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 HIGHER SCHOOLS AND 
 
 UNIVERSITIES IN 
 
 GERMANY 
 
HIGHER SCHOOLS AND 
 
 UNIVERSITIES IN 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 BY 
 
 MATTHEW ARNOLD, D.C.L. 
 
 Formerly Foreign Assistattt Cotnmissioiter to the Schools Enquiry Commission 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 1874 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
* The thing is not, to let the schools and universities go on in a 
 drowsy and impotent routine ; the thing is, to raise the culture of 
 the nation ever higher and higher by their means.' 
 
 WiLHELM VON HUMBOLDT. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The book on ' Schools and Universities on the Con- 
 tinent/ which I published in 1868, has long been 
 out of print ; I now republish that part of it which re- 
 lates to Germany. The historical interest of tracing 
 the development of the French school- system, from 
 the University of Paris and its colleges down to the 
 lyceums and faculties of the present day, is extremely 
 great ; the practical value of this school-system, in 
 affording lessons for EngHsh people's guidance at 
 the present moment, is small. The German schools and 
 universities, on the other hand, offer an abundance of 
 such lessons. 
 
 During the debates in Parliament this last spring 
 on Irish university education, a foreign critic remarked 
 that the ignorance which foreigners are accused of 
 displaying when they talk of England could not pos- 
 sibly exceed the blundering into which the English 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 debaters fell when they talked of universities on the 
 Continent. And a good deal of ignorance about 
 these there certainly, among EngHsh public men, is ; 
 while some of the lessons to be got from a right 
 knowledge of them are, as we have said, very valuable. 
 Now of German higher schools and universities, in 
 particular, there exist for the use of people outside 
 Germany scarcely any clear and trustworthy accounts ; 
 my account was found useful both in England and on 
 the Continent, and I have ascertained that the descrip- 
 tion it gives of German public instruction still holds 
 good. I therefore reprint it, and in reprinting it I 
 will take the opportunity to point out, by way of pre- 
 face, one or two things which at this moment in 
 England have especial significance for us in the 
 German way of dealing with public instruction. 
 
 Laws in Germany about public instruction come 
 from statesmen, and so too, it may be said, do laws 
 in England. Now, a statesman can hardly rise to power 
 without being superior in range of experience and 
 largeness of judgment to the mass of mankind ; at 
 least, if he can, it speaks ill for those who employ him. 
 And, in Germany, a law about public instruction may 
 be taken to be the best which a statesman, superior 
 to the bulk of the community in experience and 
 judgment, and free to use these unhampered, can 
 devise. But we in England are, as is well known, a 
 self-governing people. This is probably in the long 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 run the best possible training for a nation, but let us 
 observe how it acts on our statesmen and on our law- 
 making. A statesman having to make a law about 
 public instruction is not, with us, free to make it 
 according to the best lights of his own experience and 
 judgment ; he is hampered by the likes and dislikes 
 of the bulk of the community, or of some large body 
 or bodies in the community which are necessary to his 
 support. And of the men in general who compose these 
 the judgment and experience are, by the supposition 
 we follow, and indeed by the very nature of things, 
 inferior to his own. Probably at the very best it will 
 be a give and take between him and them ; he will 
 concede something to their prejudices, and will try, 
 along with this concession, to sHp in as much of what 
 he judges to be really right and expedient as he can. 
 But the more he slips in of this the less he will tell 
 the body of his supporters that their prejudices are 
 prejudices ; he will even make out, in passing, the 
 best case for these he can, and will soothe and humour 
 them, in order that what he does gain he may gain 
 safely. Therefore in any matter which, like educa- 
 tion, touches many passions and prejudices, we do 
 not get the best our statesmen would naturally devise ; 
 and what we do get is given in a manner not to 
 correct popular prejudices, but rather to humour them. 
 Our statesmen, therefore, and their measures, do 
 directly hardly anything to check and set right wide- 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 spread errors amongst the community. Om: most 
 popular newspapers do even less ; because, while they 
 have all the temptations of statesmen to coax popular 
 prejudices rather than counteract them, they have not 
 the same chance of being, by experience and strength 
 of judgment, raised really above them. But it is 
 evident that the whole value of its training, to a nation 
 which gets the training of self-government, depends 
 upon its being told plainly of its mistakes and preju- 
 dices ; for mistakes and prejudices a large body will 
 always have, and to follow these without let or hin- 
 drance is not the training we want, but freedom to act, 
 with the most searching criticism of our way of acting. 
 Now a criticism of our way of acting, in any matter, 
 is tacitly supplied by the practice of foreign nations, 
 in a like matter, put side by side with our practice ; 
 and this criticism by actual examples is more practical, 
 more interesting, and more readily attended to than 
 criticism by speculative arguments. And the practice 
 of Germany supplies a searching criticism of this kind ; 
 for we know how German practice is governed by the 
 notion that what is to be done should be done sciejiti- 
 fically, as they say ; that is, according to the reason of 
 the thing, under the direction of experts, and without 
 suffering ignorance and prejudice to intrude. But 
 this criticism our politicians and newspapers,^having 
 always, as we have seen, to consider the prejudices of 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 those bodies on which they lean for support, — will 
 never apply stringently and unflinchingly. The practice 
 of foreign nations they will always try to exhibit by a 
 side which may make their own supporters feel proud 
 and comfortable, rather than humiliated and uneasy ; 
 and perhaps it is to this cause, even more than to 
 simple carelessness and ignorance, that those inaccurate 
 assertions about foreign universities by our public 
 men, on which foreigners comment, are attributable. 
 Therefore we have always said that in this country 
 the functions of a disinterested literary class — a class 
 of non-political writers, having no organised and em- 
 bodied set of supporters to please, simply setting 
 themselves to observe and report faithfully, and look- 
 ing for favour to those isolated persons only, scattered 
 all through the community, whom such an attempt 
 may interest — are of incalculable importance. 
 
 Such men may well be dissatisfied with the accounts 
 and criticisms of what is in Germany done for public 
 education which often pass current here. Germany 
 makes laws, for instance, which afl'ect the education of 
 Roman Catholics and the condition of the Roman 
 Catholic church and clergy. We, likewise, in Ireland 
 have to deal with the Roman Catholic church and 
 Roman Catholic education. Naturally, therefore, we 
 must all look with interest to -see what they are doing in 
 Germany. Some of us give praise to what is being done 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 there, others give blame. Both praise and blame is 
 generally made to turn to our own credit, to commend 
 what we have done in England, and to make English 
 people comfortable ; but neither by him who praises 
 nor by him who blames are the German proceedings 
 ever presented just as they really stand, nor is the 
 lesson ever drawn out from them which, for the people 
 of this country, they really convey. What is done to 
 Roman Catholics in Germany is based on the best con- 
 sideration and judgment of statesmen, free of popular 
 prejudice and clap-trap; what is done to Roman 
 Catholics in Ireland is based, if we tell the real truth, 
 on popular prejudice and clap- trap. This constitutes 
 an immense difference. The Roman Catholics will 
 cry out against the policy pursued by the Prussian 
 Government towards them, but they cannot help 
 having a respect for it, because it is based on principles 
 of reason which an able statesman sincerely holds, 
 can plainly avow, and has power to follow. But for 
 the policy pursued by the English Government towards 
 the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, no Roman 
 Catholic can have any respect ; for it does not re- 
 present the real mind of able statesmen, but the mind 
 of a quantity of inferior people controlling the action 
 of statesmen, whose ability goes to putting the best 
 colour they can upon the action so controlled. And 
 the policy of the Prussian Government may succeed. 
 I speak with caution, because, in the first place, a 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 foreigner cannot well have a thorough knowledge of 
 the circumstances ; and, in the second place, what is 
 right and reasonable does not always succeed, or the 
 best judgment of the ablest statesman may fail to hit 
 truly what is right and reasonable, or he may shew 
 temper and indiscretion in details even where he is 
 right in his main drift However, I think that Prince 
 Bismarck's pohcy will succeed, and that he may hope 
 to see the great body of the German Catholics finally 
 come in to it. But I am sure that the English 
 Government's policy towards the Irish Catholics never 
 can succeed; for it does not even follow in its main 
 drift that Government's best notions of what is right 
 and reasonable. As much as these may not always 
 be enough for success ; but less than these, never. 
 
