north and 
 west, are the remains of the massive walls that protected the citadel 
 in that direction. It appears to have occupied the entire summit 
 of the hill, from the rock-cut moat on the north-east to this steep 
 escarpment on the west, and at those two only accessible points 
 of approach it was very strongly fortified. The walls are almost 
 entire and are very thick. They were constructed of large blocks 
 of masonry without cement, and the foundations were laid along 
 and " a little below the crest of the hill, and appear not to have 
 risen much above the level of its summit." 
 
 There were several large and deep cisterns, besides the temple 
 and other structures, enclosed within the walls of the citadel, and 
 it was almost entirely dependent upon them for its supply of water. 
 " Immediately north of the citadel," says Captain Conder, " we found 
 a great underground reservoir, having at its mouth a concealed 
 passage, which might perhaps have once led to the interior of the 
 fortress. This passage may be that of which Polybius speaks as 
 being used" by the defenders of the citadel during the siege by 
 Antiochus the Great in 218 B.C. The secret was betrayed by a 
 prisoner, which led to the surrender of the garrison."" 
 
 Leaving the citadel near the south-western angle of the wall. 
 and just above the narrow neck of land which connects it with 
 the hill farther west, we will descend into W'ady Iladdadeh and 
 find our way as best we can over and among broken columns and 
 ruined houses back to our tents on the left bank of Moiet 'Amman, 
 as the river is now called. 
 
 Septcniher 27tli. Evening. 
 
 The chief liiblical interest in Rabbath -amnion centres about 
 its capture by Joab and David; but it was the capital of the Am- 
 monites in the time of Moses, several centuries before the reign 
 of David. Its name appears in subsequent history and prophecy, 
 
 ' llcth and .Moalj, p. I57-I5(j. '' llelli and Moalj, p. 150.
 
 620 THE LAND AND* THE BOOK. 
 
 and in such connections as clearly to imply that it had regained 
 its independence, and had again become the chief city of the Am- 
 monite nation. For centuries after it disappears, and during sev- 
 eral succeeding centuries it re-appears as Philadelphia, but its an- 
 cient name was never lost ; and here, amid the ruin and desolation 
 of the Graeco- Roman city, and after a lapse of more than three 
 thousand years, we find its original name of Rabbath-ammon still 
 preserved in the modern Arabic one of 'Amman. 
 
 In " the story of the conquest of Og, king of Bashan," we find 
 the first mention of " Rabbath of the children of Ammon " as the 
 place where the iron bedstead of that giant king was to be seen : 
 " nine cubits was the length thereof, and four cubits the breadth 
 of it, after the cubit of a man,'" Concerning that remarkable 
 couch. Captain Conder suggests that the word " iron " may refer 
 to a throne rather than a bedstead, and that there may have been 
 " a possible connection between Og's throne and some rude stone 
 monument" at Rabbath; and he says: "It was, therefore, very 
 striking to find a single enormous dolmen standing alone in a con- 
 spicuous position near Rabbath Ammon, and yet more striking 
 that the top stone measured thirteen feet, or very nearly nine 
 cubits of sixteen inches, in length. The extreme breadth was eleven 
 feet. It seemed to me possible that it is to this solitary monu- 
 ment that the name ' Og's throne ' might be attached, and I here 
 give the suggestion for what it is worth." ° 
 
 The Ammonites were the descendants of Lot, the nephew of 
 Abraham, and the kinsmen of the children of Israel. The He- 
 brews, therefore, did not molest them nor conquer their territory, 
 and Rabbath appears to have remained independent down to the 
 time of David. The Ammonites, however, ultimately became the 
 aggressors, and the immediate cause of the siege of Rabbath by 
 Joab was the shameful treatment of David's ambassadors, sent 
 " to comfort the king of the children of Ammon " on the death of 
 his father. King Hanun " took David's servants, and shaved off 
 the one half of their beards, and cut off their garments, and sent 
 them away. When David heard of it, he sent Joab, and all the 
 host of the mighty men" against the Ammonites. Joab defeated 
 ' Deut. iii. ii. ^ Heth and Moab, pp. 155, 156.
 
 SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF RAIiBATII BY JOAB AND DAVID. 62 1 
 
 them and returned to Jerusalem ; and the following year he and 
 all Israel were sent by David, "at the time when kings go forth to 
 battle, and they destroyed the children of Ammon, and besieged 
 Rabbah. But David tarried still at Jerusalem."' 
 
 It is evident, from the record in the eleventh and twelfth 
 chapters of 2d Samuel, that the siege must have lasted about 
 two years, or at least until after the birth of Solomon. During 
 all that time the citadel could obtain water from the river be- 
 low; but when Joab had captured the lower town, or "the City 
 of Waters," that supply was cut off, and as many of the inhabi- 
 tants had no doubt escaped to the citadel, the increase of people 
 would quickly exhaust the cisterns, and compel a speedy surren- 
 der. Joab understood that, and therefore sent word to David to 
 come and take it, " Lest," said he, " I take the city, and my name 
 be called upon it," as in the marginal reading. 
 
 From the intimations in the Biblical narrative, we conclude that 
 there were two cities, one along the river vale, " the City of Wa- 
 ters," and the other upon the summit of the hill above it, and that 
 it was this last which David came to, and fought against and took. 
 It was the great citadel where the king dwelt, and included a large 
 and populous city, and not merely a castle defended by a strong 
 garrison. The king's crown, " the weight whereof was a talent of 
 gold, was set on David's head, the spoil of the city in great abun- 
 dance was brought forth," and after cruelly torturing the inhabi- 
 tants, "David and all the people returned unto Jerusalem."" 
 
 Four centuries later we find that Rabbath -ammon had not 
 only recovered from the effects of that conquest, but had again 
 become the capital of the Ammonite nation. Some of the de- 
 nunciations of the prophets against it have been fulfilled in a 
 manner, and to an extent which strikes the traveller with aston- 
 ishment. " Therefore the days come, saith the Lord, that Rabbah 
 of the Ammonites shall be a desolate heap. Wherefore gloriest 
 thou in the valleys, thy flowing valley, saying. Who shall come 
 up unto me? Behold ye shall be driven out every man right 
 forth; and none shall gather up him that wandcrcth."' "And I 
 will make Rabbah a stable for camels, and the Ammonites a couch- 
 ' 2 Sam. X. I, 2, 4, 5, 7-14 ; xi. i. ' 2 Sam. xii. 26-31. ^ Jer. xlix. 2, 4, 5.
 
 622 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 ing place for flocks : and ye shall know that I am the Lord." ' 
 Though we see few camels at 'Amman, the interior of some of 
 the buildings on the citadel -hill is still occupied by them, and 
 the square tower above "the City of Waters" is so filthy from 
 the flocks folded in it, that one can scarcely venture into it, and 
 the surrounding region is at times covered with large droves of 
 camels and numerous flocks of sheep and goats. 
 
 Many of those prophetic denunciations referred not merely to 
 the capital city, but also to the entire people and land of Am- 
 mon. •' Behold, therefore, I will stretch out mine hand upon thee, 
 and will deliver thee for a spoil to the heathen ; and I will cut 
 thee off from the people, and I will cause thee to perish out of 
 the countries: I will destroy thee: and thou shalt know that I 
 am the Lord."' "The Ammonites [shall] not be remembered 
 amongst the nations ; and Amnion shall be a perpetual desola- 
 tion."^ Those prophetic threatenings have been fulfilled to the 
 very letter. Nothing but ruins are found here by the amazed 
 explorer. Not even an inhabited village remains, and not a sin- 
 gle Ammonite exists on the face of the earth. 
 
 About three centuries later Rabbath -ammon was rebuilt by 
 Ptolemy IL of Egypt, and called, after him, Philadelphia, and it 
 is mentioned under that name by Greek and Roman writers and 
 Josephus. During the wars between the Syrian and Egyptian 
 successors of Alexander the Great the possession of it was fierce- 
 ly coiitended, and with varying success. Antiochus the Great be- 
 sieged and captured it in the third century before Christ, and 
 Herod the Great carried the citadel by assault, a few years be- 
 fore the commencement of our era. Li the time of the Romans 
 Philadelphia was one of the cities of the Decapolis ; and after 
 the establishment of Christianity it became the seat of a bishop, 
 and thus continued until the Muhammedan conquest, in the sev- 
 enth century. From that time this place is rarely mentioned, 
 even by Arabian writers, until modern travellers began to visit it 
 in the early part of the present century, and astonished the world 
 with descriptions of its remarkable ruins. 
 
 ' Ezek. XXV. 5. '■' Ezek xxv. 7. 
 
 •^ Ezek. xxv. 10 ; Zeph. ii. 9.
 
 THREE SUNDAYS AT •AMMAN.— A PLOUCII FOR FIREWOOD. 623 
 
 Siimlay, September 2Sth. Evening. 
 
 The quiet rest of this Sabbath-day amidst the ruins at 'Am- 
 man will be remembered as amongst the most agreeable, impres- 
 sive, and instructive experiences in our pilgrimage through these 
 Biblical and historical lands. Everything around us, animate and 
 inanimate, suggests the ancient, and recalls the manners and cus- 
 toms of extinct tribes and nationalities. Men, women, and chil- 
 dren, in costume, in features, in language, and in actions, seem to 
 be a veritable reproduction of primitive and patriarchal times. 
 
 And the same is true of the animals, of the camels and the 
 asses with their old-fashioned saddles, and the flocks and the 
 herds with their shepherds and their dogs. E\'en the birds are 
 Biblical, for the solemn stork, which, according to Jeremiah, " know- 
 eth her appointed times" for migration, has already reached this 
 point.' They congregate every evening in great numbers about 
 these ruins, and the top of the minaret and of the high v.-alls in 
 that vicinity are covered with them. 
 
 I have spent three Sabbaths here. On m\' first visit there was 
 not a single inhabitant, and the day was much quieter than the 
 present one. Years after, on my second \isit, there was only a 
 poor, blind, and wretched old woman and her daughter hid awa\' 
 in one of the vaults of the great theatre. She kept the keys of 
 the chambers under the seats, in which grain had been deposited 
 for safe-keeping by the 'Adwan, and very few flocks came here to 
 drink. This year there has been but little rain, the brooks and 
 many of the fountains are already dry, and hence not onl)' the 
 Bedawin and their camels and flocks, but e\'en the storks and other 
 birds are compelled to come here, and during the autumn this gen- 
 erally forsaken vale will be full of life, noise, and confusion. 
 
 An incident in our experience yesterday indicated most em- 
 I)hatically the entire absence of trees in this region. The charcoal 
 which we brought with us had been exhausted, and after trying 
 in vain, by offering a large bakhshish to the bo\'s who gathered 
 about the tents, to procure something combustible with which to 
 prepare our dinner, the cook was obliged to purchase a plough from 
 a fellah and cut it Lip for firewood. Such misuse of an agriculturcd 
 
 ' Jcr. viii. 7.
 
 624 l"^^^ LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 implement, so necessary to the very existence of the farmer himself, 
 never before occurred in all my travels in this country, nor have I 
 ever heard of a similar expedient. The last fragments of that ill- 
 fated plough will serve to boil the kettle for to-morrow morning's 
 tea, and it appears that we must migrate or dispense altogether 
 with cooking, for there is not another plough to be found. 
 
 To-morrow our ride will be a long one, through' the wide open 
 plains of the fertile Belka to 'Aiyun Musa, the Fountains of Mo- 
 ses, in the valley below the summit of Jebel Neba, or Mount Nebo. 
 Had we the time we might have made an excursion to the place 
 where this pretty little stream disappears entirely, and then fol- 
 lowed along the banks to where the waters re -appeared again. 
 Burckhardt, when he was here in i8i2, was informed that this 
 stream disappeared and re-appeared three times between 'Amman 
 and Kul'at ez Zerka, and I have had the opportunity to confirm 
 the correctness of that statement. 
 
 The last time I was here, in company with Dr. Merrill, we started 
 down the valley on our way to Kul'at ez Zerka, about twelve miles 
 distant. Soon after leaving these ruins we noticed that the volume 
 of water in the stream was gradually diminishing, and in half an 
 hour after that the bed of the stream was as dry as the road. 
 About a mile farther on the water began to re-appear in the same 
 gradual manner as it had disappeared. And that subsidence of the 
 waters beneath the small stones in the bed of the stream and their 
 subsequent re-appearance was repeated three times before we came 
 to the great fountains of the Jabbok near Kul'at ez Zerka, which 
 the Bedawin call Ras ez Zerka, the head-waters of that river. 
 
 The rock strata must be of a very peculiar character to enable 
 the water of so considerable a stream to sink away by insensible 
 degrees until the bed of it was quite dry. 
 
 I have noticed similar phenomena occurring in small brooks, but 
 I never before saw a large stream thus die away and rise again. 
 For the last hour before we arrived at the fountains of the Zerka 
 the stream was quite as large as at 'Amman, and it was evident, 
 from the marks along the banks, that during the winter this stream 
 from 'Amman does not all disappear below the surface.
 
 •AMMAN TO AVLN MLS A. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 'AMMAN TO 'AYUN MUSA. 
 
 Noisy Rooks.— Solemn Storks.— Ascent to the Plain south of 'Amman.— No Roads and 
 no Fences. — The Land of the Ammonites. — Jephthah's Victorious Campaign. — Aroer 
 to Minnith. — Tyre supplied with Wheat from Minnith.— No Inhabited Place upon the 
 Belka. — Abu Nugla.— Excursion to Mushatta.— The sterile Desert.— Luxuriant Wheat. 
 — Camps of the Beni Sakhr.— Commotion in the Camp.— Uneasy Guides.— Rualla Bod- 
 awin.— Blood Feud.— Haj Road to Mecca.— Route of the Egyptian Haj.— En Nukhl.— 
 "The Wilderness of the Wanderings."— Khan Miishatta.— Massive Enclosing Wall de- 
 fended by Twenty-five Towers.— Octagonal Towers.— The Fa9ade.— Elegant Sculpture, 
 unparalleled by that of any Age or Nation. — Twenty-two Animals and fifty-five Birds 
 carved in Stone. — Entrance Gate-way.— The Middle Division of the Enclosure.— Cham- 
 bers for the Guard and Garrison.— Court.— Triple Gate of the Palace.— Court.— Entrance 
 Gate-way to the Audience-chamber. — The Audiencc-cliamber. — Side Chambers. — Walls. 
 Vaults, and Domes constructed of Brick.— Large Size and Extraordinary Number of the 
 Bricks.— Bedawin Tribal Marks.— Rude Arabic Characters.— Desolate and Lonely Site. 
 —Material and Workmen transported from a Distance.— The wonderful Palace of Mush- 
 atta discovered by Canon Tristram.— Mr. James Fergusson.— Chosroes IL— Shahr Barz. 
 
 Dr. AlerrilL— Mushatta, a Church and Convent.— Mushatta never finished.— Its Origin 
 
 and Purpose unknown.— The Wintering Place.— But little Debris and less Destruction. 
 —Dread of the Rualla Bedawin.— The Haj Road and the Advance of the Hebrews 
 along the Eastern Frontiers of Edom and Moab.— Entrance into the Territory of Sihon. 
 —The Amorites and Moabites. — Reuben and Gad.— The Boundaries of Moab and of 
 the Amorites.- A rolling Country.— Green Wheat-fields.— Quails and Gazelles.— The 
 Jackal and the Fox.— Temple and Church at Madeba.— A large Reservoir.— Ziza.— 
 Tanks and Cisterns.— Ruined Houses.— Remains of Temples and Public Buildings.— 
 Roman Suburb at Madeba.— Colonnade.— Bil)lical History of Medeba.— " The Plain 
 of Medeba."— Great Battle in the Time of David.— Thirty-two thousand Chariots.— 
 Joab and Abishai defeat the Amorites and Syrians.— Medeba taken by Sihon.— Capt- 
 ured and re-captured by the Ammonites and Moabites.— Secular History of Medeba.— 
 The Nabatheans.— Slaughter of a Wedding -i)arty near Medeba.— John Maccabeus.- 
 Hyrcanus I. besieged Medeba.— A History of Conciuest, Bloodshed, and Sieges.— Me- 
 deba the Seat of a Bishop.— The ]5esom of Destruction.— Devastating Beil.win.- 
 Traces of old Roads.— Ancient Names of I'ersons and Places well known \>y the roam- 
 ing Denizens of the Desert.- Monuments of Remote Antiijuity — The Dolmens.— 
 Pillars of Witness and Votive Monuments.— Stone Circles, Menhirs. Disc-stones, and 
 T 2
 
 626 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 rock-cut Tombs. — Menhirs alluded to in the Bible.— Disc-stones. — Agricultural Capa- 
 bility of the Belka. — The Region between Madeba and Abu Nugla. — The Beni Sakhr. 
 — Thousands of Camels. — The numberless Camels of the Midianites. — Fifty thousand 
 Camels taken from the Hagarites. — Golden Ear-rings of the Ishmaelites. — The Bed- 
 awin Lineal Descendants of the Hagarites. — Ornaments and Garments similar to those 
 of the Midianites. — The Wheat in the Valleys more luxuriant than on the Plain. — 
 Cretaceous Limestone Ridges. — A double Supply of Rain-water. — Arabic Proverbs 
 and Biblical Utterances. — A high Appreciation of Water. — Surprising Number of 
 Cisterns excavated in the Cretaceous Rock. — The 'Adwan and the Broken Cisterns. — 
 Extensive View over Ancient Moab. — Kerak. — Diljon. — The Moabite Stone. — King 
 Mesha. — Two hundred thousand Lambs and Rams. — Baal-meon. — Ruins at Ma'in 
 described by Canon Tristram. — Beth-meon. — Biblical History of Beth-meon. — One of 
 the High-places of Baal. — Balak and Balaam. — The Birthplace of Elisha. — Ma'in a 
 shapeless Mass of Ruins. — Threshing-floors. — Bedawin taking Wheat out of a deep 
 Cistern. — Grain concealed from hostile Tribes. — Entrance to a deep Pool of Water 
 reluctantly disclosed. — No W^ood to boil the Kettle. — The Zerka Ma'm. — Excursion 
 to Callirrhoe. — Bedawin Encampment. — Camels and Flocks of Sheep and Goats. — 
 Fresh Cheese. — " Houses of Hair." — A pretty Pastoral Scene. — A magnificent View 
 of the Dead Sea. — Changeable Color of the Water. — A hopeless Wilderness. — Tre- 
 mendous Gorge of the Zerka Ma'in. — Lieutenant Conder's Description of the Gorge 
 and the Hot Springs of Callirrhoe. — " The Black Crackle." — The Hot Sulphur Springs 
 of Callirrhoe. — The Stream from the Zerka Ma'in. — Pools full of Fish. — Tunnel 
 through Tufaceous Sulphur. — A thermal Bath at 140° Fahrenheit. — The Mules found 
 by Anah in the Wilderness. — Anah discovers Callirrhoe. — Visit of Herod the Great 
 to Callirrhoe. — Baaras. — Fountains of Hot Water described by Josephus. — Medicinal, 
 and good for Strengthening the Nerves. — " Mines of Sulphur and Alum." — John the 
 Baptist beheaded in the Castle of Machasrus. — Herod's Supper, and the Dancing of 
 Herodias's Daughter. — " The Head of John the Baptist in a Charger." — War between 
 Aretas and Herod. — " The Destruction of Herod's Army a Punishment from God." — 
 Vain Attempt to reach the Shore of the Dead Sea from the Sulphur Springs of Callir- 
 rhoe. — The Ibex. — Stupendous Cliff of Columnar Basalt. — A gigantic Organ. — Kufeir 
 Abu Bedd. — Disc-stones in Moab. — Mensef Abu Zeid. — Two large W^olves. — Shefa 
 Neba, the Crest of Nebo. — Sahl Neba. — Jebel Neba, " the Mountain of Nebo." — 
 Elevated Plateau of the Belka, and great Depression of the Shittim Plain. — Preserva- 
 tion of ancient Biblical Names. — The unchanged Name of Nebo. — View from Jebel 
 Neba. — El Muslubiyeh. — The grassy Ravine between Jebel Neba and Jebel Siaghah. 
 — Ruined Temple on Jebel Siaghah. — The City of Nebo. — View from the Ruins on 
 Jebel Siaghah. — The Headland or Ras of Siaghah. — " The Mountain of Nebo, and 
 the Top of Pisgah." — Here Moses must have stood. — The View of the Promised Land. 
 — The Outlook from Ras Siaghah. — The Names Neba and Siaghah, and Nebo and 
 Pisgah. — Siaghah an Arabic Form of the Hebrew Pisgah. — Descent to 'Ayun Musa. — 
 Approach of the Hebrews to the Land of Promise. — " The Mountains of Abarim." — 
 Descent of the Israelites to "the Plains of Moab." — Balak and Balaam. — Balaam's 
 Sublime Conceptions regarding the God of Israel. — Thrice seven Altars and twice as 
 many Sacrifices. — Jebel Neba the first Station. — Balaam's Parable. — "The Field of
 
 NOISY ROOKS.— SOLEMN STORKS.— ri.AIN OF EL BELK.\. dl-J 
 
 Zophim." — The Grassy Vale between Jebel Neba and Jebel Siaghah. — The Parable 
 of Balaam. — "The Top of Peor." — The Summit of Siaghah. — Balaam's Parable. — 
 Wralh of Balak, and Flight of Balaam. — What "the Son of Beor saw and said." — 
 Balaam an Unprincipled Man. — Slain in Battle fighting against Israel. — Obstinate 
 and Puzzling Questions. 
 
 September 29th. 
 
 Leaving 'Amman at this early hour, there is nothing stirring 
 among these solitary ruins except that colony of noisy rooks in the 
 crannies of the cliff that overhangs the river opposite the Basilica. 
 
 They are always there, and loudly express their alarm and resent- 
 ment of all passing intruders. In the spring the high walls of the 
 ruins in that neighborhood are the favorite roosting-place of the 
 storks. It is then one of the diversions of the place to watch those 
 large and long-legged birds flocking thither at evening from the 
 surrounding region, and to witness the quarrelling amongst them- 
 selves for the most comfortable spot upon which to roost. They 
 rarely nest in this part of the country, but migrate for that purpose 
 to the extreme north of Syria and to Asia Minor; still many of 
 them prolong their stay here until the end of the summer, and are 
 seen in small companies roaming through the fields and over the 
 plains, seeking in silent and solemn gravity for their proper food. 
 
 What may that be ? 
 
 Earthworms, grubs, grasshoppers, insects, snails, mice, and frogs. 
 Storks are by no means fastidious as to their diet, and they even 
 kill lizards and small snakes, and devour them greedily. 
 
 Having after this long ascent reached the general level of the 
 country south of 'Amman, we must turn to the south-west, and 
 direct our course towards Jebel Neba. For most of the day we 
 shall follow no road, nor do we need any. The great plain of the 
 Belka stretches away westward and southward farther than the 
 range of vision ; nor is there wall, hedge, or enclosure of any kind 
 to interfere with the perfect freedom of our travel. Although this 
 fertile plateau must have been thickly inhabited by the Ammonites, 
 in the days of their prosperity, they have left but few indications 
 of their presence, and there is not even a tree within sight to attract 
 attention or relieve the oppressive solitude. 
 
 Very different must this land of the Ammonites have been 
 when Jephthah made his victorious campaign against the king of
 
 628 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Ammon, more than eleven centuries before the Christian era. He 
 conquered twenty cities in this very Hmited territory from Aroer, 
 supposed to be the ruin called 'Aireh, north-west of 'Amman, to 
 Minnith, possibly Minyeh, east of Hesban.' Minnith appears to 
 have supplied Tyre with a superior kind of wheat in the time of 
 Ezekiel, and it is fair to conclude that it was somewhere on this 
 wheat-growing plain of the Belka ; and it may have given its name 
 to all the wheat that was taken to Tyre from this region.^ 
 
 That supposition is sufficiently probable to impart additional 
 interest to this broad, apparently boundless, and treeless plain, over 
 which we seem to be wandering at will. 
 
 The objective point of this day's ride is Jebel Neba, Mount 
 Nebo, which rises to a moderate elevation on the south-western 
 border of the Belka. We shall, therefore, cross this great plain 
 diagonally from north-east to south-west, and along that line there 
 is not an important ruin nor a single inhabited place, and we have 
 entire liberty to select any course that best suits our purpose. By 
 inclining to the south of the direct line from this to Nebo, we shall 
 pass Khirbet Abu Nugla, or Abu Nukla, el 'Al, and Hesban, on the 
 right, and near enough to Madeba and Ma'in, on the left, to obtain 
 a view of them and of the land of Moab beyond the Zerka Ma'in, 
 southward to the river Arnon. Several years ago our party spent 
 a night at Abu Nugla, to which deserted place we had come from 
 Madeba in order to find water and to shorten the ride to Mushatta, 
 about five hours to the south of 'Amman. 
 
 Abu Nugla is not a ruined village, nor is there a single house in 
 sight; and only a number of rock-cut cisterns are found there, from 
 one of which we obtained an abundant supply of cool, sweet water. 
 We had for our guides Fahd and 'Ali, and three other sheikhs of 
 the 'Adwan. As none of thenn had ever been to Mushatta, they 
 could not tell how long it would take to get there, nor how many 
 hours' ride it would be from there to 'Amman, where we intended 
 to spend the next night. In that uncertainty we took an early 
 breakfast, and leaving the muleteers and servants with one of the 
 'Adwan sheikhs to make their way to 'Amman direct, we set off 
 southward to re-discover the now famous palace at Mushatta. 
 ' Judges xi. 33. ^ Ezek. xxvii. 17.
 
 THE STERILE DESERT.— CAMPS OF THE BEXI SAKHR. Gzg 
 
 We had a striking illustration of the manner in which the fertile 
 land fades away into the sterile desert. For the first half hour 
 we passed through luxuriant wheat, there being no road, and then 
 ascended a low rocky ridge, from which the plain rolled a\va\- cast- 
 ward and southward to the horizon. For the next hour the soil 
 was capable of cultivation, and much of the land must occasionally 
 be sown with wheat. That part of the plain of el Belka was dotted 
 over with the camps of the Beni Sakhr, and the smoke from their 
 early fires rose only a few feet above the tents, and spreading widely 
 over them, had all the appearance of a silvery cloud gleaming in 
 the morning sunlight ; but a gentle breeze from the soutii soon 
 dissipated that bright and beautiful illusion. 
 
 Our guides were not quite at ease after we left their own terri- 
 tory and entered upon that of the Beni Sakhr. As we passed by 
 one of the large encampments of that tribe there appeared to be 
 a hurried gathering of Bedawin engaged in an angry discussion. 
 Men on foot and on horseback were coming from all sides, and 
 there was a general commotion in the camp. One of our sheikhs 
 cantered off to meet a horseman with a long spear as he passed 
 speeding towards the noisy assembly, and he reported that the 
 dispute was about some family quarrel amongst the Beni Sakhr 
 themselves, and with which we had no concern. 
 
 After passing beyond the range of the Beni Sakhr the guides 
 suddenly called a halt, and taking our glasses made an anxious 
 survey of the region to the south-cast. We had reached the debat- 
 able frontier between the Beni Sakhr and the Rualla Bedawin, a 
 large tribe occupying the desert farther east, and who for the time 
 being were " at war " with both the 'Adwan and the Beni Sakhr. 
 Our sheikhs finally decided that what they supposed to be an en- 
 campment of their enemies was merely a clump of bushes on the 
 hill-side, and we resumed our ride in that direction. I asketl Sheikh 
 Fahd what would have occurred to us all in case there had real!}' 
 been some of those formidable Rualla in sight. 
 
 "We should have had to dei)en(l u[)on the speed of our horses," 
 said he, "and fled back to the camp of the Beni Sakhr, for the 
 Rualla are very powerful. That tribe are more than a match for 
 the 'Adwan and the Beni Sakhr combined, and wiiilc the existing
 
 630 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 blood feud remains unsettled neither we ourselves nor any travel- 
 ler could pass east of the Haj road without great risk." 
 
 The peculiar parallel and well-worn tracks, which we soon after 
 crossed, were made by the caravan of the Haj on its way to Mecca. 
 There are more than twenty of such trails, running close together, 
 as far as the eye can reach in either direction. I have seen the 
 same thing on the route of the Egyptian Haj, which I crossed on 
 my way from Sinai, near the castle of en Nukhl, in the middle of 
 "the Wilderness of the Wanderings." When there is nothing to 
 prevent the caravan from spreading out, the camels select different 
 paths and thus advance with a broad and imposing front. Of course 
 they must all follow in single file when passing through narrow 
 ravines, and then their progress is much retarded. 
 
 Sheikh 'Ali, who had cantered up to the top of the hill ahead 
 of us, motioned that the place we had come to see was farther to 
 the south, and we therefore changed our course accordingly. Soon 
 after rising the hill we reached Mijshatta, after a pleasant ride of 
 about four hours from Abu Nugla. The so-called palace stands 
 upon the open desert, and entirely alone in that arid and treeless 
 wilderness. As we approached it from the north and on a higher 
 level, it had the appearance of a ruined caravansary of great size ; 
 and in fact it is called Khan Mushatta by the Bedawin. Such is 
 the first impression, nor is it modified until one passes around the 
 external wall to the main entrance on the south side. 
 
 Mushatta is an extraordinary and unique structure, unlike any 
 other ruin with which to compare it in this country. It consists 
 of an open square area, surrounded by a massive wall, about five 
 hundred feet in length on all its four sides, and from fifteen to 
 twenty feet high, and the space thus enclosed was divided longi- 
 tudinally, from south to north, into three parts, the central being 
 the largest. The wall is built of well-cut but not very large blocks 
 of limestone, and was defended by twenty-five towers. Those at 
 the four corners or angles are circular, the flanking towers on either 
 side of the entrance are octagonal, and those along the side walls 
 are semicircular. The facade extends for about one hundred and 
 eighty feet between the first semicircular towers on the right and 
 left of the main entrance, and of course includes the two octagonal
 
 KIIAX MUSIIATTA— THE WINTERINCrLACE. 
 
 631 
 
 flanking towers. The latter are entirely covered with most intri- 
 cate, elaborate, and admirably executed sculpture, which is con- 
 tinued over the face of the wall beyond each of them for about 
 seventy feet to the east and west. 
 
 A — THE WINTER 1 
 
 It can be truly said of the fa9ade that it is "adorned with a 
 richness and magnificence unparalleled, and scarcely exceeded in 
 the architecture of any age or nation." The wall of the fa<;adc, in 
 its present condition, is about twenty feet high, and along the face 
 of it ran an elegant zigzag moulding, at least ten feet higii, in bold 
 relief, with large bosses in the centre of the triangular segments, 
 or sections, above and below the moulding. Within and about 
 those sections every available space has been covered with fret- 
 work of great beauty and variety of design — vines, fruit, birds, 
 animals, and even men. In the midst of that graceful stone tracery 
 of blending foliage and fruit birds are seen in the act of pecking 
 at the fruit, and there are a variety of animals, some of which are 
 represented as drinking from stone vases. 
 
 On that part of the fa9ade west of the gate-way are lions, pan-
 
 632 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 thers, lynx, several with wings, buffaloes, gazelles, and some other 
 animals. Among those, but mostly above them, are many kinds 
 of birds, such as peacocks, pigeons, partridges, and smaller birds — 
 twenty-two animals and fifty-five birds in all. There are also figures 
 of men on the side of the tower west of the entrance, and one on 
 the wall beyond it, but they are somewhat defaced. The ornament- 
 al work of the gate-way is of the same character as that on the zig- 
 zag moulding ; but it is not so elaborate as that on the octagonal 
 towers, or upon the fagade on either side of them. There are no 
 birds and but two animals on the wall east of the entrance, but 
 a space as large as that on the west side, and corresponding to 
 it, is covered with blended vines, fruits, and flowers in endless 
 variety, and beautifully carved. 
 
 It is very evident that the facade, and indeed the entire struct- 
 ure, at Mushatta was not only never finished, but it can be said 
 that it was not even fairly commenced. The gate-way on the south 
 seems to have been the only entrance, and within the enclosure the 
 middle division, two hundred feet wide and five hundred feet long, 
 was apparently the only one intended for occupation. It was di- 
 vided into three sections, the central being the largest, and that 
 around and beyond the entrance was the smallest. In that section 
 there were sixteen chambers, probably intended for the accommo- 
 dation of the guard and garrison ; but nothing seems to have been 
 added to the foundations, Avhich are just level with the surface. 
 The middle section was an open court, nearly two hundred feet 
 square, but without any rooms or chambers, and no traces of foun- 
 dations. The third and last section is somewhat smaller, and was 
 entirely occupied by the so-called palace itself. 
 
 The entrance to the palace was from the south, through a wide 
 and lofty central gate -way, with two smaller side entrances. The 
 fallen arches of that triple gate lie prostrate in regular order in front 
 of the entrance, apparently overthrown by an earthquake shock. 
 The massive square buttresses and pillars from which those arches 
 sprung, and upon which they rested, are still standing, and the carv- 
 ing on their capitals resembles that upon the outside of the main 
 gate-way between the flanking towers. Beyond the triple gate is a 
 large open court, about sixty feet wide and seventy-five feet long.
 
 THE SO-CALLED PALACE OF MLMlAl lA. 633 
 
 with several vaulted chambers on either side, communicating with 
 interior passages, courts, and various other chambers. 
 
 At the end of the open court was another wide gate with mas- 
 sive square pilasters, whose capitals are more elaborately orna- 
 mented than those of the triple gate-way. That entrance led into 
 what was probably the grand audience-chamber of the palace. It 
 had large semicircular recesses, or alcoves, on the sides and at the 
 farther end opposite the entrance, and, including them, it was about 
 fifty feet square. The audience -chamber appears to have had a 
 domed or arched roof, with side vaults over the three alcoves. To 
 the right and left of the entrance are doors leading to courts and 
 passages communicating with lofty vaulted chambers, which extend 
 on either side of the audience-chamber, and beyond it to the north 
 wall of the main enclosure ; and behind the audience-chamber are 
 similar vaulted chambers, which are entered by arched door-ways 
 on the right and left of the rear alcove. 
 
 With the exception of the triple gate -way and the entrance to 
 the audience-chamber, the walls, vaults, and domes of the so-called 
 palace at jMushatta were constructed of brick or tiles. The walls 
 were of great thickness, and about twenty-five feet high, and the 
 bricks of which they were built rested upon a foundation of three 
 courses of well- cut stones. Many of the bricks are about a foot 
 square and three inches thick. They were well burnt and laid in 
 mortar, and the amount of them is truly surprising. The palace, 
 also, was never finished, and the stones are covered with the tribal 
 marks of the Bedawin. Hundreds of such signs and brief sentences 
 in rude Arabic characters are seen all over the walls of the cham- 
 bers, and also on those of the main enclosure. Such marks and 
 scrawls are of no special historic importance, and there is apparent- 
 ly nothing about the twenty-five or more chamlx-rs of the palace to 
 indicate that they were intended for the dwelling apartments, or 
 even the hunting-lodge of a royal prince. 
 
 The site certainly has nothing to recommL-nd it for a pal.ilial 
 residence. Situated on the open plain, with higher ground about 
 it, surrounded by a flat, arid desert, entirely destitute of water, with 
 no human habitation in sight for many a weary mile, far from 
 any highway — what could have been the motive that led to its
 
 634 I'HE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 construction? and from whence came the building material? The 
 compact limestone is different from the rock of the surrounding 
 region ; and the brick, of which there is such an extraordinary 
 amount, must have been moulded and burnt far away from that 
 neighborhood. In fact, the entire material and all the workmen 
 must have been transported thither from a great distance ; and to 
 what end, for what purpose, and by whom ? 
 
 Canon Tristram, to whom we are indebted for the discovery and 
 detailed description of the wonderful "palace at Mushatta," accepts 
 the opinion of Mr. James Fergusson, " referring it to the Sassanian 
 dynasty of Persian kings, and to the history of Chosroes II., and 
 fixing the date to be A.D. 614.'" Dr. Merrill finds "that Chosroes 
 was never in Palestine," and is "almost certain that Chosroes did 
 not build the Mushatta palace." " It is, moreover, very doubtful," he 
 says, " if it was built by Shahr Barz," the general of Chosroes." And 
 he adds: "During the latter part of this period [extending from 
 the second to the fifth centuries of the Christian era], when the 
 Byzantine artists were the finest in the world, when Christianity 
 w^as tending towards monasticism, and when, for the East Jordan 
 country at least, wealth abounded, it is not unreasonable to suppose 
 that one of the Christian emperors built at Mushatta a church and 
 convent on a magnificent scale." ^ 
 
 We examined the ruins at Mushatta together, and I find, on 
 looking over my notes, taken on the spot, that such an idea — of a 
 large convent and church — was constantly suggested by the peculi- 
 arities of that vast structure; and the arrangement of the courts, 
 passages, chambers, alcoves, etc., accords \^'ith such a theory as that 
 of Dr. Merrill. Whatever may have been the object in its construc- 
 tion, however, it was never realized. The architects and builders 
 dropped the work half finished, and fled, leaving unsolved " the ori- 
 gin of one of the most interesting ruins to be found in any part of 
 the world." But we can also, like Dr. Merrill, feel "quite confident 
 that more detailed measurements and observations, accompanied by 
 excavations, will throw light upon a question which it would be 
 most gratifying to have solved."* 
 
 ' Land of Moab, p. 208. * East of the Jordan, p. 260. 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 262, 263. ^ East of the Jordan, p. 263.
 