 Now wherein lies the essential point of difference 
 between the English and the German Governments, 
 in their practical dealings with Roman Catholic 
 education and kindred matters? That is just what 
 from English public speakers and writers one would 
 never learn. Exeter Hall praises Prince Bismarck 
 because, like England at its best moments, he sternly 
 restrains Romanism. On the other hand, the Spec- 
 tator says that Prince Bismarck adopts towards 
 Roman Catholics the illiberal policy of England 
 before Catholic emancipation; the Standard says 
 that what he does is as if an English Minister forced 
 all Roman Catholics, wanting to take orders, to come 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 to Oxford and Cambridge to be educated. Is it 
 really so ? and if it is not so, where is the difference ? 
 
 It is here : — that Prussia, before proceeding to regu- 
 late in certain points the course of Roman Catholics, 
 first established and endowed their religion. Before 
 compelling Roman Catholic candidates for orders to 
 attend universities, she gave them Roman Catholic 
 ufiiversities to go to. Has England, when it was 
 restraining Romanism, stood towards it as Prussia 
 stands? Before Catholic emancipation, was the 
 Roman Catholic religion in Ireland established and 
 endowed, or was it encompassed by prohibitions and 
 penalties? At this moment, have the Roman 
 Catholics of Ireland a Roman Catholic university, or 
 are they in the condition of having vainly asked 
 England to give them one ? And when the English 
 Government at last offered them a university without 
 theology, philosophy, or history, was not even this 
 offer cried out against in England as *a plan of 
 endowment however mitigated and disguised,' and 
 are we not told to rejoice at the offer having failed 
 because even so much as this will never be offered to 
 the Catholics again ? 
 
 Now the treatment to which Prince Bismarck is 
 subjecting Roman Catholicism may be wise or un- 
 wise, just or unjust ; to this we will come presently. 
 But in all that he does, he stands on a vantage-ground 
 which we do not occupy. One thing that Protestants 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 have, and that Catholics think they have a right, 
 where they are in great numbers, to have too, this thing 
 to the Prussian Catholics Prussia has given. What the 
 Irish object to in Trinity College, Dublin, is, they say : 
 ' the settlement in the metropolis of a Catholic country 
 and for a Catholic nation of a non-Catholic college 
 and university backed up by all the prestige of the 
 antiquity, the wealth, and the learning of Trinity 
 College.' For my part, I have not a word to say 
 against Trinity College ; its distinguished past and 
 honourable present, and the large proportion of the 
 wealth and property of Ireland which belong to 
 Protestants, amply justify its continuance. But the 
 Catholic bishops have reason in what they say, never- 
 theless. In short, they want a Catholic university 
 for a Catholic country, just as Oxford and Cambridge 
 are Protestant universities for a Protestant country. 
 They may be told by Mr. Lowe that all a man ought to 
 wish for is an Examining Board, and that faculties 
 and professors are a great mistake ; but they hold to 
 the old notion, that a regular university is a better 
 thing. They may be told that they ought to be 
 satisfied with an university where theology and the 
 matters akin to it are not taught ; or where theology 
 is not taught, and history and philosophy are taught 
 without reference to religion, without any one ask- 
 ing of what religion are the persons who teach them. 
 That is not their opinion ; they prefer that their sons 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 should be taught theology, philosophy, and history at 
 the university as well as other things \ and that they 
 should be taught theology, philosophy, and history by 
 persons of their own religion. This is no extravagant 
 claim of theirs, they say; they are only asking for 
 what the majority of people desire elsewhere for the 
 children, and what elsewhere is given. In England 
 and Scotland Protestants choose to make their uni- 
 versities places where their children can leam theology, 
 philosophy, and history, and can leam them from 
 Protestants ; why may not Roman Catholics do the 
 same, where they are the bulk of the population? 
 And in Germany they may ; but in Ireland they are 
 told by the EngHsh Government : ' Oh, no, that is 
 impossible ; we have a principle that for the future 
 we must not, in Ireland, endow religion in any way 
 whatever.' But Prince Bismarck has not this prin- 
 ciple j he gives Roman Catholic universities to the 
 Roman Catholics. Only he insists that Roman 
 Catholic priests, paid by the State, shall have passed 
 through the studies and examinations of the university, 
 instead of remaining satisfied with the studies and 
 examinations of their own seminaries. That is his 
 principle ; and the Roman Catholics find fault with 
 it, as they do with ours. But evidently it is quite a 
 different principle from ours ; indeed, it can only be 
 reached by first rejecting our principle altogether. 
 Yet the Times^ as is natural for a leading English 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 newspaper, talks as if by our principle we generously- 
 conferred on the Irish Roman Catholics a precious 
 boon, and a great advantage over their Prussian 
 brethren. ' We feel,' it says, ' that however inconsistent 
 Ultramontane principles may be with the general 
 tendency of English life, we are strong enough to leave 
 them to be encountered by the natural influences of 
 free discussion.' This is just the sort of colour which 
 the mass of Englishmen like to see given to our Irish 
 policy, — liberal and rosy. And certainly, if we do not 
 grant to our Roman Catholics any university, we can- 
 not force them to take degrees there. However, the 
 party affected is not content with what we do any more 
 than with what Prince Bismarck does ; in Ireland they 
 want an university, and in Prussia they do not want 
 to have their clergy made to pass through university 
 studies and examinations. So the Roman Catholics 
 dislike both what our Government does and what 
 Prince Bismarck does ; but there the likeness between 
 the German and the English policy ends. The two 
 go upon wholly different principles ; and if one policy 
 is right the other hardly can be, if the one is likely to 
 succeed the other must be likely to fail. Which is 
 right, which is likely to succeed, will depend on the 
 comparative truth and worth of the principles at the 
 bottom of each. 
 
 Prince Bismarck's principle is, that a man who 
 exercises an important public function in dealing with 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 men's minds, should exercise it with the light, help, 
 and discipline of the best culture which the nation 
 has to give. This culture is given by the national 
 universities. The man may, it is true, go through it 
 without being benefited by it ; but it is likely he will 
 be benefited by it, and so much benefited as to 
 make it worth while to insist on his going through it. 
 This is really what Prince Bismarck's principle, stated 
 simply, comes to ; he holds it, we may well believe, 
 quite honestly and sincerely, for it seems reasonable 
 in itself, and what reasonable Roman Catholics might 
 themselves be brought to admit. How far, in this 
 or that detail, he may have applied it injudiciously, 
 how far his adversaries' resistance may have provoked 
 him to show temper and self-will, and to go beyond 
 what was reasonable, a foreigner cannot well judge, and 
 I do not mean here to inquire. People for the most 
 part so respectable as are the Catholic hierarchy in Ger- 
 many, people who can plead such a long prescription 
 for their independence of the State, who so sincerely 
 think this independence their right, should, one would 
 think, when innovations are made and they resist them, 
 be treated with the greatest possible indulgence and 
 long-suffering. As to attempts to cut the tie between 
 the Catholic priest and Rome, and to substitute for it 
 State-appointment or popular election, this may be 
 very desirable in itself ; and, if the Catholic commu- 
 nity wishes it, well ' and good. But so long as the 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Catholic community sees in its priest a functionary to 
 whose religious ministrations his tie with Rome gives 
 their whole virtue, to forbid this tie is to forbid the 
 Catholic community the exercise of its religion. If 
 Prince Bismarck suffers his new legislation to run 
 into excesses of this kind, they may easily be fatal to 
 it. Anything, too, like a direct prohibition of the 
 ecclesiastical schools, or a direct regulation of studies 
 and control of books in them, seems to me a 
 harsh and ill-advised measure. To interpose, some- 
 where between the private seminary and the public 
 cure of souls, the studies and examinations of the 
 university, seems to me all that is really required ; 
 and to require thus much is reasonable. It is true, 
 the Roman Catholics have the right to certain 
 guarantees in the matter. They have a right to demand 
 that the university shall not be made an engine of 
 Protestant or of anti-religious propagandism, that the 
 seminarist shall not be put in the hands of the enemies 
 of his faith, that his university,- therefore, shall be a 
 Roman Catholic university, and his professors for 
 theology, philosophy, and history, Roman Catholics. 
 This being guaranteed, I think the State may reason- 
 ably impose university studies as a preliminary to 
 orders, and that it may fairly hope to obtain, with 
 time, the approbation of its Roman Catholic members 
 themselves to its doing so. The reasonable ones will 
 a 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 be brought to approve first, but the mass will come in 
 time. 
 
 It is true, also, the Roman CathoHc hierarchy will 
 claim to have more guarantees than those mentioned, 
 and will make an outcry at first if it does not get 
 them. A body of this kind will always try to make 
 the best terms for itself it can. The Irish bishops 
 claimed from Lord Mayo the government of their 
 Irish university, the right of veto on the appointment 
 of professors, the right of dismissing professors. 
 This would make the university simply a continu- 
 ation of the seminary with a State payment. But 
 what is the object of an university ? To diffuse the 
 best culture by means of the best professors. And 
 it is granted, that since with so many and great parts 
 of culture religion is concerned, Roman CathoHcs 
 may fairly wish to have, in an university where 
 they send their sons, Roman Catholic professors ; 
 the question is, who is likely to choose them best, 
 the State or the bishops. A minister of State will 
 choose them with a wider view, and with a more 
 public, a fuller, and a more concentrated respon- 
 sibility,' than the bishops can ; therefore the State is 
 
 ^ It cannot be too often repeated that this is the real un- 
 answerable argument for State intervention ; the whole com- 
 munity is supposed to govern, and in a minister of State the 
 whole community gets, better than anywhere else, a centre in 
 which to fix responsibility. Experience, by palpably showing the 
 defectiveness of such substitutes as, for instance, the new govern- 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 likely to choose them best. This is so agreeable to 
 reason that one certainly need not despair of bringing 
 the Roman Catholic laity to admit it ; indeed, even at 
 this moment, given a Roman Catholic university either 
 in Prussia or in Ireland, and suppose you polled the 
 Roman Catholic fathers of famihes, whose sons are to 
 use it, to say whether the State or the bishops should 
 appoint the professors, I doubt if a majority would not 
 say the State. It is an excellent principle in government 
 to believe that to what is reasonable one may always 
 hope to make the majority of men at last come in. 
 And reasonable it seems that the national clergy 
 should be required to have gone through university 
 studies under the control of university professors ; 
 professors of their own faith, chosen, however, not 
 by any close corporation, but by the whole nation in 
 its collective and corporate character, by the State 
 acting through a responsible minister. This is what 
 the policy of Prince Bismarck, in that part of it which 
 we are at present considering, aims, I believe, at 
 bringing about ; and therefore I say it is a reason- 
 able policy he follows, and he may look for success 
 in it in due course, although he may be called a 
 demon-minister on the way. 
 
 But now we come to the principle of the English 
 Government in regard to university education in Ireland. 
 
 ing bodies of our public schools, will bring us finally to the 
 simple truth, to which so many of us wish to shut our eyes. 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 This principle is, as we have seen, that for the future 
 we must not, in Ireland, endow religion in any way 
 whatever. Now it is remarkable that in the sound- 
 ness of this their principle many of the chief members 
 of the English Government appear, if we may judge 
 by their own admissions, not to believe ; whereas in 
 the soundness of his Prince Bismarck appears to 
 believe heartily. However, a principle may no doubt 
 be sound, even though its upholders do not them- 
 selves believe in it ; the question is, does the principle 
 of the English Government, when we examine it, turn 
 out to be sound in itself ? Because if it is not, it can 
 never be Hkely to succeed, much as it may be written 
 up and called a great and necessary principle. So 
 much written up, indeed, it is, and asserted so confi- 
 dently, that it has come to be treated by a great many 
 people as almost a truism, as something which in its 
 general form, that the State ought to have nothing to do 
 with religion, one must begin by admitting as a matter 
 of course, though circumstances may here and there 
 prevent our as yet shaping our action in conformity to 
 it. A truism, as is well known, is something true and 
 trite. Now, the principle in question is not exactly a 
 truism, but it is next door to it ; it is what Archbishop 
 Whately used to call a falsism. A truism is some- 
 thing true and trite, and a falsism is something trite 
 and false ; and that is just what the maxim we are 
 now dealing with is : something trite but false, a 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 falsism. We will endeavour to make this clear by- 
 analysing the maxim in the grounds on which its 
 maintainers base it. 
 
 For manifestly it is not a principle which carries its 
 own proof on the face of it, like the self-evident truths 
 in mathematics ; it is collected from other propositions. 
 In the same way, Prince Bismarck's principle that the 
 Roman Catholic clergy should pass through university- 
 studies is not a self-evident truth in itself : it depends 
 on the truth of a proposition behind it, that a nation's 
 pubhc ministers in mental and spiritual things should 
 have passed through the best culture of the nation. 
 So also the principle that the State should have 
 nothing to do with religion depends on further propo- 
 sitions advanced respectively by those two powers in 
 this country- which we have elsewhere called Millism 
 and Miallism. These nicknames give offence, and we 
 will not employ them here ; one of them, besides, 
 might turn out to be not strictly accurate. For Mr. 
 Mill, who was not, perhaps, the great spirit that some 
 of his admirers suppose, but who was a singularly 
 acute, ardent, and interesting man, was capable of fol- 
 lowing lights that led him away from the regular doc- 
 trine of philosophical radicalism, and on no question 
 was he more capable of doing this than in one where 
 the Catholics of Ireland were concerned. We will 
 say then, instead of Millism and MiaUism, Secularist 
 Radicalism and Nonconformity. Both call them- 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 selves Liberal, both unite in the proposition that the 
 State should have nothing to do -with religion ; but 
 they take different grounds. We hear most in this 
 country of the ground taken by Nonconformity; 
 but out of England, on the Continent, hardly anyone 
 takes this ground. Secularist Radicalism, on the other 
 hand, is a great power on the Continent as well as ^vith 
 us ; and its reason for severing all connection of the 
 State with religion you hear perpetually. 
 
 This reason is, that religion, as it exists, is merely 
 another name for obscurantism and superstition ; that 
 it keeps out light and prevents improvement of every 
 kind ; that the State, therefore, ought on no account to 
 recognise it, to give it a public character and allow it to 
 hold public property, all of them advantages which tend 
 to make it honourable in the eyes of men, and to render 
 it more stable and lasting. It is a sort of malady, 
 think the Continental Liberals, which was bred in 
 t times of suffering, darkness, and ignorance, but with 
 which a number of purifying influences are now at 
 war ; let the State stand aside and give it no artificial 
 \ aid, and it will gradually die out like the black death 
 ^ or the sweating sickness. This is what Liberalism, 
 thoroughgoing Liberalism, which knows its own mind 
 and is therefore a serious power, really means by saying 
 that the State has nothing at all to do with religion : 
 and it is in this sense that it adopts the cry : A free 
 Church in a free State ! Liberalism of this sort ob- 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 jects Strongly to the State's interference in Switzerland 
 or Germany between the Old Catholics and the eccle- 
 siastical authority ; in Italy it is for sweeping religion 
 out of the schools and theology out of the universities, 
 and leaving the Church to deal with these by herself 
 and just as she likes. The nonsense cannot go all at 
 once, they say, but in time it will go ; and it will go 
 the sooner the less you encourage it by taking any 
 public notice of it whatever. 
 