 DREAD OF THE RUALLA.— APVAN'CE OF THE HEBREWS. 635 
 
 jMushatta is merely the Arabic name for a place which may be 
 occupied in the winter, but those ruins can now only afford a miser- 
 able shelter to the Bedawin, with their flocks and herds, during the 
 rainv season. There is, therefore, but little rubbish in or about the 
 place, and the intricate and elegant carving has suffered less from 
 vandal hands than that in any other ruin in the country. The walls 
 have not been pulled down and the stones carried away to adja- 
 cent villages, for there are none in that region, and therefore even 
 the bricks, which might be easily transported, remain undisturbed. 
 Our Bedawin sheikhs were in such dread of the Rualla that they 
 urged us to depart from that neighborhood. Indeed some of them 
 mounted their horses and started, and we were obliged to follow 
 them, although we would have liked to spend days instead of hours 
 studying the details of that extraordinary structure. After leaving 
 Mushatta for 'Amman, we followed the Haj road northward for 
 several miles. Those many compact and parallel paths testify to 
 the earnest and persistent enthusiasm of the Muhammedan world. 
 Age after age, for a thousand years and more, those pilgrim cara- 
 vans have trod their weary way along that dreary road and toiled 
 through the burning desert to Mecca and the venerated Caaba in 
 far-distant Arabia. That strange caravan route has always been 
 invested, in my mind, with peculiar interest. It indicates, south of 
 Miashatta, I suppose, the general course which the Hebrews followed 
 on their journey to this region from Ezion-gaber, when they " turned 
 and passed by the way of the wilderness of Moab." ' 
 
 Refused permission to pass through the land of Edom. they 
 must have inclined eastward for many miles to get beyond the ter- 
 ritory of the Edomites, before they could turn northward, and that 
 would bring them near the present Haj road to Mecca, which, no 
 doubt, follows the most practicable route along the eastern frontier 
 of Edom and Moab. When, therefore, the Hebrews had reached 
 a point in their journey northward, somewhere in the wilderness 
 south-west of Mushatta, they probably turned westward, and en- 
 tered the fertile region between the territory of Moab and lliat of 
 "Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon." The Amorites had con- 
 quered much of the original possessions of the Moabites, as we learn 
 
 ' Dcut. ii. 8.
 
 6^6 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 from the twenty- second chapter of Numbers and elsewhere. At 
 the command of the Lord, Moses did not hesitate to attack them, 
 and having defeated " Sihon and all his people," he took their cities. 
 Nor were they restored to the Moabites, but the whole territory of 
 the Amorites was allotted to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. 
 
 We must now be traversing that very region, but I suppose it is 
 nearly impossible to ascertain the boundaries of those tribes. 
 
 The river Arnon appears to have been the natural boundary be- 
 tween them on the south, but their possessions seem to have been 
 singularly intermixed, and places may have frequently changed own- 
 ers, sometimes being subject to the Moabites and at others to the 
 Amorites, and subsequently to the Hebrews. 
 
 After four hours of steady riding southward from 'Amman, we 
 must be in the territory of Reuben, for Elealeh and Mebeba, which 
 belonged to that tribe, are a few miles to the west and south-west 
 of us. We shall pass by the former to-morrow, but it would now 
 lead us too far out of our way to visit the latter. We will there- 
 fore ride to the top of that hill a short distance ahead of us on 
 the left, from which we can get a distant view of it. 
 
 From our present stand-point Mabeba, situated on its tell, and 
 extending down on to the plain, presents quite an imposing ap- 
 pearance, and it must have been an important city. 
 
 We came to it from Ma'in in an hour and a half, our Bedawin 
 sheikhs leading us over a beautiful rolling country and through 
 green wheat -fields in the broad vales that lay between the two 
 places. Quails started up from under the feet of our horses, flew 
 for a few rods, and then dropped down into the wheat as if they 
 had been shot. The 'Adwan guides and some of our party gave 
 chase to fleet gazelles, but failed to overtake them ; and a guilty- 
 looking jackal and a terrified fox had to run for their lives. We 
 went first to examine a ruin upon, the hill west of the city. You 
 can distinctly see the two columns which still remain standing be- 
 fore the western entrance to that edifice. They are about twenty 
 feet high, and the shafts swell out in the middle ; the capitals, one 
 Corinthian, the other Ionic, and the entablature, merely a large 
 block of rough stone, have evidently been placed there at a later 
 period. The edifice to which the columns belonged may have been
 
 LARGE RESERVOIR.— ZIZA.— ROMAN RIIXS. 637 
 
 a large temple, Avhich was afterwards transformed into a church. 
 The exterior walls have all disappeared, but the foundations of the 
 apse at the east end can be clearly traced. 
 
 Between the hill on which that church stood and the city in the 
 shallow vale is a large reservoir or tank. It is about three hundred 
 and thirty feet long from east to west, and three hundred and twelve 
 feet broad from north to south, measuring from the inside. It is 
 over fifteen feet deep from the top of the wall to the soil which 
 now covers the bottom, and which is often planted with tobacco. 
 At the south-east and north-east corners stone steps led down to 
 the water, and on the latter corner was a strongly built tower, 
 probably for the defence of the reservoir. The wall is in excellent 
 preservation, and is about twenty feet high and twelve feet thick ; 
 but on the east side at the base it is over eighteen feet wide, dimin- 
 ishing to twelve feet at the top, and further strengthened b\- a mas- 
 sive embankment, as it was exposed on that side to the heaviest 
 pressure from the great body of water within the reservoir. 
 
 A strong dam was carried across the shallow valley southward 
 to lead the water into the tank during the rainy season. It has 
 long since been washed away, and the reservoir is now always 
 empty. It would require but little expense to put that large 
 reservoir into complete repair, and thus secure an abundant sup- 
 ply of water, not only for all necessary domestic purposes but also 
 to irrigate the fertile fields below it to the south-east. That tank 
 is larger and much more substantially built than the one at Ziza, 
 a place to the south-east of Madeba, which we saw to the south of 
 our route to Mushatta. There are several tanks and numerous 
 cisterns in the town itself, some of which, still containing water, 
 were roofed over and were about thirty feet deep. 
 
 The houses of the inhabitants appear to have covered the entire 
 mound-like hill upon which the city was built, nor were there many 
 open spaces or public buildings within the walls of the town. The 
 existing remains, of apparently Roman origin, are chielly on the 
 north-east of the tell and outside of the city proper. There are to 
 be seen the ruins of a few small temples and several important 
 buildings, as the amount and character of the prostrate remains 
 abundantly testify. The eastern gate of that Roman suburb was
 
 638 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 constructed of large well-squared blocks, and a colonnade ran west- 
 ward from it to the main group of temples and other edifices. 
 Many of the bases of the columns are still in their original position, 
 and the ruins in that quarter are evidently of a later period than 
 those of the old town. Amongst the ruins are great vaults of very 
 deep cisterns, some of which still hold water in the rainy season. 
 Long lines of large, well -cut stones extend in various directions, 
 and seem to enclose nothing, and the edifices to which they be- 
 longed may never have been completed. 
 
 Madeba furnishes one of the most striking examples of the te- 
 nacity with which the ancient names have adhered to their original 
 sites. The name has remained identically the same since the age 
 of Moses, a period of about three thousand five hundred years, and 
 the first mention of it, in Numbers xxi. 30, implies that it was a 
 well-known place long before the time of the Hebrew Law -giver. 
 According to Joshua, xiii. 9 and 16, the city was assigned to Reu- 
 ben, and mention is also made of " the plain of Medeba." Stand- 
 ing on the top of its ruin-covered tell one can realize the appropri- 
 ateness of that topographical designation. Madeba is surrounded 
 by a plain, varied indeed by long wave-like swells which roll away 
 to the horizon, but still a plain of considerable extent. Upon that 
 plain in the time of David the great battle was fought between the 
 Ammonites, with their Syrian confederates, and "all the host" of 
 Israel, commanded by Joab and his brother Abishai. The Syrians, 
 with their " thirty and two thousand chariots," were defeated, and 
 fled from before Joab, and the Ammonites were chased into the 
 city by Abishai ; but Medeba itself was not captured, and the in- 
 ference is that it remained in the hands of the Ammonites.' 
 
 Medeba originally belonged to the Moabites, but it was taken 
 from them by Sihon, king of the Amorites.^ He was defeated by 
 the Hebrews on their approach from " the Wilderness of the Wan- 
 dering," and all his land was confiscated ; but it is not certain that 
 Medeba was ever actually occupied by the Israelites. The Am- 
 monites held it during the reign of David, and the Moabites appar- 
 ently regained possession of it in the time of Isaiah.' After that 
 Medeba is not mentioned again in the Bible. In the second cent- 
 ^ I Chron. xix. I-15. ^ Numb. xxi. 30. ^ Isa. xv. 2.
 
 SECULAR HISTORY OF MEDEBA.— UNCHANGED ANCIENT NAMES. O39 
 
 ury before the •Christian era Medeba belonged to the Nabatheans ; 
 and we read of a grand wedding-party issuing from the city, with 
 the bride and a great train, as befitted " the daughter of one of the 
 great princes of Chanaan." But the bride and groom and all their 
 friends, " with drums, and music, and many weapons," were set upon 
 by Jonathan and Simon Maccabeus, and a great slaughter was made 
 of them, and all their spoils were taken, in revenge for the blood of 
 John, their brother, whom the Nabatheans had captured and carried 
 off, with all that he had, to Medeba.' Josephus informs us that 
 Hyrcanus I. took Medeba after a siege of six months, " and that 
 not without the greatest distress of his army."' 
 
 Thus the history of Medeba, from the earliest times before 
 Moses and the Hebrew conquest down to the Roman period and 
 the beginning of the Christian era, has been distinguished by con- 
 quests, battles, revolutions, bloody massacres, and long sieges ; and 
 it has had its full share in the misfortunes of this region east of the 
 Dead Sea. During the early centuries of our era it was a place of 
 some importance and the seat of a bishop, whose name appears in 
 the records of some of the Eastern Councils. Since then the Mu- 
 hammedan conquerors with their besom of destruction have swept 
 over it, and now the devastating tribes of Bedawin spread their 
 tents upon its great plain and about its crumbling ruins. 
 
 Although ancient roads lead in various directions from Madeba, 
 some of which — probably Roman — can still be traced by parallel 
 lines of curb -stones, yet the Bedawin follow none of them, but 
 strike across the plain and through the green wheat-fields in the 
 direction they wish to take, without any paths whatever. And it is 
 quite startling to hear from those ignorant denizens of the desert 
 the identical names of persons, such as Sihon, and of places, like 
 Medeba, which they bore, and by which they were known in this 
 region, three thousand five hundred years ago, and which have 
 been perpetuated unchanged down to the present day. 
 
 The ruins of the temples and other public edifices at Madeba 
 are comparatively modern. Are there no ancient remains in this 
 region of a Moabite or Hebrew origin ? 
 
 The most remarkable monuments of remote aiUitiuity found in 
 ' I Mace. ix. 36-42. '' Am. xiii. <J. i. H. J. L 2- 6. 
 
 U 2
 
 640 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 many parts of this country, especially in Moab, Gilead, and the 
 region east of the Jordan as far north as the sources of that river 
 under Hermon, are the dolmens; and they have been seen and 
 described by nearly all travellers through that part of Syria. The 
 most common form of the dolmen consists of two rough, unhewn 
 blocks of rock laid parallel, or at an obtuse angle to each other, 
 with a third flat, table-like rock placed upon them. The side blocks 
 vary in length and height from one to six feet, and the flat rock 
 above them from three feet in length, with proportionate breadth 
 and thickness, to thirteen feet by eleven feet, and two feet thick. 
 No ornamentation or inscriptions have been discovered upon the 
 dolmens, and they are rarely found on the top of mounds or hills; 
 but they stand mostly on the hard surface of the native rock, upon 
 the sloping sides of mountains and hills, in great valleys, and, occa- 
 sionally, in low places and concealed spots. 
 
 When, by whom, and for what purpose those dolmens were 
 erected, and in such numbers — for there are hundreds of them — are 
 questions to which no very satisfactory answers have yet been given. 
 That they are extremely ancient all admit ; but they were probably 
 not tombs, for there is no evidence that they were ever used as 
 sepulchres. It has been conjectured that they were connected with 
 religious rites as altars and for sacrificial purposes ; but there is no 
 indication of fire about them, and if they were ever sprinkled with 
 the blood of victims, or smeared with oil, all traces of such offerings 
 have long since disappeared. There is no probability that they 
 were- made by the Ammonites or Moabites, the descendants of Lot, 
 and they certainly were not erected by the Hebrews. The natu- 
 ral inference seems to be that they were the pillars of witness and 
 votive monuments of a pre -historic race or people who dwelt in 
 this land anterior to the time of the Hebrew patriarchs, and set up 
 to confirm a solemn covenant, commemorate an important event, or 
 to acknowledge and propitiate some unknown god. 
 
 Besides dolmens there are other ancient monuments in Moab — - 
 rude stone circles, cairns, menhirs, disc-stones, and rock-cut tombs 
 with loculi and well-preserved sarcophagi ; but all these are com- 
 paratively modern when compared with the dolmens. The stand- 
 ing stones, called menhirs, from three to ten feet high, more or less
 
 ANCIENT MONUMENTS.— THE BELK A. —THOUSANDS OF CAMELS. 64 1 
 
 squared and otherwise manipulated, are isolated pillars, and are sup- 
 posed to have been objects of superstitious customs and religious 
 reverence among the people in ancient times. They are alluded to 
 in the Bible, more or less distinctly, and that imparts additional 
 interest to them. The discs resemble large millstones set up on 
 end, and are about ten feet in diameter and from two to four feet 
 thick, and some of them have a round or square hole in the centre 
 of the disc. They indicate a great advance in mechanical skill 
 above the constructors of dolmens, who appear to have had no 
 kind of tool whatever, and must have handled those great blocks 
 of stone with extreme difficulty. 
 
 No one can obtain an adequate conception of this plain of 
 Moab, the modern Belka, and of its agricultural capabilities, with- 
 out traversing it in various directions — east, west, north, and south. 
 
 Our ride to-day across it diagonally has furnished a constant 
 confirmation of that statement. Hour after hour we have travelled 
 through it, until its boundless expanse and its treeless and feature- 
 less uniformity have become positively fatiguing, and its general 
 fertility exceedingly wearisome. 
 
 The region between Madeba and Abu Nugla is of the same 
 character. The distance is about twelve miles, and the direction 
 nearly north. We followed our 'Adwan sheikhs through the wheat- 
 fields and over the rolling plain, making our own pathway as we 
 proceeded, and we soon found ourselves in the midst of scenes quite 
 new and surprising. Far as the eye could reach, the plain was 
 covered with droves of camels belonging to the Beni Sakhr Bed- 
 awin, whose proper range is south of the Zerka IMa'in, but who 
 were then at peace with the 'Adwan, and could roam over that part 
 of their territory with their flocks and camels. Those of the Beni 
 Sakhr whom we saw with the camels were morose and taciturn, and 
 they did not even return our salutations. I was glad, however, to 
 pass through the midst of such scenes, which transport one back 
 to patriarchal times more distinctly and impressively than any- 
 thing else in this country. I tried to count the camels, but after 
 reaching a thousand I gave it up; there were certainly over five 
 thousand of them in sight, both old and young. 
 
 We need not wonder that the terrified Hebrews, in the lime of
 
 642 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Gideon, said that the camels of the Midianites and the Amalekites 
 " were without number, as the sand by the sea side for multitude ;" ' 
 nor does the statement in i Chron. v. 20, 21 seem incredible, that 
 the united tribes east of the Jordan, when they made war with the 
 Hagarites, and " cried to God in the battle and were helped, took 
 away of their camels fifty thousand." The Hagarites were nomads, 
 and roamed over this eastern country, and they were more numer- 
 ous and certainly more wealthy than the present Bedawin. 
 
 The ear-rings of the Ishmaelites whom Gideon "subdued" 
 amounted, in weight, to " a thousand and seven hundred shekels 
 of gold ; besides ornaments, and collars, and purple raiment that 
 was on the kings, and besides the chains that were about their 
 camels' necks."' But though poorer than the Hagarites of old, 
 the modern Bedawin may be their lineal descendants, and there is 
 quite enough of resemblance between them to throw much light 
 upon the narratives in the ancient Scriptures. And if we could fre- 
 quent the tents of the Wulid 'Aly, and those of the powerful tribes 
 of the 'Anazeh, we would no doubt find ornaments and garments 
 similar to those worn by the Midianites in the time of Gideon. 
 
 I noticed, as we rode along, that the wheat growing in the val- 
 leys was generally much more luxuriant than that on the open 
 plain — a circumstance easily explained, and one which this region 
 through which we are now passing affords a constant succession of 
 illustrative examples. About one -third of the land is composed 
 of long low ridges of cretaceous limestone, having shallow fertile 
 vales between. The rich soil has been washed down from the tops 
 and sides of those ridges, leaving an upper crust of rock sufficiently 
 hard to shed off the rain, and the double supply of water thus 
 obtained gives to the wheat in the vales below its exceptionally 
 luxuriant growth. That fact originated a very significant Arab 
 proverb. They say of a person remarkably fortunate, " His land 
 drinks its own waters and those of others also." Such expressions 
 could only be used by a people living in a similar region, and to 
 whom water was a prime necessity. To that extent they corrobo- 
 rate and illustrate many Biblical utterances and poetic allusions 
 which imply an equally high appreciation of water. 
 
 ' Judges vii. I2. , ' Judges viii. 26.
 
 EXCAVATED CISTERNS.-VIEW OVER MOAB.-MOAHITE STONE. 64:; 
 
 As those rocky ridges, culminating in mounds or tells, are the 
 general and characteristic feature of Moab. and as we now find the 
 ruins of ancient cities upon them, that topic will bear an additional 
 remark or two. Below the upper hard crust of the rock there 
 is generally a soft cretaceous formation, in which cisterns are ex- 
 cavated with very little labor or expense: hence their surprising 
 number. Not only is every tell upon which ruins are found honey- 
 combed with them, but such cisterns are excavated in the hill-sides, 
 in the valleys, and on the plains, far from the site of any city. 
 
 It is a significant fact that not one of all the hundreds of those 
 cisterns was made by the present dwellers in the land. The 'Adwan 
 have neither mechanical skill nor energy enough to keep even the 
 existing ones in repair; and our guide. Sheikh Fahd, admits that 
 many cisterns that held water twenty years ago are now broken. 
 After the rainy season a very large part of this region is abandoned 
 by the Bedawin, owing principally to the lack of water, and in time 
 the whole of this plain of Moab will be forsaken by them. 
 
 We have now reached a part of the plain, on our way to Nebo, 
 which commands an extensive view southward over a large portion 
 of ancient Moab. Beyond the profound gorge of the Zerka Ma'in 
 the ruins of Dibon, at Dhiban, are plainly made out ; and far away 
 southward is the elevated plateau where Sihon reigned when the 
 Hebrews came and overthrew his kingdom. The view extends 
 towards Kerak, though that city itself cannot be seen. That entire 
 region was once densely inhabited, and the sites of many Biblical 
 and historical towns have been identified and described by modern 
 explorers. Dibon has been recently brought into prominence by 
 the discovery there of the now famous Moabite stone with its long 
 inscription concerning King Mcsha, the "sheep-master," mentioned 
 in 2 Kings iii. 4 as having " rendered unto the king of Israel " two 
 hundred thousand lambs and rams, with the wool. On this side 
 of the Zerka Ma'in the ruins at Ma'in are plainly visible, the sup- 
 posed site of Baal-meon, one of the towns which "the children of 
 Reuben built" before they passed over into the land of Canaan. 
 
 I was at Ma'in with Dr. Merrill, and we made an excursion from 
 there to the hot springs of Callirrhoc. Ma'in occupies the sitles 
 and summits of three or four low hills above and cast of the wide
 
 544 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and shallow vale which declines towards the Zerka Ma*in. Though 
 covering a larger space than Madeba, the remains of the ancient 
 city are not so well preserved, presenting only the appearance of 
 a mass of shapeless ruins. " The remains are of the ordinary type," 
 says Canon Tristram — "foundations, fragments of walls, lines of 
 streets, old arches, many carved stones, caves, wells, and cisterns in- 
 numerable. Some curious cavernous dwellings, built up with arches 
 and fragments of old columns, are still occasionally used by the 
 Arabs as folds and sleeping-places." ' 
 
 The Reubenites took it from the Moabites, rebuilt or fortified it, 
 and probably changed its name to Beth-meon.' It subsequently 
 reverted to the Moabites; and Jeremiah, in his denunciation of 
 Moab, includes it "among the cities of the land of Moab upon 
 which judgment is come."' Its destruction, along with the other 
 cities of Moab, " the glory of the country," was foretold by Ezekiel 
 nearly nine hundred years after the Hebrews took possession of it 
 in the time of Moses.' It has been supposed that "the high places 
 of Baal," to which Balak brought Balaam " that he might see the 
 utmost part of the people" of Israel and curse them from thence, 
 was at Ma'in or in its immediate neighborhood. But if the Hebrews 
 were then encamped on " the plains of Moab," over against Jericho, 
 Balaam must have travelled about ten or twelve miles farther to- 
 wards the north-west before he could see them at all. Ma'in is 
 mentioned by Eusebius as the birthplace of Elisha, and as being a 
 large village in Moab called Balmano in his day. Under the blight- 
 ing influence of Islam it has sunk into a shapeless mass of ruins, 
 without one solitary inhabitant remaining. 
 
 We encamped in the shallow vale near the west side of the 
 city. In the threshing season that place must present a very lively 
 scene, for the whole area was marked off into threshing-floors. A 
 little farther away some Bedawin were filling their sacks with wheat 
 from a deep cistern which they had uncovered. The owners often 
 conceal their grain in such wells, and if a raid is made upon them 
 by a hostile tribe those hidden treasures remain undiscovered. 
 There are many cisterns among and around the ruins, but it was 
 ' Land of Moab, p. 304. " Numb, xxxii. 38, 
 
 2 Jer. xlviii. 20-24. * ^'^^^- '"'^- 9-
 
 THE ZERKA MA IN.— BEDAWIN ENCAM I'MENTS.-THE DEAD SEA. 645 
 
 some hours before any one could be induced to show the entrance 
 to a deep underground pool, and the quality of the water was n6t 
 of the best. Neither was there wood enough in the vicinity to 
 make the kettle boil, so our men were scattered abroad towards 
 night, like Israel in Egypt, gathering stubble. During the after- 
 noon I looked down into the tremendous gorge of the Zerka Ma'fn, 
 which is some distance south of Ma'in. That is one of the two 
 principal rivers of Moab, and it finds its way westward through im- 
 penetrable gorges, frightful chasms, and the wildest of wild ravines 
 down to the hot sulphur springs of Callirrhoe, and thence between 
 perpendicular and impassable cliffs to the Dead Sea. 
 
 We devoted an entire day to an excursion to Callirrhoe and 
 back to our camp at Ma'in. Understanding that we had a long 
 and fatiguing ride to accomplish, we left our tents at early dawn, 
 and started with our 'Adwan sheikhs for a large Arab encampment, 
 which we reached in half an hour. Sheikh Fahd engaged the chief 
 of the tribe to accompany us, and his local knowledge was of special 
 value during the day. The camp of Sheikh 'Eed was pitched 
 around the head of a shallow vale, forming an oblong enclosure, 
 within which the camels and flocks of sheep and goats were folded 
 during the night. The camp presented a lively appearance in the 
 early morning — women and children all busy milking the flocks 
 and leading them forth to their dewy pasture upon the surrounding 
 hill -sides. We noticed many small cakes of fresh - made cheese 
 placed on the tops of their sable tents — or " houses of hair," as the 
 Bedawin call them — to dry, out of the reach of their hungry dogs. 
 
 It was a pretty pastoral scene, and the region was quite pict- 
 uresque — the ridges covered with small trees and bushes, the inter- 
 vening valleys clothed with green wheat, and here and there, in 
 some shallow ravine, were the black tents of a Bedawin encamp- 
 ment. Farther on the surface of the country was broken by deep 
 ravines which descended southward to the valley of the Zerka 
 Ma'in, and on the north stretched the high and wooded range of 
 el Muslubiyeh above the profound depths of the Deatl Sea. 
 
 In about an hour from the camp of Sheikh 'Fed we came out 
 upon the top of a ridge which coinmanded a magnificent view of 
 the Dead Sea, over the whole of its expanse to the extreme south-
 
 646 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 west end, and including a wide range of country west of it. We 
 were all surprised at the beautiful appearance of the placid blue sea 
 far, far below us, its calm surface looking like that of a great mir- 
 ror set in a massive frame of sable rock and many-colored cliffs. 
 Josephus says that the Dead Sea changes color three times every 
 day, and that seems to be true enough, for its general appearance 
 in the morning is quite different from that under the blazing sun 
 at mid-day, or in the evening when the rocky ramparts that wall it 
 in cast their varied shadows upon it. 
 
 Turning southward we followed a mere trail along the side of 
 the general ridge that overhangs the awful gulf of the Dead Sea, 
 and from which we had frequent glimpses of it, and admired the 
 wonderful and perpetual variation in its appearance and color. The 
 character of the country entirely changed, all encampments disap- 
 peared, and we were in the lonely and hopeless wilderness, the 
 resort of the ibex, and of more wild and formidable beasts than 
 they. After riding for about three hours we came to an extremely 
 steep descent into the tremendous gorge of the Zerka Ma'in, where 
 all dismounted and walked. The rock had changed to a soft, yel- 
 lowish sandstone, and the path, winding downwards, led along nar- 
 row ledges which in some places were quite dangerous. 
 
 "At length," says Lieutenant Conder, "we reached the brink 
 of the gorge — here some seventeen hundred feet deep, the stream 
 being near the springs [of Callirrhoe] still sixteen hundred feet 
 above the Dead Sea [though only three hundred feet higher than 
 the level of the Mediterranean]. Tawny cliffs of limestone, capped 
 with chalk, rise on the north, and are seamed with gullies, where 
 the marl has been washed down, like snow-streaks left in summer, 
 beneath the cliffs. On the south is a steep brown precipice with 
 an undercliff of marl. But the central feature of this ghastly scene 
 of utterly barren wilderness was the great black bastion projecting 
 from the southern cliff, and almost blocking the gorge — an outbreak 
 of basalt which shows like a dark river in the valley of Callirrhoe, 
 as seen from the west side of the Dead Sea. 
 
 " It took a full hour to reach the bottom of the gorge, and the 
 scene beneath was wonderful beyond description. On the south, 
 black bas&lt, brown limestone, gleaming marl ; on the north, sand-
 
 GORGE OF THE ZERKA MAIN.— HOT SPRINGS AT CALLIRRIIOE. 647 
 
 Stone cliffs of all colours, from pale yellow to pinkish purple. In 
 the valley itself the brilliant green of palm clumps, rejoicing in the 
 heat and in the sandy soil. The streams, bursting from the cliffs, 
 poured down in rivulets between banks of crusted orange sulphur 
 deposits. The black grackle soared above, with gold-tipped wings, 
 his mellow note being the one sound re-echoed by the great red 
 cliffs in this utter solitude.'" If any one wants to smell sulphur, 
 breathe sulphur, see sulphur, taste sulphur, bathe in scalding sulphur 
 water, and be nearly stifled with hot sulphur steam, let him descend 
 into that gorge, and visit the hot sulphur springs at Callirrhoe. 
 
 Those springs are on the north side of Wady Zcrka Ma'in, and 
 "the brooks, which run from ten springs in all, var\' from 110° to 
 140° Fahrenheit in temperature, and fall in little cascades amid 
 luxuriant foliage, to join the main course of the stream [of the 
 Zerka Ma'in], which is far colder and fresher, flowing from the 
 shingly springs higher up the valley, and forming pools beneath 
 white rocks of chalk, which we found full of fish, and hidden in a 
 luxuriant brake of tamarisk and cane. Crossing three rivulets, from 
 each of which our horses, apparently aware of the heat of the water, 
 shrank back in fear, we reached the principal hot spring, which has 
 formed a ledge of breccia-like deposit in the valley just north of 
 the basalt cliff Here the chasm is the narrowest, and the main 
 stream below could be seen winding among black bowlders, which 
 impede its course, with the dark precipice frowning as though about 
 to fall. The stream has bored through the sulphurous breccia, and 
 runs in a tunnel of its own making, issuing from this hot shaft about 
 one hundred feet lower, in the gorge itself."* 
 
 Upon that tufaceous deposit of sulphur made by the hot steam 
 itself, and which is over twenty feet thick, we rested after our fa- 
 tiguing descent and ramble up and down that extraordinary valley, 
 and tested the temperature and tasted of the amazing quantity of 
 the hot water which bursts forth from that principal spring. A con- 
 tinuous blast of hot air and steam issues from a crevice in the tufa- 
 ceous platform; and one of our 'y\d\\an sheikhs, who was afllicted 
 with rheumatic pains, extemporiy.ed a steam -bath by spreading 
 branches and bushes over the aperture and lying upon them, above 
 
 ' Heth and Moab, pp. 145, 146. '•' Hclh and Moab, ]ip. 146, 147.
 
 648 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the boiling water, enveloped in his large 'aba. Whether or not he 
 was cured of his rheumatism by that primitive thermal bath we 
 did not ascertain ; but the hot springs of Callirrhoe are celebrated 
 all over the country for their medicinal virtues, and, indeed, they 
 have been known from very ancient times. 
 
 In the genealogical catalogue of " the dukes [or emirs] of the 
 Horites, the children of Seir, in the land of Edom," this singular 
 statement occurs: "This was that Anah that found the mules in 
 the wilderness, as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father,'" The 
 word translated " mules " is supposed to signify " hot springs," and 
 it has been suggested that Anah was the first to discover the hot 
 springs of Callirrhoe, as they are by far the most remarkable in 
 this region east of the Dead Sea. Leaving the hypothesis of the 
 mules to stand for what it is worth, the earliest notice of Callirrhoe 
 is given by Josephus in his "Antiquities of the Jews." According 
 to him, Herod the Great " went beyond the river Jordan, and bathed 
 himself in the warm baths that were at Callirrhoe, which, besides 
 their other general virtues, were also fit to drink; which water runs 
 into the lake called Asphaltitis." ^ Herod's condition, however, be- 
 coming desperate he was taken back to Jericho, where he died. 
 
 In the description which Josephus gives of the fortress of Ma- 
 chaerus, where Herod Antipas imprisoned John the Baptist, he 
 mentions " a certain place called Baaras, in that valley which en- 
 compasses the city on the north side. Here are also," he says, 
 " fountains of hot water that flow out of this place, which have a 
 very different taste one from the other; for some of them are bitter, 
 and others of them are plainly sweet." And he mentions also two 
 fountains, one very cold and the other very hot, a short distance 
 from each other, " which waters, when they are mingled together, 
 compose a most pleasant bath ; they are medicinal, indeed, for other 
 maladies, but especially good for strengthening the nerves. This 
 place has in it also mines of sulphur and alum."' 
 
 I have always been led to suppose that John the Baptist was 
 beheaded somewhere in Upper Galilee. 
 
 Josephus specifies the place, in the fortress of Machaerus, far 
 away, indeed, from the scenes of the Baptist's exhortations, and 
 
 ' Gen. xxxvi. 20-24. ' -^'^t' ''^'''- 6, 5. ^ B. J. vii. 6, 3.
 
 BEHEADING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AT MACH.ERUS. 649 
 
 where no reader of the New Testament would think of looking for 
 it. There is scarcely a more impressive record in the whole Bible 
 than that of the death of John, when the criminal circumstances of 
 that dismal tragedy are brought to light. Herod, rebuked by the 
 Baptist, banishes him to the most distant fortress in his kingdom ; 
 but, entangled by his wicked wife in a war with Aretas, he was, ap- 
 parently, compelled to go himself to that same fortress to oppose 
 the Arabian prince, whose daughter he had divorced in order that 
 he might marry Herodias, " his brother Philip's wife." 
 
 It is presumed that she accompanied Herod to Macha^rus, and 
 that there her daughter danced before him on his birthday, when 
 he "made a supper to his lords, high captains, and chief men of Gali- 
 lee." What followed is well known. Her dancing pleased Herod, 
 and " he promised with an oath to give her whatsoever she would 
 ask," even to the half of his kingdom ; and, at the instigation of her 
 vindictive mother, she said, " I will that thou give me here the head 
 of John the Baptist in a charger." " Immediately the king sent one 
 of his guard, and he beheaded him in prison, and brought his head 
 in a charger, and gave it to the damsel, and the damsel gave it to 
 her mother. And his disciples came, and took up the corpse, and 
 buried him ; and they went and told Jesus."' 
 
 Josephus informs us that Aretas and Herod "raised armies on 
 both sides, and prepared for war, and sent their generals to fight 
 instead of themselves ; and when they had joined battle, all Herod's 
 army was destroyed by the treachery of some fugitives, who, though 
 they were of the tetrarchy of Philip, joined with Herod's army. 
 Now the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod's army came 
 from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did 
 against John, that was called the Baptist."" 
 
 What a strange combination of circumstances brought all those 
 persons together in that distant fortress on the frontier! 
 
 The subsequent fortunes and misfortunes of the jirincijial actors 
 in that dismal tragedy are of no special interest to us; but there is 
 perhaps no incident mentionetl in the Bible upon which contempo- 
 raneous history sheds so much light as that of the beheading of 
 John the Baptist by Herod Antipas. 
 
 ' Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29. * AnI. xviii. 5. 1.2.
 
 650 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Misled by the apparent nearness of the Dead Sea, Dr. Merrill 
 and some of our party attempted to follow the gorge of the Zerka 
 Ma'in to the shore. " It was a rough, hard scramble," says Dr. 
 Merrill, " but after going for two hours, and becoming terribly ex- 
 hausted with the heat and a strange sense of depression, we found 
 our time would not be suf^cient, even if our strength should hold 
 out, and we returned."' I spent the time rambling up and down 
 the river gorge, counting the number of springs, large and small, 
 cold and hot, and in examining with my glass the great mass of 
 dark trap -rock which towers to a height of a thousand feet sheer 
 and more above the left bank of the stream, in the vain hope of 
 seeing some of the ibex, or wild goats, that are said to abound on 
 those impracticable cliffs. The stupendous cliff of columnar basalt 
 just opposite the largest of the hot springs is composed of number- 
 less columns, ranged together like the pipes of a gigantic organ, 
 running up the perpendicular face of the cliff from base to summit, 
 and so arranged that the lower ends are fairly exposed to view, and 
 can easily be counted. After counting more than two hundred, I 
 abandoned the attempt to number them all. 
 
 Owing to our long detention at the hot springs of CalHrrhoe, 
 we did not start on the return to Ma'in until late in the afternoon, 
 and it was long after dark before we reached our tents. And that 
 reminds me that our own day is drawing to a close; but we are 
 now amongst the eastern hills of Jcbel Neba, and in half an hour 
 we shall stand upon the summit of Nebo, where Moses stood and 
 took his farewell view of the fair and happy land, the Land of 
 Promise. We will cross to the south side of the shallow vale which 
 extends westward towards the ridge above 'Ayun Musa. My ob- 
 ject is to show you one of those extraordinary disc-stones which I 
 have spoken of before. Here it is at the ruins of this village or 
 hamlet which Sheikh 'Ali says is called Kufeir Abu Bedd. 
 
 It looks like a great millstone, but it is far too large to have 
 ever been intended for that purpose. 
 
 It is nearly ten feet in diameter and about a foot and a half 
 thick — a huge, rough-hewn disc, standing on edge with one-third of 
 it sunk into the ground. It has not the usual round hole in the 
 ' East of the Jordan, pp. 248, 249.
 
 JEBEL NEBA, THE MOUNTAIN OF NEBO. 65 1 
 
 centre, nor any indications to aid in explaining its use, nor the ob- 
 ject in bringing it to this particular spot. There are two others in 
 this Moabite region somewhat similar to it, one of which was dis- 
 covered by Dr. ^Merrill on the Shittini Plain. It is called Mensef 
 Abu Zeid, the dish or tray of Abu Zeid. Riding over this plain, 
 and before reaching that disc, on a former occasion, two large wolves 
 came down the side of the hill and crossed the path ahead of us. 
 Sheikh 'Ali tried to bring one of them down with his gun, but the 
 distance was too great, and they only quickened their flight over 
 the plain, and soon disappeared from view. 
 
 Our guides are pointing to that low ridge directK" west of us, 
 and exclaiming, " Ha, shefa Neba !" Lo, the crest of Nebo ! We 
 will ride up its gradual slope, and descend into the slight depres- 
 sion bevond it called Sahl Xeba, between it and Jebel Neba. and 
 ascend to the summit of that mount, about a mile distant, which 
 has been generally accepted as " the mountain of Xebo " to which 
 " Moses went up from the plains of Moab." 
 
 Jebel Xeba seems but a little higher than the plain over which 
 we have been riding all day. It is merely an oblong ridge, which 
 scarcely lifts itself more than a few hundred feet above the fields 
 which spread up to it on the east. 
 
 You must remember that the plain of the Belka is an elevated 
 plateau, and that in this vicinity it is about two thousand four 
 hundred feet above the Mediterranean Sea; and though the sum- 
 mit of Jebel Neba is not three hundred feet higher, yet its position 
 near the edge of the tremendous descent to the plain of Abel 
 Shittim adds thirteen hundred feet more to its height, and thus, in 
 reality, it presents a noble stand -point — four thousand feet above 
 the Dead Sea— from which to survey the Promised Land beyond 
 Jordan westward. Though there is nothing to distinguish this 
 mount from other hke ridges in sight, some of which are even high- 
 er still, we do not hesitate to accept the identification of Jebel 
 Neba with "the Mountain of Nebo." It is as well known to the 
 Bedawin as the name of Moses himself. 
 
 The force of that evidence is greatly increased by the fact that 
 this particular neighborhood is distinguished above all others for 
 the preservation of the ancient and Biblical names of places in it.
 
 652 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Not to mention the Fountains of Moses, in the valley directly be- 
 low this " Mountain of Nebo," there are Ma'in, Madeba, El 'Al, 
 Hesban, and many others now bearing the identical names which 
 they had in the time of Moses ; and hence it is reasonable to be- 
 lieve that the name of Nebo has come down to us unchancfed from 
 the same distant period. 
 
 But no mountain can be accepted as " the top of Pisgah," or 
 the hill, that does not fulfil to a reasonable extent the Biblical 
 statements in regard to the view from it which Moses had over 
 the Promised Land. Applying that test to Jebel Neba we find 
 that not only do higher tells to the east hide the Belka from view, 
 but the long dark ridge of el Muslubiyeh, a few miles south, cuts 
 ofT the prospect in that direction, while on the north and north- 
 west the range of Mount Gilead conceals not only the upper Jor- 
 dan valley towards the Sea of Galilee, but a large part of the Prom- 
 ised Land to the north and west of that sea or lake. 
 
 Leaving this stand -point, therefore, let us descend westward, 
 down this rough and pathless slope, and, crossing a shallow ravine 
 covered with luxuriant grass in the spring, ascend the first of the 
 two oblong tells, half a mile off, called by the common consent of 
 the Bedawin Jebel Siaghah, The top of this ridge, particularly on 
 the north-western side, is covered with the ruins of a temple, con- 
 sisting of large blocks of stone, broken columns and cornices; and 
 there were round about it, especially at the east end, the remains 
 of houses and large cisterns to supply the inhabitants with water. 
 If there ever was a city called Nebo in the neighborhood it is more 
 likely to have been upon this ridge, as there are no such remains on 
 the top of Jebel Neba. 
 
 The view from these ruins upon Jebel Siaghah, in its length 
 and breadth, is essentially the same as that from our stand -point 
 on Jebel Neba. We will, therefore, ride down and out along the 
 summit of the other tell, which, though lower, extends a quarter 
 of a mile farther towards the west. But, as at Jebel Neba, the first 
 impression is quite disappointing. As to this stand -point itself, 
 there is nothing for the imagination to dwell upon. It is merely 
 a smooth, rounded headland, bare and barren, without cliff or crag 
 above, visible precipice or ravine below. The last of its kind above
 
 THE TOr OF riSGAII WHKRE MOSES STOOD. 653 
 
 the Shittim Plain, it falls away down towards the shore of the Dead 
 Sea, three thousand six hundred feet below, so gently that it can 
 neither be pictured by pencil nor described by pen. 
 
 And yet, standing upon this bold and breezy headland, jutting 
 far out above the plain and the Dead Sea, commanding a mag- 
 nificent outlook north, west, and south, with nothing in front of it 
 to obstruct the range of vision, one cannot help exclaiming. That 
 is " the mountain of Nebo," and this is " the top of Pisgah !" 
 Here, if anywhere in this vicinity, Moses stood when " the Lord 
 shewed him all the land of Gilead, unto Dan. and all Naphtali. and 
 the land of Ephraim, and Manasseh, and all the land of Judah, 
 unto the utmost sea, and the south, and the plain of the valley of 
 Jericho, the city of palm-trees, unto Zoar." ' 
 
 It is well that there should be nothing about this modern Pisgah 
 to foster the tendency to pervert such "high places" by con\-erting 
 them into sites of superstitious idolatr}-. 
 
 Nothing more is desirable than that the view from it should 
 correspond in general with the statement in the last chapter of 
 Deuteronomy; and that is true of this projecting headland or ras 
 of Jebel Siaghah. It may be mentioned, in passing, that the word 
 ras is found in the Arabic Bible in connection with Pisgah, and it 
 is now generally applied to a bold and projecting headland, like this 
 ras of Siaghah, especially when jutting far out into the sea. In 
 regard to the outlook from this stand-point, it is not necessary to 
 insist upon a literal interpretation of general and comprehensive 
 terms, for that would simply require a superhuman agencw b\ir 
 example, there is no stand-point either on Jebel Siaghah or any- 
 where else in this vicinity from which "all the land of Gilead, unto 
 Dan," can be seen, except by miracle or mirage ; nor can " all Naph- 
 tali, and the land of Ephraim, and Manasseh, and all the land of Ju- 
 dah, unto the utmost sea," be brought within the range of the most 
 powerful telescope. The same must be said of " the south," if by 
 that name the Negab be meant, that vast region which extends far 
 away into the wilderness south of Bccr-slu'h.i. Wh.it can actually 
 be seen from here on a very clear day, by one whose eye is not 
 dim, meets every reasonable demand of the Bible, and has been 
 
 ' iJcul. x\.\iv. 1-3.
 
 654 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 elaborated and described by many travellers, leaving little to be 
 discovered or added to by those who follow them. 
 
 In regard to the names Neba and Siaghah, and their identity 
 with Nebo and Pisgah, our guides remarked on a former occasion, 
 when I was here with Dr. Merrill, " Before the Franks came and 
 required us to find two separate mountains, we used the names 
 Neba and Siaghah interchangeably for one and the same ridge. Now 
 we call the one farther east Jebel Neba, and the two tells at the 
 western end of the ridge Jebel Siaghah." That topographical des- 
 ignation and identification of those names by the Bedawin seems to 
 agree with the mention of " the mountain of Nebo" and "the top 
 of Pisgah," in the thirty-fourth chapter of Deuteronomy. Nebo is 
 " the mountain " of which Pisgah is " the top," ras, or headland ; 
 and Siaghah is probably only another and an Arabic equivalent for 
 the Hebrew and the English Pisgah. 
 
 Is the ridge to the north-east of Jebel Neba identical with the 
 "mountains of Abarim, before Nebo," from which the Hebrews 
 descended to "the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho?"' 
 
 We shall have something to say on that general subject during 
 the evening in our tents, to which we must now find our way. I 
 see them pitched on a terrace near the southern fountain of 'Ayun 
 Musa, and as the descent is more than a thousand feet, and very 
 steep, I prefer to dismount and walk, to the relief of my horse and 
 the safety of myself. 
 
 'Ayun Musa, September 29th. Evening. 
 
 Owing, I suppose, to the association of the names in this local- 
 ity with those of persons and places referred to in connection with 
 the approach of the Hebrews to the Land of Promise, my thoughts 
 have been equally divided between Moses, the law-giver, and Ba- 
 laam, " the soothsayer," in respect to whom many puzzling and ap- 
 parently unanswerable questions immediately arise. 
 
 With regard to the approach of the Hebrews, it is probable that 
 the various ridges north-east of el Muslubiyeh, and between it and 
 Hesban, including Jebel Siaghah and the ridge of Jebel Neba, bore 
 the general name of "the mountains of Abarim " in the time of 
 Moses. A division of the host may, therefore, have descended to 
 
 ^ Numb, xxxiii. 47-49.
 
 THE ALTARS OF BALAK AND THE PARABLES OF BALAAM. 655 
 
 '•the plains of ]\Ioab " from Wady Hesban. another by way of Jebel 
 Neba and 'Ayun Musa, and a third by Jebel Siaghah, without, how- 
 ever, taking permanent possession of " the top of Pisgah." 
 
 While the children of Israel were encamped upon the Shittim 
 Plain, Balak brought Balaam to the high places of Baal, into the 
 field of Zophim and to the top of Peor, to curse the people from 
 thence. One is surprised to find, where least expected, in the ut- 
 terances of that false prophet, and in the lofty strains of his poetic 
 inspiration, many of the most sublime conceptions in regard to the 
 God of the children of Israel himself. At the request of Balaam, 
 Balak erected successively seven altars, at three different places, 
 and offered on each altar a bullock and a ram, vainly hoping that 
 Balaam would curse Israel for him from one of those stations. 
 
 After the first series of sacrifices, possibly on the ridge of Jebel 
 Neba, " the Lord put a word in Balaam's mouth, and he took up 
 his parable and said, Balak the king of Moab hath brought me 
 from Aram, out of the mountains of the east, saying, Come, curse 
 me Jacob, and come, defy Israel. How shall I curse, whom God 
 hath not cursed? or how shall I defy, whom the Lord hath not 
 defied ? For from the top of the rocks I see him, and from the hills 
 I behold him : lo, the people shall dwell alone, and shall not be 
 reckoned among the nations. Who can count the dust of Jacob, 
 and the number of the fourth part of Israel? Let me die the death 
 of the righteous, and let my last end be like his."' 
 
 The second series of sacrifices was offered, apparentK- in "the 
 field of Zophim," probably somewhere in the grassy vale between 
 Jebel Neba and Jebel Siaghah, and there are several places in that 
 "field" from whence only a part of the Israelites might have been 
 seen. After the sacrifices "the Lord met Balaam, and put a word 
 in his mouth. And he took up his parable, and said, Rise up, Balak, 
 and hear; hearken unto me, thou son of Zippor: God is not a man, 
 that he should lie; neither the son of man. that he shouKl repent: 
 hath he said, and shall he not do it? or Iiatli he spoken, and shall 
 he not make it good? Behold, I have received commandnunt to 
 bless; and he hath blessed; and I cannot reverse it."' 
 
 After the third, and last, series of sacrifices, which were offered 
 
 ' Numl). xxiii. i-io. * Numl). xxiii. 14-20. 
 
 X 2
 
 656 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 on " the top of Peor, that looketh toward Jeshimon," perhaps 
 the summit of Jebel Siaghah, now strewn with the ruins of an an- 
 cient temple, Balaam took up his parable and said : " How goodly 
 are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel ! As the 
 valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the 
 trees of lignaloes which the Lord hath planted, and as cedar trees 
 beside the waters. Blessed is he that blesses thee, and cursed is he 
 that curseth thee."' Balak in anger commanded Balaam to fiee, 
 which he did. "And now," said he, "behold, I go to my people: 
 come, therefore, and I will advertise thee what this people shall do 
 to thy people in the latter days. 
 
 "And he took up his parable and said, Balaam the son of Beor 
 hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said : He hath 
 said, which heard the words of God, and knew the knowledge of 
 the Most High, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into 
 a trance, but having his eye open: I shall see him, but not now: 
 I shall behold him, but not nigh : there shall come a Star out of 
 Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the 
 corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth. And Edom 
 shall be a possession, Seir also shall be a possession for his enemies; 
 and Israel shall do valiantly. Out of Jacob shall come he that shall 
 have dominion, and he shall destroy him that remaineth of the 
 city. And Balaam rose up, and went and returned to his place : 
 and Balak also went his way."'' 
 
 Balaam was evidently an unprincipled man, and uttered those 
 prophetic parables against his will, for he afterwards gave evil coun- 
 sel to the Midianites, and was slain in battle with them when fight- 
 ing against Israel.' And now if you wish to sleep to-night here at 
 the fountains of Moses, under the shadow of " the mountain of 
 Nebo," whereon Barak and Balaam erected their thrice seven altars, 
 and sacrificed twice as many oxen and rams, you will do well to 
 banish from your dreams all those obstinate questions, geographical, 
 historical, psychological, ethical, and the like, which the Biblical 
 history of this region so naturally suggests. 
 
 ' Numb. xxiv. 3-6, 8. '■' N'umb. xxiv. 14-19, 25. ^ Numb. xxxi. 8, 16.
 
 THE FOUNTAINS OF MOSES TO THE FORD OF THE JORDAN. 657 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 THE FOUNTAINS OF MOSES TO THE FORD OF THE 
 JORDAN NEAR JERICHO. 
 
 The Fountains of Moses. — The Stream from the Fountains. — Ashdoth-pisgah.— Tulat 
 es Sufa and the Field of Zophim. — Ascent of Nebo. — The Servant of the Lord and 
 the Land of Promise. — Khurbet Barzeleh. — Grave of Neby 'Abd Allah. — " From the 
 Ancient Times." — Rude Sketches on the Tomb of a Prophet. — A Sanctuary. — The 
 Plain of the Belka and the Plains of Moab. — Heshbon. — Fine Pavement. — Singular 
 Edifice. — Jewish, Roman, and Saracenic Architecture. — Cisterns. — Reservoir. — Fish- 
 pools in Heshbon. — Ruined Cities of Moab. — Prophecy and History. — "The Cry of 
 Heshbon." — Biblical History of Heshbon. — Captured by Alexander Jannceus. — 
 Elealeh. — "The Height." — View from el 'Al over the Plain of Moab. — "The Pride 
 of Moab." — Descent to 'Ain Hesban. — Road to Hesban. — The Turkish Government 
 and the Survey of Moab. — "The Land of Giants." — Rephaims and Eniims. — The 
 Children of Lot, Moab and Ammon. — The Amorites. — The Hebrews. — The roving 
 Bedawin. — Ancient Biblical Names remaining Unchanged. — Kubalan el Fadil. — A 
 Bedawin Sheikh described by Captain Conder. — The Black Tents of an Ar.ab Encamp- 
 ment. — A Noisy Welcome. — Sheikh 'AH Diab. — A Patriarchal Scene. — 'Ain Hesban. 
 — Luxuriant Wheat and Barley. — Flour-mills. — The Stream from the Fountain. — Fish- 
 pools. -^The Eyes of the Prince's Daughter. — Captain Conder. — "The Gate in Beth- 
 rabbim." — Road from 'Ain Hesban to the Jericho Ford. — Canon Tristram. — Northern 
 and Southern Sides of Wady Hesban. — Circle of Dolmens. — The Region between the 
 Mountains and the Plain in the Time of the Hebrews and at the Present Day. — View 
 over the Plain of Abel-shittim. — Valleys and Streams and principal Hills around and 
 upon the Plain.— Beth- jeshimoth.— The little City Zoar.—15eth-haran. — Herod the 
 Great and the Warm Baths at Tell el Hammam.— Tell Kefrein, Abel-shittim.— Tell 
 Nimrln, Beth -minrah.— Tell el Hammam. — M'hadhar or Um Hathir. — Hubbisa.— 
 Warm Sulphur Springs, Baths, and Aqueduct at Tell el Hammam.— Clumps of Scraggy 
 Trees. — Apple of Sodom. — Tell Ektanu and Tell cr Rameh. — Bclharamphtha.— 
 Julius or Livias. — The Streams in the Wadies. — Group of Dolmens. — Large Disc-stone. 
 — "The Dish of Abu Zeid." — Flooded Wheat-fields. — Plain of Abel-shittim and the 
 Acacia-trees. — Tell Kefrein and Kirjathaim.— Abel-shittim.— Completion of Deuter- 
 onomy and the Last Address of the Hebrew Law-giver.— " The Favor of God."— The 
 Spies sent to Jericho. — Deserted Condition of the Plain, and Bustling Activity of the 
 Hebrew Encampment. — The Goodly Tents of Lsrael.— The Plain of Abel-shittim and
 
 658 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 the Camp of the Hebrew Nation. — " From Beth-jesimoth unto Abel-shittim." — Ample 
 Space for the Tribes to Encamp. — Route of the Israelites from the Red Sea. — Expe- 
 ditions for the Subjugation of Gilead and Bashan. — " Seeing is Believing." — Testimony 
 of the Land to the Truth of the Book. — Passage of the Children of Israel into the 
 Land of Canaan. — High Bluffs on the Banks of the Jordan. — Dividing of the Waters, 
 and the Passing Over of the People. — The Command of the Lord to Joshua. — Return 
 of the Waters of the Jordan. — The Camp at Gilgal near Jericho. — Under the Palm 
 Groves. — "Jerusalem the Mother of us All." — The Land of the Book. 
 
 September 30th. 
 
 I VISITED the so-called Fountains of Moses this morning in the 
 valley above our tents. How came they to be associated with the 
 name of the great Hebrew law-giver? 
 
 Tradition affirms that when " Moses went up from the plains of 
 Moab unto the mountain of Nebo, to the top of Pisgah," he rested 
 and refreshed himself at those springs, and from that time they 
 were called the Fountains of Moses unto this day. The northern 
 spring gushes out from under the rocks in the valley, and runs 
 for a short distance over a broad ledge of limestone. The rock 
 extends across the shallow vale from east to west, and the stream 
 falls over the edge of the cliff in a pretty cascade, about thirty feet 
 in height. " The real beauty of the fall," says Canon Tristram, 
 " is best seen on descending ; when the overhanging platform is 
 found to be the roof of a cave, its front partially built up with 
 stalagmite below and stalactite above, and water dropping in all 
 directions. The roof is one mass of pendent fronds of maiden-hair 
 fern — the sides are tapestried with them, the floor is carpeted with 
 them," and the cliff is draped with them from top to bottom.' 
 
 The second spring is about three hundred feet south of the first, 
 and one hundred feet higher up. It bursts out from a small cave 
 at the base of the overhanging cliffs in a single stream, and plunges 
 headlong down the steep declivity westward, to join the foaming 
 torrent from the northern spring below the cascade. After the 
 meeting of the waters the little river rushes on, overshadowed by 
 thickets of blooming oleander and flowering bushes, leaping and 
 tumbling down to the plain two thousand feet below, and thence 
 in deep and narrow channels to the Jordan and the Dead Sea. 
 The springs of 'Ayun Musa are a thousand feet directly below the 
 
 ' Land of Moab, p. 336.
 
 THE FIELD OF ZOPHIM.— VIEW FROM THE TOP OF PISGAH. 659 
 
 summit of Jebel Neba, and their Biblical name is supposed to have 
 been Ashdoth-pisgah, the Streams of Pisgah. mentioned in Deuter- 
 onomy iii. 17, and elsewhere. That identification, therefore, fur- 
 nishes additional proof that Jebel Neba, towering above us on the 
 south, is the veritable mountain of Xebo. to the top of which 
 Moses probably ascended from these same streams. 
 
 This is to be our last day's ride in " the land of Moab." and. 
 indeed, through the region "beyond Jordan, towards the sunrising;" 
 instead, therefore, of going direct to our camp on the bank of that 
 river, we will ascend " the mountain of Nebo. to the top of Tisgah." 
 and take a farewell view of the Promised Land from that exalted 
 summit, as Moses did more than three thousand years ago. Our 
 morning survey will be more satisfactory and impressive, in some 
 respects, than the one we had last evening. 
 
 Captain Conder found that the name given by the Bcdawin to 
 this steep ascent, leading up to the ridge of Jebel Neba from the 
 north, is Tul'at es Sufa, the Ascent of Sufa, and he discovered 
 " that it is radically identical with the Hebrew Zuph," and " in the 
 form 'Ascent of Zuph' it is the modern representative of the old 
 ' Field of Zophim,' or of views." ' That identification and associa- 
 tion of names may well be accepted, for "the field of Zophim" 
 was evidently near Pisgah, and it was the second station where 
 Balak and Balaam built their seven altars.' 
 
 The ascent of Jebel Neba is much steeper, and the bold head- 
 land of Jebel Siaghah projects farther out above the plain of Abcl- 
 shittim, than I was aware of yesterday evening. 
 
 And now that we have reached "the top of Pisgah," we could 
 willingly spend the whole day here, gazing upon that most inter- 
 esting of all lands, " the Land of Promise." " Moses was a hundred 
 and twenty years old " when he stood on the top of Pisgah ; " his 
 eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated. And the Lord said 
 unto him, This is the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto 
 Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I will give it unto thy seed : I have 
 caused thee to see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over 
 thither. So Moses the servant of the Lord died there in the land 
 of Moab; but no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day."' 
 ' Heth and Moab, pp. 129, 130. ' Numb, xxiii. 14. ' I)cut. xxxiv. 1-7.
 
 66o THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 Our previous travels through the land, from Beer-sheba to Dan, 
 and this journey over the region beyond Jordan eastward have 
 made us familiar with the Promised Land "through the length 
 of it, and the breadth of it," and we can readily follow the enumer- 
 ation of the places which Moses saw. And now we can depart and 
 "go over thither," thankful that we have been permitted to stand 
 
 "where Moses stood, 
 And view the landscape o'er." 
 
 We will now start for the banks of the Jordan by way of Hesban 
 and el 'Al, the Heshbon and Elealeh which the Hebrews captured 
 from the Amorites as they passed down to " the plains of Moab," 
 below us on the left. The ruins at Hesban are about five miles 
 distant to the north-east, and it will take us nearly an hour and 
 a half steady riding across the plain to reach them. At Khirbet 
 Barzeleh, upon that low mound to the right, there are some old 
 foundations and a few caverns, but we will not stop to examine 
 them. The grave of Neby 'Abd Allah, however, is worthy of a 
 passing visit, and we will incline to the north and ride up to it. 
 
 Our guides regard this Neby 'Abd Allah as a very holy man,- 
 whom their ancestors have venerated "min zeman el kadim," from 
 the ancient times ; but they can give no information as to who 
 he was, and the supposition that this is the grave of Moses, " the 
 servant of God," is purely fanciful. The tomb of this prophet is 
 kept in repair — another evidence of the perpetuation of his memory. 
 On the south side of it are the usual representations of rank and 
 hospitality, consisting of rude sketches of the prophet himself on 
 horseback, his coffee-pot, mortar and pestle, coffee-cups and plates. 
 Near this tomb are some ordinary Bedawin graves and a deep cis- 
 tern, now dry; and, as in the case of other muzars, the immediate 
 vicinity of the saint's tomb is a sacred asylum or sanctuary, where 
 ploughs, ox -yokes, goads, and similar agricultural implements of 
 the Arabs are allowed to remain in perfect safety. 
 
 We will now follow along the regular road northward from 
 Ma'in to Hesban. On the right the beautiful plain of the Belka 
 fades away beyond the range of vision, along the vanishing line 
 of the eastern desert, and on the left far below us are ** the plains
 
 THE RUINS AT HESIUN.— FISIirOOLS IN HESIIBON. 66l 
 
 of Moab," upon which the Hebrews encamped, but tliey are con- 
 cealed from our view by the ridge of Jebel Neba. 
 
 The site of Heshbon, the ancient capital of " Sihon, king of the 
 Amorites," stands out quite conspicuously above the plain of the 
 Belka, as we approach it from the south. 
 
 The ruins at Hcsban cover the sides and summit of an elon- 
 gated double tell, less than two hundred feet high. Many of the 
 houses and other edifices were evidently built by the Romans, and 
 they were originally more substantial than those of other cities in 
 this region, but none of them are of any special interest. The ex- 
 isting remains are mostly those of prostrate habitations, amongst 
 which are columns, capitals, entablatures, old walls, and massive 
 foundations. Upon the highest part of the tell is a fine pavement 
 in good preservation, which may have belonged to a temple ; and 
 on the south-west side of the mound are the walls, almost entire, 
 of a large, singular edifice with some broken columns about it, and 
 exhibiting specimens of Jewish, Roman, and Saracenic architecture. 
 But more than most ancient sites, Hesban abounds in large vaulted 
 chambers and bottle -shaped cisterns, some of them hewn in the 
 rock, and which may date back to remote antiquity. The city 
 must have depended upon cisterns for its supply of water, for the 
 nearest permanent fountain is at 'Ain Hesban in the deep valley 
 below it, and distant more than half an hour to the north-west— 
 a most inconvenient resource for the inhabitants of the ancient 
 town at all times, and entirely unsafe in time of war. 
 
 There seems to have been a large reservoir on the plain below 
 the city to the east. Were "the fishpools in Heshbon," referred 
 to in the Song of Solomon, similar to that artificial tank?' 
 
 It certainly was one of the pools in Heshbon. but it probably 
 contained no fish, for they cannot live in stagnant water. If the 
 allusion really was to fish -pools, the royal poet may have had in 
 mind the stream from 'Ain Hesban, along the course of which are 
 numerous pools where small fishes can still be found. It is more 
 reasonable to suppose, however, that Solomon referred to the pools 
 or reservoirs beside the principal gate of the city itself. 
 
 Let us sit down and rest a while under the shadow of this 
 
 ' Solomon's Song vii. 4.
 
 662 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 strange building, from the ruins of which we can survey the whole 
 of Moab, and even identify the sites of many of those cities that 
 were doomed to destruction, as recorded in the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth chapters of Isaiah and the forty-eighth chapter of Jeremiah. 
 Their prostrate walls and ruined habitations, scattered in all direc- 
 tions " far and near," around and about us, testify to the literal 
 fulfilment of those prophetic denunciations, and it is that which 
 imparts a deep and peculiar interest to our pilgrimage " through 
 the land " on this side of the Jordan " towards the sunrising." 
 
 We have only to translate prophecy into history to obtain the 
 most impressive picture of this land as our eyes behold it to-day. 
 " From the cry of Heshbon even unto Elealeh, and even unto Ja- 
 haz, have they uttered their voice, from Zoar even unto Horonaim: 
 for the waters also of Nimrin shall be desolate. Fear, and the pit, 
 and the snare, shall be upon thee, O inhabitant of Moab. A fire 
 shall come forth out of Heshbon, and a flame from the midst of 
 Sihon, and shall devour the corner of Moab.'" And thus the 
 desolation of Moab has been accomplished, more completely than 
 even the prophets foresaw or could ever have imagined. 
 
 Heshbon is mentioned in the Bible more frequently than any 
 other city in Moab. We hear of it as the capital of " Sihon, king 
 of the Amorites," who had taken it out of the hand " of the former 
 king of Moab. Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say. Come 
 into Heshbon, let the city of Sihon be built and prepared."^ After 
 the defeat of Sihon by the Hebrews, on their march to the Jordan, 
 "Heshbon and all the villages thereof" fell into their hands. It 
 was among the cities that were rebuilt by the tribe of Reuben, but 
 it subsequently belonged to the tribe of Gad, and was allotted to 
 the Levites." According to Jephthah, the Israelites continued to 
 reside in Heshbon for at least three hundred years.* 
 
 Nothing more is heard of it for several centuries down to the 
 time of Isaiah, when it appears that the Moabites had regained 
 possession of it after the captivity of the ten tribes ; for it is men- 
 tioned among the cities of that people, and included in the pro- 
 phetic denunciations against them.^ But in the time of the Mac- 
 
 ' Jer. xlviii. 34, 43, 45. ^ Numb. xxi. 26, 27. ' Numb, xxxii. 37; Josh. xxi. 39. 
 
 * Judges xi. 26. ^ Isa. xv. 4; Jer. xlviii. 2, 34, 45.
 
 VIEW FROM EL 'AL.— THE PRIDE OF MOAB. 663 
 
 cabees, about five hundred years later, it was recovered from the 
 Moabites by Alexander Jannc-eus, who, according to Josephus, took 
 possession of the city and compelled the inhabitants to become 
 Jews.' In the fourth century of our era its name occurs in the 
 Onomasticon, and then disappears from the page of history alto- 
 gether; but many modern travellers have been here since it was 
 first visited by Seetzen, in the early part of this century. 
 
 A pleasant ride of twenty minutes across the gently rising plain 
 to the north-east will bring us to el 'Al, the modern representative 
 of Elealeh. It occupies a commanding position above the plain, 
 on the summit of a natural tell which, according to Captain Warren, 
 is nearly three thousand feet above the level of the Mediterranean 
 Sea; and its modern Arabic name, "the height," is essentially the 
 same as its ancient Hebrew name, the " ascent or height of God." 
 
 The existing remains at el 'Al are more considerable than I ex- 
 pected to find them, and they entirely cover this high tell and ex- 
 tend below it on to the plain of the Belka. 
 
 Especially on the east and south there are ancient vaults and 
 cisterns and a few broken columns and large stones marking the 
 sites of former habitations and important buildings; but, as at 
 Hesban, none of them appear to have been of any special interest. 
 Elealeh being not much more than a mile from Heshbon, they 
 must always have shared in the fortunes and misfortunes of each 
 other, and that sufficiently accounts for the fact that the two are 
 named together in the Biblical narrative. The view from these 
 ruins on the top of the tell over the plain of Moab is singularly 
 impressive from its great extent, utter solitude, and oppressive 
 silence. There is not a tree, nor a village, nor an inhabited house 
 between it and the utmost verge of the horizon. "We have heard 
 of the pride of Moab," says the prophet ; " therefore I will water 
 thee with my tears, O Heshbon, and Elealeh : for the alarm is 
 fallen upon thy summer fruits, and thy harvest is fallen."' 
 
 We will now descend to 'Ain Hesban in the valley north-west 
 of the ancient Heshbon. I have come from that fountain to 
 el 'Al in about an hour; the distance is nearly three miles, and 
 the descent cannot be much less than seven humlred feet. The 
 
 ' Ant. xiii. 15, 4, 5. ' Isa. xvi. 6, 9.
 
 664 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 road leads down the valley and over glaring white rocks. The sub- 
 stratum of this entire region is cretaceous limestone, and the soil 
 is very fertile. I have also been up and down the direct road from 
 'Ain Hesban to the ruins at Hesban, and for some distance, in the 
 steepest part of it, the path appears to have been excavated along 
 the face of the cliff. Beyond that the road is marked by a low 
 wall extending from the top of the ridge across the plain towards 
 the south-west, and reaching almost to the ruins at Hesban. 
 
 I regret that our journey through the land of Moab has been 
 so limited and restricted from necessity; there must be many sites 
 farther south of great Biblical interest and importance. 
 
 The Turkish Government has refused to allow any further sur- 
 veys to be made of this part of the country, and we may congratu- 
 late ourselves that we have been enabled to traverse so much of it 
 without fear or favor, thanks to the faithfulness and efficiency of 
 our 'Adwan guards and guides. " In times past " this region east 
 and south-east of the Jordan was called " the land of giants." The 
 Rephaims and Emims dwelt there, and they, perhaps, were the 
 descendants of those troglodytes who erected the dolmens and 
 other monuments which puzzle archaeologists at the present day. 
 Then came the children of Lot — Moab and Ammon — and drove 
 out the giants and occupied their country. They in turn were ex- 
 pelled from most of their territory by the Amorites, who appear 
 to have forced their way between the Moabites and Ammonites 
 and taken possession of their towns and villages. 
 
 The Hebrews, led by Moses, conquered them, and their territory 
 was divided between Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. 
 After several centuries the descendants of those sons of Israel were 
 carried away captive by the Assyrians and Babylonians from the 
 far east. Thus all nations and tribes who occupied this land in 
 succession, during the long ages of the past, have one and all dis- 
 appeared. All have vanished entirely, and the prowling and roving 
 Bedawin have come up like the locusts over the land, utterly igno- 
 rant of their origin and the history of their race. 
 
 It is a great satisfaction to know that, notwithstanding the num- 
 berless changes of races and rulers, we can be as certain that Moses 
 and the chosen tribes came here and conquered the country, as
 
 ANCIENT BIBLICAL NAMES-SHEIKH KUBI.AN EL FADIL. 665 
 
 that David reigned in Jerusalem, or that any other important event 
 recorded in Biblical history actually took place. 
 
 And it is more than satisfactory to feel assured that the He- 
 brews beheld this very region through which we are now passing: 
 that they not only saw, but actually lived in the cities whose ruins 
 we have visited, and called them by the identical names which we 
 have heard given to them by the ignorant Bedawin after the lapse 
 of more than thirty centuries. This prolonged identity is unique in 
 history, and it furnishes a strong corroboration of the truth of the 
 Biblical narratives concerning the wonderful events that occurred 
 in this region in those ancient times. 
 
 We have made a great descent from the ruins at cl 'Al during 
 the past hour, and for the last ten minutes we have been ascend- 
 ing the valley above the bank of this pretty little stream. 
 
 It comes from 'Ain Hesban, and this beautiful wady is the 
 summer retreat of Sheikh Goblan or Kubalan el Fadil, the well- 
 known chieftain of the Nimr branch of the 'Adwan Bedawin of 
 the Belka. Fortunately for us he is absent, and we thus escape 
 the necessity and consequent delay of a formal call upon him. 
 When I saw him last he was determined to make me a present of 
 his mare, well knowing that, whether the gift was accepted or not, 
 I would be obliged to make him a suitable bakhshish. Captain 
 Conder thus describes him : 
 
 " Riding slowly on a bay mare, he approached with four mounted 
 followers. His figure is one remarkably striking at first sight. A 
 tall, gaunt man, with a grey, bronzed face half hidden by his kufe- 
 yeh, one eye red and sightless from a sword-cut which has furrowed 
 all one cheek. His hair long and silvery, and his beard quite wiiitc. 
 His age probably seventy, though he believed himself to be about 
 forty. He wore a double kufeyeh [about his head], the inner black, 
 the outer one black with gold embroidery. His shirt was white 
 and clean, with a kumbaz, or long gown [over it), fastened by a 
 belt, with yellow and purple vertical stripes. The white sleeves 
 of the shirt hung out beyond those of the gown, reaching to his 
 feet, which were cased in loose boots of red leather, without any 
 sock or stocking. Over all he wore a beautiful abba, or cope-like 
 mantle, of broad white and amber- coloured stripes. This most
 
 666 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 picturesque costume was strangely at variance with the long, lean 
 figure, the red eye, the muffled voice, the thick, obstinate nose, and 
 the long gash on the bony, dusky cheek ; but the hand was soft, 
 and the white nails carefully trimmed.'" 
 
 And there are the black tents of the Bedawin Arabs pitched 
 on both sides of the stream from 'Ain Hesban — the largest en- 
 campment of the 'Adwan tribe we have yet seen. 
 
 Our approach creates a general buzz and bustle amongst the 
 miscellaneous inhabitants ; horses snort and neigh, donkeys prick 
 up their long ears and bray, dogs rush frantically about and bark 
 ferociously, while men, women, and children gather in groups to 
 welcome us as we ride by — a very animated, picturesque, and 
 even interesting spectacle. We will pass on to 'Ain Hesban, a short 
 distance above the camp, where we will stop and rest. Sheikh 'Ali 
 has brought us a pitcher of cool, fresh water from the fountain — a 
 most welcome offering, for the latter part of our ride has been ex- 
 tremely warm. The last time I was here there were four separate 
 encampments in sight, one above the fountain and three below it. 
 That of Sheikh 'Ali Diab, the chief of the elder branch of the 
 'Adwan tribe, called 'Ashiret Saleh, was much the largest, and his 
 tent must have been more than sixty feet long. The whole neigh- 
 borhood was alive with Bedawin — men, women, and children — and 
 the various possessions of the tribe : a scene eminently patriarchal, 
 and a fit place to observe the manners and customs of a nomadic 
 life similar to that of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, of Moses, and 
 even the children of Israel themselves. 
 
 'Ain Hesban is a noble fountain of beautifully clear water, 
 flowing out from a small cave under the cliff on the north side of 
 Wady Hesban, and it forms at once a fine mill-stream. The valley 
 comes down from the east and is quite dry; but below the fount- 
 ain it trends round to the south-west, and in the spring the fields 
 on each side of the stream are covered with luxuriant wheat and 
 barley. Formerly there were several flour-mills along the banks of 
 the stream from 'Ain Hesban which flows through the valley south- 
 ward for two or three miles, and then plunging down a romantic 
 ravine turns westward and runs down to "the plains of Moab," and 
 ' Heth and Moab, pp. no, in.
 
 THE FISH AT AIN HESBAN.— ROAD TO THE JERICHO FORD. (£j 
 
 thence to the Jordan. Now there is but a single dilapidated mill — 
 a sure indication that the population of this region, even in modern 
 times, was much greater than it is at present. 
 