 Now these enlightened people fall into error, be- 
 cause there is really more in religion than they imagine. 
 True, all sorts of ignorance and superstition have 
 fastened themselves on to religion ; true, all sorts of 
 inconvenience and damage have come from religion 
 as we see it existing. But this is because religion, — 
 the rule and sanctions of conduct, — interests all the 
 world, and has thus become the mixed and strange- 
 shapen thing which the practice and opinions of great 
 multitudes of men were likely to fashion. Particularly 
 has this been so with that form of Christianity which has 
 most penetrated the societies where it lived, most laid 
 hold on the multitude and been reacted on by the 
 m.ultitude, — Roman Catholicism. But religion is not 
 on that account like the black death or the sweating 
 sickness, a mere disease out of which, if we do nothing 
 to foster it and will let the influences of modem civili- 
 sation work, we may hope mankind will grow ; it is a 
 natural human need which will manage to satisfy itself. 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 To this matter we shall return presently ; we will now 
 only point out that the nations of Europe have all 
 provided themselves with an organisation of religion 
 just as they have provided themselves with an organ- 
 isation of society ; the one was made a public affair 
 for the same reason as the other, because both were 
 felt to interest the public profoundly, as human needs 
 of primary importance. And when it is said that this or 
 that thing has not been made a matter of pubHc organ- 
 isation, and why should religion be, we shall always 
 find, if we look close enough, that this was because the 
 thing in question did not interest the pubHc profoundly, 
 was not held (whatever its real merits may have been) to 
 be a thing worth instituting publicly, a public need of 
 primary importance ; whereas religion was. Religion 
 has been publicly instituted because it is a recognised 
 public need ; it has not been made a public need by 
 being publicly instituted. Naturally the publicly insti- 
 tuted religion in Ireland would be that of the immense 
 majority of the people, the Roman Catholic religion. 
 But this has not been allowed to institute itself pub- 
 licly, because it was not the religion of the minority 
 who conquered Ireland ; Irish Catholicism, therefore, 
 has been entirely dissociated from the public life of the 
 country, and been left to be an entirely private concern 
 of the persons attached to it. Well, but what has been 
 the consequence ? Has it died out because of this 
 wholesome neglect by the State ? Among no people is 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 their religion so vigorous and pervasive. Has it fewer 
 faults and disadvantages than the same religion in 
 countries where the nation institutes it ? In no country, 
 probably, is Roman Catholicism so crude, blind, and 
 unreasoning as in Ireland. It seems, then, that by 
 dissociating religion from the pubHc life of a country, 
 you do not get rid of it, and you do not abate what 
 is faulty and mischievous in it ; you only make this 
 stronger than ever. And so far, perhaps, philosophic 
 Liberalism hits the truth in its comparison of religion 
 to a disease ; what there is hurtful and virulent in 
 religion, as men have corrupted religion, becomes 
 worse when it is driven in and when the light and air 
 are shut off from it. Rom.an Catholicism does not 
 disappear in Ireland, where it has no public organisa- 
 tion, any more than in Germany, where it has ; but it 
 is a thousand times more superstitious and unprogres- 
 sive. So that the maxim of Secularism, that the State 
 must have nothing to do with religion, a maxim which 
 is grounded on the notion that the inconveniences of 
 religion will disappear quicker if the State treats it as 
 if it did not exist, turns out to be, as we say, 2.falsism ; 
 that is, it is false because the notion on which it is 
 grounded is false, at the same time that it is trite 
 because so many Liberals are constantly saying it. 
 
 But it is from the Noncomformists that we hear 
 loudest, in England, the maxim that the State must 
 have nothing to do with religion j indeed, so loud do 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 they say it, that they frighten many of us into assent- 
 ing to it, whether we beHeve in it or no. With the Non- 
 conformists, also, the maxim depends for its truth upon 
 the truth of another maxim behind it. This maxim is 
 not by any means that of Secularist Radicalism, that 
 religion with all its inconveniences will die out if not 
 artificially sustained. The Nonconformists think re- 
 ligion a thing most precious and imperishable. Their 
 notion, however, is that religion will thrive best if 
 the State lets it alone, and if it is not publicly instituted. 
 At least, this is the notion which at the present mo- 
 ment they wish to proclaim as their principle, and to 
 stand or fall by. 
 
 Now, this principje is a puzzling matter to deal 
 with, because its truth or falsehood cannot be seen 
 on the face of it, but depends upon an immense 
 experience which we have not had. On the one hand 
 is the fact that men, so far as we see, when they were 
 left to themselves and acted naturally, have almost 
 always made religion a public institution. True, the 
 world is far from being perfect. But if religion, or, 
 to limit ourselves to what our experience can better 
 deal with, if Christianity, ever since its first appear- 
 ance, had been left to itself as a concern for indi- 
 viduals and private congregations only, would the 
 world, men being what they are, have been any 
 better ? It is really impossible to say. The modem 
 Dissenters tell us it would, but what experience have 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 they to go upon ? They have this : that at the Refor- 
 mation, many of the EngHsh middle class, discontented 
 with the shape which the public institution of religion 
 then took amongst us, renounced it for themselves, 
 and made their religion a thing of private congregations 
 and individuals. Then these same people, with their 
 habits of separatism established, crossed the sea, and 
 founded English America with the same ' dissidence 
 of dissent ' pervading its religion as pervaded the 
 religion of its founders. For as soon as they had 
 given in to separatism they found it was a thing that 
 grew upon them, and they began to differ and separate 
 from one another as much as from the religion publicly 
 instituted in England. Now, then, has religion thriven 
 more with the English Dissenters, and in America, 
 than it has thriven under the common conditions ? 
 Of course the Dissenters say it has, and they are fond 
 of pointing to the number of chapels and churches 
 they build, and to the number of chapels and churches 
 built in America, and to the salaries paid to ministers, 
 to prove that religion thrives best on their plan. But 
 the real question is, which produces, not the most 
 churches and the best salaries, but the best type of 
 religion., the public institution of it or the leaving it to 
 private handling? Here, too, the Dissenters will con- 
 fidently answer that they and their plan produce the best 
 type of religion. We differ from them ; we are strongly 
 of opinion that neither in Great Britain nor in America 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 have the separatist churches produced so good and 
 lovely a type of religion as that which is suggested by 
 the name of F^nelon, for instance, in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, or by the names of Ken or Wilson in 
 our o^vn. There is another thing. A swarm of private 
 religious sects wastes power ; it absorbs for its ma- 
 chinery, squabbles, and gossip, force of brain which 
 might be better employed, and is not good, therefore, 
 for mental progress. Not much of English thought 
 comes from the Dissenters. America, occupied in the 
 material installation of society over a vast continent, 
 gets most of her thinking done for her in Europe ; 
 but if she had to depend on herself for it, she would 
 find, I suspect, her religious organisation unfavourable 
 to her growth in thought and knowledge. But we 
 do not offer all this as a certainty so evident that 
 everyone must admit it, nor do we allege that it 
 settles the question between private and national 
 churches absolutely. Appearances are, we think, 
 against the private churches, but data for deciding 
 positively against them are wanting. But even more, 
 or at any rate, surely, just as much, are they wanting 
 for deciding in their favour. So in a matter where 
 there is no self-evident certainty, and no certain proof 
 from experience, but where general practice has gone 
 one way, and the majority prefer it, surely it is a case 
 for compliance, for letting them institute religion 
 publicly if they like, for pleasing onis neighbour^ as St. 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Paul says, for becoming to the weak as weak, that we may 
 gain the weak. To deny him and scuffle with him for 
 such a thing is to be contentious, and to incur the 
 same apostle's sentence : If any think good to be con- 
 tentious, we have no such habit, nor the churches of God. 
 For this is the Nonconformist's endeavour : to take 
 away or deny what the majority like, on the plea that 
 religion will thrive best if the State has nothing to do 
 with it. In England they have not yet succeeded, 
 but in Ireland they succeed; there they prevent all 
 public institution of Catholicism, any formation of a 
 public Catholic university, though the vast majority of 
 the Irish would like it. And they prevent it on a 
 ground which has and can have no positive certainty, 
 and carries for mankind at large no conviction. 
 
 We may safely say that if this alleged ground of the 
 modem Dissenters was their only and their real ground 
 in refusing, for instance, the Catholic university 
 wished for in Ireland, they would be powerless. The 
 absurdity and injustice of refusing on a ground so in- 
 conclusive such a wish of the majority of Irishmen 
 would be too glaring. But it is not the real ground. 
 Most certainly it is not the real ground with the rank 
 and file of the Nonconformists; and we take the liberty 
 of doubting, we who make it our business to try and see 
 things as they really are, whether it is the actual motive 
 even with the leaders, although no doubt they have 
 now persuaded themselves that it is so. Their natural 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 and first thought was that to which Pym gave utterance 
 when he said that it was the business of legislators to 
 establish true religion and to punish false. The 
 Church of England's was not the true religion, therefore 
 the Nonconformists repelled it. But the bulk of them 
 long hoped to establish the true religion, that is, their 
 own, in its stead. This was hopeless, because of the 
 many and ever-multiplying differences amongst them- 
 selves. The Nonconformist minorities had to put for- 
 ward the plea of religious equality, to free themselves 
 from risk of persecution by the Nonconformist majority. 
 The Independents' denial of the right of the civil magis- 
 trate to interfere in matters of religion was to bar the 
 claim of the Presbyterian ministers to invoke the civil 
 magistrate's arm to punish what they thought heresy. 
 But John Goodwin, the greatest name among the Inde- 
 pendents and an interesting and remarkable man, ex- 
 pressly says that he does not quarrel with the setting up 
 of Presbyterianism by the Government, but with the 
 directing of the Government, in the punishment of 
 heresy, by the Presbyterian ministers. The con- 
 tention was for toleration ; that religious bodies had 
 no authority, as the Savoy Confession says, ' to impose 
 their opinions upon one another.' The same was the 
 contention of the Baptists. 
 
 But all this was rested on the ground that in matters 
 of conscience Christ is king, and the magistrate ought 
 not to meddle ; and this ground, taken originally with 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 an eye to toleration, easily suggested to the Noncon- 
 formist minorities a new departure. It was, that there 
 should be no public institution of religion at all j and 
 thus that, though any separatist's own religion might 
 not be first, yet nobody's should. This would rescue 
 them from a mortifying position of inferiority, while 
 it would at the same time inflict a mortifying loss of 
 rank upon their rivals. Nonconformists have since ' 
 come to see all manner of fine aspects in the idea of 
 religious equality, and they love to think that they 
 have embraced it for these ; but the real reasons why 
 they embraced it are those we have given. They 
 adopted it first to get toleration ; they insist on it now 
 to bring their publicly instituted neighbours to their 
 own level. 
 
 However, to this day, what imparts real strength 
 to the opposition of the rank and file of them to the 
 X^hurch of England, what procures them whatever 
 real sympathy they get from the public outside, is the 
 belief, not in the virtue and excellency of the idea of 
 religious equality, but the belief that the Church of 
 England teaches false religion. Still more does the 
 strength of the opposition to all endowment of Roman 
 Catholicism come from the belief that the Church of 
 Rome teaches false religion. The Nonconformist 
 leaders know where their strength lies, and freely use in- 
 vectives against Ritualism or Popery to move the com- 
 mon public ; it is for select audiences that the philoso- 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 phical beauty of the idea of religious equality is exhibited. 
 Mr. Miall has mused on this beauty till he has got 
 sincerely enamoured of it and can exhibit it to the 
 best advantage ; still, one need not go beyond his own 
 newspaper to see that it is not this beauty which 
 inflames his supporters, but the ugliness of what they 
 consider false religions. A supporter writes to Mr. 
 Miall's newspaper to inveigh against permitting the 
 fees of pauper children in Roman Catholic schools to 
 be paid out of public rates. What reason does he 
 give ? ' The consciences of three fifths of the popu- 
 lations of the United Kingdom rise up and cry : You, 
 the State, are being generous with our money. By 
 force of the tax-gatherer you are compelhng us to 
 teach as truth that which we befofe God assert without 
 the slightest misgiving to be dismal error. You make 
 us parties to a lie. If the conscience of the pauper 
 parent be violated by the omission of his peculiar 
 rehgious tenets in the teaching of his child, how do 
 you appraise the injury inflicted on ours by forcing us 
 to pay money in support of heathenish superstitions ? ' 
 This, this is the notion really behind the Noncon- 
 formist maxim that the State must have nothing to do 
 with religion, the notion which gives to this abstract 
 maxim nearly all the power it has. The State paying 
 for Ritualism in England is bad enough, but the State 
 paying for Roman Catholicism in Ireland is making 
 Protestant England and Scotland parties to a lie^ to 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 heathenish superstitions. The majority in England 
 and Scotland like for themselves a public institution 
 of religion : but for Ireland, because the religion of 
 the majority there is a lie and heathenish superstition, 
 we adopt the Nonconformist maxim that the State 
 must have nothing to do with religion. 
 
 Now we do not speak to the representatives of the 
 dissidence of dissent, and the Protestantism of the 
 Protestant religion. Their divisions cannot all of 
 them be instituted publicly ; while, at the same time 
 any other form of religion which does get instituted 
 publicly, appears thereby to acquire an advantage which 
 they have not. Therefore, to reinforce their objection 
 on the score of its falsehood and superstitiousness to 
 publicly instituting Roman Catholicism, the Noncon- 
 formists have the further objection that this would be 
 giving to the Roman CathoHcs an advantage which they 
 themselves cannot have. The two objections together 
 make them proof against conviction. But we appeal to 
 the majority in England, who have given to their own 
 religion its public institution, which they still maintain. 
 They are the majority,^ or it would, not be maintained. 
 
 ^ It is to be hoped we shall now be permitted to ascertain to 
 what extent they are the majority. I beheve they are the 
 overwhelming majority. At any rate, it was not creditable to 
 the late House of Commons, and it leaves a serious gap in 
 the religious statistics of Europe, that the Nonconformists should 
 have been able at the last census to prevent the fact being ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 b 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 Well, what is it which made them, and which makes 
 men in general, wish to give to their religion this public 
 institution ? Is it not the desire to give more weight, 
 solemnity and grandeur to religion, to make it less 
 like a thing of private fancy or invention? The 
 Roman Catholics, where they are the majority, have 
 just the same desire ; why are they not to follow it ? 
 Because the Roman Catholic religion is so false and 
 dangerous ! that is really the English answer. Now, 
 quixotic as the attempt may seem, I am sure we ought 
 boldly to confront this answer, and to show its hoUow- 
 ness. The time has come for doing it, and the at- 
 tempt is not, perhaps, so quixotic as it looks. 
 
 We shall not be thought to deny that Roman 
 Catholicism contains much that is false and hurtful, 
 and that Protestantism has many points of advantage 
 over it. But Protestantism has not so much advantage 
 over it as to be entitled to present itself as absolutely 
 true, and to brand Roman Catholicism as absolutely 
 false ; its doing so must appear to every wise man, 
 even, as an extravagant pretension, and to every 
 Roman Catholic as insolence and outrage. It is no 
 answer to say that Catholicism sets up the same sort 
 of pretension against Protestantism. For the question 
 is not, how is a Catholic country to govern a Protes- 
 tant appendage, but how is a Protestant country to 
 govern a Catholic appendage. If England were an 
 appendage of Ireland, and Ireland legislated for 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 England on the ground that Protestantism is false and 
 dangerous, then the Catholics would be in the same 
 false position that we are in now. But the case is not 
 so ; the present case is, that we treat Irish Catholicism 
 as something false and dangerous which we must not 
 institute publicly. Therefore it is to our own people 
 and to English Protestantism that we must say, and 
 must use every effort to make the idea intelligible and 
 convincing : All forms of religion are but approxima- 
 tions to the truth. Your own is but an approximation ; 
 Catholicism, whatever it may pretend, is but an 
 approximation. It is true, one approximation may be 
 better than another. But all great forms of Christianity 
 are aimed at the truth, and it is by this their good 
 side that they exhibit themselves to the view of their 
 adherents and engage their affections. We shall 
 always appear insolent and unjust in the sight of a 
 religion's adherents, so long as we look at it from the 
 negative side only, and not on that attractive side by 
 which they see it themselves. Yet Catholicism we 
 are always looking at from the negative side. 
 