 When encamped here with Dr. Merrill, I rode for some distance 
 along the banks below the fountain to see the little pools made 
 by the stream, in which there were many small fishes. As we have 
 already observed, it has been supposed that the royal poet referred 
 to them in his " Song," when he compares the eyes of the " prince's 
 daughter" to "the fishpools in Heshbon."' There never was either 
 fountain or running stream in that city on the elevated plateau 
 above 'Ain Hesban, nor sparkling pools; only dark cisterns or open 
 tanks of rain-water in which fish cannot live. Captain Conder says, 
 "This [brook], though shallow, has many fish in it, and reminded 
 us of ' the fishpools in Heshbon, by the gate in Bath-rabbim,' which 
 gate we supposed might be the passage cut through the rocks at 
 the top of the steep, winding mountain-path from the stream to the 
 city on the plateau above." ^ 
 
 The road we are to follow from 'Ain Hesban to the ford of 
 Nuwaimeh, after passing the top of the ridge west of the fountain, 
 leads northward for an hour, and thence westward for about two 
 hours, down an easy descent north of Wady Hesban, to Tell el 
 Hammam at the foot of the mountain. From there it crosses " the 
 plains of Moab," upon which the Hebrews encamped in the time 
 of Moses, to the ferry over the Jordan near Jericho. Canon Tris- 
 tram and his party followed down the valley from 'Ain Hesban to 
 the plain, keeping mostly on the south side of the wady, the other 
 side being in many places quite impracticable. 
 
 " Marked was the contrast," he says, " between the rugged red 
 sandstone cliffs, sharp and precipitous, dotted with eagles' and 
 vultures' nests, which formed the north wall of the wady, and the 
 more gentle terraced slopes covered with luxuriant verdure, un- 
 scorched by the sun, which bounded it on the south. On the last 
 rocky eminence which pushed forward into [the plain] were the 
 most perfect primaeval remains we had found in the country. 
 Round the slightly elevated crest at the western end of the ridge 
 was a perfect circle of dolmens, each composed of three upright 
 ' Solomon's Song vii. 4. ' Hclh and Moah. pp. 125. 138.
 
 668 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 and one covering stone. Several of them had fallen, but the stones 
 were in their places, and it was clear that they had been arranged 
 in a circle round a great cairn, or central pile of stones, which 
 crowned the ' tell,' and doubtless marked the burial-place of some 
 hero famous in his day, but who lived before Agamemnon." ' 
 
 A great change has come upon this region since the Hebrew 
 host passed this way down to their camping-ground on the acacia 
 meadow, or Abel-shittim. Since leaving 'Ain Hesban we have 
 not seen a single individual, nor even a flock of goats with its 
 Bedawin shepherd and noisy dogs. Then all these valleys and 
 hills must have been alive with " much cattle," and thousands of 
 men, women, and children must have crowded every practicable 
 pathway down to "the plains of Moab." 
 
 This silent solitude is not always so deserted even now. In 
 the spring the plain itself presents a very different aspect. The 
 peasants from es Salt and elsewhere are then busy attending to 
 their crops, and large flocks from the Belka and other parts of 
 Moab slowly wend their way down to the ferry of Nuwaimeh, 
 destined to supply the markets in Jerusalem during the pilgrim 
 season. This is, also, not the only way from the high plateau of 
 Moab to the Jordan, but it is the easiest one ; and since the estab- 
 lishment of the ferry it is the most frequented. The road now 
 winds down this narrow ridge with profound ravines on either 
 side, all of which are dry, rocky, and impracticable. 
 
 The Hebrews must have had an extensive view of the plain 
 from many places along this descent from the plateau of Moab. 
 
 Let us turn aside and rest a while under the shadow of that 
 great rock while we contemplate this glorious prospect. We can 
 see the entire plain of Abel-shittim, the Jordan valley, and the end- 
 lessly diversified hills of Judea, the Dead Sea, and every tell upon 
 " the plains of Moab " from Tell Suweimeh on the south to Tell 
 Nimrin on the north. The entire western face of these Moabite 
 mountains, from es Salt to " the mountain of Nebo," is drained 
 by a number of wadies, all of which debouch on to Ghor es Seisa- 
 ban, as "the acacia meadow," or Abel-shittim, is now called. 
 
 Beginning at the south, the principal ones are Wady 'Ayun 
 
 ' Land of Moab, pp. 345, 347.
 
 VALLEYS AND HILLS AROUND AND UPON THE TLAIN. 669 
 
 Musa under Nebo, then Wady Hesban, and beyond it Wady Kef- 
 rein and Wady Sha'ib with its little river, which flows down from 
 es Salt, past Tell Nimrin, and irrigates that part of the plain. The 
 stream from Kefrein rises in the mountains east of 'Arak el Emir, 
 near a ruin called Khirbet Sar, and enters the plain between Tell 
 Kefrein on the north and Tell el Hammam on the south. The 
 little stream from 'Ain Hesban comes from Wady Hesban and 
 flows past and to the north of Tell Ektanu and Tell cr Rameh, 
 and the waters from 'Ayun Musa flow down the valley of the same 
 name and join the stream of Wady Jerifeh. After reaching the 
 plain of Abel-shittim all those streams from the different wadies 
 cut their own deep and narrow channels westward to the Jordan. 
 
 The principal tells on the plain of Abel-shittim, commencing 
 at the southern end and proceeding northward, are Tell es Suwei- 
 meh, identified with Beth- jeshimoth, a town allotted to the chil- 
 dren of Reuben ;' Tell Ektanu, supposed by Dr. Merrill "to be the 
 site of the 'little city' of Genesis xix. 20;" Tell er Rameh, identi- 
 fied by Canon Tristram with Beth-haran, one of the fenced cities 
 rebuilt by the children of Gad ;" Tell esh Shaghur, with the ruins 
 of a flour-mill near it; Tell el Hammam, to the warm baths of which 
 Herod the Great may have been taken before his death, instead of 
 to Callirrhoe ; Tell Kefrein, also identified by Canon Tristram and 
 others with Abel-shittim of Numbers x.xxiii. 49; and Tell Ximrin. 
 which marks the site of Beth-nimrah, a fenced citj' and a fold for 
 sheep, built by the children of Gad.^ 
 
 We have now reached Tell el Hammam, the mound of the bath, 
 at the foot of the mountain. I spent two nights near it, encamped 
 on the west bank of this pretty little stream from Wady Kefrein, 
 and I passed the intervening day wandering about this beautiful 
 plain and exploring the surrounding hills. Tell el Hammam is a 
 high natural mound at the south-eastern end of the plain, and com- 
 mands a wide view over it to the south and west, and the stream 
 from Wady Kefrein flows past its north-western base. No part 
 of the tell is artificial except the ti)p, which is covered with the 
 debris of ancient buildings which may be of any age. The summit 
 appears to have been surrounded with a wall, and if it was well 
 
 ' Josh. xiii. 20. ' Xuml). xxxii. 36. '' Nuinl) xxxii. 36.
 
 5^0 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 fortified it would command the entrance into the mountains up 
 Wady Kefrein. "Nearly a mile from Tell el Hammam," says Dr. 
 Merrill, " up Wady Kefrein, is a ruin called M'hadhar [Um Hathir?], 
 and around it is a trench. In the valley below it is a ruined mill, 
 standing on a little knoll called Jaudat. Opposite M'hadhar, on 
 the south side of the wady, is another ruin called Hubbisa." ' 
 
 Tell el Hammam is so called from some warm sulphur springs 
 near the base of it on the south-west. They form a marsh covered 
 with bushes and alive with frogs. Baths appear to have been built 
 close by, but all has been deserted for ages, no one knows how 
 many. " On the east of Tell el Hammam, at the foot of the hill, 
 is a fine aqueduct. It is cemented, and for the most part covered 
 with earth. Were it not exposed at a few points, one would not 
 be aware of its existence. It runs to the south from Wady Kefrein, 
 and appears not to have been used for a long time." " 
 
 Near the warm springs there are clumps of straggling and scraggy 
 trees about fifteen feet high. The leaves and berries resemble those 
 of the olive, and the latter are said to be eaten by the Ghawarineh 
 Arabs. Our 'Adwan sheikhs say the tree is held sacred by them, 
 and the wood is not burned — possibly because, like the cactus, it 
 will not ignite. Sheikh 'AH broke off a twig and rubbed his teeth 
 and gums with it, saying that it cleansed them and sweetened the 
 breath. The osher-tree, or apple of Sodom, also abounds in that 
 neighborhood, and the banks of the stream that comes down from 
 Wady Kefrein are overshadowed by dense thickets of reeds, olean- 
 ders, and other wide-spreading bushes. 
 
 Dr. Merrill, who carefully explored this region and bestowed 
 special attention to the various tells, says: "But of all this group 
 of tells [on the Shittim plain] the ruins on Tell Ektanu are the 
 most important. One building on its summit was two hundred 
 feet from east to west, with an entrance on the east side. The 
 foundation stones are large, while above these are the remains of 
 a layer of conglomerate stones, which have fallen to pieces with 
 age or by the action of the climate. But Tell er Rameh is the 
 place where I would like first to put in the spade. This is the 
 Beth-haran of Joshua — the Betharamphtha of Josephus — a place 
 
 ' East of the Jordan, p. 232. ^ East of the Jordan, p. 232.
 
 GROUP OF DOLMENS.— LARGE DISC-STONE. 67 I 
 
 which Herod Antipas rebuilt and called Julias, or Livias, in honor 
 of Julia, the wife of Augustus [the Empress Livia]. 
 
 " As in nearly every other instance in the Jordan valley, so here 
 towns sprang up on or near a living stream, and generally not far 
 from where it left the hills. The stream in Wady Kefrein flows 
 under and just north of Tell el Hammam. The stream in Wady 
 Hesban flows north of Tell Ektanu, and also near Tell er Rameh. 
 They are both large streams, and we must cross on horseback or 
 else wade ; and getting wet is good neither for health nor comfort. 
 
 " Between Tell Ektanu and Tell el Hammam there is, near the 
 hill, a large group of dolmens. In a few cases the roof stone is point- 
 ed, with sloping sides like the covers of some sarcophagi that are 
 found in different parts of the country. It is remarkable that no 
 satisfactory explanation of these curious objects has ever been made. 
 About half-way between these two places I found an immense cir- 
 cular stone lying on the top of the ground. It is eleven feet four 
 inches in diameter, forty -four inches thick, and has a round hole 
 in the centre twenty-five inches in diameter. It is made of hard 
 sandstone, unlike any that exists in the neighboring hills, and it 
 must have been brought from the north. The outer edge is slightly 
 convex, and the stone does not appear to have been used." ' 
 
 That large disc-stone, called by the Bedawin Men.sef Abu Zcid 
 the tray or dish of Abu Zeid, significant of his generous hospitality, 
 presents as great a puzzle as the dolmens; but of course such stones 
 are comparatively modern. They evidently were not intended for 
 millstones, nor for any practical use ; yet they are very substantial 
 realities, and those who cut out of the solid rock such huge discs 
 must have had some special object in view which fully compensated 
 them for their great labor and expense. 
 
 We are now on our way from Tell el Hammam to Tell Kefrein. 
 When we came from the Nuwaimeh ford to Tell el Hammam, the 
 wheat-fields through which we tried to pass had been flooded from 
 the stream, and our horses floundered about and waded across them 
 with great difficulty. We were obliged to turn southward, cross 
 the deep channel of the stream, and find a path on the south side 
 which proved to be smooth and hard, and we followed it all the 
 
 ' East of llie Jordan, i)]). 230, 231. 
 2 A A
 
 672 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 way to our camp at the foot of Tell el Hammam. We shall not 
 experience a similar difficulty now, and can keep along the direct 
 road to the ford which passes to the south of Tell Kefrein. 
 
 The nearer views we get of this plain are somewhat surprising. 
 It is not so level, and much of it is apparently not very fertile, the 
 outline of the eastern border is irregular and broken up by rocky 
 spurs from the mountains of Moab; and the acacia-trees, the Bib- 
 lical shittah, from which the plain derived its most familiar name, 
 are less numerous than I expected to find them. 
 
 Farther north the road from the ford to es Salt by Tell Nimrin 
 passes through the middle of what appears from a distance to be 
 extensive groves of those trees; but even along that route there 
 are now no dense forests of acacia- trees. The old and gnarled 
 acacias, however, scattered here and there upon this Shittim plain, 
 testify in the strongest degree to the appropriateness of its Bib- 
 lical name, and they are no doubt the descendants of the shittah- 
 trees which covered this plain in the time of Moses. 
 
 We will now turn to the right, and leaving the road, ascend 
 that low artificial mound ahead of us, called Tell Kefrein. It is 
 surrounded " on all sides [by] rivulets," as Captain Warren remarks, 
 "passing through dense masses of underwood, and carried off here 
 and there for irrigating purposes." The remains about and upon 
 the tell, and on its small rocky summit, are quite insignificant, con- 
 sisting of traces of walls and old foundations, a few vaults, and 
 some caverns which. Sheikh Ali says, are used in winter to store 
 away the surplus supply of straw belonging to the 'Adwan. Tell 
 Kefrein — the mound of the two villages — so far as the sound and 
 signification of the name is concerned, might stand for Kirjathaim, 
 the double city, rebuilt by the Reubenites. It has, however, been 
 identified by Canon Tristram, Captain Warren, Dr. Merrill, and 
 others with Abel -shittim itself, from which this plain derived its 
 name; and around it the Israelites pitched their last camp east of 
 the Jordan, before they entered the Land of Promise. 
 
 If that identification be correct, it imparts a peculiar interest 
 to this lowly mound and the surrounding region ; for here, accord- 
 ing to Josephus, Moses completed the book of Deuteronomy, and 
 amid the palm-trees of the place he delivered his last address to
 
 "HOW GOODLY ARE THY TENTS. O JACOB." 673 
 
 the children of Israel. " Come, therefore," said the Hebrew law- 
 giver, "let me suggest to you by what means ye may be happy. 
 O children of Israel ! there is but one source of happiness for all 
 mankind, the favor of God."' And from here "Joshua the son of 
 Nun sent out two men to spy secretly, saying, Go view the land. 
 And they went to Jericho and lodged in the house of Rahab."^ 
 
 The ford of the Jordan, near which we shall find our tents, is 
 about three miles distant from this Tell of Kefrein ; and that we 
 may reach them before dark we must spur on our horses to a brisk 
 pace over this smooth road and comparatively level plain. 
 
 How different this plain of Abel-shittim must have been when 
 the Hebrew host was encamped upon it from what it is at present! 
 Now it is strangely silent and entirely deserted, and we have not 
 seen a single individual in our ride across it. 
 
 At this season of the j^ear even the Bedawin, with their tents 
 and their flocks, have migrated to the green valleys and elevated 
 plateaus of Moab, and the silence and solitude of the plain are 
 quite oppressive. But when thousands of tents covered the sur- 
 face farther than the eye could reach, there was here a whole world 
 of human life and busy activity. Neither pencil can picture nor 
 pen adequately describe the wonderful scene, nor can imagination 
 reproduce it. History records nothing with which to compare it, 
 in this or in any land, and no wonder that Balaam, when he looked 
 upon the scene from the mountain of Nebo, and " saw Israel abiding 
 in his tents", according to their tribes," exclaimed, " How goodly are 
 thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel ! As the valleys 
 are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees 
 of lignaloes which the Lord hath planted, and as cedar trees beside 
 the waters, and blessed is he that blesseth thee."' 
 
 We have now reached the western edge of this plain of Abel- 
 shittim, and an easy descent of fifteen minutes along a winding 
 path will bring us to our tents, pitched on this side Jordan, near 
 the ferry of Nuwaimeh. 
 
 Jericho Eord, September 30th. Evening. 
 
 While we were riding across the plain of Abel-shittim this 
 afternoon, the question whether it was large enough to contain the 
 ' Ant. iv. 8, I, 2. * Josh. ii. i. ^ Numb. xxiv. 2, 5. 6, (>.
 
 6^4 THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 camp of the entire Hebrew nation was constantly recurring to my 
 mind. According to the census which Moses was commanded to 
 take of the children of Israel, after their encampment on "the 
 plains of Moab," the number of the men who were " twenty years 
 old and upward," and of all that were " able to go to war," was 
 six hundred and one thousand seven hundred and thirty.^ Multi- 
 plying by four, to obtain the number of the whole nation, we get 
 the large figure of two million four hundred and six thousand nine 
 hundred and twenty, without the Levites. Was there sufficient 
 space on the plain for the tents of such a vast multitude ? 
 
 At first these questions appear sufficiently formidable, but the 
 result of a little calculation will surprise you. If we take the aver- 
 age size of a tent among the Bedawin Arabs of to-day, and allow 
 ten persons to a tent, and then suppose that the children of Israel 
 in their totality numbered three millions, they would require three 
 hundred thousand tents. Allowing twenty square rods for each 
 tent, such an encampment would require six million square rods ; 
 but there are at least twelve million square rods on these '' plains 
 of Moab by Jordan near Jericho." The children of Israel " pitched 
 by Jordan, from Beth-jesimoth even unto Abel-shittim in the plains 
 of Moab."' That is— if the identification of those places be correct 
 
 from Tell Suweimeh on the south to Tell Kefrein on the north. 
 
 The width of " the plains " in the neighborhood of those tells, in-' 
 eluding the wadies and adjacent hill -sides where tents could be 
 pitched, is about eight miles, while the length from the shore of the 
 Dead Sea and the foot-hills of "the mountain of Nebo " extends 
 northward for fifteen miles. That gives an area of one hundred 
 and twenty square miles, or over twelve million square rods, and 
 allows of ample space for the tribes to encamp in "the plains of 
 Moab, from Beth-jesimoth even unto Abel-shittim." 
 
 I have Tollowed the supposed route of the Israelites from the 
 Red Sea to Mount Sinai, and thence across the great and terrible 
 " wilderness of the wandering," and I nowhere saw a place for en- 
 camping at all comparable to this. With one or two possible ex- 
 ceptions, all the forty stations at which they pitched after crossing 
 the Red Sea were sadly deficient in good water, while here the 
 
 ' Numb. xxvi. i, 2, 51. " Numb, xxxiii. 49.
 
 TESTIMONY OF THE LAND TO THE TRUTH OF THE BOOK. 675 
 
 space was ample and the supply of water abundant and never 
 failing. From that great encampment here on this plain those 
 military expeditions went forth, which subdued Gilead and Bashan 
 and enabled the two and a half tribes to occupy their chosen in- 
 heritance east of the Jordan. Somewhere on these plains, near 
 Tell Kefrein perhaps, Moses had his head -quarters, and there 
 doubtless he composed the book of Deuteronomy, and rehearsed 
 it in the ears of all the people, for it is stated that " on this side 
 Jordan, in the land of Moab, began Moses to declare this law.'" 
 
 I should like to read the whole of it here where it was written, 
 having Moab and Gilead and far- distant Bashan for background, 
 with Canaan's fair and happy land in full view, while Jordan rolls 
 between. I am thankful that we have been permitted to traverse 
 those regions, and to encamp upon this plain. 
 
 Seeing is believing, according to the proverb ; but " blessed are 
 they that have not seen, and yet have believed." That there actu- 
 ally is here just such a plain as this is required to confirm the state- 
 ment in the narrative that the incidents said to have occurred at 
 Abel-shittim did really take place. And to that extent at least 
 the testimony which the land of the Bible bears to its veracity is 
 of essential importance. We have had around us hundreds of wit- 
 nesses, on this side of Jordan and on that, in mountains, valleys, and 
 plains, in fountains, rivers, and lakes, in trees and plants, in birds and 
 beasts, in the works of man scattered over the whole country, and in 
 the ancient sites found everywhere throughout the land and still 
 bearing their ancient names— and they all testify to the credibility 
 of the Biblical record. And yet that is only one of the many ways 
 in which this promised land to the patriarchs of old confirms and 
 illustrates that book of books, our blessed Bible. 
 
 Where did the children of Israel pass over this river of the Jor- 
 dan into the land of Canaan ? 
 
 The account of that wonderful passage given in the third and 
 fourth chapters of Joshua furnishes no topographical data by which 
 that question can be answered with exactness. We read that the 
 host "removed from Shittim, and came to Jordan and lodged there 
 [for three days] before they passed over." If we assume that there 
 
 ' Dcut. i. 5.
 
 d'^^ THE LAND AND THE BOOK. 
 
 was but one broad crossing-place, it probably did not extend much 
 farther up the Jordan than this ford of Nuwaimeh, or Mukhadat 
 el Ghoraniyeh, the ford of the Ghor or Jordan valley. Above it 
 the upper plain of the Jordan valley terminates on the western side 
 of the river in high perpendicular bluffs, which would present an 
 insuperable obstacle to the ascent of the host to Gilgal. Those 
 bluffs, however, end abruptly a short distance north of this ford, 
 and from thence southward to the Dead Sea there would have been 
 no obstacle in the way; and the various tribes, after crossing, could 
 have proceeded directly from the banks of the river to their ap- 
 pointed stations " in the east border of Jericho." 
 
 It is difficult to realize that we are now encamped near the 
 place where one of the most stupendous miracles was enacted that 
 God has ever wrought in behalf of His chosen people. 
 
 In one important respect that crossing over Jordan is more im- 
 pressive than the passing of the Israelites through the Red Sea. 
 Here, at least, there is no question as to where the crossing was 
 made. Somewhere in this vicinity, the Jordan, full to the over- 
 flowing of all its banks, was divided, and " the waters which came 
 down from above stood and rose up upon a heap, and those that 
 came down toward the salt sea failed, and were cut off: and the 
 people passed over right against Jericho."' That unparalleled mi- 
 gration into Palestine, or invasion of it, by the Hebrew nation was 
 made in obedience to the command of God : " Have I not com- 
 manded thee?" said the Lord to Joshua. "Be strong and of a 
 good courage ; be not afraid, neither be thou dismayed ; for the 
 Lord thy God is with thee whithersoever thou goest." Leaving 
 the banks of the Jordan, the children of Israel marched a few miles 
 westward, and encamped, according to the Biblical record, "in Gil- 
 gal, in the east border of Jericho," and "the waters of Jordan re- 
 turned unto their place, and flowed over all his banks, as they did 
 before."' Jericho was then called " the city of palm-trees," by way 
 of eminence, and the surrounding plain was probably overshadowed 
 by large groves of those graceful trees. Beneath them were doubt- 
 less pitched the countless tents of the children of Israel, and there 
 we will leave them to carry out their divinely appointed mission. 
 
 ' Josh. iii. 15, 16. * Josh. iv. iS.
 
 THE HOME OF THE BIBLE.— THE LAND OF THE BOOK. 677 
 
 Having thus followed that triumphant entrance of the Hebrew 
 nation into the earthly Canaan ^ — t}-pe and prophecy and promise 
 of that other passage through another river to an inheritance in 
 the better land, " incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth not 
 away, reserved in heaven " for us,' it remains for ourselves to cross, 
 on the morrow, this same Jordan, not on dry land, but in that rude 
 and clumsy ferry-boat, and from thence to ascend the mountain 
 to the Holy City — that type, in Biblical symbolism, of the "Jeru- 
 salem which is above, which is the mother of us all."' After a 
 farewell survey of the sites and scenes within and around Jerusalem 
 we will go down to Joppa by the sea -side. From that city our 
 travels "through the land, in the length of it, and the breadth of 
 it," began, and there we will end them, devoutly thankful to our 
 Heavenly Father for His providential guidance and protection in 
 all our wanderings over this Land of Promise, the home of the Bible 
 — the Land of the Book. 
 
 ' I Peter i. 4. '' Gal. iv. 26.
 
 INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE BOOKS OF THE BHiLE. 
 
 
 Genesis. 
 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 xxxiv. 
 
 8-12 
 
 212 
 
 xxi. 
 
 30 
 
 638 
 
 iii. 
 
 21 
 
 82 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 2, 4 
 
 554 
 
 " 
 
 33-35 
 
 461 
 
 ix. 
 
 23 
 
 84 
 
 " 
 
 6,7 
 
 555 
 
 xxii. 
 
 — 
 
 636 
 
 X. 
 
 15 
 
 298 
 
 xxxvi. 
 
 20-24 
 
 64S 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 550 
 
 " 
 
 17 
 
 282 
 
 xxxvii. 
 
 3, 23, 31 
 
 84 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 I-IO 
 
 655 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 278 
 
 " 
 
 25-2S 
 
 540 
 
 " 
 
 14 
 
 659 
 
 xi. 
 
 31 
 
 364 
 
 xxxix. 
 
 12 
 
 84 
 
 " 
 
 14-20 
 
 655 
 
 xiv. 
 
 
 
 534 
 
 xli. 
 
 42 
 
 83 
 
 xxiv. 
 
 I, 2, 51 
 
 674 
 
 " 
 
 5 
 
 542 
 
 " 
 
 46-48, 53-57 
 
 458 
 
 " 
 
 2, 5, 6, 9 
 
 673 
 
 '• 
 
 15 
 
 3^)3 
 
 xlv. 
 
 1-15 
 
 577 
 
 " 
 
 3-6.8 
 
 656 
 
 " 
 
 17 
 
 364 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 14-19. 25 
 
 656 
 
 XV. 
 
 1-4 
 
 364 
 
 
 E.XODUS. 
 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 8, 16 
 
 656 
 
 xvi. 
 
 4 
 
 90 
 
 iii. 
 
 5 
 
 85 
 
 xxxii. 
 
 I 
 
 601 
 
 " 
 
 10, 12 
 
 536 
 
 " 
 
 17 
 
 227 
 
 " 
 
 35 
 
 607 
 
 xix. 
 
 20 
 
 669 
 
 xvi. 
 
 4-36 
 
 180 
 
 
 36 
 
 669 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 — 
 
 298 
 
 XX. 
 
 24. 25 
 
 367 
 
 J ( 
 
 36 
 
 669 
 
 XXV. 
 
 15. 16 
 
 434 
 
 xxii. 
 
 27 
 
 89 
 
 " 
 
 37 
 
 662 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 536 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 5 
 
 345 
 
 " 
 
 38 
 
 644 
 
 xxvi. 
 
 34.35 
 
 299 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 41. 42 
 
 4S9 
 
 xxvii. 
 
 34.38 
 
 403 
 
 
 Leviticus. 
 
 
 xxxiii. 
 
 47-49 
 
 654 
 
 " 
 
 46 
 
 299 
 
 xiv. 
 
 4, 6. 7 
 
 263 
 
 
 49 
 
 669 
 
 xxviii. 
 
 1-7 
 
 299 
 
 xix. 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 " 
 
 49 
 
 674 
 
 xxix. 
 
 32,33 
 
 88 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 40 
 
 128 
 
 xxxiv. 
 
 7.8 
 
 296 
 
 XXX. 
 
 I 
 
 90 
 
 xxv. 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 297 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 46-49 
 
 576 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 311 
 
 " 
 
 47,49 
 
 553 
 
 
 NU.MBERS. 
 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 — 
 
 211 
 
 xxxii. 
 
 I. 2 
 
 552 
 
 xiii. 
 
 21 
 
 296 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 1-3 
 
 576 
 
 " 
 
 29 
 
 299 
 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 
 
 " 
 
 6, 7. 13-15 
 
 5 70 
 
 " 
 
 31 
 
 3(ji 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 470 
 
 " 
 
 l6-2I 
 
 577 
 
 xix. 
 
 6 
 
 263 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 672 
 
 xxxiii. 
 
 1-4 
 
 577 
 
 xxi. 
 
 26, 27 
 
 662 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 675
 
 68o 
 
 INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 Cliapter. 
 
 Vlll. 
 
 xii. 
 xix. 
 
 xxii. 
 
 xxiv. 
 xxvii. 
 xxxii. 
 xxxiv. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 I Kings. 
 
 
 I 
 
 523 
 
 xiii. 
 
 5 
 
 296 
 
 Chapter 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 5 
 
 675 
 
 " 
 
 9, 16 
 
 638 
 
 ii. 
 
 8 
 
 553 
 
 19 
 
 454 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 527 
 
 iv. 
 
 13 
 
 444 
 
 28 
 
 301 
 
 " 
 
 20 
 
 669 
 
 " 
 
 13 
 
 591 
 
 8 
 
 635 
 
 " 
 
 24, 26, 29, 30 
 
 552 
 
 " 
 
 14 
 
 553 
 
 1-7 
 
 461 
 
 " 
 
 30 
 
 489 
 
 " 
 
 25 
 
 200 
 
 I-IO 
 
 527 
 
 XX. 
 
 8 
 
 591 
 
 " 
 
 33 
 
 262 
 
 3-5, II, 13, 14 
 
 444 
 
 xxi. 
 
 38 
 
 591 
 
 v. 
 
 8,9 
 
 250 
 
 4. 5 
 
 459 
 
 " 
 
 39 
 
 662 
 
 " 
 
 8-10 
 
 181 
 
 8-10 
 
 460 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 46 
 
 II 
 
 620 
 
 
 Judges. 
 
 
 vi. 
 
 9, 10, 15-18, 20 
 
 262 
 
 14 
 
 489 
 
 i. 
 
 22-26 
 
 178 
 
 " 
 
 29 
 
 128 
 
 17 
 
 659 
 
 ii. 
 
 13 
 
 486 
 
 vii. 
 
 2,3 
 
 262 
 
 25 
 
 138 
 
 vii. 
 
 12 
 
 642 
 
 viii. 
 
 44,48 
 
 69 
 
 41-43 
 
 436 
 
 viii. 
 
 4- 5. II 
 
 489 
 
 ix. 
 
 18 
 
 573 
 
 43 
 
 591 
 
 " 
 
 8, 9. 17 
 
 577 
 
 X. 
 
 27 
 
 116 
 
 7 
 
 227 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 642 
 
 " 
 
 29 
 
 299 
 
 2 
 
 169 
 
 ix. 
 
 15 
 
 264 
 
 xi. 
 
 I 
 
 299 
 
 — 
 
 211 
 
 xi. 
 
 26 
 
 662 
 
 " 
 
 5. 33 
 
 486 
 
 3 
 
 593 
 
 " 
 
 33 
 
 628 
 
 " 
 
 23-25 
 
 365 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 xii. 
 
 25 
 
 577 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 
 
 I Samuel. 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 16-20 
 
 365 
 
 13 
 
 1-3 
 1-7 
 
 28 
 34 
 653 
 654 
 653 
 659 
 
 i. 
 
 vii. 
 
 ix. 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 10, II 
 10, II 
 
 4 
 
 25, 26 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 90 
 
 486 
 
 55 
 486 
 
 xviii. 
 xix. 
 
 XX. 
 
 26, 28 
 15, 16 
 19-21 
 
 I, 26-34 
 34 
 
 118 
 368 
 368 
 
 365 
 366 
 
 365 
 
 Joshua. 
 
 
 
 2 Samuel. 
 
 
 xxi. 
 xxii. 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 366 
 
 I 
 
 673 
 
 ii. 
 
 8, 12, 29 
 
 553 
 
 " 
 
 3,4 
 
 592 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 vii. 
 
 2 
 
 262 
 
 " 
 
 29-36 
 
 592 
 
 15, 16 
 
 675 
 676 
 
 viii. 
 
 3-6 
 
 8 
 
 365 
 46 
 
 
 2 Kings. 
 
 
 16, 17 
 
 10 
 
 " 
 
 9-1 1 
 
 339 
 
 i. 
 
 2, 17 
 
 366 
 
 — 
 
 675 
 
 X. 
 
 I, 2, 4, 5, 7-14 
 
 621 
 
 ii. 
 
 8,13 
 
 84 
 
 18 
 
 676 
 
 xi. 
 
 — 
 
 621 
 
 iii. 
 
 4 
 
 643 
 
 I. 2 
 
 299 
 
 " 
 
 I 
 
 621 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 78 
 
 3-6- 
 
 426 
 
 xii. 
 
 — 
 
 621 
 
 V. 
 
 1-8 
 
 366 
 
 23- 27 
 
 71 
 
 " 
 
 26-31 
 
 621 
 
 " 
 
 9-19 
 
 367 
 
 1-18 
 
 143 
 
 xvii. 
 
 24.27 
 
 553 
 
 " 
 
 12 
 
 398 
 
 3.5,8 
 
 299 
 
 xviii. 
 
 — 
 
 57S 
 
 " 
 
 17, 18 
 
 379 
 
 17 
 
 338 
 
 " 
 
 6-8 
 
 578 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 386 
 
 17 
 
 339 
 
 " 
 
 24, 31. 32 
 
 553 
 
 vi. 
 
 8-23 
 
 367 
 
 5 
 
 527 
 
 " 
 
 33 
 
 553 
 
 " 
 
 24,25 
 
 367 
 
 7 
 
 338 
 
 xix. 
 
 — 
 
 578 
 
 vii. 
 
 6,7 
 
 367 
 
 7 
 
 339 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 403 
 
 viii. 
 
 7-15 
 
 368 
 
 i> 5 
 
 339 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 II 
 
 " 
 
 28 
 
 592 
 
 5 
 
 46 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 6,7 
 
 29 
 
 ix. 
 
 i-io, 16-20 
 
 592
 
 INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 68 I 
 
 lapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 
 Ps.\lms. 
 
 1 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 ix. 
 
 14, 15, and 5 
 
 592 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 xxxiv. 
 
 6, II, 13-15 
 
 574 
 
 xiii. 
 
 22-25 
 
 36S 
 
 vi. 
 
 6 
 
 403 
 
 " 
 
 II . 
 
 524 
 
 xiv. 
 
 27, 2S 
 
 36S 
 
 xxi. 
 
 — 
 
 510 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 616 
 
 xvi. 
 
 5-9 
 
 369 
 
 xxix. 
 
 5 
 
 264 
 
 xl. 
 
 20 
 
 263 
 
 " 
 
 10-16 
 
 369 
 
 Iv. 
 
 17 
 
 68 
 
 xliii. 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 xvii. 
 
 6 
 
 369 
 
 Ivi. 
 
 8 
 
 404 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 472 
 
 xix. 
 
 20-23 
 
 262 
 
 Iviii. 
 
 3.9 
 
 29 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 473 
 
 " 
 
 35,36 
 
 96 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 xliv. 
 
 14. 16, 17 
 
 263 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 4 
 
 487 
 
 Ixvi. 
 
 13. 14 
 
 20 
 
 xlix. 
 
 15, 16 
 
 24 
 
 " 
 
 13 
 
 4S6 
 
 Ixxviii. 
 
 23-25 
 
 180 
 
 Iv. 
 
 I 
 
 388 
 
 
 29-33 
 
 297 
 
 Ixxxiv. 
 
 43.47 
 3 
 
 116 
 59 
 
 Ixiii. 
 
 I 
 
 523 
 
 I 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 
 xcii. 
 
 12 
 
 262 
 
 
 Jeremi.mi. 
 
 
 i. 
 
 16 
 
 278 
 
 " 
 
 12-14 
 
 128 
 
 iv. 
 
 20 
 
 603 
 
 ii. 
 
 23 
 
 489 
 
 cii. 
 
 7 
 
 59 
 
 vi. 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 V. 
 
 II 
 
 527 
 
 civ. 
 
 10-12 
 
 13S 
 
 vii. 
 
 18 
 
 487 
 
 " 
 
 iS-23 
 
 434 
 
 " 
 
 16, 17 
 
 261 
 
 viii. 
 
 7 
 
 623 
 
 " 
 
 20, 21 
 
 642 
 
 cxvi. 
 
 18, 19 
 
 21 
 
 ix. 
 
 I 
 
 403 
 
 vi. 
 
 64, So 
 
 553 
 
 cxviii. 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 " 
 
 17, 18 
 
 403 
 
 " 
 
 80 
 
 591 
 
 cxix. 
 
 164 
 
 68 
 
 X. 
 
 20 
 
 603 
 
 xix. 
 
 1-15 
 
 638 
 
 cxxviii. 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 19 
 
 404 
 
 xxvii. 
 
 2S 
 
 116 
 
 cxlv. 
 
 13 
 
 377 
 
 xxxix. 
 
 1-7 
 
 298 
 
 2 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 
 
 Proverbs. 
 
 
 xlviii. 
 
 2, 34. 45 
 
 662 
 662 
 
 i. 
 
 ii. 
 viii. 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 299 
 
 iSi 
 
 573 
 
 XX. 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 14 
 22 
 
 73 
 83 
 
 " 
 
 20-24 
 21-24 
 21-24 
 
 644 
 
 5" 
 529 
 
 XXV. 
 
 iS 
 
 264 
 
 Solomon's Song 
 
 
 " 
 
 24 
 
 523 
 523 
 662 
 
 529 
 
 iii. 
 
 Ezra. 
 
 7 
 
 263 
 
 V. 
 
 vii. 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 414 
 661 
 
 ,. 
 
 29 
 
 34, 43. 45 
 
 41 
 
 vi. 
 
 Nehemi.\h. 
 
 5 
 
 64 
 
 <' 
 
 4 
 6.7 
 
 667 
 
 128 
 
 xlix. 
 
 2,4. 5 
 
 23-27 
 
 621 
 
 369 
 
 viii. 
 
 15 
 
 128 
 
 
 Is.vi.\h. 
 
 
 
 Ezekiel. 
 
 
 
 Job. 
 
 
 ii. 
 
 12, 13 
 
 262 
 
 viii. 
 
 14 
 
 243 
 
 ii. 
 
 12 
 
 403 
 
 iii. 
 
 18-23 
 
 86 
 
 xvi. 
 
 10, 13 
 
 83 
 
 vi. 
 
 15-1S 
 
 453 
 
 ix. 
 
 9, 10 
 
 116 
 
 xvii. 
 
 22 
 
 262 
 
 " 
 
 19, 20 
 
 453 
 
 xiv. 
 