 Nevertheless of no religion, one may say, is the 
 favourable side so easy to find or so proper to inspire 
 indulgence. The Roman Catholic religion is the relig- 
 ion which has most reached the people. The bulk of 
 its superstitions come from its having really plunged so 
 far down into the multitude, and spread so wide among 
 them. The two great ideas of religion are the idea of 
 b2 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 conduct and the idea of happiness ; and no rehgion has 
 equalled Catholicism in giving on a great scale publicity 
 to the first and reality to the second. The Pope tells a 
 French deputation that the virtuous woman is the salt 
 of society and the depraved woman its bane ; he tells 
 an American deputation that industry and energy are 
 fine things, but that the care for riches narrows and 
 hardens the heart ; and the sentences are telegraphed 
 round Europe like a king's speech, read with reverence 
 in every Catholic family as the words of the head of 
 Catholicism, forced upon the eye of careless thousands 
 who never think a moral thought by the very news- 
 papers which never utter one. Who, again, has seen the 
 I poor in other churches as they are seen in Catholic 
 I churches, or common soldiers in churches as they are 
 \ seen in the churches of Rome ? And why? Because the 
 attaching doctrine of the equal share of Christians in 
 . the beauty and glory ^of religion, which all churches 
 preach, the Church of Rome makes palpable ; and the 
 ,{ poor find in church, and free to them as to the rich, the 
 \i * gilded saloons ' which with us they hear of but can 
 \ never enter. It is so vast, too, this old popular 
 ' religion of Christendom, that in the repertory 'of its 
 history you may find almost anything; a good for 
 every bad, the condemnation of every folly and crime 
 which it has itself committed. It has the Inquisition 
 on the one hand, and on the other it has Gregory the 
 Great saying : 'The Church, formed in the school of 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 humility, does not command its erring children by- 
 authority but persuades them by reason.' It has one 
 Pope proclaiming his infallibility ; it has another Pope 
 crying : ' Why should you wonder at our being mis- 
 taken, we who are men ? Prophets have been misled ; 
 is it strange that we should be misled who are no 
 prophets? The multiplicity of our business over- 
 whelms us ; and our minds, having to attend to so many 
 things, can attend the less to each single thing, and 
 are the easier in some one thing deceived.' We 
 upbraid it, with much show of justice, as making the 
 word of God of none effect by its tradition ; yet all 
 the while it is saying in a popular manual : ' True con- 
 versions are very rare, because nothing under a total 
 and thorough change will suffice. Neither tears, 
 nor good desires, nor intentions, nor the relinquish- 
 ment of some sins, nor the performance of some good 
 works will avail anything, but a new creature.''^ Such 
 is the range of this rehgion. We know only the 
 tyranny and folly, and therefore we call the religion a 
 lie; but the Catholic's attachment to his religion is bred 
 of all the mildness and wisdom which are there also, 
 though we do not see them, and a successful manage- 
 ment of him can never be dictated by Protestant 
 antipathy which will know nothing of them. 
 
 The Catholic sees, too, what the Protestants who 
 
 ' See Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints j SS. Philemon and 
 Appia, November 22. 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 call his religion a lie do not, that an enemy reproach- 
 ing Protestantism can say much the same things 
 against it which Protestants say against Catholicism ; 
 and for people who thus live themselves in a glass 
 house to be throwing stones at him cannot but appear 
 to him both very unjust and very ridiculous. Mr. 
 Fitzjames Stephen, whose strong understanding seems 
 clouded by his dislike when he speaks of Catholicism, 
 as Mr. John Morley's is when he speaks of the Church 
 of England,^ said the other day, upbraiding CathoUcs 
 with their enmity to modern science : ' You cannot 
 serve God and Mammon, neither can you believe in 
 your heart and with any intelligence in modern science 
 and in the Roman Catholic creed. Does anyone 
 suggest that the doctrine of transubstantiation, for 
 instance, rests on anything like as good grounds as 
 the doctrine that the earth moves round the sun?' 
 Alas ! does he not see that just the same thing may be 
 said of the Protestant doctrine, so familiar to his own 
 youth, of justification, oi pleading the blood of the cove- 
 nant; and that a CathoHc must keenly feel the injus- 
 tice of having it said of transubstantiation exclusively ? 
 Science professes to assert nothing which it cannot 
 
 ' But Ireland is not England, and Mr. Morley, alone, so far 
 as I can remember, of English Liberals, has boldly contended 
 that Ireland has a right to a Catholic university, if she desires it. 
 Mr. Fitzjames Stephen, on the other hand, so hard upon the 
 Catholics, is in general fair as between the Church of England 
 and Dissent. 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 positively verify. 'Does anyone suggest that the doc- 
 trine of the atonement rests on anything Hke as good 
 grounds as the doctrine that the earth moves round the 
 sun ?' The same persons, the CathoUc might retort, 
 would say this both of the atonement and of our doc- 
 trine of transubstantiation, and with just the same de- 
 gree of reason in both cases. Science, he might add, 
 has plenty to say against Protestant as well as Catholic. 
 Even Puritan ministers have maintained that the lay- 
 ing on of hands gave them power to cast out devils. 
 Protestant ministers cried out against Galileo's asser- 
 tion of the earth's movement just as loudly as Catholic 
 priests ; indeed, it was observed that here, for the 
 first time, ministers and priests agreed, and Descartes 
 wrote that there was a good time coming for the 
 theory of the earth's motion, as the priests would 
 probably begin to allow it now that all the ministers 
 condemned it. But Protestants in general, it is 
 urged, are favourable to modem science. And so 
 too, to a Catholic, it seems that CathoHcs in general 
 are favourable to modern science ; because he looks 
 at Catholicism by the good side, and treats untoward 
 incidents as the exception, not the rule. But we treat 
 them as the rule for his rehgion, never for our own. 
 Now, how such a proceeding must strike him^ is what 
 we ought to ask ourselves. 
 
 No, Protestantism and Catholicism are alike mere 
 approximations, but tolerable approximations they both 
 
xl PREFACE TO 
 
 of them are, and all public institution of its religion 
 cannot fairly or rationally be refused by Protestants to 
 a Catholic country on the sort of plea one might use 
 against the worship of Juggernaut, that Catholicism is 
 a lie and heathenish superstition. It is true, however, 
 that CathoHcism does seem to us, as we have already 
 said, to have certain points of grave disadvantage if 
 we compare it with Protestantism. These, however, 
 are of a kind to be lessened rather than aggravated 
 by a public institution of religion. The gravest dis- 
 advantage is undoubtedly the dependence on Rome ; 
 the establishment, through this dependence, of a 
 foreign power in the country. It was this which 
 chiefly made the EngHsh Reformation ; and almost 
 everywhere, as the individuality of the European 
 nations ripened, and unity in one's nation became a 
 dominant habit and idea, collisions were found to 
 arise between this unity and that old unity in Rome 
 which belonged naturally to a time when all the 
 nations were englobed in the Roman Empire. Such 
 collisions between allegiance to the nation and alle- 
 giance to Rome are to the English spirit intolerable ; 
 Great Britain got rid of them by the Reformation, 
 and that Ireland should still offer a field for them is 
 to English people an irritating and alarming thought. 
 And the double allegiance is undoubtedly a source of 
 danger and difficulty. But here, too, we shall deal 
 best \vith our cause of difficulty if we regard it, not as 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. xli 
 
 a monstrous and perverse aberration, but as the thing 
 presents itself to the Irish CathoHcs themselves, and 
 as in its nature it really is. To the Irish Catholics, 
 to Catholics everywhere, the attractiveness of union 
 with Rome is not in the dependence on a government 
 of foreigners, which is naturally attractive to no man, 
 but in the greater sohdity, settledness, and unity 
 which religion by means of this common centre seems 
 to them to acquire. If there is a thing specially alien 
 to religion, it is divisions ; if there is a thing specially 
 native to religion, it is peace and union. ' The unity 
 of the spirit,' ^ the unity of the faith ; ' ' be of one 
 mind,' ' Hve in peace ; ' Met us walk by the same rule, 
 let us mind the same thing;' these evangeHcal in- 
 junctions, the eternal rule of Christianity, give to 
 Ultramontanism its power. In the prologue to the 
 Savoy Confession, the very Independents lamented 
 that their churches were 'like so many ships launched 
 singly, and sailing apart and alone in the vast ocean 
 of these tumultuous times ; ' it is the sense how ahen 
 is this isolation and separation to the nature of 
 Christianity which makes Catholics imagine even a 
 church coextensive with a man's nation too narrow, 
 and seek a common centre in Rome. ' If we consider 
 the Church as unity,' said Pascal, no friend to papal 
 usurpation, 'the Pope is its head; the multitude which 
 is not reduced to wiity is confusiofi.^ That, I say, is 
 the Catholic sentiment, natural and attractive, lying 
 