 8 
 
 264 
 
 xxi. 
 
 12 
 
 404 
 
 xiv. 
 
 — 
 
 257 
 
 XV. 
 
 — 
 
 662 
 
 x.w. 
 
 5 
 
 622 
 
 " 
 
 7-10 
 
 37 
 
 " 
 
 2 
 
 638 
 
 " 
 
 7 
 
 622 
 
 " 
 
 II, 12 
 
 37 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 662 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 644 
 
 " 
 
 iS, 19 
 
 184 
 
 xvi. 
 
 — 
 
 662 
 
 " 
 
 10 
 
 622 
 
 XV. 
 
 31. 32 
 
 36 
 
 " 
 
 6.9 
 
 663 
 
 xxvii. 
 
 5 
 
 263 
 
 " 
 
 33 
 
 35 
 
 xvii. 
 
 I 
 
 369 
 
 " 
 
 8, II 
 
 278 
 
 xvi. 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 " 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 " 
 
 17 
 
 628 
 
 xxix. 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 xxii. 
 
 I. 2, 5-7 
 
 55 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 369 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 16, 17, 22 
 
 287 
 
 " 
 
 22 
 
 413 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 3.5,8.9 
 
 265 
 
 xxviii. 
 
 25 
 
 185 
 
 xxxiii. 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 xlvii. 
 
 16 
 
 46
 
 682 
 
 INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 .Verse. 
 
 Page. 
 
 X. 
 
 27 
 
 56 
 
 iv. 
 
 21, 24 
 
 69 
 
 vi. 
 
 lO, II 
 
 69 
 
 " 
 
 29. 31 
 
 59 
 
 X. 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 xiv. 
 
 I-I2 
 
 649 
 
 xi. 
 
 31 
 
 402 
 
 
 HOSEA. 
 
 
 " 
 
 3-12 
 
 539 
 
 " 
 
 ■ 35 
 
 404 
 
 xiv. 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 xxiv. 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 58 
 221 
 
 xiii. 
 
 4. 5 
 4. 5 
 
 79 
 84 
 
 i. 
 
 Amos. 
 
 3.4 
 
 5 
 
 369 
 
 338 
 
 xxvi. 
 
 29 
 
 Mark. 
 
 236 
 
 ix. 
 
 Acts. 
 1-3 
 
 369 
 
 ii. 
 
 I 
 
 28 
 
 V. 
 
 1-20 
 
 481 
 
 " 
 
 1-9 
 
 407 
 
 ," 
 
 I, 2 
 
 529 
 
 vi. 
 
 14-29 
 
 649 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 433 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 262 
 
 vii. 
 
 31 
 
 481 
 
 " 
 
 10, II 
 
 410 
 
 vii. 
 
 14 
 
 113 
 
 X. 
 
 46 
 
 130 
 
 .. 
 
 17, 18 
 20, 22 
 
 413 
 411 
 
 
 MiCAH. 
 
 
 
 Luke. 
 
 
 x. 
 
 9 
 
 57 
 
 iv. 
 
 4 
 
 200 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 434 
 
 xiii. 
 
 9 
 
 369 
 
 
 
 
 iii. 
 
 I 
 
 440 
 
 xviii. 
 
 18 
 
 71 
 
 
 Habakkuk. 
 
 
 " 
 
 I 
 
 445 
 
 xxi. 
 
 24 
 
 71 
 
 iii. 
 
 17 
 17, i8 
 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 IV. 
 
 I, 2 
 1-3 
 
 38 
 
 435 
 350 
 166 
 
 XXV. 
 
 26 
 
 Romans. 
 
 198 
 
 i. 
 
 Zephaniah. 
 
 5 
 
 57 
 
 vii. 
 
 34 
 
 37.38 
 
 236 
 404 
 
 xi. 
 
 17, 18, 24 
 
 34 
 
 ii. 
 
 9 
 
 622 
 
 xi. 
 xii. 
 
 5-8 
 6,7 
 
 89 
 59 
 
 2 
 
 Corinthians. 
 
 
 
 Zechariah. 
 
 
 xiii. 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 xi. 
 
 32 
 
 539 
 
 iii. 
 
 lO 
 
 200 
 
 xiv. 
 
 16 
 
 74 
 
 " 
 
 32,33 
 
 406 
 
 ix. 
 
 I 
 
 369 
 
 " 
 
 17 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 
 xi. 
 
 I 
 
 264 
 
 XV. 
 
 16 
 
 131 
 
 
 Galatians. 
 
 
 
 Matthew. 
 
 
 xvii. 
 xix. 
 
 6 
 1-6 
 
 114 
 113 
 
 iv. 
 
 26 
 
 677 
 
 iv. 
 
 V. 
 
 23-25 
 40 
 
 481 
 84 
 
 
 John. 
 
 
 
 I Peter. 
 
 
 vi. 
 
 5.7 
 
 69 
 
 ii. 
 
 10 
 
 236 
 
 i. 
 
 4 
 
 677
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. 
 
 'AiN, Hebrew En, Fountain. 
 
 Aklim, District. 
 
 Bab, Door or Gate. 
 
 Beit, Hebrew Biith, House. 
 
 Belad, District. 
 
 BiR, Hebrew Beer, Well or Cistern. 
 
 Birkeh, Birket, Pool. 
 
 BuRj, Tower. 
 
 Deir, Convent. 
 
 Ed, Edh, El, En, Es, Esii, Et, Ez, I'lie. 
 
 Jebel, Mountain. 
 
 JiSR, Bridge. 
 
 Kabr, Tomb. 
 
 Khan, Inn or Caravansary. 
 
 Khirbeh, Khirbet, Ruin. 
 
 Kul'ah, Kf l'at, Castle. 
 
 Merj, Plain or Meadow. 
 
 MuGHARAH, MuGHARAT, Cave, CavCHi. 
 
 MuKAM, Shrine or Saint's Tomb. 
 
 MuzAR, Shrine or Saint's Tomb. 
 
 Nahr, River. 
 
 Neba', Fountain. 
 
 Neuv, Prophet. 
 
 Ras, Head or Promontory. 
 
 Teh., Hill or Mound. 
 
 Wady, Valley or Watercourse. 
 
 Welv, Saint's Tomb. 
 
 Abana, see Barada, Nahr, el. 
 
 Abarim, 535, 654. 
 
 Abbot, Peter, 16. 
 
 'Abd el 'Aziz, 'Adwan Sheikh, 559. 
 
 'Abd el Melek, Beit, 186, 209. 
 
 'Abeih, 27, 46, 122, 144-147, 167, 209, 310. 
 
 Abel, 350, 359. 
 
 Abel-beth-maachah, 365. 
 
 Abel-meholah, 36S. 
 
 Abel-shittim, 586, 651, 653-656, 659, 663- 
 
 675- 
 Abijam, 365. 
 Abila, 350, 351. 
 Abila, of Peraea, 546. 
 Abilene, 350. 
 Abishai, 638. 
 Abraham, 82, 207, 213, 298, 299, 359, 363, 
 
 3fJ4. 370, 371. 379. 414, 422, 477- 533-537. 
 
 542, 554- 579. ^20, 659, 666. 
 Absalom, 127, 403, 553, 578, 579, 582. 
 Abu 'Aly, Nahr, 137. 
 Abu el Asvvad, Nahr, 151. 
 Abu Bekr, 422. 
 Abu Bekr, Muzar, 559. 
 
 Abu el Feda, Abulfeda, Emir, 174, 302, 428, 
 
 580. 
 Abu Nugla, 628, 630, 641. 
 Abu Niisr, Sheikh, 276. 
 Abu Talib, 276, 526. 
 Abu Tumeis, 441. 
 Acacia, 668, 672. 
 
 Acre, 41, 51, 161, 206, 220, 502, 540. 
 Adam, 157, 207, 359, 422, 423- 
 Adara, 54I. 
 Addi.son, C. G., 357- 
 Adelsberg, caves of, 104. 
 Adonis, 137, 229, 234, 239-247, 251, 313. 
 Adrian, Emperor, 252, 253. 
 'Adwan, el, Bedawin, 559, 590, 593, 605, 606. 
 
 623, 628, 629, 636, 641, 643, 645, 647. 664- 
 
 666, 670, 672. 
 Aere, 454. 
 
 'Afineh, cl, 502, 503. 
 'Afka, 137, 234. 240-247, 313. 
 Africa, African, 41, 155, 426, 427, 538, 573. 
 Agamemnon, 668. 
 Agate, 178. 
 Agrippa, sec Ilcrod Agrippa.
 
 684 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Ague, 354, 497- 
 
 Ahab, 365, 366, 411, 592. 
 
 Ahaz, 368, 369, 380. 
 
 Ahaziah, 366, 592. 
 
 'Ain, el, 304, 311. 
 
 'Ain 'Allan, 585. 
 
 'Ain 'Anoub, 133. 
 
 'Ain el 'Asy, 304. 310. 
 
 'Ain el 'Ayun, 293. 
 
 'Ain el Barideh, 344. 
 
 'Ain el Beida, 292. 
 
 'Ain Bsaba, 133. 
 
 'Ain Dara, 150. 
 
 'Ain el Fijeh, 347, 351-355- 
 
 'Ain el Haiyeh, 280-282. 
 
 'Ain Hawar, 346. 
 
 'Ain Hesban, 661, 663-669. 
 
 'Ain Ibel, 210. 
 
 'Ain Jeidur, 591, 593. 
 
 'Ain Jenneh, 546, 574, 575- 
 
 'Ain Jeiwan, 571, 573. 
 
 'Ain Kesur, 144, 147. 
 
 'Ain el Khudra, 354. 
 
 'Ain Membej, 430. 
 
 'Ain Teraz, 185. 
 
 'Ain Thaluth, 581, 582. 
 
 'Ain Um el Jalud, 582. 
 
 'Ain Warkah, 230. 
 
 'Ain Zahelteh, 26, 137, 150, 156, 176, 182- 
 
 186. 
 ■Ainab, 142, 143, 147. 
 'Ainata, 272, 313. 
 'Aireh, el, 628. 
 
 'Aitath, 122, 133, 144, 147, 187, i8g, 196. 
 'Aithenit, 176. 
 'Ajeltiin, el, 226. 
 
 'Ajlun, el, 556, 574, 575. 57S-582, 587- 
 Akabah, see Ezion-gaber. 
 'Akkal, el, 206, 208. 
 'Akkar, Aklim, 138, 290. 
 'Akkar, Nahr, 292. 
 'Akurah, el, 246-249, 252, 253. 
 'Al, ei, 628, 636, 652, 660, 662, 663, 665. 
 Albanians, 17, 393. 
 'Aleih, 46, 122, 186, 187, 190-192. 
 Alema, 524. 
 
 Aleppo, 161, 248, 306, 374, 382, 455. 
 Alexander, Dr. A., 30. 
 
 Alexander the Great, 275, 278, 279, 283, 302, 
 338, 369, 435, 535, 622. 
 
 Alexander Jannreus, 572, 663. 
 
 Alexander Severus, 283. 
 
 Alexandretta, 277. 
 
 Alexandria, 47. 
 
 Algiers, 32, 84. 
 
 'Ali, 'Adwan Bedawin Sheikh, 593, 628, 630, 
 
 650, 651, 666, 670, 672. 
 'Ali, cousin of Muhammed, 401. 
 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, 207. 
 Alkali, 507. 
 'Allan, Nahr, 546, 547. 
 Almond, 45, 471. 
 Alms, 423, 424. 
 Alps, Alpine, 164. 
 
 Altar, 20, 118, 171, 262, 333, 340, 364, 367, 
 369, 380, 433, 486, 519, 553- 554, 655. 656, 
 659. 
 Alum, 648. 
 
 'Amad, Beit, 1S4, 209. 
 'Amad, Khuttar el, Sheikh, 184. 
 Amalekites, 534, 642. 
 Amana, see Barada, Nahr, el. 
 Amber, 60, 79, 80, 373, 376. 
 America, American, 27, 28, 86, 98, 107, 108, 
 117, 145, 149, 187, 189, 190, 200, 215, 264, 
 348, 389, 433, 472, 507, 556. 
 'Amman, 480, 546, 560, 573, 574, 584, 586, 
 590, 593, 594, 602, 607-624, 627, 628, 635, 
 636. 
 
 'Ammatiir, 163. 
 
 Ammon, Ammonites, 535, 537, 602, 604, 608, 
 619-622, 627, 628, 638, 640, 664. 
 
 Amon, god, 300. 
 
 Amorite, Amorites, 262, 534, 535, 585, 635, 
 636, 638, 660-662, 664. 
 
 Amos, 113, 262, 338, 339, 369, 529. 
 
 'Amrit, Nahr, 280, 282. 
 
 'Amud es Subh, 437. 
 
 'Amud Ya'at, 315. 
 
 Amyiin, el, 257. 
 
 Anah, 648. 
 
 Ananias, 410, 413. 
 
 Ananias, house of, 409, 410. 
 
 Anazeh, el, Bedawin, 372, 439, 549, 551, 642. 
 
 Anderson, H. J., M.D., 159, 160, 182, 1S7, 
 222. 
 
 Anemones, 132, 540, 546. 
 
 Anglo-American, 117. 
 
 'Anjar, Nahr, see Neb'a Anjar. 
 
 Annelos, 498.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 685 
 
 Ant Elias, 94. 
 
 Antaridus, see Tartiis. 
 
 Ante-Lebanon, 125, 142, 148, 159. 179, 196, 
 197, 204, 215-217, 271, 272, 297, 304, 306, 
 310, 3ir, 318, 319, 336-33S, 343. 344. 34S, 
 353- 356, 459. 493- 
 
 Antioch, 37, 206, 2S3, 2S7, 309. 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 539. 
 
 Antiochus the Great, 24, 619, 622. 
 
 Antiochus Sidetes, 285. 
 
 Antonia Fortunata, 521. 
 
 Antoninus, M. A., 97, 349, 450, 510, 566. 
 
 Antoninus Pius, 321, 496, 568. 
 
 Antonius Cassar, 521. 
 
 Antony, Marc, 32. 
 
 'Antijrah, in the Kesrawan, 230. 
 
 'Anturah, in the Metn, 203. 
 
 Apamea, 305, 309. 
 
 Apheca, see 'Afka. 
 
 Aphek, 365, 546. 
 
 Aphrodite, 487. 
 
 Apple, 133, 235, 259, 276, 347, 357, 395, 
 
 575- 
 
 Apricots, 9, 45, 133, 276, 347, 357, 395, 575. 
 
 Aqueduct, 9, 49-51, 53, 93, 105, 181, 183, 
 246, 310, 350, 355, 437, 475, 500, 502, 513, 
 543, 544, 571. 599, 670. 
 
 Arabia, Arabians, 28, 41, 97, 127, I2g, 144, 
 216, 245, 275, 276, 302, 312, 353, 364, 372, 
 373, 399. 406, 419. 420, 422, 426, 427, 443, 
 444, 476, 489, 498, 501, 502, 515, 519, 521, 
 524-526, 529, 535, 538, 539, 551, 573, 580, 
 596, 622, 635, 649. 
 
 Arabian Nights' Entertainment, 74, 371. 
 
 Arabic, 12, 29, 30, 47, 55, 83, 84, 97, 115, 
 136, 220, 237, 248, 250, 261, 276, 282, 338, 
 339, 364, 401, 429-431, 436, 441, 445, 461, 
 468, 478, 480, 518, 527, 529, 545, 580, 620, 
 633, 635, 642, 653, 654, 663. 
 
 Arabs, Bedawin, 11, 12, 17, 21-24, 69, 83, 84, 
 168, 170, 201, 209, 220, 249, 310, 312, 372, 
 376, 406, 412, 415, 420, 425, 429, 432, 436, 
 439, 442-444, 449- 454- 457- 458, 461, 463- 
 470, 474. 476- 493. 494, 502, 504, 506, 507, 
 510, 519, 526, 533, 538, 545, 546, 549-551, 
 559, 560, 584, 586, 590, 593-595, 600-606, 
 612, 623, 624, 629, 630, 633, 635, 636, 639, 
 641-646, 651, 652, 654, 659, 660, 664-666, 
 668, 670-674. 
 
 Arabs, native, 51, 55, 60, 77, 81, 83, 84, 87- 
 
 90, 139, 144, 150. 173, 227, 234, 23s, 290. 
 
 3S2, 406. 415, 461, 504, 510. 
 'Arak, 126, 235. 
 'Arak el Emir, 594-601, 669. 
 Aram, Aram.-ean, 364, 3S6, 490, 523, 655. 
 'Aramon, 144. 
 Arbela, 546-548. 
 
 Area, Arkites, 282, 283, 287, 28S. 
 Ard 'Akluk, 252. 
 Ard Amrit, 282. 
 Ard el Bathanyeh, 440, 441. 
 Ard el Hemar, 602. 
 Ard Tanniirin, 254, 255. 
 'Areiya, 125. 
 Aretas, 539, 649. 
 Argob, the region of, 444, 445. 449, 451, 458, 
 
 459- 461, 4S9, 541, 591, 592- 
 Ariath, 504. 
 Aristobulus, 435. 
 Ark of the covenant, 69, 262. 
 'Arka. 282, 284. 
 'Arka, Nahr, 282, 284. 
 Arkites, see Area, Arkites. 
 Armenia, Armenians, 179, 409, 412. 
 Armor, 97, 372, 497, 49S. 
 Arms, Army, 72, 99, 139, 140, 143, 151, 191, 
 
 207, 214, 216, 217, 27S, 2S0, 283, 297, 29S, 
 
 300, 308, 309, 329, 367, 373, 412, 434, 442. 
 
 446, 452, 460, 466, 469, 471, 474, 476, 4S9, 
 
 505, 506, 510, 513, 526, 528, 534. 543, 545. 
 
 578, 592, 629, 638, 639, 649, 651, 665, 6G8, 
 
 673-677. 
 Arnon, 628, 636. 
 'Arny, el, 430. 
 Aroer, 628. 
 'Arram, Nalir, 453. 
 Arrows, 372. 
 
 Arvad, Arvadites, see Ruvad. 
 'Ary, el, 504. 
 'Ary, Nahr, 501. 
 
 Arz, see Cedar, and Cedars of Lebanon. 
 Asa, 365.. 
 
 As'ad, Melek, cl, 337. 
 Asal, Nahr el, see Ncb'a cl .\sal. 
 Ashdolh-pisgah, 659. 
 Ashmane/er, 144. 
 Ashraf, Melek, cl, 372. 
 Ashrafiyeh, el, 355. 
 
 Ashterolh Karnaini, 4S7, 534, 542, 543. 
 Ahhloreth, 4S6, 487, 522.
 
 686 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Asia, Asiatic, 300, 367, 427, 442, 542. 
 
 Asia Minor, 93, 131, 627. 
 
 Askelon, 41, 113. 
 
 Asphaltitis, 648. 
 
 'Assur, 116, 117, iig. 
 
 Assyria, Assyrian, 56, 95, 96, 262, 265, 297, 
 
 298, 309. 332, 341. 367-369, 535. 664. 
 Astarte, 487, 496. 
 'Asy, Nahr el, see Orontes. 
 'Ataibeh, see Shurkiyeh, Bahret esh. 
 Atargatis, 542. 
 Athenio, 489. 
 Athens, 47, 329. 
 Athia, 496. 
 
 'Atil, el, 440, 494-497. 
 Atlantic, 370, 419. 
 Auction, Auctioneer, 72, 73, 372. 
 Augusta Felix Julia, 46. 
 'Aujeh, Nahr el, near Jaffa, 41. 
 Auranitis, 440. 
 Austria, Austrian, 48. 
 Auwaly, Nahr el, 7, 9-12, 137, 159, 161, 164, 
 
 185. 
 Aven, the plain of, 338, 339. 
 A'waj, Nahr el, 359, 398, 429-432. 
 'Ayesha, 421. 
 'Ayun el Merj, 521. 
 'Ayun Miisa, 624, 650, 652, 654-656, 65S, 
 
 669. 
 
 Baal, 52, 118, 171, 251, 325, 339-341, 386, 
 
 486, 496, 644, 655. 
 Ba'albek, 52, 171, 196- 198, 200, 216, 248, 
 
 260, 271, 272, 278, 292, 306, 310, 312, 313, 
 
 315-347, 379, 516- 
 Baal-gad, 296, 297, 338, 339. 
 Baal-hermon, 434. 
 Baal-meon, see Ma'in. 
 Baaras, 648. 
 Baasha, 365. 
 Bab Allah, 426. 
 Bab 'Amman, 560, 602. 
 Bab el Barid, 379. 
 Bab el Hawa, 521. 
 Bab Kisan, 406. 
 Bab es Saghir, 405. 
 Bab es Salihiyeh, 395. 
 Bab esh Shurky, 400, 407-409, 415. 
 Bab Ya'kob, 49. 
 B'abda, 129, 130. 
 
 Babylon, Babylonians, 69, 264, 297, 298, 309, 
 
 363, 369,411, 435, 535, 664. 
 Bacchus, 519. 
 B'adaran, el, 163, 176. 
 Bagdad, 206, 374. 
 Bakhshish, 22, 377, 379, 386, 409, 496, 558, 
 
 584, 623, 665. 
 B'aklin, el, 159. 
 
 Balaam, 644, 654-656, 659, 673. 
 Balak, 644, 655, 656, 659. 
 Baldwin I., 48, 276. 
 Baldwin II., 573. 
 Baldwin III., 545. 
 Balm, 540. 
 Balmano, 644. 
 Bananas, 8. 
 Banias, see Dan. 
 Barada, Nahr el, 197, 346-359, 390, 391, 394- 
 
 400, 415, 417, 428, 429. 
 Barber, Barber- shop, 71-73. 
 Barberry, 282. 
 Bardines, 398. 
 
 Barid, Nahr el, 138, 285, 290. 
 Barin, el, 288. 
 Barley, 12, 227, 235, 259-261, 372, 533, 585, 
 
 590, 594, 601, 603, 666. 
 Bartholomew, Peter, 283, 
 Baruk, el, and Nahr el, 137, 159-161, 163, 
 
 164, 176, 179-182, 185, 356. 
 Basalt, Basaltic, 373, 389, 390, 428, 442, 446, 
 
 450, 451, 454, 455, 4S6, 495, 512, 517, 520, 
 
 547, 646, 647, 650. 
 Bashan, 169, 359, 424, 434, 444, 459-462, 472, 
 
 487. 489, 505, 506, 515, 526, 527, 529, 533, 
 
 535, 541, 542, 544, 584, 591, 593, 620, 675. 
 Bashan-havoth-jair, 489. 
 Basilica, 610, 627. 
 Batanaea, Batanis, 440-442. 
 Bateniyeh, el, sect of, 206. 
 Bath, ancient, 47, 475, 478, 483, 499, 516, 518, 
 
 524, 543- 571, 574, 590, 648, 670. 
 Bath, modern, 107, 358, 386-388, 391, 423, 
 
 647, 648. 
 Bathaniyeh, el, see Batanaea, Batanis. 
 Bathir, el, 150, 163, 171. 
 Bath-rabbim, 667. 
 Batrun, el, 47, 137, 146, 255. 
 Battlement, 53-56. 
 Ba'utheh, el, 580. 
 Bay-tree, 245.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 687 
 
 Bazaar, 60-74, 370-379. 3SS, 3S9, 412, 517. 
 
 Beads, 68, 375. 
 
 Bear, 215, 238, 251, 271, 282, 308, 309. 
 
 Bedawin, see Arabs, Bedawin. 
 
 Beer-sheba, 211, 356, 653, 660. 
 
 Bees, 31, 163, 395. 
 
 Beg, 74, 155, 161, 162, 2S5-2S7. 
 
 Beirut, 11, 13, 14, 22, 27, 31-33, 40-96, 99, 
 105-126, 136, 137, 143, 145, 146, 151, 162, 
 167, 172, 179, 185, 187, 189, 190, 192, 194, 
 195, 197, 206, 216, 233, 249, 2S3, 287, 347, 
 355. 374. 382, 388, 391. 398, 442, 504- 
 
 Beirut, Nahr, 45, 49-52, 93, 94, 125, 126, 137, 
 193, 194, 203. 
 
 Beirut Water - works, 92, 94, 99, loi, 105, 
 106. 
 
 Beisan, 546, 553, 586. 
 
 Beit Jenn, 430. 
 
 Beit er Ras, 311, 546, 547. 
 
 Beit Sabir, 430. 
 
 Beit el Yehudy, 517. 
 
 Beke, Dr., 414. 
 
 Belad Beni 'Obeid, 551. 
 
 Belad Besharah, 136. 
 
 Belfort, Castle of, see Kul'at esh Shukif. 
 
 Belial, sons of, 29, 30. 
 
 Belka, el, 584-586, 590, 593, 603, 624, 627- 
 629, 641, 651, 652, 660, 661, 663, 665,- 668. 
 
 Bellan, el, see Thorns. 
 
 Bellan, Aklim el, 430, 431, 435. 
 
 Belus, 171. 
 
 Ben-hadad I., 365-369, 379, 386. 
 
 Ben-hadad II., 592. 
 
 Ben-hadad III., 368. 
 
 Beni Sakhr, Bedawin, 606, 629, 641. 
 
 Benjamin, 579. 
 
 Berdiiny, Nahr el, 138, 198, 199, 338. 
 
 Bereitan, el, 344. 
 
 Berja, el, 22. 
 
 Berothah, Berothai, 46. 
 
 Bertram, 276. 
 
 Berylhis, Bishop, 525. 
 
 Berytus, see Beyrout. 
 
 Bessima, 354, 355. 
 
 Beth-arbel, 548. 
 
 Beth-el, 21, 178, 554. 
 
 Beth-gamul, see Um el Jcmal. 
 
 Beth-haran, see Tell cr Kameh. 
 
 Beth-jeshimoth, see Tell Suweimch. 
 
 Beth-meon, sec Ma'in. 
 BB2 
 
 Beth-nimrah, see Tell Nimrin. 
 Beth-shean, see Beisan. 
 i Bethany, 12S. 
 Betharamphtha, 670. 
 Bethesda, Pool of, 387. 
 Bethlehem, 579. 
 Bhamdun, 122, 1S5-1S7, 237. 
 Bhauwarah, el, 185, 1S7. 
 Bibars, Melek edh Dhaher, 386. 
 Bildad the Shuhite, 500. 
 Bir, see Cisterns. 
 Birkeh, Birket, see Pools. 
 Birket ed Deir, 555. 
 Birket Siknany, 543. 
 
 Birket el Yemmuneh, see Yemmuneh, el. 
 Bishop, 47, 229, 231, 277, 283, 370, 450,478, 
 
 525, 526, 530, 573, 622,639. 
 Blackberry, 282. 
 Blackbird, 585. 
 Black Sea, 433. 
 Black Stone, the, Mecca, 69. 
 Blind, Blindness, 130, 367, 623. 
 Bliss, Dr. Daniel, 100-102. 
 Bludan, el, 347, 348. 
 Boar, 131, 169, 241, 251, 308, 309, 4S1. 
 Boats, 5-7, 46, 93, 99, 103, 104, 107, loS, 263, 
 
 481, 599. 
 Boheira, Monk, 518, 526. 
 Bone deposit, 97, 98, 104. 
 Book, Booksellers, 64, 175, 205, 378, 379, 3S4. 
 Bos primigenius, 98. 
 Bosor, Bosora, 524. 
 Bostra, see Busrah, el. 
 Bostrenus, see Auwaly, Nahr el. 
 Bostrian era, 471, 518, 519, 524, 530. 
 Botrys, see Batrun, el. 
 Bottles, water, 23, 71, 388, 395, 426, 437, 455, 
 
 549. 593- 
 Bows, 372, 434. 
 
 Bozrah of Edom, see Busaireh, ol. 
 Bozrah of Moab, see Busrah, el. 
 Bramble, see Thorns. 
 Bread, 12, 75, 219-221, 248, 2S6, 312, 388, 
 
 389, 426. 
 Breccia, 51, 647. 
 Brick, 399, 633-635. 
 Bridge, 6, 7, 9-12, 27, 93, 97, 98, 105, 126, 146, 
 
 150, 151, 153, 160, 173, 176, 198, 227-229. 
 
 241, 242, 245, 256, 261, 282, 284, 301, 305, 
 
 344, 346, 349. 351, 355, 356, 428, 429. 432.
 
 688 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 4S2, 498, 505. 513. 527. 539. 540, 543. 565. 
 
 567, 571. 581, 584. 594. 612-614. 
 Brigstocke, R. W., M. R. C. S., 100, loi, 103, 
 
 104. 
 Brummana, el, 45, 53, 94. 121, 195. 
 Bsherreh, el, 137. 257. 259-261. 
 Bshetfin, el, 152, 153. 
 Btathir. el, 186. 
 Bteddin, el, 129, 130, 151, I53. 156-159. i^i, 
 
 183. 
 Buchanan, Dr. R., 272. 
 Buffalo, 632. 
 Biikaa, el, 125, 136, 138, 139, 175-178, I95- 
 
 199, 204, 217, 218, 291, 304, 311, 312, 315, 
 
 318, 319. 337-339. 343-346. 
 Biik'ah, el, 601, 602, 607. 
 Burak, el, 437-439- 
 Burckhardt, J. L., 248, 426, 437-440, 452, 
 
 455. 463, 465. 466, 468-471. 491. 502, 504, 
 
 505, 515, 518, 520-522, 530, 548, 568, 
 
 624. 
 Burgul, cracked wheat, 248, 2S6. 
 Burj el 'Amad, 183, 184. 
 Burj el Buzzak, 281. 
 Burj Fatrah, 245. 
 Burj el Musheirifeh, no. 
 Burj es Seba'a, 275. 
 Burj es Sit Belkis, 302. 
 Burmeh, el, 583. 
 Burr el Haithy, 250. 
 Burton, Richard Francis, Captain, 330. 
 Burzeh, el, 364. 
 Busaireh, el, 523, 524, 574. 
 Busr el Hariiy, 470. 
 
 Busrah, el, 461, 463, 489, 501-503, 505-507. 
 511-527. 529. 530, 532, 533. 537. 539. 541. 
 545. 548, 573. 574. 616. 
 Butm, el, see Terebinth. 
 Butter, 590. 
 Byblus, see Jebeil. 
 Byzantine, 370, 380, 420, 508, 535, 617, 61S, 
 
 634- 
 
 Ca'aba, 420, 425, 536, 635. 
 
 Cabbage, wild, 97. 
 
 Csesar, Augustus, 46, 445, 467, 490, 538, 671. 
 
 Csesar, Sextus, 369. 
 
 Caesarea of Lebanon, 2S2. 
 
 Caesarea, Palestina, 41, 444, 572. 
 
 Cain, 350, 359. 
 
 Cairn, 640, 668. 
 
 Cairo, 205. 
 
 Caliph, 74, 205, 206, 371, 399, 517. 518. 
 
 Callirrhoe, 643, 645-648, 669. 
 
 Camel, 9, 11, 71, 83, 84, 122, 200, 238, 249, 
 250, 358, 368, 373. 374. 395. 421, 425. 428, 
 429, 436, 438, 466, 467, 505, 507, 510, 540, 
 549. 550, 576, 603, 621-623, 630, 641, 642, 
 
 645- 
 Cana of Galilee, 235, 236. 
 Canaan, Canaanites, 26, 143, 151, 169, 243, 
 296, 299, 339, 341, 364. 379. 414. 489. 534. 
 554. 577. 578, 639, 643, 675, 677. 
 Canaan, Son of Ham, 278, 2S2, 29S. 
 Canatha, see Kiinawat, el. 
 Capitolias, see Beit er Ras. 
 Captive, Captivity, 83, 369, 411, 435, 534. 
 Caravan, 172, 174, 199, 256, 374, 399, 428, 
 453. 454. 522, 526, 533, 538. 540, 548-550, 
 573. 574. 630, 635. 
 Carmathians, 206, 207. 
 Carmel, Mount, 118, 206, 2S5, 502, 579. 
 Carnaim, see Ashteroth Kaniaim. 
 Carob-tree, see Kharnub, el. 
 Carpet, 64, 68, 72, 85, 122, 165, 286, 373, 376, 
 
 382. 
 Carriage, see Road, carriage. 
 Carruthers, Mr., 263. 
 Casius, Mount, 304, 309. 
 Casphor, 524. 
 Castanets, 393. 
 
 Castle, 6, 48, 106, 167, 168, 198, 255, 256, 275, 
 
 276, 278-280, 288, 341, 372, 386, 413, 431, 
 
 441, 503, 506, 507, 512-515. 521, 527-529. 
 
 543. 547. 551. 573. 577-58o, 590. 591- 595- 
 
 597, 599, 602, 604, 607, 617-619, 621, 630. 
 
 Catherine, St., Convent of, 179. 
 
 Cattle, II, 135, 227, 238, 239, 249, 250, 268, 
 
 440, 445, 455, 466, 467. 473. 507. 550, 559. 
 
 576, 584, 594, 601, 668. 
 
 Cave, Cavern, 97-105, 108-110, 137, 164, 165, 
 
 241, 242, 245, 247, 288, 304, 305, 313, 320, 
 
 353, 354, 359. 367, 380, 382, 410, 430, 445. 
 
 467, 548, 549, 585, 596-600, 644, 658, 660. 
 
 666, 672. 
 
 Cedar, 116, 137, 139, iSo, 181, 185, 250, 256. 
 
 257. 356, 656, 673. 
 Cedars of Lebanon, 136, 137, 181, 216, 230, 
 235, 244, 257, 258, 260-274, 293-295, 306. 
 313. 316, 318.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Cemetery, 117, 401. 402, 405, 406, 456, 528, 
 541, 559, 668. 
 
 Cenchrea, 21, 71. 
 
 Ceratonia Siliqua, 131. 
 
 Cerdagne, Count William of, 283. 
 
 Chaff, 12, 545, 600, 606, 672. 
 
 Chalcedon, 478. 
 
 Chalcedony, 176-178. 
 
 Chalcis, 198, 338. 
 
 Chaldea, Chaldees, 57, 297, 364, 414. 
 
 Chamrate, 498. 
 
 Charcoal, 250, 264, 623. 
 
 Chariots, 55, 299, 367, 409, 539, 565, 592, 593, 
 638. 
 
 Chateau Neuf, see Hunin. 
 
 Chedorlaomer, 363, 364, 534-536, 542, 579. 
 
 Cheese, 248, 645. 
 
 China-tree, 46. 
 
 Chinese, 207. 
 
 Chosroes II., 634. 
 
 Christian, 13, 20, 21, 47-49, 51, 55, 60, 69, 
 71, 72, 84, 88, 90, 128, 140, 147, 150, 153- 
 155. 170. 175, 186, 194, 2or, 204, 209-214, 
 230, 252, 258, 264, 269, 277, 283, 284, 309, 
 310, 333, 336, 340, 341, 370, 371, 374, 375, 
 380-3S2, 387, 388, 406, 407, 409, 411, 412, 
 420, 424, 425, 427, 433, 444, 449, 450, 452, 
 455, 459. 461, 463. 470, 471. 480, 489, 494, 
 498, 500, 501, 504, 508, 509, 518, 519, 524- 
 526, 537, 539, 552, 573, 580, 583, 585, 590, 
 600, 622, 634. 
 
 Chrysorrhoas, 398. 
 
 Church, 45, 47, 87, 117, 132, 144, 154, 184, 
 189, 193, 199, 229-231, 258, 269, 274, 277, 
 280, 310, 370, 377, 380, 381, 386, 409-411, 
 449. 454. 462, 463, 471, 484, 500, 509, 518- 
 520, 537, 544, 551, 569, 571, 580, 590, 606, 
 610, 617, 618, 634, 637. 
 
 Churchill, C. H., Colonel, 187. 
 
 Cinneroth, 365. 
 
 Cisterns, 9, 22, 34, 92, 107, no, 275, 279, 344, 
 358, 442, 449, 458, 469, 478, 482, 485, 487, 
 513. 545. 551. 586, 598, 607, 619, 621, 628, 
 ^•37. 633, 643-645, 652, 660, 661, 663, 667. 
 
 Citron, 357, 371. 
 
 Claudius, see Tiberius Claudius. 
 
 Cleopatra, 32, 440, 489. 
 
 Cloud-hurst, 150, 151, 290, 291. 
 
 Clover, 583. 
 
 Coal, 193, 194. 
 