xlii PREFACE TO 
 
 hid beneath that creation of ' a State within a State ' 
 which is often found in practice so baneful. Prac- 
 tically, no doubt, no body of clergy can be reckoned 
 upon, wise enough and temperate enough to fill, with- 
 out being intoxicated by it, the mighty part which, in 
 the Catholic scheme, is reserved for Rome ; prac- 
 tically, a church as wide as his nation, suited to his 
 nation, nationally governed, is what a man should 
 seek, and he does ill to run after the shadow of more 
 and lose the substance of this. But the national 
 sense is strong in every nation, and may be trusted to 
 assert itself as time goes on. What hinders it from 
 asserting itself in Irish Catholicism? What keeps 
 Irish Catholicism Ultramontane? Our policy and 
 our policy only. We will not let Irish Catholicism be 
 instituted publicly; we will not suffer it to be national, 
 to have the sense of being the Church of Ireland, and 
 independent ; we keep it a private thing, and its only 
 way of being great and public is by being Ultra- 
 montane. We will not allow a Catholic university 
 with a charter from the Crown, so Ireland will have 
 a Catholic university with a charter from the Pope. 
 What admirable, what successful management! 
 Granted that CathoHcism has really, as compared 
 with Protestantism, grave elements of inconvenience 
 and danger ; the worst of these dangers, the Ultra- 
 montane tendency, we do not abate by our 'principle' 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. xliii 
 
 of not endowing in any shape religion in Ireland ; we 
 aggravate and exasperate it a thousand-fold. 
 
 Ultramontanism is a political disadvantage con- 
 nected with Catholicism. But we will go further and 
 say that Catholicism has, as compared with Protes- 
 tantism, an intellectual and spiritual disadvantage like- 
 wise. We must always remember what Catholicism 
 has been, — the great popular religion of Christendom, 
 with all the accretions and superstitions inseparable 
 from such a character. Long before the Reformation 
 serious and intelligent Catholics could, for their single 
 selves, separate these accretions from their religion. 
 They could see, for instance, that the papal system, 
 or that the worship of the Virgin and of saints, had 
 taken dimensions quite out of proportion with what is 
 said or indicated of them in the New Testament, and 
 could go back nearer to the foundations of the whole 
 matter. Serious and intelligent Catholics can do 
 for their single selves the same thing still ; with them, 
 the essentials of religion are much what they are with 
 a pious Protestant ; they can hold this or that accre- 
 tion very cheap, and talk of it very lightly. But at 
 the Reformation the mass of the community, in Pro- 
 testant countries, adopted, in breaking with Rome, 
 this rejection of what was evidently accretion and 
 superstition, and got a freedom and a new point of 
 departure, in subjects of thought the most widely and 
 
xliv PREFACE TO 
 
 deeply interesting that are known, which, in Catholic 
 countries, was reserved for the superior few alone. 
 Protestantism had dangers and drawbacks of its own, 
 and its criticism of the Bible was not the truth any 
 more than Catholicism's. But by the mere getting 
 rid of an immense baggage of erroneous ideas, — the 
 most evidently unsound part of Catholicism, and felt 
 to be so by the best Catholics themselves, yet the 
 part the most naturally attractive to the multitude, — 
 the breach with Rome did certainly accomplish, for 
 the nations which became Protestant, a popular 
 education of very considerable value. And this edu 
 cation Catholic countries must also with time go 
 through, though certainly they need not and will not 
 adopt the forms of Protestantism as we now see it. 
 But the very resolve, natural and praiseworthy as it 
 is, to remain Catholics still, to avoid the sectarian 
 dissensions of Protestants, to keep the unity of the 
 spirit and the unity of the faith, creates for Catholic 
 communities a great intellectual difficulty. Much 
 that has to be got rid of, and that Protestants, by 
 breaking unity, make a clean sweep of, they cannot 
 get rid of so easily. We see for instance how the 
 old Catholics, as they are called, rejecting the extra- 
 vagant papal pretensions admitted by other Catholics, 
 are all the more anxious on that account, are almost 
 nervously anxious, to profess that all the system of 
 Catholic dogma they still embrace, that in this they 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. xlv 
 
 wish for no change. Yet in this, too, there must and 
 will be great change, whether they wish it or not ; the 
 continuance of religion depends upon it, and continue 
 religion will. Protestants, who see the necessity of 
 this change and have themselves advanced some way 
 in it, must surely desire to facilitate it for Catholics. 
 And the change is in the air, all the influences 
 of the time help it ; wherever the pressure of the 
 time and of collective human life can make them- 
 selves felt, and therefore in all public and national insti- 
 tutions for education, Catholic as well as Protestant, 
 the change works. The one way to prevent or ad- 
 journ its working, is to keep education what is called 
 a hole-and-corner affair, cut off from the pubHc life of 
 the nation and the main current of its thoughts, in the 
 hands of a clique who have been thus narrowly edu- 
 cated themselves. And this is precisely what we are 
 doing in Ireland by refusing to institute CathoHc 
 education publicly. We keep it a hole-and-corner 
 thing, with its teachers picked by the Catholic bishops, 
 and neither of pubHc appointment nor designated by 
 public opinion as eminent men ; we prevent all access 
 of the enlarging influences of the time to either 
 teachers or taught. 
 
 In short, Roman Catholicism is not a He; it is, 
 like Protestantism itself, an essay in religion, an ap- 
 proximation. But it has two special disadvantages [ 
 in its load of popular error, and in its Ultramon- j 
 
xlvi PREFACE TO 
 
 tanism ; and our policy is precisely calculated to 
 maintain and increase both. 
 
 Influences of the time ! national influences ! but 
 these are just what the Roman Catholic hierarchy are 
 afraid of! In Ireland you would have to negotiate 
 with the Roman Catholic hierarchy the settlement of 
 Roman Catholic education ; and they would reject 
 your overtures, and entertain no plan except such as 
 puts education entirely in their hands. This is often 
 said ; I disbelieve it altogether. At present, indeed, 
 the Roman Catholic hierarchy know very well that 
 the Government cannot seriously negotiate with them, 
 because it is controlled by popular prejudice and un- 
 reason ; therefore any parleyings are a mere game of 
 brag, in which there is nothing sincere on either side, 
 and in which the Catholic bishops may freely advance 
 pretensions the most exorbitant, because they know 
 that nothing reasonable can be done. But clear the 
 unreason away ; let it be evident that the Government 
 can and will treat with the Irish Catholics for the only 
 public institution of their religion asked for, the in- 
 stitution of a Catholic"] university, such as they have 
 a right to, and such as in the Catholic parts of 
 Germany Catholics possess. If the Irish bishops 
 proved impracticable then, at any rate we should 
 have offered what is reasonable, and our conscience 
 would be clear. But would the Irish bishops then 
 be found impracticable, or would Ireland allow 
 
THE SECOND EDITION, xlvii 
 
 them to be so, even if they were so inclined ? Cer- 
 tainly a wise and firm negotiator would be needed to 
 deal with them ; but that fair terms might be come to 
 if the Government were really free, I have no doubt. 
 And why ? Because behind the bishops there is the 
 people concerned in this matter, the Irish nation. A 
 wise Government will always regard the nation, and 
 rely on its reasonableness, if its genuine wants and 
 wishes are fairly met, for controlling the unreasonable- 
 ness or ambition of individuals or corporations. The 
 Roman Catholic priesthood in Ireland is a corpora- 
 tion of which I shall speak with no disrespect, but it 
 is naturally interested in securing its own paramount 
 authority if it can. The Irish nation has no such 
 interest. It is itself a corporation wider than the 
 Roman Catholic priesthood, and including them. It 
 desires such an university as England and Scotland 
 have. So long as we refuse Ireland this because its 
 religion is a lie and heathenish superstition^ the Roman 
 Catholic priesthood have free play, they may talk as 
 extravagantly of their claims as they like ; we have 
 been so utterly unreasonable that we can call forth no 
 reason in the Irish people to control them. But give 
 Ireland the university to which it has a right, and say 
 at the same time ; Experience proves that the ap- 
 pointment and dismissal of professors is best in the 
 hands of no corporation less large and public than the 
 nation itself ; your professors shall be nominated and 
 
xlviii PREFACE TO 
 
 removed,* not by the bishops, but by a responsible 
 Minister of State acting for the Irish nation itself ; 
 and see if Ireland would give you no support, even if 
 the bishops were contrary. 
 