 Cocoons, see Silk and Silk-worms. 
 Coelesyria, 136, 142, 171, 177, 170, 
 
 216, 272, 297, 298, 306, 309, 318, 
 
 346, 369, 445, 489. 
 Coffee, and Coffee-shops, 60. 79, 
 
 131, 143, 196, 20S, 285, 2S6, 312, 
 
 393. 396. 399. 429. 480. 504, 584, 
 Coins, 524, 559. 
 College, see School. 
 Colporteur, 389, 456. 
 Conder, C. R., Captain R. E., 334, 
 
 646, 659, 665, 667. 
 Conna, 310. 
 Conscription, no. 
 Constantine, 243, 244, 341. 
 Constantinople, 47, 156, 165-167, 
 
 357.477.478. 
 Consul, 14-17, 49, ic6, no, 167, 
 
 34S, 374. 384, 388, 389, 395. 443- 
 Convent, 21,45, 51.52, 105, 137, 154 
 
 193, 198, 222, 229-231, 233, 235, 
 
 260, 273, 277, 288, 289, 304, 305, 
 
 483-485, 505, 509. 510, 518, 539, 
 Corinthian, 225, 251, 315, 321, 323, 
 
 333. 336, 379. 381, 383. 384. 409, 
 
 475. 484. 486, 48S, 495, 498, 499, 
 
 519. 547. 560, 562, 564, 565, 568, 
 
 605, 609, 614-616, 636. 
 Cotton, 83, 84, 456, 458, 472, 590. 
 Cows, see Cattle. 
 Crawford, J., Rev., 414. 
 Crier, public, 56, 57. 
 Crocus, 507. 
 Cross, the true, 32. 
 Crow, 238, 261, 627. 
 Crusades, Crusaders, 27, 48, 89, 167, 
 
 276, 280, 283, 312, 386, 407, 476, 
 
 580. 
 Cufic, 399, 468, 505, 518, 520. 
 Custom-house, 173, 374. 
 Cyclamens, 132. 
 Cyclopean, 278, 321, 327. 328, 340, 
 
 543. 547. 548. 
 Cymbals, 118. 
 
 Cypress-tree, 18, 282, 296, 385. 
 Cyprus, island of, 131, 216. 
 Cyrus, 263. 
 
 Daiiak, cd, 176, 177. 
 Uahdah, Beit el, 230. 
 
 199. 
 337- 
 
 107, 
 
 387. 
 660. 
 
 689 
 
 200, 
 -339. 
 
 126. 
 391- 
 
 617-620, 
 
 212, 
 
 229. 
 
 190, 
 
 330, 
 
 .179 
 
 189. 
 
 245. 
 
 257- 
 
 310, 
 
 409. 
 
 544. 
 
 634- 
 
 325. 
 
 332. 
 
 450, 
 
 454. 
 
 516, 
 
 517. 
 
 569. 
 
 571. 
 
 229, 
 
 545. 
 
 275. 
 573. 
 
 342, 483.
 
 690 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Daisy, 601. 
 
 Dale, Gerald F.. Rev., 200. 
 
 Dalmatian, 510. 
 
 Dama, 468, 469. 
 
 Damascus, 49. 74, 125, 142, 172, 174, 191, 
 
 192, 195, 206, 248, 276, 298, 330, 341, 343, 
 
 345-348, 351-353. 355-415, 417, 419. 424, 
 
 425, 428-433, 435- 437. 439. 443-445, 454, 
 
 468, 476, 481, 489, 501, 505, 515, 518, 521, 
 
 534, 535, 538, 539. 54^, 549- 573- 
 Damascus Carriage-road, 120, 123, 125, 126, 
 
 186, 193, 195-197, 355, 356, 398- 
 Dames de Nazareth, 123. 
 Damieh, ed, 576, 581, 582, 584. 
 Damouras, see Damur, Nahr ed. 
 Damur, Nahr ed, 25-27, 41, 137, 145-152, 
 
 176, 183-185, 187. 
 Dan, 211, 241, 356, 365, 436, 481, 534, 580, 
 
 653, 660. 
 Dancing, see under Manners and Customs, 
 
 Marriage and Rejoicing. 
 Danish, 96. 
 Darius, 369. 
 David, 10, 55, 59, 68, 69, 116, 127, 128, 139, 
 
 262, 266, 339, 364, 365, 379, 394.403. 404, 
 
 413, 552, 553, 578, 579. 619-621, 638, 665. 
 Dawkins, W. B.,98. 
 Deaconesses, Prussian, of Kaiserwerth, 106, 
 
 107. 
 Dead Sea, 10, 26, 221, 424, 523, 534, 535, 579, 
 
 586, 594, 595, 600, 639, 645, 646, 648, 650, 
 
 651, 653, 658, 668, 674, 676. 
 Dead Sea, Expedition to, Lieutenant Lynch, 
 
 U.S.N., 159, 160, 183, 222. 
 Debusiyeh, ed, 497. 
 Decapolis, the, 311, 480, 481, 489, 546-548, 
 
 572, 592, 622. 
 De Forest, H. A., M.D., 252, 253, 474. 
 Deff, ed, 393. 
 Deir, el, see Convent. 
 Deir 'Aly, 430, 431, 433, 434, 436. 
 Deir Eyub, Kiinawat, 483-485. 
 Deir el Ghuzal, 198. 
 Deir el Kamar, 27, 143, 147, 150, 151, 153- 
 
 157, 160, 167, 171, 185, 192, 201, 209. 
 Deir el Kul'ah, 45, 49, 51-53, 93, 194, 203. 
 Deir Mimas, 167. 
 Deir es Sumeid, 466. 
 Deir Zubeir, 505. 
 Deluge, 82, 477. 
 
 Der'a, 461, 515, 524, 533, 534, 539-548, 550. 
 
 Derb el Haj, see Haj, el. 
 
 Derbekkeh, ed, 393. 
 
 Derbyshire, caves of, 104. 
 
 Dervish, 67, 117, 118, 277, 405. 
 
 De Sacy, 205. 
 
 Desert, 216, 297, 358, 359, 372, 442-444, 507, 
 
 508, 533, 550, 551. 579- 586, 590. 629, 630, 
 
 633, 635, 660. 
 Dew, 135, 294. 
 Dhaher, Melek, edh, 337. 
 Dhaher el 'Omar, 591. 
 Diab, Ali, 'Adwan sheikh, 666. 
 Diamonds, 376. 
 Dibbin, ed, 582. 
 Dibon, 606, 643. 
 
 Dibs, grape syrup, 187, 200, 237. 
 Dihban, 606, 643. 
 Diligence, 125, 195-197. 
 Dimas, ed, 197. 
 Dion, 546, 548. 
 Dionysias, 501. 
 Dionysius Periegetes, 9. 
 Disc-stones, 606, 640, 641, 650, 651, 671. 
 Divan, 79, 85, 390, 396. 
 Dog River, see Kelb, Nahr el. 
 Dogs, 12, 22, 26, 71, go, 97, 238, 251, 308, 309, 
 
 312. 368, 424, 449, 507, 604, 623, 645, 666, 
 
 668. 
 Dolmens, 620, 640, 641, 664, 667, 668, 671. 
 Dome of the Rock, see Haram esh Sherif, 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 Donkeys, 22, 71, 90, ill, 122, 124, 200, 2l8, 
 
 238, 345, 367- 373- 395, 426, 453, 500, 517, 
 
 623, 648, 666. 
 Dora, see Tantura, el. 
 Doric, 320, 449, 463, 497, 514, 597. 
 Dothan, 540. 
 Douseh, ed, 1 17-120. 
 Dove, see Pigeon. 
 Drake, Charles F. Tyrwhitt, 486. 
 Druses, 19-21, 74, 87, 112, 140, 142-145, 147, 
 
 150, 152-156, 159-161, 163, 164, 170, 171, 
 
 175, 176, 182, 184, 186, 187, 189, 191-194, 
 
 198, 201, 205-213, 217, 229, 230, 345, 412. 
 
 415, 424, 431, 433, 434, 437, 439-444, 452, 
 
 455. 459. 463. 466, 468, 469, 471, 474, 477, 
 
 479, 480, 491, 493-496, 501. 502, 504, 527, 
 
 530. 
 Dufferin, The Earl of, 407.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 691 
 
 Dukekome, 32. 
 
 Dukkan, see under Manners and Customs, 
 
 Shops and Streets. 
 Duma, ed, 254. 
 Dummar, 355, 356, 39S. 
 Dunniyeh, ed, Aklim, 136. 
 Dur, ed, 470. 
 Durazy, ed, Muhammed Ibn Isma'il, 205, 
 
 206. 
 Duris, ed, 343. 
 Dusares, the god, 510. 
 
 Eagles, 221, 23S, 245, 246, 330-332, 527, 
 547, 606, 667. 
 
 Earthquake, 47, 284, 307, 315, 330, 336, 450, 
 470, 564, 56S, 590, 597, 608, 612, 616, 632. 
 
 East, Eastern, see Orient, Oriental. 
 
 Ebal, 579, 586. 
 
 Ebers, M., 299. 
 
 Eden, 157, 265. 
 
 Edhra', 455, 457, 45S, 460-464, 46S, 474, 476, 
 519, 541. 542. 
 
 Edom, Edomites, 537, 574, 576, 635, 648, 
 656. 
 
 Edrei, see Edhra'. 
 
 'Eed, Bedawin sheikh, 645. 
 
 Effendi, 372, 373, 388, 506, 511. 
 
 " Eg>'pt : Descriptive, Historical, and Pictur- 
 esque," 300. 
 
 Egypt, Eg>'ptian, 24, 41, 48, 83, 85, 93, 95, 
 96, no, III, 116, 129, 138-140, 144, 155, 
 161, 164, 178, 191-194. 205, 206, 227, 242, 
 249, 256, 281, 283, 297-301, 309, 323, 339, 
 341. 343. 367. 369. 386, 426, 440, 442, 452, 
 458, 469, 476, 477> 536, 538, 540. 577. 579. 
 597, 622, 630, 645. 
 
 Ehden, 265, 271, 274. 
 
 Eidiln, el, 546, 54S. 
 
 Elam, 55. 
 
 Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, 538, 573. 
 
 Elealeh, see 'Al, el. 
 
 Ellas, St., Church of, 462. 
 
 Eliezer, of Damascus, 364. 
 
 Elijah, 78, 84, 367, 368, 579, 586. 
 
 Eliphaz, 35. 
 
 Elisha, 78, 84, 366-368, 379, 394. 579. 592. 
 644. 
 
 Elk, 98. 
 
 El-paran, 534. 
 
 Emesa, 310, 312, 340. 
 
 Emims, 534, 535, 664. 
 
 Emir, 9, 27, 42, 45, 74, 112, 129, 139, 140, 
 153, 156, 157, iS9-i(^i. 164. 165, 172, 174, 
 175, 184, 187. 19S, 209, 230, 2S7, 343, 344, 
 
 475-477, 648- 
 
 Emmanuel, 510. 
 
 En-gedi, 534. 
 
 England, English, 14-17, 48, 81, 86, 92, 99, 
 loi, 162, 163, 189, 190, 193, 256, 264, 268, 
 280. 330, 348, 357, 395, 407. 433. 477, 479, 
 552. 
 
 En-misphat, see Kadesh. 
 
 Enoch, 207. 
 
 Ephraim, 116, 553, 57S, 579, 586, 653. 
 
 Ephron, the Hittite, 29S. 
 
 Er, 127. 
 
 Esau, 82, 298, 403, 576, 577. 
 
 Esdraelon, 502, 540, 579. 
 
 Euphrates, 49, 277, 297, 298, 309, 363, 364, 
 524.535. 533. 539.550, 551- 
 
 Europe, European, 27^ 48, 72, 74, 77, 86, 108, 
 no, 124, 126, 140, 149, 155, 156, i6r, 172, 
 192, 195, 205, 210, 211, 268, 312, 374, 396, 
 407, 412, 425, 442, 465, 474, 477, 520. 
 
 Ezekiel, 243, 262, 263, 278, 369, 404, 628, 
 
 Ezion-gaber, 535, 573, 635. 
 
 Factory, 124, 1S6, 193. 
 
 Fahd, Adwan sheikh. 593, 605, 606, 62S, 643, 
 
 645- 
 Fair, 351, 586. 
 Fakhr ed Din Ma'an, Emir, 9, 45, 48, 93, 112, 
 
 160, 164, 165, 198, 209. 
 Falcon, 172. 
 I'arren, Mr., 395, 396. 
 Fatimeh, 401. 402. 
 Fauwar ed Deir, igS, 288, 289. 
 Fergusson, James, F.R.S., 634. 
 Feriy-boat, 11, 667, 668, 673, 677. 
 Fever, 123, 166, 196, 354. 
 Fez, 72, 84. 
 Fig. 45. 54. 132. 142. 153. 159. 183, 200, 235. 
 
 259, 260, 274, 303, 357, 575, 585. 
 Ffk. el, see Ajihek and Hippos. 
 Fikeh, el, 311. 
 Fikeh, Nahr el, 303. 
 Firman, 540. 
 Fir-tree, 139. 
 Fish, Fishermen, 108, 278, 430, 612, 647, 661, 
 
 667.
 
 692 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Flax, 54, 472, 473. 
 
 Fleas, 122, 238. 
 
 Flocks, II, 22, 25, 26, 135, 237, 249, 256, 291, 
 292, 305, 432, 436, 444, 465-467, 473, 519, 
 555. 576, 577. 590, 602-605, 622, 623, 635, 
 641, 645, 668, 673. 
 
 Flowers, 8, 9, 14, 17. 33. 35. 36. 54. §9. 128, 
 132, 163, 168. 293, 348, 371, 385, 390, 3^6, 
 507, 540. 555. 575, 583. 585. 600, 601, 632. 
 
 Flute, 392. 
 
 Fold, 135, 237, 291, 622, 644, 645, 669. 
 
 Ford, 9, 25, 27, 667, 671-673, 676. 
 
 Fortuna, 455. 
 
 Fossils, 97, 98, no, 136, 160, 187, 194, 222, 
 223, 254, 600. 
 
 Fountain, intermitting, 198, 287-289, 430. 
 
 Fountains and springs, 133-136, 143, 145, 
 146, 161, 163, 171, 172, 174, 190, 202, 258, 
 273, 274, 2S0, 292, 294, 311,319. 336-338. 
 344, 346-34S, 446, 452. 456. 467. 482. 483. 
 498, 521, 551, 571. 573, 575. 581-583. 5S5, 
 586, 591, 601, 604, 605, 623, 647, 648, 650, 
 670. 
 
 Fountains of streams and rivers, 137, 138, 
 159, 161, 165, 174, 180-183, 185, 198, 226, 
 227, 233, 234, 241, 242, 245, 247, 258, 284, 
 288, 290, 302, 304, 305, 309-314, 319, 336- 
 338, 346-348, 352-354. 430, 446. 452. 467, 
 575. 591. 593. 594. 601-603, 624, 652, 654, 
 656, 658, 661, 663, 666, 667. 
 
 Fox, 108, 305, 528, 636. 
 
 France, French, 96, 106, 108, 125, 140, 155, 
 186, 195, 196, 264, 355-357, 457, 496- 
 
 Frogs, 433, 627, 670. 
 
 Frost, 294. 
 
 Fureidis, el, 182. 
 
 Fureiya, el, 226. 
 
 Furzul, el, 200. 
 
 Fuzur, el, X47-149. 
 
 Gabriel, 421, 510. 
 
 Gad, Gadites, 434, 527, 535, 552, 594, 601, 
 
 607, 636, 662, 669. 
 Gadara, 311, 546, 547. 
 Gadda, 607. 
 Galeed, 553, 576. 
 
 Galilee, 205, 239, 481, 511, 579, 648, 649. 
 Galilee, Sea of, see Tiberias, Lake. 
 Gallic, 449, 450. 
 Gallows, 372. 
 
 Gallus, ^lius, 538. 
 
 Ganges, 419. 
 
 Gardens, 6-9, 14, 15, 17, 27, 45-49. 51, 93, 
 106, III, 123, 153, 156, 158, 164, 168, 174, 
 183, 184, 190, 197, 199, 259-261, 265, 273, 
 276. 277, 310, 319, 327, 335, 336. 346-348, 
 352, 358, 360, 371. 395-399. 413-415. 482, 
 496, 508, 575, 590, 656, 673. 
 
 Gate of city, 55, 56, 360, 400, 405-409, 415, 
 426, 459, 4S7, 508, 521, 528, 553, 560, 561, 
 564, 570, 571, 614, 615, 637, 661, 667. 
 
 Gaulanites, see Jaulan, Aklim el. 
 
 Gaza, 41, 107, 113, 53S. 
 
 Gazelle, 198, 305, 308, 309, 466, 507, 632, 
 636. 
 
 Gebal, see Jebeil. 
 
 Genghis Khan, 477. 
 
 Gennesaret, plain of, 166. 
 
 Geodes, 130, 176-178 
 
 Geological Survey, England, 98. 
 
 George, St., 21, 288, 463, 521, 582. 
 
 George, St., and the Dragon, 92. 
 
 George, St., Bay of, 44, 45, 137, 195, 233. 
 
 George, St., Church of, Beirut, 92. 
 
 George, St., Church of, Edhra', 463. 
 
 George, St., Convent of, 21, 189, 222, 288. 
 
 Gerasa, see Jerash. 
 
 Gerizim, 579, 586. 
 
 German, Germany, 106, 357. 
 
 Ghabun, Nahr el, 150, 185, 187. 
 
 Ghassanide, 538, 539. 
 
 Ghawarineh, el, Arabs, 670. 
 
 Ghimeh, el, 251. 
 
 Ghor, el, 581, 582, 602, 676. 
 
 Ghor es Seisaban, see Abel-shittim. 
 
 Ghudir, Nahr el, 41, 131, 132, 190. 
 
 Ghurb, Aklim el, 45, 143, 189, 209. 
 
 Ghurs, el, 540. 
 
 Ghusam, el, 515, 537. 
 
 Ghiltah, el, Damascus, 428, 431, 432, 444. 
 
 Ghuzir, el, 230. 
 
 Giants, 444, 462, 664. 
 
 Gibbon, E., Esq., 351, 370, 405. 
 
 Gibeonites, 71, 426. 
 
 Gideon, 489, 577, 579, 642. 
 
 Gilboa, Mountains of, 579. 
 
 Gilead, Land of, and Mount, 169, 417, 424, 
 429, 460, 489, 533, 540, 553, 555, 556, 572, 
 575, 576. 579, 581-587, 591-593, 640, 652, 
 653.675-
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 69: 
 
 Gilgal, 676. 
 
 Girdle, see under Manners and Customs, 
 Garments and Sleeping. 
 
 Glacier, 148-150. 
 
 Gleaners, 39. 
 
 Gnostics, 207. 
 
 Goats, II, 83, 84, 238, 240, 241, 256, 26S, 
 305, 310, 421, 436, 465-467. 555. 576. 602, 
 622, 645, 668. 
 
 Goblan, Adwan, sheikh, 593, 665, 666. 
 
 Golan, see Jaulan, Aklim el. 
 
 Golan, town, see Wady 'Allan. 
 
 Gold, Goldsmith, 375-378, 398. 
 
 " Good Words," loi, 104. 
 
 Gothic, 276. 
 
 Gozan, 369. 
 
 Grackle, 647. 
 
 Graham, Cyril C, 442, 443, 506. 
 
 Grapes, see Vine, Vineyards. 
 
 Grasshoppers, 627. 
 
 Greece, Grecian, 131, 320. 
 
 Greek Catholic, 140, 171, 189, 201, 320, 386, 
 409,412,455, 457,459,471. 
 
 Greek, Greeks, ancient, 7, 26, 46, 51, 52, 97, 
 127, 137, 144, 204, 237, 243, 251, 258, 275, 
 276, 282, 309, 310. 319, 320, 338, 340, 341, 
 369, 377, 380, 387, 398, 420, 435, 436, 445, 
 449, 460, 461, 475, 478, 480, 490, 496, 500, 
 518, 524, 535, 538, 544, 548, 572-574. 608, 
 617, 620, 622. 
 
 Greek, Greeks, modern, 22, 140, 144, 186, 
 189, 194, 235, 236, 254, 277, 373, 393, 411, 
 412, 459, 462, 504, 552, 580, 583, 590. 
 
 Greek inscriptions, see Inscriptions. 
 
 Griffiri vulture, 221. 
 
 Guitar, 391, 393. 
 
 Gypsies, 545. 
 
 Habeish, Beit, 230. 
 
 Habila, 455, 
 
 Hadadezer, 364. 
 
 Hadeth, el, near Beirut, 129. 
 
 Hadith, el, near Tripoli, 137, 256, 257. 
 
 Hadshit, el, 259. 
 
 Hady, el, 206. 
 
 Hagar, Hagarites, 90, 434, 436, 536, 537, 
 
 642. 
 Ilaidar, Emir, 184. 
 Haj, tl, 400, 401, 424-426, 428, 430, 431, 
 
 435. 436, 454. 498, 548. 550, 603, 630, 635. 
 
 Hakem, el, 205, 207. 
 
 Hakil, el, 222, 254. 
 
 Halak, 339. 
 
 Ham, 534. 
 
 Hamah, Hamath, 67, 13S, 179, 196, 285, 288, 
 296-29S, 301, 302, 305, 306, 309, 339, 368. 
 
 Hamor, 212. 
 
 liamzeh, Ibn .Vhmed, 206. 
 
 Ilanun, King, 62O. 
 
 Haram, el, Mecca. 425, 426. 
 
 Haram, el, Medina, 421. 
 
 Haram esh Sherif, Jerusalem, 380, 6x8. 
 
 Haran, 414-417, 534. 
 
 Harbor, 5, 6, 44-49. 93. 275. 277. =79. 579- 
 
 Harem, el, 55, 87, 88, 286, 391. 
 
 Harf, el, 245. 
 
 Ilarf el Sphiry, 285. 
 
 Harfush, Beit, 343, 344. 
 
 Ilaroun er Raschid, 51. 
 
 Harj), 392-394. 
 
 Harrah, el, 442, 443. 
 
 Ilarran el 'Awamid, see Haran. 
 
 Harran, in the Lejah, 464, 466-4C8, 470-472. 
 
 Harush, Nahr, 415. 
 
 Hasbeiya, 11, 12, 38, 157, 173, 176, 476. 
 
 Hasrun, el, 259. 
 
 Hattin, see Kurun Hattin. 
 
 Ilauran, el, 153, 156, 175, 184, 191, I92, 206, 
 209. 359. 386, 424. 439. 443. 444. 454. 456. 
 458, 459. 463. 464. 469. 470, 474. 477. 480, 
 482, 490, 491, 493, 49S, 501-504, 508, 511, 
 512, 515, 530, 533, 548. 549, 5S6, 604. 
 
 Havilali, 536. 
 
 Havolh-jair, 489. 
 
 Hawarah, el, 551. 
 
 Hawks, 246, 315. 
 
 Hawthorn, 358, 471, 555. 
 
 Hazael, 367, 368, 592.. 
 
 Hazezon-tamar, see En-gedi. 
 
 Hebard, S., 98. 
 
 Hel)ran, el, 502. 
 
 Hebrew, Jewish, 82, 86, 136, 143, 211, 220, 
 237, 243, 2<)i, 262, 289. 301, 300, 309, 339, 
 363. 430. 435. 445. 460. 461, 488, 489, 510. 
 526, 527, 529, 542, 591. 593, 595, 597,638, 
 658, 659, 661, 663, 668, 673, 674, 676, 677. 
 
 Hebrew Jews, 10, 20, 24, 28, 47, 48, 54, 57, 
 68, 69, 82, 83, 86, 96, 127, 128, 143, 151, 
 157, 168-170, 179, 204, 220, 227, 236, 243, 
 261, 262, 277, 278, 2S7, 288, 296, 299, 301,
 
 694 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 341. 357, 365. 368, 369. 371. 374. 387, 393. 
 411, 412, 417, 420, 422, 424, 435, 459-461, 
 486, 489, 490, 517, 535. 539. 541. 550, 572, 
 575. 585, 586, 591, 620, 621, 635, 636, 638- 
 645, 649, 654-656, 660-668, 673-677. 
 
 Hebron, 298, 579. 
 
 Hedjaz, el, 155, 419, 505. 
 
 Hedone, 340. 
 
 Hegira, el, 420, 505, 526. 
 
 Heiromax, sej Jarmuk, Nahr el. 
 
 Heldua, Mutatio, 31. 
 
 Helena, St., tower of, 31, 32. 
 
 Heliogabalus, 340. 
 
 Heliopolis, 310, 312, 319, 329, 336, 339, 340. 
 
 Helios, 488. 
 
 Heraclius, 370. 
 
 Herds, 444, 576, 590, 623, 635. 
 
 Hermit, 258, 259, 351. 
 
 Hermon, 19, 52, 143, 174, 177, 179, 193, 196- 
 198, 200, 204-206, 216, 271, 296, 297, 309, 
 316, 338, 339, 348, 356, 359, 386, 429-431, 
 434-436, 454, 459, 482, 515, 534, 542, 550, 
 579, 586, 604, 607, 640. 
 
 Hermon, Little, 586. 
 
 Herod Agrippa I., 47, 490. 
 
 Herod Agrippa II., 46, 198, 435, 445. 
 
 Herod Antipas, 539, 648, 649, 671. 
 
 Herod the Great, 11, 46, 263, 266, 369, 387, 
 435. 440, 444. 445. 467. 489. 49°, 498. 500, 
 579, 622, 648, 669. 
 
 Herod Philip, 539. 
 
 Herodias, 539, 649. 
 
 Herodotus, 95. 
 
 Keshan, el, 596, 628, 635, 652, 654, 660-664, 
 667. 
 
 Heshbon, see Hesban, el. 
 
 Heth, 298, 299. 
 
 Hijaneh, Bahret el, 429, 431, 439. 
 
 Himyaritic, Himyri, 443. 
 
 Hippos, 546. 
 
 Hiram, 181, 250, 266. 
 
 Hittite, Hittites, 178, 298, 299, 301, 339, 367. 
 
 Hobah, 363, 364, 534. 
 
 Holy Lance, 283. 
 
 Holy Land, 54, 166, 268, 275, 472-474. 
 
 Homer, 7, 290, 291. 
 
 Honey, 179, 227, 234, 237. 
 
 Hooker, Dr., 265. 
 
 Hor, Mount, 296. 
 
 Horites, 534, 535, 648. 
 
 Horn, tantiir, head-dress, 19, 20, 474. 
 
 Hornets, 129. 
 
 Horonaim, 662. 
 
 Horses, 11, 17, 71, 93, 94, 106, 118-120, 124, 
 132, 133, 146, 172, 180, 197, 200, 214-218, 
 234, 238, 240, 248, 250, 257, 260, 261, 285, 
 294, 295, 299, 300, 318, 344, 355, 367, 371, 
 372, 399, 414, 425, 429, 432, 443, 452, 457, 
 460, 465, 466, 471, 482, 490, 494, 497, 503, 
 528, 549, 555, 580, 582, 583, 593, 601, 603, 
 604, 629, 635, 636, 647, 654, 660, 665, 666, 
 671. 673. 
 
 Hosea, 548, 585, 586. 
 
 Hospital, 107, 407, 519. 
 
 Houses, native, 44-47, 49, 53-59, 70, 71, 121, 
 122, 135, 146, 147, 154, 171, 175, 182, 186, 
 189, 190, 199, 238, 239, 315, 344, 356, 389, 
 390, 409, 455, 462, 472, 473, 495, 499, 502, 
 508, 509, 544, 547-549. 590- 
 
 House-tops, 44, 53-60, 135, 146. 
 
 Hubbisa, el, 670. 
 
 Hiileh, el, Merom, 143, 168, 169, 299, 339, 
 432, 436, 542. 
 
 Hiilagu Khan, 477. 
 
 Hums, 285, 295, 301, 302, 306, 309, 311, 340, 
 370. 
 
 Hunin, Kul'at, 167. 
 
 Hurmul, el, 290, 292-295, 301, 302, 305, 338. 
 
 Hursh, el, " The Pines," 42, 45, 48, 111-113, 
 125. 
 
 Husks, see Kharnub, el. 
 
 Husn, el, 546, 551, 552, 555. 
 
 Husn Niha, 203. 
 
 Husn es Sphiry, 285, 286. 
 
 Huxley, H. G., C. E., 99-101, 103, 104. 
 
 Hyena, 108. 
 
 Hyrcanus, 595-598, 639. 
 
 Hyssop, 262. 
 
 Ibex, 646, 650. 
 
 Ibl, see Abila. 
 
 Ibn 'Affan, 505. 
 
 Ibn Hamadan, Hussein, sheikh, 504. 
 
 Ibn Hamadan, Shibly, sheikh, 504. 
 
 Ibrahim Effendi, 506. 
 
 Ibrahim, Emir, 245. 
 
 Ibrahim, Nahr, 137, 229, 234, 239-247, 250, 
 
 251. 313- 
 Ibrahim Pasha, 42, no, 140, 151, 191, 192, 
 280, 442, 452, 460.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 695 
 
 Ibrahim, sheikh, 461. 
 
 Idol, 116, 280, 281, 341, 359, 379, 420, 423, 
 426, 427, 454, 484, 486, -54, 555, 653. 
 
 Idumea, see Edom, Edomiles. 
 
 Ijon, 365. 
 
 Ijr el Kid'ah, 290. 
 
 Iliad, 300. 
 
 Imam, 67, 505. 
 
 India, Indian, 28, 277, 370, 538, 573. 
 
 Indian, American, gS. 
 
 Indian-corn, 224, 235, 253, 259, 261, 289, 
 290, 297, 304, 346. 
 
 Ink-horn, 62, 63. 
 
 Inn, see Khan. 
 
 Inscriptions, 33, 49, 95-97, 144, 164, 19S, 
 224, 251-253, 279, 285, 302, 306, 316, 320, 
 321, 329, 337, 340, 341, 344, 349. 350, 377. 
 389, 399, 417, 433, 437-443, 445, 449- 45°, 
 452, 454, 457, 460, 463, 468, 470, 471, 475, 
 476, 478, 480, 482, 484, 490, 494, 496, 498- 
 500, 502, 505, 510, 515, 517-521, 524, 527, 
 530, 544, 547, 559. 566, 568, 572, 580, 598, 
 605, 606, 616, 617, 640. 
 
 Ionic, 204, 251, 336, 416, 437, 517, 547, 564, 
 570, 597. 636. 
 
 Irbid, see Arbela, and Beth-arbel. 
 
 Ireland, Irish, 348. 
 
 Iron-ore, globular, 168, 201, 202. 
 
 Isaac, 82, 298, 371, 659, 666. 
 
 Isaiah, 139, 262-264, 369, 38S, 472. 
 
 Ish-bosheth, 552, 553. 
 
 Ishmael, Ishmaelites, 157, 370, 434, 435, 536- 
 533. 540, 551- 
 
 Islam, Islamism, see Moslem. 
 
 Isma'il el Atrash, sheikh, 504, 530. 
 
 Israel, children of, see Hebrews, Jews. 
 
 Israel, Kingdom of. 157, 357, 365-369, 39^, 
 592. 
 
 Issus, 369. 
 
 Italian, Italy, 9, 48. 
 
 Itinerarium Antonini, 312. 
 
 Itinerary, Jerusalem, 22, 31. 
 
 Iturca, see Jeidiir, Aklini el. 
 
 Jabbok, 535, 548, 552. 553. 560. 575-578. 
 
 581, 583-585, 592-594, 602-604, 608-616, 
 
 6ig, 621, 624. 
 Jabesh-gilcad, 547. 
 Jackal, 108, 271, 309, 449, 636. 
 Jacob, 21, 82, 86, 212, 213, 298, 371, 417, 
 
 546, 552-555. 575-577. 579. 5S1. 655, 656. 
 
 659, 666, 673. 
 Jael, 312. 
 
 Jaffa, 7, 9, 41, 57, 107, iSi, 263, 579, 677. 
 Jahaz, 662. 
 Jair, 489, 591. 
 
 Jami'a es Seiyed Vehya, 380, 381. 
 Jan, el, 388. 
 Janissary, 374. 
 Japheth, 82, 84. 
 
 Jarmuk, Nahr el, 436, 474. 540, 546, 575. 
 Jars, 237. 
 
 Jaulan, Aklim el, 435, 436, 542, 549, 550. 
 Jauzeh, Nahr el, 137, 255. 
 Jay, blue, 585. 
 Jazer, 594. 
 
 Jeba'ah, 167, 168, 295. 
 Jebeiha, el, 607. 
 
 Jebeil, 137, 146, 222, 242, 243, 246, 248, 250. 
 Jebel el A'alah, 37, 161, 194, 206. 
 Jebel "Ajlun, 575, 584, 603. 
 Jebel 'Akkar, 136. 271, 285, 288. 
 Jebel el Arz, 271. 
 Jebel el Aswad, 359, 428. 
 Jebel Dahar el Kildhib, 136, 294. 
 Jebel ed Druze, see Jebel Ilauran. 
 Jebel ed Diihy, see Hermon, Little. 
 Jel)el Fum el Mizab, 136. 
 Jebel Hauran, 439, 441, 442, 464, 472, 474. 
 
 479-481, 493, 494, 501, 504, 537, 604. 
 Jebel Jaj, 250, 252. 
 Jd)el Jil'ad, 585. 
 Jebel Kasyun, 356, 359. 386, 397. 
 Jebel Keniseh, 52, 93, 136, 137, 146, 183, 
 
 194-196, 201. 
 Jebel Mania, 359, 430. 
 Jebel Mukhmal, 271. 
 Jebel el Muslubiyeh, 645, 652, 654. 
 Jebel Neba, 535, 587, 624, 627, 628, 643, 
 
 650-656, 658, 659, 661, 668, 669, 673, 
 
 674. 
 Jeijel en Nuriyeh, 254. 
 Jebel Osh'a, 579, 582, 583, 585-587- 
 Jebel er Rihan, 136, 137, 167, 168, 202. 
 Jel)el Siaghah, 652-656, 659. 
 Jebel Sfmnin, 42, 44, 45, 52, 93, I3f)-i38, 
 
 146, i(;4, 19S, igg, 201-203, 214-217, 227, 
 
 233, 271. 
 Jebel Taum .\ilia, 136, 13S, 172, 174, 176, 
 
 271.
 
 696 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Jegar-sahadutha, 553. 
 
 Jeheir, Nahr el, 521. 
 
 Jehoahaz, 297. 
 
 Jehoram, Joram, 366, 592. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, 78, 592. 
 
 Jehu, 367, 368, 592. 
 
 Jeidur, Aklim el, 430, 432, 434-436, 454, 
 
 550. 
 Jemiirrin, el, 505, 537. 
 Jennany, Nahr el, 432. 
 Jephthah, 579, 627, 662. 
 Jerash, 481, 508, 532, 533, 545, 546, 548, 549, 
 
 552, 553. 555. 556, 558-574, 592, 593. 601, 
 
 604, 607. 
 Jeremiah, 369, 403, 404, 486, 506, 529. 
 Jericho, 54, 56, 587, 644, 648, 653, 654, 667, 
 
 673. 674, 676. 
 Jerju'a, 167, 168. 
 Jermuk, el, plain of, 168. 
 Jeroboam I., 577 ; II., 368. 
 Jerusalem, 23, 32, 47, 55, 56, 69, 71, 86, 96, 
 
 116, 127, 128, 181, 221, 283, 297, 298, 368, 
 
 369, 380, 387, 407. 414, 425, 432, 444, 455, 
 
 535. 572, 579, 592, 606, 618, 621, 665, 668, 
 
 677. 
 Jeshimon, 656. 
 Jessimine, 371, 390. 
 Jesuits, 230. 
 
 Jesus — from Bethany to Jerusalem, 128. 
 Jesus — the birth of, 11. 
 Jesus — at Cana of Galilee, 235, 236. 
 Jesus — at Capernaum, 56, 59. 
 Jesus — in the Decapolis, 481. 
 Jesus — in Galilee, 114-116, 239, 481. 
 Jesus — the Good Shepherd, 25, 26. 
 Jesus — at Jacob's well, 69. 
 Jesus — at Jericho, 113. 
 Jesus — at Jerusalem, 74, 89. 
 Jesus — the Last Supper, 75, 79, 84, 235, 236. 
 Jesus — on the Mount of Olives, 57, 58. 
 Jesus — the name of, 169, 207, 384, 422, 427, 
 
 472, 473, 518, 525, 579, 649. 
 Jesus — the .Sermon on the Mount, 69. 
 Jesus — wept, 403, 404. 
 Jetur, 434, 435. 
 Jewel, Jewellery, 375-377. 
 Jews, see Hebrew, Jews. 
 Jezireh, el, Sidon, 5. 
 Jezreel, 592. 
 Jezzar Pasha, 591. 
 
 Jezzin, 136, 137, 159, 160, 163-166, 170-172, 
 
 295- 
 Jiddah, 419, 426. 
 Jisr el Auwaly, g. 
 Jisr Benat Y'akob, 432, 476. 
 Jisr Burghuz, 173. 
 Jisr el Hajr, see Natural Bridge. 
 Jisr Jubb Jenin, 177, 178. 
 Jisr el Kady, 27, 146, 150, 151, 153, 1S4, 185, 
 
 187. 
 Jisr Kur'un, 176. 
 Jisr el Mejamia, 474, 540. 
 Jiyeh, el, 22. 
 Joab, 579, 619-621, 638. 
 Joash, 368. 
 Job, 26, 34, 37. 184, 2S7, 403, 453, 483-4S5. 
 
 500, 519, 520. 
 Jogbehah, 607. 
 John of Antioch, 340. 
 John the Baptist, 131, 350, 370, 377, 380, 
 
 382, 435. 539. 579. 64S, 649. 
 John, St., Church and Mosk of, Damascus, 
 
 370, 374. 375. 377-386. 
 John, St., Hospital of, 107. 
 John, St., Knights of, 280. 
 John's, St., Bread, 131. 
 Jonah, 18, 19, 21, 22. 
 Jonathan, 403. 
 Joppa, see Jaffa. 
 Jordan, 10, 11, 21, 24, 26, 28, 138, 142, 169, 
 
 174, 177, 179, 221, 364, 366, 368, 424, 429, 
 
 432, 434, 436, 444, 474, 476, 477, 480, 481, 
 
 486, 487, 510, 524, 526, 527, 533-535, 539. 
 
 540, 546, 547, 551-553. 572, 573. 575-579. 
 
 581-587, 590, 591, 595, 596, 602, 607, 634, 
 
 640, 642, 648, 651, 652, 654, 656, 658-660, 
 
 662, 664, 667-669, 671-677. 
 Joseph, 82, 84, 178, 458, 540, 577. 
 Joseph, husband of Mary, 207. 
 Josephus, 47, 56, 198, 239, 263, 283, 287- 
 
 2S9, 364. 365, 369. 435. 440. 445. 467, 
 
 489, 490, 539, 542, 548, 553, 572, 577. 
 
 595, 596, 622, 639, 646, 648, 649, 663, 
 
 670, 672. 
 Joshua, 143, 296, 299, 339, 527, 579, 586, 
 
 673. 675, 676. 
 Josiah, 297, 486. 
 Jubal, 394. 
 
 Jubb Jenin, 176, 178, 338. 
 Jubilee, year of, 56, 57.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 697 
 
 Judah, 127, 157, 243, 297, 298, 365, 368, 380, 
 
 592. 653. 
 Judas, house of, 409, 410, 413. 
 Judea, 127, 350, 369, 435, 596, 668. 
 Judeideh, el, 160. 
 Juhhal, el, 20S. 
 
 Julia, Augusta Felix, 340, 671. 
 Julia Domna, 321, 340. 
 Julianus, Archbishop, 519. 
 Julias, 671. 
 Julius, 510. 
 Julius Julianus, 517. 
 
 Jumblat, Beit, 160-163, 171, 192, 193, 209. 
 Jumblat, Beshir, sheikh, 160-162, 181, 209, 
 
 477- 
 Jumblat, Sa'id, 12, 161, 162, 171. 
 Jun 'Akkar, 13S. 
 Jiine Dahar, 13, 14, 18. 
 Juneh, Bay of, 139, 151, 222. 
 Juneh, near Damascus, 407, 432, 433. 
 Juniper, 263, 282, 296. 
 Jupiter. 329-335. 340, 341. 567-569. 
 Jurd, Aklim el, 1S6, 209. 
 Justinian, 47, 229, 520. 
 
 Ka'a, el, 310. 
 
 Kadesh, 534. 
 
 Kadisha, Nahr el, 137, 230, 257-261, 265, 
 
 272-277. 
 Kady, el, judge, 68, 69, 147, 2S7. 
 Kady, Beit el, 147, 150. 
 Kady, Nahr el, 150, 183. 
 Kadytis, 274. 
 Kaif, g, 52, 396. 
 Kalabat, el, 40-43, no. 
 Kamanjeh, el, 393. 
 Kamid el Lauz, 178. 
 Kamu'a el Hurmul, 271, 2S7, 305-309, 311, 
 
 315, 338- 
 Kanatir Far'aun, 543, 544. 
 Kanobin, Deir, 137, 230, 258, 259. 
 Kanun, el, 392, 393. 
 Karam, Vusuf, 274. 
 Kamak, 299. 
 Kaukab, el, 407. 
 Kedes, Kedesh, of Naphtali, 167. 
 Kedes, lake of, 298, 299, 301, 302, 309. 
 Kefareiya, el, 179. 
 KefTiyeh, 84, 665. 
 Kefr el 'Awamid, 351. 
 
 Kefr Huneh, 168, i6g, 172, 173. 
 
 Kefr Metta, 146, 147. 
 
 Kefr Nebrakh, 184, 185. 
 
 Kefr Selwan, 194, 201. 
 
 Kefr Shima, 132. 
 
 Kefrenjy, 5S1. 
 
 Keifiin, 1S7. 
 
 Kelb, Nahr el, 45, 92. 94-105, 126, 137. 218, 
 
 221, 225, 226, 229, 234. 
 Kenath, see Kunawat, el. 
 Keniseh, el, 29S. 
 Kentucky, caves of, 104. 
 Kerak, 643. 
 
 Kerak Nuh, 201, 204, 339, 343. 
 Keriathaim, 529. 
 Kerioth, see Kureiyeh, el. 
 Kesrawan, Aklim cl, 45, 140, 203, 218, 228- 
 
 233. 
 Ketesh, 299, 301, 309. 
 Kettle-drum, 392, 393. 
 Kesweh, el, 429-432. 
 Khadija, 420, 526. 
 Khalid, 351, 370, 526. 
 Khalif, see Caliph. 
 Khan, el, 11, 12, 19, 27, 31, 33, 40, 51, 71, 
 
 97, 106, 125, 126, 146, 195, ig6, 285, 358, 
 
 371, 373- 374. 396. 42S, 429, 432, 463, 610, 
 
 630, 631. 
 Khan Antun Beg, 106. 
 Khan As'ad Pasha, 371, 373, 374. 
 Khan el Hasmiyeh, 125, 126. 
 Khan Khulda, 27, 31-33. 
 Khan Murad, 195, 196. 
 Khan esh Shiah, 51. 
 Kharniib, el, 45, 130, 131, 245. 
 Khazin, Beit el, 230. 
 Kheta, 299, 300. 
 Khirbet 'Allan, 5S5. 
 Khirbet Barzeleh, 660. 
 Khirbet el Basha, 602. 
 Khirbet es Safiit, 602. 
 Khirbet Sar, 594, 595, 669. 
 Khirbet Silian, 5S5. 
 Khirbet Suleikliat, 553. 
 Khirbet Thaluth, 582. 
 Khirbet ez Zi, 585, 587. 
 Khul)ab, el, 453-457, 468. 
 Khudar Beg, 285-287. 
 Khfldr, el, see (jeorge, St. 
 Khulkliukh, cl, 439.
 
 698 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Khulwat, Khulweh, 143, 145, 205, 20S. 
 
 Khuraibeh, el, 344. 
 
 Kibleh, south, prayer niche, 69, 382, 505. 
 
 Kibliyeh, Baharet el, 414, 415. 
 
 Killis, el, 161. 
 
 Kir, 55, 369. 
 
 Kuatah, el, 470. 
 
 Kirjathaim, 672. 
 
 Knights Hospitallers, 312. 
 
 Koran, el, 66, 68, 206, 276, 372, 378, 382, 
 
 401, 405, 420-422, 424, 427, 505, 518. 
 Kouyunjik,'96. 
 Kronos, 46. 
 Kubb Elias, 198, 199. 
 Kubbet Duris, 343. 
 Kubbet el Khusneh, 384. 
 Kubbet en Naufarah, 384. 
 Kubbet en Niisr, 356-359, 428. 
 Kubbet es Sa'ah, 384. 
 Kufeir Abu Bedd, 650. 
 Kufr, el, 502. 
 Kul'at Baalbek, 341. 
 Kul'at el Fukra, 222-225. 
 Kul'at el Husn, 21, 288, 298. 
 Kul'at Jendal, 431. 
 Kul'at el Mudik, 305. 
 Kul'at el Museilihah, 255, 256. 
 Kul'at Niha, 164. 
 Kul'at er Rubad, 552, 578-582. 
 Kiil'at esh Shukif, 167, 476, 580. 
 Kul'at ez Zerka, 548, 584, 602-604, 624. 
 Kulei'at, el, 226. 
 
 Kuleib Hauran, 441, 501-503, 604. 
 Kunawat, el, 441, 464, 466, 469, 477, 480- 
 
 491, 494. 502, 508, 546. 
 Kunawat, Nahr, 474, 482, 490. 
 Kuneitirah, el, 432. 
 Kurah, Aklim el, 140, 257. 
 Kurd, 248, 249, 432, 436. 
 Kureish, 419, 476. 
 
 Kureiyeh, el, 503, 511, 515, 523, 529, 530. 
 Kurnayil, el, 193, 194, 201. 
 Kiiriln Hattin, 280, 548, 586. 
 Kusr el 'Abd, 597. 
 Kusr 'Antar, 431. 
 Kusr Melek cl Asfar, 520. 
 Kusr Nejdeh, 582. 
 
 Laban, 213,417, 552-554. 575. 576- 
 Lachiymatories, 404. 
 
 Ladder of Tyre, see Ras en Nakiarah. 
 Lake, 173, 177, 298, 301, 302, 309, 311, 313- 
 315, 346, 347, 358, 359. 3S6, 395, 399, 414, 
 
 415, 417- 
 
 Lamech, 394. 
 
 Lamp, 472, 473. 
 
 Lane, E. W., 24. 
 
 Lantern, 74. 
 
 Laodicea ad Libanum, 301. 
 
 Latin, 52, 95, 97, 237, 321, 349, 410, 412, 510, 
 517, 518, 521. 
 
 Lava, 359, 436, 445, 446, 450, 456-458, 460, 
 464-466, 468, 470, 483, 502, 527, 533. 
 
 Layard, A. H., 96, 263. 
 
 Lazarists, 230. 
 
 Lebanon, 9, 11, iS, 19, 24, 26, 27, 33, 42, 44, 
 45. 49. 51. 52, 74. 94. 96. 98. 103, 105, 107, 
 III, 122, 123, 125, 126, 129, 130, 132, 133, 
 135-276, 282, 284, 285, 290-297, 303-306, 
 
 309, 313. 314. 318. 337-340, 343. 344. 356, 
 442, 458, 459, 469, 476, 477, 479, 493, 496, 
 527. 552. 
 
 Leben, curdled milk, 12, 75, 227, 253, 286, 
 312. 
 
 Leben, Nahr el, 226-229, 233. 
 
 Leboda, 433. 
 
 Lebweh, el, 304, 309-313, 338. 
 
 Lee, H., M.P., 107. 
 
 Legion, Legions, 449, 450. 
 
 Lejah, el, 433, 435, 437, 439-446. 449-453. 
 455-472, 476, 489. 537. 541. 542, 591- 
 
 Lema, Beit el, 194, 231. 
 
 Lemon, 8, 45, 133, 236, 276, 277, 371, 575. 
 
 Leontes, see Litany, Nahr el. 
 
 Leontius, 519. 
 
 Leper, Leprosy, 366, 398, 407, 429, 473, 519. 
 
 Letter-writer, 61-63. 
 
 Lettuce, 9. 
 
 Leven, 220. 
 
 Levite, Levitical, 436, 552, 554, 591, 662, 
 674. 
 
 Lex talionis, see under Manners and Cus- 
 toms, Covenants and Feuds. 
 
 Licorice, 415. 
 
 Lignaloes, 656, 673. 
 
 Lime, Lime-kiln, 28, 32. 
 
 Linen, 83. 
 
 Lion, 281, 300, 527, 544, 597, 598, 606, 
 631. 
 
 Lisan, el, 586.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 699 
 
 Litany, Nahr el, 13S, 167, 169, 1 73-1 78, 198, 
 
 216, 336. 33S, 346. 
 Livia, 671. 
 Livias, 671. 
 Liwa, el, 439, 440. 
 Lizards, 627. 
 Locust-tree, 131. 
 London, 125. 
 Longfellow, H. W., 356. 
 Lot, 534, 579, 620, 640, 664. 
 Louis, St., Castle of, 6. 
 Loytved, J., 96. 
 Lucius Annius, 572. 
 Lufh el Lejah, 439, 45S, 459, 464. 
 Lupins, 601. 
 Lusias, M. O., 4S2. 
 Luz, 178. 
 Lybo, 312. 
 
 Lycus, see Kelb, Nahr el. 
 Lynch, W. F., Lieutenant U.S.N., 159. 
 Lynx, 632. 
 Lyons, 124. 
 Lysanias, 350. 
 
 Ma'an, Beit, 2og. 
 
 Ma'arret en N'aman, 161. 
 
 Ma'asir, el, 176, 181. 
 
 M 'abed, el, 280, 281. 
 
 Maccabees, the, 278, 435, 542, 595, 662, 663. 
 
 Maccabees, I., 278, 285, 524, 543, 639. 
 
 Maccabees, IL, 542. 
 
 Maccabeus, John, 639. 
 
 Maccabeus, Jonathan, 639. 
 
 Maccabeus, Judas, 524, 527, 542, 579. 
 
 Maccabeus, Simon, 639. 
 
 Macedonia, Macedonian, 369, 535. 
 
 Machserus, 648, 649. 
 
 Machpelah, 298. 
 
 Macrobius, 251, 252. 
 
 Madeba, 628, 636-639, 641, 644, 652. 
 
 Madinat el 'Arus, 384-386. 
 
 Madinat el Ghurbiyeh, 384. 
 
 Madinat 'Isa, 384. 
 
 Maghazil, el, 281. 
 
 Maghzel, el, 315. 
 
 Magoras, 93 ; see also Beirut, Nahr. 
 
 Mahanaini, 546, 552-554. 572. 576. 
 
 Mahmel, el, 425. 
 
 Mahmud Beg, III. 
 
 Mahmud. Druse guide, 466, 528. 
 
 Mahneh, el, see Mahanaim. 
 
 Maimonides, 57. 
 
 Ma'in, 62S, 636, 643-645, 650, 652, 660. 
 
 Maize, see Indian-corn. 
 
 Maked, 524. 
 
 -Malala, 340. 
 
 Malta, 477. 
 
 Mameluke, 386. 
 
 Manasseh, 364, 434, 444, 535, 552, 586. 591, 
 607, 653. 664, 675. 
 
 Manger, 239, 59S. 
 
 ^L'^nna, 179, 180. 
 
 Manners and Customs : 
 
 Amusements and Occupations, 6, 7. 9, 
 27, 28, 36, 38. 39, 54-57. 60-64. 67, 68. 
 71-74, 113, 115, 116, 122, 124-126, 132, 
 135, 147, 153. 167, 168, 171-173. 196. 200. 
 208, 217-221, 230, 235, 238, 247, 250, 277, 
 278, 292, 312, 372-379. 3S7-3S9. 391-394. 
 396, 399, 412-414, 455. 458. 4(15. 466, 491, 
 503. 517. 526, 536, 551. 552. 590. 645. 668. 
 Compliments and Hospitality, 63, 74. 75, 
 78-81, 160, 200, 208, 248, 286, 287, 312, 
 399, 440, 480, 493, 494, 497. 504, 577, 660, 
 671. 
 
 Cooking and Eating. 9, 22, 29, 30, 38, 
 55, 64, 74-79, 87, 113, 131, 175, 24S, 286, 
 287, 372, 375. 3S7. 391. 396. 399. 404. 
 424. 
 
 Covenants and Feuds, 30, 155, 157, 161, 
 163, 164, 175, 191-193, 209-212, 366, 468, 
 471. 494. 553. 554. 629, 630. 
 
 Funerals and Mourning, 106, 127-129, 
 208, 243, 366, 368. 401-405, 456. 
 
 Garments and Sleeping, 19, 20, 54, 55, 
 62-64, 66, 71, 72, 81-89, 125, 129, 175, 196, 
 214, 215, 238, 248, 354. 366, 370, 371. 373, 
 375. 379. 391. 403. 405. 425, 426, 456. 458, 
 503. 536. 540. 552, 590. 620, 623, 642, 644, 
 648, 665, 606. 
 
 Harvest and Tlireshing, 196, 227, 235, 
 459. 533. 545. 594. 6(X), 644, O63. 
 
 Irrigation and Drawing Water, 22, 71, 
 133. 149. 153. 168, 171. 174. 183, 19S, 199, 
 226, 227, 234, 235, 259, 288, 304, 310, 311. 
 313. 336, 347. 352. 354. 395. 39^. 42S, 440, 
 452. 473. 637, 669, 672. 
 
 Marriage and Rejoicing, 12, 13, 90, 118, 
 127, 128, 192, 193, 208, 212-314, 217, 230, 
 387. 391-394. 427. 526, 554. 639-
 
 700 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Men and Women, 8, 9, ii, 19, 20, 22, 23, 
 38, 62, 70, 71, 76, 83-90, 124, 127, 135, 192, 
 193, 196, 200, 208, 219, 220, 237, 238, 252, 
 253, 286, 312, 345, 373, 376, 387-389. 399. 
 401, 412, 425, 426, 456, 472, 545, 550, 603, 
 623, 645, 666, 668. 
 
 Pilgrimages and Votive Offerings, 19-21, 
 23, 48, 67, 90, 107, 117-120, 168-170, 179, 
 190, 245, 258, 259, 266, 275, 300, 340, 34:, 
 350, 351. 399. 401. 412, 423-426, 428, 430, 
 454, 498, 522, 548, 585, 586, 600, 635, 668. 
 Ploughing and Sowing, 29, 36, 160, 227, 
 234, 455, 466, 507, 585, 601, 623, 624, 660, 
 668. 
 
 Servants and Slaves, 15-17, 19, 71, 74- 
 76, 78. 88-90, 153, 157, 191, 286, 312, 366, 
 391, 427.449. 482, 534. 536, 576- 
 
 Shepherds and Watchmen, 12, 25, 26, 
 30, 38, 113, 135, 237, 240, 250, 256, 291, 
 312, 432, 465-467. 519. 526, 555, 576, 584, 
 592, 595, 604, 623, 668, 673. 
 
 Shops and Streets, 40, 44, 60, 69-74, 
 131, 132, 143, 150, 153, 171, 208, 247, 260, 
 276, 371-379. 387-389. 409-414. 425. 438, 
 517. 590. 593- 
 
 Worship and Superstition, 17-22, 57, 
 64-69, 86, 87, 107, 117-120, 133, 168-171, 
 189, 190, 203-209, 222, 229-231, 235-237, 
 243, 245, 252, 258, 262, 263, 269, 339-341, 
 359. 364. 367, 375. 381, 382, 384, 388, 410, 
 411, 420-427, 457, 462, 463, 474, 526, 545, 
 548, 554, 586, 601, 641, 653, 660. 
 
 Mar Antanus el Kurkufeh, 132, 135. 
 
 Mar Elyas, 462. 
 
 Mar Jirjis el Humeira, 21, 288, 289. 
 
 Mar Jirjis esh Shir, 189. 
 
 Mar Maron, 304, 305. 
 
 Mar Mitr, 92, 94, 106. 
 
 Marathus, 282. 
 
 Marble, Micaceous, 463, 517. 
 
 Marcion, Marcionites, 433, 434. 
 
 Mardaites, 229, 230. 
 
 Maro, Maron, John, 229, 245, 304, 305. 
 
 Maron, Mar Yohanna, 245. 
 
 Maronites, 20, 22, 51, 105, 140, 143-145, 150, 
 155, 171, 175, 191, 194, 201, 203, 229-231, 
 237. 245, 258, 269, 274, 277, 305, 345, 412. 
 
 Marseilles, 283. 
 
 Marsh, 94, 346, 347, 358, 386, 395, 399, 415, 
 429, 670. 
 
 Martyr, 129, 259, 351, 519. 
 
 Maiy, sister of Lazarus, 402. 
 
 Mason's Marks, 523, 527, 544. 
 
 Massacres, 49, 68, 96, 140, 145, 147, 150, 153- 
 157. 159. 162, 171, 192, 210, 298, 351, 407, 
 409, 411, 412, 421, 477, 572, 639. 
 
 Massada, 586. 
 
 Mats, 60, 71, 75, 85, 122, 286. 
 
 Mattocks, 28. 
 
 Maundrell, 258. 
 
 Maut, Nahr el, 93. 
 
 Maxwell, W. J., C.E., 99-102. 
 
 Mebruk, el, 505. 
 
 Mecca, 65, 67, 69, 117, 119, 35S, 400, 401, 
 412, 419, 425, 426, 430, 454, 498, 505, 518, 
 522, 526, 536, 548, 603, 630, 635. 
 
 Medeba, see Madeba. 
 
 Medes, 369. 
 
 Medina, el, 420, 421, 505, 517. 
 
 Mediterranean, 5-7, 9, 11, 13, 24-27, 33, 41, 
 
 42, 44-49. 53. 92-95, 97. 105-111, 114. 115. 
 123, 126, 130, 132, 133, 135-138, 142, 145- 
 147, 149, 152, 157, 164, 166, 172, 173, 177, 
 181, 184, 187, 190, 195, 202, 209, 216, 226, 
 233, 238, 239, 243-246, 249, 250, 253-257, 
 263, 272-280, 282, 284, 285, 290, 291, 296, 
 298, 304, 309, 338, 346-348, 356, 432, 436. 
 502, 579, 584, 646, 651, 653, 663. 
 
 Medlej, Bedawin tribe, 469. 
 
 Megeidel, el, 501. 
 
 Megiddo, 297. 
 
 Meidan, el, 394, 400, 405, 424-426. 
 
 Mejdel 'Anjar, 125, 197. 
 
 Mekseh, el, 199. 
 
 Melchizedek, 534. 
 
 Meliha, el, 415. 
 
 Melihat Hazkin, 457. 
 
 Memphis, 363. 
 
 Menhirs, 640, 641. 
 
 Mensef Abu Zeid, 651, 671. 
 
 Menzil, Menzul, see Khan. 
 
 Merj, el, Damascus, 197, 394, 398-401, 428. 
 
 Merj 'Ahin, 292, 294. 
 
 Merj Bisry, 164. 
 
 Merjany, el, 436, 437. 
 
 Merom, see Huleh, el. 
 
 Merrill, Selah, Dr., 506, 512, 523, 527, 543- 
 549. 552, 553, 572, 577, 579-581, 586, 587, 
 592-594, 599, 602, 606, 616, 617, 624, 634, 
 643, 650, 651, 667, 669-672.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 701 
 
 Mesha, 643. 
 
 Meshghurah, el, 13S, 172, 174. 
 
 Meshnakah, el, 250, 251. 
 
 Mesopotamia, 213, 417, 535, 554. 
 
 Metawileh, Mutawaly, 140, 144, 16S, 170, 
 
 204. 210, 244, 294, 295, 320, 343, 412. 
 Metn, Aklim el, 45, 194, 203, 218. 
 Mezarib, el, 430, 546, 54S. 
 M'hadhar, 670. 
 Mice, 627. 
 Michael, 510. 
 
 Midian, Midianites, 489, 550, 642, 656. 
 Mile-stone, Roman, 95. 
 Mill, Miller, 54, 94, 96, 105, 147-150, 163, 
 
 171, 183, 218, 219, 221, 245, 284, 301, 302, 
 
 311, 336, 352, 49S, 501, 556, 573, 601, 613, 
 
 666, 667, 669. 670. 
 Millstones, 218, 219, 455, 606, 641, 650, 671. 
 Milton, 8, 243. 
 Mina, el, Tripoli, 275, 277. 
 Minat el Husn, 107, iii. 
 Minerva, 500. 
 Minnith, 628. 
 Minstrel, 394. 
 Minyeh, el, 628. 
 Mishor, 586. 
 Mission, Missionaries, 117, 145, 151, 200, 
 
 277, 377- 479- 
 Mizpah, 553, 576, 577. 
 Moab, Moabites, 503, 511, 515, 523, 529, 535, 
 
 537. 550, 573. 586, 628, 635, 636, 638-641, 
 
 643-645, 651, 654-656, 65S-664, 666-663, 
 
 673-675. 
 Moabite Stone, 606, 643. 
 Mograbian, 545. 
 Moiet 'Amman, 619. 
 Monasteiy, see Convent. 
 Mongols, 477. 
 Monks, 179, 189, 190, 213, 229-231, 235, 254, 
 
 259, 269, 274, 276, 283, 288, 293. 304, 305. 
 
 310, 380, 406, 407, 410, 457, 458, 462, 518, 
 
 526, 580. 
 Monothelitic, 229. 
 
 Monument, sepulchral, 224, 225, 280-282. 
 Moore, Sir John, 15. 
 Moraines, 150, 265. 
 Mosaic, 390. 
 Moses, 21, 55, 82, 85, 86, 89, 135, 138, 207, 
 
 211-213, 296, 297, 299, 301, 345, 375, 422, 
 
 436, 444, 460, 461, 490, 526, 534, 535, 541, 
 
 578, 5S7, 602, 619. 624. 636, 638, 639, 644. 
 650, 656, 65S-660, 664, 666, 667, 672-675. 
 
 Mosk, 61, 64, 65, 67, 69, 92, 12S, 277. 280. 
 337. 357. 35S. 374. 377-386, 3S9. 39^. 401. 
 409, 415. 417. 419. 423. 429. 449. 452, 463. 
 471, 500, 505, 506, 517, 51S. 520-522, 528, 
 544. 551. 580. 610, 617-619. 
 
 Moslems, 13, 19, 48, 51, 55, 63-69, 71, 72, 
 84-87, 90, 92, 106, no, 1 18-120, 140, 155, 
 157, 168, 170, 175, 178, 201, 204, 206-209, 
 275-277. 284, 320, 333, 337, 341, 343, 346, 
 350, 351. 356-359. 370. 371. 374. 375. 377. 
 380-382, 384. 387-389, 391, 401, 407, 412, 
 413, 419-431. 454. 459. 463. 475. 494. 49^, 
 505. 506, 513, 514, 517, 518, 521, 522, 524, 
 526, 530, 535-537. 539-54:. 552, 558, 559. 
 573. 582, 583, 585, 586, 590, 600. 601, 603, 
 617, 619, 622, 635, 639, 644. 
 
 Mother-of-pearl, 390. 
 
 Mu'allakah, ed Damiir, 27, 31. 
 
 Mu'allakah, el, Zahleh, 201. 
 
 Mu'amaltein, el, 139, 151, 251. 
 
 Muezzen, el, 64, 68, 384. 
 
 Mugharat 'Afka, 242. 
 
 Mugharat el 'AkGrah, 247. 
 
 Mugharat Niha, 164, 165. 
 
 Mugharat er Rahib, 138, 293, 304, 305, 310, 
 
 311.313- 
 Mugheiteh, el, 125, 195. 
 Muhammed, the Prophet, 56, 157, 207, 209, 
 
 356-358, 371. 387. 388, 401. 405. 419-422, 
 
 427, 428, 476. 477, 505, 518, 526, 536. 
 Muhammed 'Aly, 48, 140, 161, 192, 193, 477. 
 Muhammed Ibn Isma'il, 207. 
 Muir, William, 421, 426, 427, 505. 
 Mujeimir, el, 505. 
 Mukam, el, 18, 19, 21, 22, 168-170, 204, 343, 
 
 350, 356-359. 364. 382. 457. 463. 559. 582, 
 
 585, 586, 600, 601, 660. 
 Mukam es Seiyed Yehya, 382, 383. 
 Mukhadat el Ghoraniyeh, 676. 
 Mukhiulat en Nusraniyeh, 583-585. 
 Mukhtarah, el, 137, 158-162, 167, 171, 176, 
 
 181, 209,477. 
 Mulberry, 27, 36, 41, 45, 46, 51, 93, 94, 106, 
 
 III, 113, 115, 116, 126, 132, 133, 150, 153, 
 
 156, 159. 171. 174. 175. 183, 189, 235, 245, 
 
 247, 259, 260, 274, 284, 319. 327, 335. 
 Mules, Muleteers, g, 71, 122, 124, 133, 142, 
 
 173, 182, 185, 188, 196, 200, 214-218, 238,
 
 702 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 248, 261, 271, 294, 345, 346, 367, 371, 374, 
 
 395, 424. 425, 443, 449, 451, 549, 556, 574, 
 582, 583, 600, 628, 648. 
 
 Mummy, 116. 
 
 Museum, British, 263. 
 
 Mushatta, Khan, 628, 630-635, 637. 
 
 Mushra'a Kana'an, 577. 
 
 Music, Musicians, see under Manners and 
 
 Customs, Marriage and Rejoicing. 
 Musk, 414. 
 
 Musmeih, el, 433, 437, 443, 449-454, 468, 480. 
 Mustard, 114. 
 Muwafukah, el, 149. 
 Muwahhedin, el, 205. 
 Muzar, see Mukam. 
 Myrrh, 540. 
 Myrtle, 8, 164, 168, 2S1, 396, 401. 
 
 Naaman, the Syrian, 366, 367, 379, 386, 398, 
 
 407, 429. 
 Nabathean, 468, 5x0, 538, 547, 573, 639. 
 Nablus, see Shechem. 
 Nahleh, en, 316. 
 Nahor, 417. 
 Nahra, en, 246. 
 Na'imeh, Ghufr en. Khan, 31. 
 Nakad, Beit Abu, 155, 209. 
 Nakad, Sheikh Hammiid Abu, 145. 
 Naphtali, 364, 586, 653. 
 Napoleon I., 256. 
 Napoleon III., 96. 
 Nargileh, water-pipe, 60, 79, 80, 126, 387, 
 
 396. 399- 
 
 Nathan the prophet, 262. 
 
 Natural Bridge, 137, 215, 221, 225-229, 233, 
 
 234, 242, 247, 313. 
 Na'urah, en, water-wheel, 8, 9. 
 Nazareth, 166, 167, 579, 586. 
 Neapolis, 478. 
 Neb'a 'Anjar, 198. 
 Neb'a el 'Asal, 226-228, 234, 239. 
 Neb'a el Leben, 137, 215, 226, 227, 229, 234. 
 Neb'a Lebweh, 313. 
 Neb'a Sir, 284. 
 
 Neb'a Sunnin, 189, 199, 201-203, 214, 215. 
 Nebaioth, 538. 
 Nebat, 577. 
 Nebo, city, 652. 
 
 Nebo, mountain, see Jebel Neba. 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 297, 369. 
 
 Neby, see Mukam. 
 
 Neby 'Abd Allah, 660. 
 
 Neby Habil, 350. 
 
 Neby Osh'a, 585, 586. 
 
 Neby Safy, 21, 168, 169. 
 
 Neby Samwil, 586. 
 
 Neby Sha'ib, 600, 601. 
 
 Neby Shit, 204, 343. 
 
 Neby Stjud, 168. 
 
 Neby Yunas, 18, ig, 21. 
 
 Necropolis, 300. 
 
 Negab, 653. 
 
 Nehemiah, 64. 
 
 Nejran, en, 471, 474, 475. 
 
 Nemesis, 192. 
 
 Nephish, 434. 
 
 Nero, 445. 
 
 Neve, 454. 
 
 New York, 125. 
 
 Niche, prayer, see Kibleh. 
 
 Nicolaus, General, 24. 
 
 Nicolaus, Historian, 364, 365. 
 
 Niebuhr, Carsten, 229. 
 
 Niha, near Bsherreh, 256. 
 
 Niha, near Jezzin, 163, 176. 
 
 Niha, near Zahleh, 203. 
 
 Nile, 41. 123, 363, 440. 
 
 Nimr, en, 'Adwan, sheikh, 605. 
 
 Nimreh, en, 439. 
 
 Nimrin, see Tell Nimrin. 
 
 Nimshi, 367, 592. 
 
 Nineveh, 263, 363. 
 
 Noah, 201, 204, 207, 282, 298, 339, 343, 350, 
 
 364, 422, 445, 477. 
 Nobah, 488, 489. 
 Nodab, 434. 
 
 Northey, A. E., Rev., 596, 597, 600, 614. 
 Notitiffi, 501. 
 
 Nova Trajana Bostra, 524. 
 Nowa, 454, 546. 
 Nukairat, 393. 
 
 Nukhl, en, in the desert, 454, 630. 
 Nukhl, en, island near Tripoli, 275. 
 Niikkar es S'adiat, 24. 
 Nukrah, en, Hauran, 459. 
 Nur ed Din, 476. 
 
 Nusairiyeh, en, 21, 207, 271, 285. 297. 
 Nusr ed Din, emir, 145. 
 Nuwaimeh, en, 667, 668, 671-673, 6"'6. 
 Nymphceum, 483, 521.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 703 
 
 Oak, 45, 52, 53, 133. 153, 159, 163. 16S, 170, 
 171, 179, 187, 190, 195, 216, 245, 250, 260, 
 282, 284, 285, 293, 295, 350, 441, 471, 4S1- 
 484, 494, 497, 502, 546, 553-556, 559, 574, 
 575. 57S, 579. 5S2, 5S5. 594. 596, 604. 
 
 Oats, wild, 583. 
 
 Obaesatus, 490. 
 
 Observatoiy, Lee, 107. 
 
 Occident, Occidental, 81, 163, 396, 507, 556, 
 
 574- 
 
 Odenathiis, 498. 
 
 Odeon, Odium, 614. 
 
 Og, 444, 459-461. 526, 527, 535, 541, 544, 
 584, 586, 608, 620. 
 
 Oil, see Olive, Olives. 
 
 Oil-press, 34, 472. 
 
 Oleander, 105, 164, 168, 560, 571, 5S4, 596, 
 600, 658, 670. 
 
 Olive, Olives, 12, 22, 33-40, 45, 48, 51, 107, 
 116, 126, 131-134, 142, 153, 159, 160, 179, 
 235. 257. 277. 286, 381, 395, 428, 472, 473, 
 556, 559. 574. 575. 582, 583, 590. 640. 670. 
 
 Olives, Mount of, 128, 579. 
 
 Omar, Khalif, 517, 518. 
 
 On, 339. 
 
 Onomasticon, 541, 542, 663. 
 
 Oranges, 8, 45, 133, 149, 245, 276, 277, 357, 
 
 371. 395- 
 Orient, Oriental, 49, 60, 64, 67, 72, 74, 75, 81, 
 83, 85-89, 163, 206, 207, 212, 213, 356, 363, 
 370-374, 383. 384. 391. 392, 396. 400, 405, 
 409, 412, 414, 472, 476, 494, 508, 519, 538, 
 
 551, 574, 577- 
 Origen, 444, 525. 
 Orontes, 67, 138, 229, 271, 293, 298, 299, 301- 
 
 305, 309-311, 313, 338. 
 Orthosia, 138, 285. 
 Osher, 670. 
 Othman, 422, 505. 
 Otto of Roses, 414. 
 Ottoman Bank, 106. 
 Oven, see Tanniir. 
 Ox, see Cattle. 
 
 Pauan-aram, 299, 554. 
 
 Paine, J. A., Professor, 96. 
 
 Palace, 47, 48, 55, 128, 130, 145, 153, 155- 
 158, 160-162, 181, 183, 186, 189, 191, 262, 
 264, 278, 285-287, 371, 450, 520, 528, 529. 
 596-598, 632-634. 
 C C 2 
 
 Pala;t)Tus. 279. 
 
 Palatine Mill, 340. 
 
 Palestine, 29, 54, 143, 151, 153, 167, 172, 239, 
 
 298, 358, 367, 3S7, 445, 579, 586, 634. 676. 
 Palestine E.xploralion Fund, English, 334, 
 
 582, 617. 
 Palestine Exploration Society. American, 96, 
 
 486, 506, 520. 
 Palm, 45, 51, 126-129, 275, 401, 421, 433, 
 
 497. 527. 597. 647, 653, 672, 676. 
 Palma, A. Cornelius, 524. 
 Palmyra. 17. 297. 29S. 332, 355. 359. 498, 
 
 573. 574- 
 Palmyrene, 498. 
 Pantheon, 329. 
 
 Panther, 151, 169, 282, 330, 631, 632. 
 Papyrus, 300. 
 Paradise, 156, 295, 354, 356-358, 423, 428, 
 
 526. 
 Paradisus, 274. 
 Paran, 301. 
 
 Parker, Edward Moon, Esq., 160. 
 Parmineo, 369. 
 Parthian, 340, 517. 
 
 Partridges, 293, 305, 466, 467, 585, 604, 632. 
 Pasha, 145, 161, 191, 192, 248, 312, 358, 371- 
 
 374, 417, 425, 442-444. 521. 591- 
 Passover, 236. 
 
 Patriarch, 137, 229, 230, 258, 41 1. 
 Patriarch, Patriarchal, ancient, 294, 29S, 301. 
 
 343. 363. 623. 
 Paul the apostle, 21. 34, 71, 369. 406, 407, 
 
 409-411, 413, 432, 433, 444, 539. 
 Peach, 133, 259, 395. 
 Peacocks, 632. 
 
 Pear, 259, 276, 357, 395, 575. 
 Pearl, 376. 
 Pekah, 368. 
 Pella, 546, 559. 
 Peniel, 554. 577- 
 Pennsylvania, 472. 
 Pentaur, 300. 
 Penuel, 577. 
 Peor, 655, 656. 
 Pera;a, 546, 572. 
 Persia, Persian, 57, 64, 204-206, 275, 276. 
 
 309. 369. 535. 538. 634- 
 Persian V,u\(, 49, 277, 524. 538. 550. 
 Peter the apostle, 57, 166. 
 Pclra, 538, 573, 574, 595.
 
 704 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Petroleum, 107, 472. 
 
 Peutinger Tabic, 489, 541, 607. 
 
 Phaena, Phjeno, 449, 450, 452. 
 
 Pharaoh, 11. 96, 299, 30O, 339, 544. 
 
 Pharaoh-nechoh, 297. 
 
 Pharisees, 68. 
 
 Pharpar, see 'Awaj, Nahr el. 
 
 Philadelphia, see 'Amman. 
 
 Philip the Arabian, Emperor. 476, 524, 
 
 525- 
 Philip, son of Herod the Great, 435, 440, 445, 
 
 649. 
 Philippopolis, 476. 
 Philistines, 486, 579. 
 Phillips, Corporal, 595. 
 Phoenicia, Phoenicians, 6, 9, 46, 51, 96, 127, 
 
 143, 144, 146, 164, 205, 243-245, 274, 275, 
 
 278, 282, 298, 310, 339, 340, 486, 542. 
 Pigeon, 108, 109, 229, 433, 585, 632. 
 Pilgrims, Mount, 275. 
 Pine, 42, 45, 48, 52, 105, 111-113, 125, 132, 
 
 133, 139, 146, 182, 183, 185, 194, 195, 226, 
 
 250, 263, 274, 284, 292, 555, 559, 585. 
 Pipe, musical instrument, 394. 
 Pipe, see Tobacco. 
 Pirates, 48. 
 
 Pisgah, 578, 652-655, 65S-660. 
 Pit, 250, 264. 
 Pitch, 256, 264, 292. 
 Pius, iElius Antoninus, 340. 
 Plague, 93. 
 
 Plane, 245, 352, 372, 396. 
 Pliny, 198, 288, 289, 489. 
 Plum, 259, 276, 357, 395, 575. 
 Polybius, 26, 619. 
 Polycarp, 434. 
 Polyglot, Paris, 274. 
 Pomegranate, 235, 295, 357, 386, 395. 
 Pompeii, 470. 
 Pompey, 369, 579. 
 Pools, 9, 133, 145, 272, 292, 294, 313, 337, 
 
 387, 430, 433, 456, 467, 496, 549. 
 Poplar, 159, 160, 173, 175, 177, 178, 182, 199, 
 
 259, 260, 284, 295, 319, 335, 346, 352, 353, 
 
 357. 358. 390. 398. 415. 429- 
 Population, 49, 139, 140, 153, 154, 159, 171, 
 
 175, 190, 199, 201, 230, 277-279, 412, 413, 
 
 480, 491, 667, 674. 
 Porphyreon, 22. 
 Porter, J. L., D.D., LL.D., 409, 412, 438, 
 
 441, 466, 475, 486, 491, 515, 527, 530, 553, 
 
 572, 586. 
 Potato, 259, 261, 277. 
 Poterium spinosum, see Thorns. 
 Potiphar, 84. 
 
 Potter, Pottery, 19, 107, 511. 
 Press, see Oil, Wine-press. 
 Prickly-pear, iii, 670. 
 Princesses, see Sit, Sittat. 
 Prodigal Son, 131. 
 Promised Land, 297, 298, 311, 339, 371, 578, 
 
 650-653, 659, 660, 672, 675, 677. 
 Protestant, 129, 132, 178, 184, 199, 259, 412, 
 
 552, 580, 590. 
 Proverbs, Arabic, 30, 67, 642. 
 Prussia, Prussian, 443. 
 Psaltery, 394. 
 Ptolemies, Ptolemy, 24, 198, 435, 489, 535, 
 
 597, 622. 
 
 Quails, 636. 
 
 Quarantine, 48, 93. 
 
 Quarries, 45, III, 280, 2S2, 328, 341, 342, 
 
 344, 350, 455, 606. 
 Quince, 259, 575. 
 
 RA'AD, Beit, 287. 
 
 Rabbah, Rabbath, Rabbath-ammon, see 'Am- 
 man. 
 
 Rabbits, 275. 
 
 Rachel, 88, 90, 554. 
 
 Rahab, 54, 673. 
 
 Railroad, 49, 277. 
 
 Rain, 11, 12, 128, 133, 136, 177, 184, 186, 
 227, 238, 244, 257, 313, 440, 470, 497, 502, 
 
 503, 533> 643- 
 Raisins, see Vine, Vineyards. 
 Ramadan, 424. 
 Rameses II., 96, 299, 300. 
 Ramoth-gilead, 572, 591-593. 
 Ranunculus, 546. 
 Raphael, 510. 
 Raphana, 546. 
 Raphanea, 287, 288. 
 
 Ras el 'Ain, Ba'albek, 198, 319, 336, 337. 
 Ras Ba'albek, 310. 
 Ras Beirut, 41, 44, 106, 108, IIO. 
 Ras en Nakiirah, 108, no, 146. 
 Ras esh Shukah, 47, 108, 137, 254, 255. 
 Rasheiya, Rasheiyet el Wady, 157, 177, 476.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 "05 
 
 Raven, 238, 246, 261. 
 
 Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 275, 283. 
 
 Rebekah, S2, 2g8. 
 
 Red Sea, 419, 426, 53S, 573, 674, 676. 
 
 Reed, Reed-pen, 27, 62, 63, 105, 347, 372, 
 
 415, 473, 647, 670. 
 Refuge, city of, 211, 436, 591, 593. 
 Rehob, 296, 301. 
 Reiniun, er, 582. 
 Reindeer, 98. 
 Reland, Hadrian, 526. 
 Remaliah, 36S. 
 
 Remtheh, er, 545, 548, 549, 551. 
 Renan, E., M., 251-253, 281. 
 Rephaims, 534, 542, 664. 
 Resas, er, 501. 
 Reser\'oir, 92, 94, 106, 439, 440, 467, 49S, 
 
 503, 509, 513. 522, 523. 529. 530, 543. 599. 
 
 600, 606, 619, 637, 661. 
 Resin, 257, 292. 
 Reslan, Beit er, 209. 
 Reuben, 82, 83, 434, 535, 594, 601, 607, 636, 
 
 638, 643, 644, 662, 669, 672. 
 Rezin, 369. 
 Rezon, 365. 
 
 Riblah, Ribleh, 138, 297, 298, 302, 309, 311. 
 Rice, 75, 129, 286. 
 Richard Coeur de Lion, 89. 
 Rihan, er, 168, 173. 
 Rimmon, 379, 386. 
 Road, carriage, 43, 71, 120, 122, 123, 125, 
 
 126, 151, 186, 193. 195-197. 355. 356, 398. 
 
 399- 
 
 Road, Roman, 94-97, 430, 454. 481, 489. 497. 
 502, 505, 524, 533, 547- 
 
 Robbers, 22, 23, 54, 67, 133, 214, 215, 244, 
 257, 292, 304, 310, 344, 351, 365. 431. 436, 
 439, 445, 458, 466-468, 507, 556. 559, 595. 
 600, 601. 
 
 Roberts, David, R. A., 330. 
 
 Robertson, James, Professor, loi, 104. 
 
 Robinson, Edward, D.D., 9, 96, 224, 225, 
 259, 265, 297, 301. 304, 310, 338, 409, 580. 
 
 Robinson's Arch, II. 
 
 Rome, Roman, 9-11, 21, 26, 27, 46, 47, 51, 
 56, 94-97, 127, 144. 151, 204, 221, 245, 251, 
 253, 278, 279, 301, 309, 320, 329, 340, 341, 
 346, 350. 369. 372, 377. 380, 387, 388, 405, 
 407, 435, 436, 440, 449, 457, 460, 461, 470, 
 475, 476, 478, 480-482, 485, 486, 489, 490, 
 
 496-49S, 500-502. 505, 513, 
 
 525. 535. 53S. 539. 543. 544. 
 574, 581, 584. 594, 605. 607, 
 622, 637, 639, 66i. 
 
 Romanus, 526. 
 
 Rooks, see Crows. 
 
 Roses, 276, 346, 371, 390, 395, 
 
 Rousha, er, loS-iio. 
 
 Royal Asiatic Society, 442. 
 
 Rualla, er, Bedawin, 629, 635. 
 
 Ruins, 6, 22, 32, 47. 51-53, 92, 
 197, 198, 200, 203, 222-225, 
 251, 256, 257,263, 272, 275, 
 285, 288, 298, 301, 302, 310, 
 339-341. 343. 350, 352, 354. 
 415, 416, 431, 433, 436-442, 
 450.452.454,457,458, 461- 
 475. 477. 478, 481-488. 490. 
 529. 537. 544. 547. 551-553. 
 577. 580,582,584, 585.591. 
 604-620, 622-624, 627, 62S, 
 644, 650, 652, 656, 661-665. 
 
 Rvikhleh, 331. 
 
 Riimkin. er. 275. 
 
 Russia. Russian, 374. 
 
 Rustum, Pasha, 103, 122, 126, 
 
 Ruwad, er, 146, 274, 277-280, 
 
 Ruweiset el Hamrah. 186. 
 
 520, 521, 
 547. 54S. 
 60S, 612, 
 
 414. 
 
 524. 
 
 572- 
 620. 
 
 137 
 
 164 
 
 176. 
 
 241 
 
 -243. 
 
 250, 
 
 278. 
 
 2S1. 
 
 2S3- 
 
 312 
 
 314- 
 
 -337. 
 
 363. 
 
 379. 
 
 409. 
 
 445. 
 
 446, 
 
 449- 
 
 -464 
 
 468- 
 
 -471. 
 
 495- 
 
 522. 
 
 527- 
 
 556 
 
 559 
 
 -574. 
 
 594- 
 
 600, 
 
 602, 
 
 630-63 S. 
 
 643. 
 
 669, 670, 
 
 672. 
 
 151. 
 
 285. 
 
 SABB.A.TICAL River. 198. 2S7-289. 
 
 Sabeans, 57. 
 
 Sabirany, Nahr es, 430. 
 
 Sacrifice, 20, 21, 333, 367, 423. 5S6, 655. 656. 
 
 Saddle. Saddler, 372, 550, 623. 
 
 Sadus, 478. 
 
 Safah, es, 443. 
 
 Safed, 167, 586. 
 
 Safita, es. 285. 
 
 Sahil. es, 124-127. 
 
 Sahil Judeideh, 197. 
 
 Sahl Neba, 651. 
 
 Sahra, es, near Beirut, 42. 
 
 Sahra, es. near Damascus. 197, 355, 430. 
 
 Sahrazar and .Sahriyar, 371. 
 
 Sa'id el Muhdi, 207. 
 
 Saj, es, oven, 220, 221. 
 
 Saladin, Salah ed Din. 89, 2S0, 386, 476, 580. 
 
 Salcah, Salchah, see Siilkhad. 
 
 Salem. 535. 
 
 Salib, Nahr es, 226, 234.
 
 7o6 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Salihiyeh, es, 359, 386, 395-397- 
 
 Salt, es, 424, 429, 552, 572, 579-581, 583-587. 
 
 589-593, 600, 601, 607, 615, 668, 669, 672. 
 Saltpetre, 439, 452, 469. 
 Samaria, 46, 116, 365-367, 369, 579, 581. 
 Samaritan, 598. 
 Samuel, 19, 55, 90, 394. 
 Sanballat, 64. 
 Sand-sea, 40-42, no. 
 Sandal, 82, 84. 
 
 Saodus, 490. * 
 
 Saracen, Saracenic, 48, 97, 144, 229, 246, 256, 
 
 275, 278, 283, 284, 309, 312, 321, 335, 341, 
 
 381, 383, 406, 409, 464, 513, 514, 522, 551, 
 
 580, 590, 661. 
 Sarah, 2g8. 
 Sarcophagus, 32, 33, 49, 132, 281, 320, 343, 
 
 350, 544. 559. 614. 640, 671. 
 Sarepta, 137. 
 S'as'a, es, 429, 430, 432. 
 Sassanian dynasty, 634. 
 Satan, 243, 434. 
 Saul, 55, 394, 403. 
 Schools, 47, 106, 107, 117, 123, 145, 175, 178, 
 
 199, 200, 230, 264, 277, 411, 456, 473, 479, 
 
 491, 494, 590. 
 Scotch, 264. 
 Sculpture, 281, 306-309, 320, 325, 330, 332, 
 
 333, 486, 519, 520, 527, 559, 567, 571, 580, 
 
 605, 606, 631-633, 635. 
 Scythes, 28. 
 
 Scythopolis, see Beisan. 
 Seal, Seal-ring, 64. 
 Seals, 108. 
 
 Sebaste, see Samaria. 
 Seetzen, U. J., 663. 
 Seil, see Cloud-burst. 
 Seil Jerash, 560, 561, 571, 584. 
 Seir, Duke, 648. 
 
 Seir, Land, Mountain, 534, 576, 656. 
 Selaema, 478. 
 Seleucia, 304. 
 Seleucidge, 278, 435, 535. 
 Selim I., Sultan, 97, 401. 
 Sellah, 538. 
 Seminary, see Schools. 
 Senir, 434. 
 
 Sennacherib, 96, 262, 369. 
 Serai, es, Kiinawat, 483-485. 
 Sergius, 519. 
 
 Seth, 204, 339, 343, 350. 
 
 Severus, Septimus, 340. 
 
 Sha'arah, 451-453. 
 
 Shahr, Barz, 634. 
 
 Sha'ishet el Kady, 275. 
 
 Shale, 201. 
 
 Shaphat, 368. 
 
 .Shaveh Kiriathaim, 534. 
 
 Shaving the head, 21, 71-73, 81, 84, 85, 620. 
 
 Sheba, 453. 
 
 Shechem, 212, 534, 554, 576, 579, 581, 591, 593. 
 
 Shechem, son of Hamor, 212. 
 
 Shediak, As'ad esh, 129, 259. 
 
 Shediak, Tannics esh, 476. 
 
 Shediak, Yusuf esh, 129. 
 
 Sheep, n, 25, 26, 82, 238, 249, 305, 465-467, 
 
 576, 622, 643, 645, 669. 
 Shefa Neba, 651. 
 Shehab, Beit, 129, 140, 156, 157, 172, 187, 
 
 231. 475-477- 
 
 Shehab, Emir Beshir, 27, 129, 139, 140, 156, 
 157, 161, 211, 256, 477. 
 
 Sheikh, 12, 74, 87, 88, 143, 153, 155, 159-162, 
 186, 187, 189, 191-193, 196, 204, 206, 209, 
 230, 231, 248, 256, 295, 312, 357, 388, 401, 
 433. 442. 454- 455. 461, 467, 469. 47i. 474. 
 494. 495. 499. 501, 502, 504, 505, 520, 530, 
 540, 541, 544, 548-550, 558. 559. 584. 593, 
 604-606, 629, 630, 635, 636, 641, 643, 645, 
 647, 650, 651, 665, 666, 670, 672. 
 
 Shem, 82, 84, 207, 364. 
 
 Shemlan, 122, 123, 133-135, 144, 147, 156, 
 166, 176, 185, 187, 190. 
 
 Shemustar, esh, 218. 
 
 Sher'aya, es, 452. 
 
 Sherbet, 126, 388. 
 
 Sheth, 656. 
 
 Shiloh, 19, 90. 
 
 Ships, see Boats. 
 
 Shittah, 672. 
 
 Shittim, see Abel-shittim. 
 
 Shoe, see under Manners and Customs, Gar- 
 ments and Sleeping. 
 
 Shoemakers, 379. 
 
 Shtora, 125, 197. 
 
 Shuf, Aklim esh, 159, 175, 209, 477. 
 
 Shuhba, esh, 440, 475-477. 
 
 Shuka, esh, 441. 
 
 Shukrah, esh, 457. 
 
 Shur, 536.
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 707 
 
 Shiirkiyeh, Bahret esh, 399. 
 
 Shuweifat, esh, 33, 35, 39, 42, 126, 132. 
 
 Si'a, 490. 
 
 Sidon, 5-9, 12, 13, 32, 44, no, in, 117, 136, 
 
 137, 139, 140, 144, 146, 151, 167, 172, 174, 
 
 179, 181, 216. 263. 274, 477, 481. 
 Sihon, 535, 5S4-5S6, 635, 636, 638, 639, 643, 
 
 661, 662. 
 Silk, Silk-worms, 27, 46, 48, 83, 84, 122, 124, 
 
 125, 171, 186, 193, 230, 277, 390, 412, 425. 
 Simekantyeh, es, 159. 
 Simeon, 88, 554. 
 Simon the tanner, 57. 
 Sinai, Mount, 179, 367, 630, 674. 
 Sindian, es, 575. 
 Singing, 392, 393. 
 Sinope, 433. 
 Sionita, Gabriel, 274. 
 
 Sir, es, 136, 138, 271, 277, 284-287, 289-291. 
 Sirocco, 217, 519, 521. 
 Sisters of Charity, 123. 
 Sit, Sittat, 19, 191-193, 474. 
 Smith, Eli, D.D., 459, 469, 575. 
 Snails, 627. 
 Snakes, 627. 
 Soada, 501. 
 Soap, 48, 132, 277. 
 Sodom, 534. 
 
 Sodom, apple of. see Osher, 
 Solomon, 69, 72, 116, 127, 128, 139, 181, 250, 
 
 262, 263, 266, 299, 365, 387, 414, 444,486, 
 
 553. 573. 579. 59i. 592. 621, 661. 
 Sop, the, 75. 
 Sozomen, 243. 
 Spain, Spaniards, 28, 32. 
 Sparrow, 59, 229. 
 
 Spies, 54, 296, 297, 299, 301, 534, C73. 
 Sponges, 277. 
 
 Springs, warm, 645, 647, 648, 650, 669, 670. 
 Squirrels, 1 13, 163, 290, 293. 
 Stables, 17, 19. 597, 598. 
 Stalactites, Stalagmites, 99-X04, 148,247,658. 
 Stanhope, Lady Hester, 13-18. 
 Stanley, A. P., Dean, 128, 136, 267, 358. 
 Statue. 316, 320, 323, 325, 333, 336. 341, 484, 
 
 490, 494-496, 565, 569, 606. 
 Stephanus, 46. 
 Stools, 60, 75-78. 
 Stork, 604, 623, 627. 
 Storm, 6, 9, 11, 12, 22, 107-110, 294, 296. 
 
 Story-teller, 393. 
 
 Strabo, 26, 46, 278. 
 
 Straw, see Chaff. 
 
 Succoth, 581. 
 
 Sudud, es, 296, 297. 
 
 Suez, Gulf of, 538. 
 
 Suez Canal, 426. 
 
 ^^U 545. 549. 555. 556, 558, 559. 574. 582. 
 
 Sugar, Sugar-cane, 27, 28. 
 
 Svighbin, es, 17S. 
 
 Suk el Ghurb, 122, 147, 187, 189. 
 
 Siik Wady Barada, 348-352, 354. 
 
 Suleim, es, 440, 474, 475, 477-481. 
 
 Suleiman Pasha, 48. 
 
 Sulima, es, 194. 
 
 Sulkhad, 441, 455, 460, 490, 501-503, 506, 
 507. 515. 523. 524. 526-529, 604. 
 
 Sulphur, 194, 195, 201, 645, 647, 648, 670. 
 
 Sultan, 48, no, 140, 156, 161, 164, 191, 386, 
 401, 425, 477, 540. 
 
 .Siinamein, es, 430, 454. 
 
 Sunnin, see Jebel .Sunnin. 
 
 Surghaya, 346. 
 
 Suweideh, es, 440, 497-501, 504, 515. 
 
 Swallow, 108, 507. 
 
 Sweetmeats, 131. 
 
 .Swine, see Boar. 
 
 Sycamine, 114-I16. 
 
 Sycamore, 40, 45, 113-117, 160, 241, 245, 
 282, 352, 396. 
 
 Syenite, 242, 284, 323, 343. 
 
 Synagogue, 277, 387, 411. 
 
 Syria, .Syrian, 29, 42, 43, 45, 4S, 49, 54, 59, 
 83, 95, 115, 123, 125-127, 131. 140, 156. 
 i6r, 166, 172, 183. 192-194, 199, 205, 208, 
 222, 229, 236, 239, 243, 249, 251, 256, 271, 
 274-277, 287, 288, 299, 301, 304, 319, 329, 
 338, 340, 348. 357. 358, 360, 363-370. 379. 
 386, 391, 398, 399, 409, 412, 419, 420, 429. 
 435, 441, 445, 455. 477. 480, 4S1, 486, 504, 
 505, 511. 513, 516, 524, 526. 535. 53S, 539, 
 551. 575. 592. 622, 627, 638, 640. 
 
 Syria Dea, 487. 
 
 Syriac, 229, 230. 
 
 Syrian Protestant College, loi, 107. 
 
 Syrup, 131. 237. 
 
 Ta'arah, et, 470. 
 Tabor, 2 16, 579, 586. 
 Tablet, 394.
 
 7o8 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Tabrimon, 365. 
 
 Tadmor, see Palmyra. 
 
 Taiyibeh, et, 539. 
 
 Talmud, 511, 592. 
 
 Tamar, 127. 
 
 Tamarisk, 179, 647. 
 
 Tambourine, 118, 391, 393. 
 
 Tammuz, 243, 245, 251. 
 
 Tamyrus, see Damiir, Nahr ed. 
 
 Tanner, Tannery, 107. 
 
 Tannuch, Beit, 209. 
 
 Tanniir, et, 219, 220. 
 
 Tanniirin el Foka, 137, 252, 253. 
 
 Tannurin et Tahta, 252-254, 256. 
 
 Tantura, et, 285. 
 
 Tar, 256, 264, 292. 
 
 Tarabulus esh Sham, see Tripoli. 
 
 Taro-plant, 149, 
 
 Tarsus, 410. 
 
 Tartar, 341. 
 
 Tartus, 279, 280, 285. 
 
 Tattooing, 23, 24. 
 
 Taurah, Nahr et, 395, 398. 
 
 Taurus, 24. 
 
 Tax, Taxation, 173, 443, 455. 
 
 Tekitty, et, 582. 
 
 Tekiyeh, et, 400, 401. 
 
 Tell el 'Amarah, 446. 
 
 Tell 'Arka, 282-284, 2S8. 
 
 Tell 'Ashtarah, 524, 534, 542, 543, 546. 
 
 Tell Deir 'Alia, 581. 
 
 Tell Ektami, 669-671. 
 
 Tell el Hammam, 667, 669-672. 
 
 Tell Keshan, 661. 
 
 Tell Husn, 551. 
 
 Tell Jaudat, 670. 
 
 Tell Kefrein, 669, 671-675. 
 
 Tell Kerak, 541, 543. 
 
 Tell el Khalediyeh, 441. 
 
 Tell Kusweh, 453, 455. 
 
 Tell Neby Mindau, 301. 
 
 Tell Nimrin, 586, 662, 668, 669, 672. 
 
 Tell er Rameh, 669-671. 
 
 Tell esh Shaghur, 669. 
 
 Tell Sumeid, 446. 
 
 Tell es Suweimeh, 668, 669, 674. 
 
 Tellul edh Dhahab, 577. 
 
 Tellul es Siifa, 359. 
 
 Telthatha, 176. 
 
 Tema, 453. 
 
 Temple, 47, 51-53, 128, 137, 164, 171, 176, 
 197, 198, 203, 204, 222-225, 241-245, 251, 
 2S0-2S3, 300, 312-316, 318-337, 350, 351, 
 354. 370, 380. 386, 431, 437, 441. 443. 445, 
 449- 450-452. 454. 455. 463. 470, 47i, 475, 
 477-480, 485-48S, 490, 494-496, 498-500, 
 508, 516-518, 521, 524, 542, 559- 562, 563, 
 567-569, 571, 573, 605, 606, 609, 615-617, 
 637, 63S, 652, 656, 661. 
 
 Temple, Jerusalem, 57, 69, 71, 128, 181, 243, 
 250, 262-264, 369, 387. 
 
 Tents, II, 19, 22, 24, 25, 123, 135, 153, 166, 
 168, 174, 176, 181-1S3, 196, 201-203, 214- 
 216, 222, 225, 227, 241, 242, 244, 249, 253. 
 285, 286, 291, 293, 294, 312, 316, 347, 360, 
 367, 395, 417. 433. 443, 456, 466, 469, 482, 
 483, 488, 489, 502, 506, 507, 512, 518, 521, 
 522, 536, 538, 540, 545, 550, 556, 578, 584, 
 585, 587, 603, 608, 623, 629, 642, 645, 650, 
 654, 658, 666, 673, 674, 676. 
 
 Terebinth, 282, 295, 471, 472, 502, 555, 578, 
 594, 596, 601, 604, 605. 
 
 Terraces, 44, 46, 47, 51, 132, 136, 142, 144- 
 147, 153, 159, 179, 182, 189, 190, 200, 235. 
 242, 247, 25S-260, 274, 441, 496, 529, 590, 
 654, 667. 
 
 Theatre, 46, 47, 369, 470, 471, 475, 482, 500, 
 513, 514, 524, 560, 563, 574, 608, 613, 614, 
 623. 
 
 Thebes, 363. 
 
 Theodosius the Great, 258. 
 
 Theoprosopon, see Ras esh Shukah. 
 
 Thistle, see Thorns. 
 
 Thorns, 2S-31, 164, 250, 261, 263, 264, 
 285, 431, 452, 484, 528. 
 
 Thrush, 5S5. 
 
 Thugrat Bab Mari'a, 176. 
 
 Tiberias, Lake, 432, 436, 474, 480, 481, 
 546, 548, 579, 586, 652. 
 
 Tiberius Claudius, 198, 224, 445. 
 
 Tibny, in the Hauran, 453, 457. 
 
 Tiglath-pileser, 36S. 
 
 Tigris, 535. 
 
 Timbek, 79, 396. 
 
 Titus, Arch of, 56. 
 
 Titus, Emperor, 47, 56, 2S2, 283, 287. 
 
 Tobacco, 9, 60, 79, 80, 126, 165, 168, 173, 
 208, 238, 248, 259, 261, 277, 285, 286, 373, 
 
 375, 387, 392, 399- 424. 472, 491. 584. 637- 
 Toi, 339. 
 
 282, 
 
 540,
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 709 
 
 Tombs, rock-cut, 32, 132, 144, 204, 225, 251, 
 281, 311, 316, 344, 350, 551, 595, 606, 614, 
 640. 
 
 Tophel, see Tufileh, at. 
 
 Tortosa, see Tartus. 
 
 Tower, 222, 224, 252, 275, 279, 29S, 302, 320, 
 321, 329, 335, 372, 384, 409, 432, 441, 452, 
 454, 457, 462, 463, 471, 483, 501, 505, 510, 
 5i3> 515. 521, 529. 544. 548, 553. 560. 576, 
 577. 579. 580, 591. 592, 594. 607, 609, 611, 
 616, 622, 630-632, 637. 
 
 Tracon, Trachonitis, see Lejah, el. 
 
 Tradition, 97, 204, 206, 356-359, 364, 384, 
 406, 410, 413, 417, 433, 467. 468, 476, 500, 
 505. 517-519. 526, 586, 591, 658. 
 
 Trajan, Emperor, 340, 500, 502, 524, 561. 
 
 Tray, 75-78, 80, 286, 372, 373. 651, 671. 
 
 Treasure, hid, 252, 440, 458, 644. 
 
 Trevoux, 496. 
 
 Trilithon, 328. 
 
 Tripoli, 136-140, 145, 146, 151, 198, 255, 
 272-277, 280, 282, 283, 285, 288, 290, 356, 
 
 473- 
 Tristram, H. B., Canon, 98, 265, 395, 552, 
 
 559. 597. 617. 634, 644, 658, 667, 669, 672. 
 Troglodytes, 664. 
 Troy, Trojans, 7. 
 Tryphon, 46, 285. 
 Tubban, et, 293. 
 Tiibukat Faliil, see Pella. 
 Tufileh, et, 523. 
 Tul'at es Sufa, 659. 
 Tulhuk, Beit, sheikhs, 143, 189-192, 209, 
 
 469. 
 Tunnel, 50, 94, 106, 228, 284, 350, 355, 647. 
 Turk, Turkish, 48, 49, 84, 139, 154, 155, 157, 
 
 161, 162, 165, 184, 191, 192, 194, 208, 209, 
 
 257, 268, 274, 278, 283, 284, 295, 329, 341, 
 
 344, 358, 406, 407, 412, 415, 426, 443, 444. 
 
 477. 493. 504. 513. 540, 549. 590. 591. 664. 
 Tyche, 455. 
 Tydeus, 290, 291. 
 Tyre, 22, 51, 146, 151, 171, 181, 216, 263, 
 
 274, 278, 279, 346, 369, 481, 628. 
 Tyre, see 'Arak el Emir. 
 Tyre, Ladder of, io8, no, 146, 579. 
 Tyropoeon, 11. 
 
 Um Hathir, 670. 
 Um el Jauzeh, 582. 
 
 Um el Jemal, 506-512, 515, 523, 529. 
 
 Um Keis, see Gadara. 
 
 Um el Khanzir, 555. 
 
 Um ez Zeitiin, 440. 
 
 Ur, 364, 414. 
 
 Uriah, 55. 
 
 Uriel, 510. 
 
 Urijah, 369, 3S0. 
 
 Usury, 208. 
 
 Uz, 37, 287,364.445, 519, 520. 
 
 Valeria.n, 340. 
 
 Van de Velde, C. W. M., Lieutenant, 295, 
 302, 303, 356. 
 
 Van Dyck, C. V. A., M.D., D.D.. 167. 
 
 Varro, 445. 
 
 Veil, see under Manners and Customs, Gar- 
 ments and Sleeping. 
 
 Velvet, 83. 
 
 Venus, 137, 241-245, 251, 340, 341. 
 
 Verus, L. A., 349, 450. 
 
 Vespasian, 127, 282, 572, 579. 
 
 \^exillarii, 510. 
 
 Vine, Vineyards, 36, 46, 54, 57, 58, 116, 132, 
 133, 142, 145, 147, 150, 159, 168, 171, 179, 
 182, 186, 187, 190, 199, 200, 235-237, 247, 
 259, 260, 274, 290, 311, 339, 346-348, 351, 
 352. 469, 484, 590, 631, 632. 
 
 Viol, Violin, 392, 394. 
 
 Virgin Mary, the, 230, 411. 
 
 Vogiie, de. Count, 476, 498. 
 
 Volcano, Volcanic, 136, 160, 169, 173, 234, 
 284, 291, 346, 358, 359, 428, 431, 43<>. 441. 
 443, 452, 457, 462, 464, 465, 470, 501-503, 
 
 506. 527. 533. 540- 
 Volney, C. F., 229. 
 Vultures, 221, 238, 246, 667. 
 
 Waddington, W. IL, 441, 457, 4(m), 461. 
 463, 468, 476, 478, 489, 490, 496, 498, 500- 
 502. 506, 510, 515. 519. 541. 544- 
 
 Wady 'Ain Zalialtch, 183. 
 
 W.ady el 'Ajani, Aklim, 42S, 429, 431, 435. 
 
 Wady 'Ajlun, 546, 576, 577, 581, 5S6. 
 
 Wady 'Allan, 546, 547. 
 
 Wady el 'Ayun, 293, 294. 
 
 Wady '.Ayiin Musa, 668, 669. 
 
 Wady Barbar, 430. 
 
 Wady Biskinla, 218. 22i. 
 
 Wady ed Deir, 556, 559, 560.
 
 yio 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 Wady ed Duweir, 254. 
 
 Wady Farah, 293. 
 
 Wady Fari'a, 581. 
 
 Wady Fedar, 250. 
 
 Wady Fikeh, 311, 313. 
 
 Wady el Fureidis, 182, 183. 
 
 Wady el Ghabiin, 185, 187. 
 
 Wady el Haddadeh, 607, 611, 616, 619. 
 
 Wady el Harir, 197. 
 
 Wady Hasrun, 259. 
 
 Wady Hesban, 655, 665-667, 669. 
 
 Wady Hummana, 193, 194. 
 
 Wady el Jauzeh, 254, 255. 
 
 Wady Jeidur, 593. 
 
 Wady Jenneh, 580. 
 
 Wady Jerifeh, 669. 
 
 Wady el Kadisha, 257-261, 265, 272, 273. 
 
 Wady Kefrein, 669-671. 
 
 Wady Kiinawat, 474, 482, 483, 490. 
 
 Wady el Kurn, 197. 
 
 Wady el Leben, 227, 22S. 
 
 Wady Lebweh, 293, 311. 
 
 Wady Liwa, 439. 
 
 iVady Mahneh, 553. 
 
 Wady el Mugheiyireh, 246. 
 
 Wady el Muneitirah, 246. 
 
 Wady Nimreh, 439, 475. 
 
 Wady es Salib, 224, 226. 
 
 Wady es Seir, 594-596, 599- 601. 
 
 Wady Sha'ib, 600, 601, 669. 
 
 Wady Shahrur, 131, 190. 
 
 Wady Shebruh, 234. 
 
 Wady Shib'a, 431. 
 
 Wady Siry, 292. 
 
 Wady es Sufa, 183, 184. 
 
 Wady Tannurin, 253-256. 
 
 Wady et Teim, 156, 157, 175, 176, 205, 477. 
 
 Wady Yabis, 547. 
 
 Wady Zeidy, 505. 
 
 Wady ez Zerka, 586 ; see, also, Jabbok. 
 
 Wady ez Zerka Ma'in, 643, 645-647, 650. 
 
 Wahabi, 505. 
 
 Walnut, 159, 160, 163, 166, 167, 171, 173, 
 181, 182, 235, 241, 244, 247, 259, 260, 272, 
 274, 284, 289, 290, 294, 295, 319, 346, 352, 
 353- 357-360, 395, 415. 575- 
 
 War, 250, 452. 
 
 War, Civil, ig, 20, 140, 143, 145, 150, 153- 
 I55> 159. 162, 164, 171, 175, 186, 187, 191- 
 194, 201, 206, 209, 216, 244, 343, 345, 477. 
 
 Warren, C, Captain, R.E., 582, 595, 601, 
 602, 663, 672. 
 
 Washing the hands, 78, 79, 286. 
 
 Water-wheel, see Na'urah, en. 
 
 Weir, 105, 226. 
 
 Well, see Cisterns. 
 
 West Indies, 28. 
 
 West, Western, see Occident, Occidental. 
 
 Wetr, el, 505. 
 
 Wetzstein, J. G., Dr., 443, 544. 
 
 Whale, 21, 22. 
 
 Wheat, 29, 54, 75, 94, 135, 218, 220, 227, 234, 
 235, 259-261, 290, 291, 298, 302, 310-312, 
 336, 338, 346, 457. 458, 467. 478, 500, 533, 
 540, 545, 546, 550, 556, 585, 590, 594, 601, 
 606, 623, 628, 629, 636, 639, 641, 642, 644, 
 645, 666, 671. 
 
 Wilderness of the Wandering, 29, 179, 220, 
 454, 630, 674. 
 
 W^ilkinson, J. G., Sir, 95. 
 
 William of Tyre, 500, 573. 
 
 Willow, 346, 352, 358, 396. 
 
 Wilson's Arch, 11. 
 
 Wine, 208, 235-237, 388. 
 
 Wine-press, 247. 
 
 Wolf, 97, 169, 215, 216, 271, 282, 457, 651. 
 
 Wool, Woollen, 83, 84, 590. 
 
 Writing and Writing Materials, 61-64, 88. 
 
 Wuld, or Wulid 'Aly, 436, 549, 550, 642. 
 
 Yabis, Nahr el, 44, 45. 
 
 Yahfufeh, Nahr, 344, 346. 
 
 Yajuz, 603-607. 
 
 Yathreb, 420, 421. 
 
 Yemmuneh, el, 272, 292, 313-315. 
 
 Yew, 263. 
 
 Yezid, Nahr el, 397, 398. 
 
 Yusuf Pasha, 521. 
 
 Zaccheus, 113. 
 
 Zacharias, 435. 
 
 Zaherany, Nahr ez, 137, 167, 168. 
 
 Zahleh, 138, 175, 198-201, 204, 318, 338, 343. 
 
 Zebdin, ez, 415. 
 
 Zebedany, ez, 197, 347, 348, 352. 
 
 Zebeideh, Sit, 51. 
 
 Zechariah, 369. 
 
 Zedad, see Siidud. 
 
 Zedekiah, 297, 298. 
 
 Zeidy, Nahr ez, 537, 539-541. 546-
 
 INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 I 1 
 
 Zemzem, well at Mecca, 69, 420. 
 
 Zenobia, 355, 498, 539. 
 
 Zenodorus, 445, 496. 
 
 Zerka Main, Nahr ez, 623, 641, 643-647, 
 
 650. 
 Zerka, Nahr ez, see Jabbok. 
 Zerubbabel, 262, 266. 
 Zibeon, 64S. 
 Zin, 296. 
 Zion, 413. 
 Zippor, 655. 
 
 Ziza, 637. 
 
 Zoan, 116. 
 
 Zoar, 653, 662, 669. 
 
 Zobah, 364, 365. 
 
 Zophim, field of, 655, 659. 
 
 Zorava, 460. 
 
 Zoroaster, 207. 
 
 Zugbar, ez, 436. 
 
 Zugharta, ez, 274. 
 
 Ziik Miisbah, 235. 
 
 Zuzims, .534, 535.
 
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