 This is not Csesarism, as Archbishop Manning might 
 probably call it ; it is something the very opposite of 
 Csesarism. Caesarism is imposing an individual's 
 wishes upon a nation; this is trying to observe a 
 nation's real wants and to follow them. There have 
 been instances of Liberalism, as it calls itself, seeking 
 to impose by enactment its own enHghtenment, as it 
 calls it, upon an unwilling and unprepared people ; 
 that, too, is a sort of Caesarism, and vain, unspeakably 
 vain are such efforts. Very different is the course 
 which we are suggesting for the English Government 
 in Ireland. This course has for its object not to con- 
 strain the people, but to give the people free play. It 
 proceeds on the notion that reHgion is a matter uni- 
 versally interesting, which follows, like human society 
 itself, a law of progress and growth, and that this law 
 manifests itself in the whole community rather than 
 in any religious hierarchy. The hierarchy may be 
 necessary, may be venerable, may possess great 
 virtues ; but it inevitably prizes too high what favours 
 
 ' In the first instance. But the body of professors once 
 formed, and constituting the Academical Senate, might present 
 names to the minister for vacant professorships. With the 
 minister, however, the ultimate responsibility of appointment 
 and dismissal should always rest. 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. xlix 
 
 its own authority, its traditions, its discipline. The 
 hierarchy may claim to stand as the proctor and 
 plenipotentiary of the whole community in all that 
 may concern religion ; but this is a claim not to be 
 admitted by Governments, Catholic any more than 
 Protestant ; and a Catholic Government the English 
 Government in Ireland ought to all intents and pur- 
 poses to be. The proctor for a nation is the national 
 government. The community will show its real wants 
 most truly and naturally, and secure them best, if it 
 acts for itself, through its proper adequate representa- 
 tive. And the only adequate representative of the 
 whole community is its executive government. While 
 the bishops, if they have the appointment of professors 
 in a Catholic university, will inevitably ask : ' Who 
 will suit the bishops ? who will be convenient to the 
 bishops?' the community is interested in asking 
 solely : ' Who is the best and most distinguished 
 Catholic for the chair ? ' And this is the very question 
 which, if the professors are of State appointment, it 
 is always the Government's duty, and will in general 
 (allowing for human imperfection) be its practice, to 
 ask and to rule itself by. 
 
 The truth is, religion is too great a thing, too uni- 
 versal a want, to be well dealt with except nationally 
 Men in general may think little and feel bluntly ; but 
 the chief exercise of their higher thought and emotion 
 which they have, is their rehgion. Their conduct may 
 
PREFACE TO 
 
 be very imperfect, but the chief guide and stay of con- 
 duct, so far as it has any at all, is their religion. 
 Nothing, therefore, is of so much importance to them. 
 This is where the philosophical Liberals, who think 
 that religion is a noxious thing and that it must die 
 out, make so great a mistake. Their mistake is so 
 great, indeed, timt they themselves cannot persistently 
 keep to it, and we find even the acutest of them con- 
 tradicting themselves flatly. Mr. Mill tells us, in a 
 passage where he is adopting his father's words, that 
 his father ' looked upon religion as the greatest enemy 
 of morality.' Eighteen pages further on, where he is 
 descanting on the lamentable absence, in English 
 society, of any high and noble standard of conduct, 
 he adds that this absence prevails everywhere ' except 
 among a few of the stricter religionists.'' The little that 
 is done for morality is done, then, by morality's great- 
 est enemy ! A statesman in any Christian country 
 will be nearer the truth in thinking that religion is 
 morahty's greatest friend and that therefore it is man- 
 kind's greatest friend. Men want religion, a rule and 
 sanctions of conduct which enHst their feelings ; and 
 the actual forms of Christianity are approximations 
 to this. And men want it public and national, to 
 prevent religion, the proper source of all soHdity and 
 union, from being precarious and divided. Hence 
 the national churches. The philosopher may talk of 
 over-strong churches, les eglises trop fortes; he may 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 point out that public institution makes them so, that 
 without this a church will roll from one schism to 
 another — roulera de schisme en schisme — until it disap- 
 pears. That may be a charming prospect for the 
 philosopher, but it is just what the bulk of the com- 
 munity want to guard against. ' Church history,' says 
 M. Renan, with a wistful gaze towards that happy 
 time, ' was one tissue of schisms till the Christian Em- 
 perors stopped them ;' to an ordinary mortal, that is 
 just the merit of Constantine's work. 
 
 But some nations, in their attachment to religion, 
 have come to allow the corporation of its priests 
 to govern the whole State. This, as we have seen, 
 is inevitably bad government ; the State, the cor- 
 poration which contains all others, ought not to 
 be governed by one of the corporations which it 
 contains. And in Italy Cavour, to stop this, raised 
 the cry : A free Church in a free State ! Liberals 
 have taken this as the last word of the great states- 
 man's philosophy in these matters. It was no such 
 thing. It applied, as Cavour meant it, simply to 
 countries where the Church had hitherto ruled the 
 State j this usurpation it stopped, and to accomplish 
 thus much was a great gain, a great progress. Church 
 and State were left to go each its own road j the 
 clergy's sway of the State was stopped. Cavour did not 
 pause to ask, it was not then the moment for asking, 
 what the Church really was ; he took the Church as he 
 
 C 2 
 
m PREFACE 10 
 
 found it, the Church represented by the clergy, and 
 he left them perfectly free to manage what are called 
 their own affairs, on condition they left the State to 
 manage itself. But who are interested in the Church, 
 that is, in the society formed of those concerned 
 about religion ? The clergy only ? No, as we have seen, 
 the whole people. And who are really the Church ? 
 Evidently the whole religious society, and not its 
 ministers only. The ministers exist for the sake of the 
 community to which they minister ; the clergy are for 
 the people, not the people for the clergy. A national 
 church is what is wanted ; but a clergy, as the clergy 
 in Italy now are, disparaged, irritated, and isolated, 
 treated very rigorously as to church property, yet 
 treated as the sole depositaries of religion, give to 
 religion a form narrower and narrower, make it a 
 thing which less and less corresponds to the wants of 
 the nation and of the time, and communicate their 
 own discontent to all with whom they come in 
 contact. 
 
 This is what is happening in Italy ; this is what 
 comes of taking a catchword, like a free Church in 
 a free State^ absolutely, instead of using it, as wise 
 men do, only for the precise moment and circum- 
 stances which it suits. The Secularist Liberals so 
 little know what religion really is, they so sincerely 
 think that religion if wisely neglected will die out, that 
 they keep on advising any treatment of the difficulty 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. liii 
 
 rather than the right one. They can see that reHgion 
 in Italy is in an unsatisfactory state, and that, on the 
 other hand, the sectarianism of Protestant countries 
 is baneful ; but ' in religious matters,' says the Fro- 
 gresso Educativo, ^our traditional indifferentism will 
 save us from sectarian divisions.' This traditional 
 indifferentism is not what needs encouraging ; a severe 
 judge might say that the traditional indifferentism of 
 the Italians in religion was probably the secret of their 
 traditional impotence. What educated Italians need 
 is to be less indifferent in religion, and to know that 
 it is a matter which concerns themselves also, not the 
 clergy only. M. de Molinari, a writer who is always 
 worth reading, is eloquent in the journal des Debais on 
 the injustice of attempts such as are being now made in 
 Switzerland, attempts by the community to control the 
 organisation of religion to meet their own wants. ' The 
 Church is free,' says he, ' and the State is free ; ' — and 
 for him the clergy are the Church and the community 
 are the State. ' The Church has the right to change, if it 
 chooses, its symbol or its discipline, mthout asking 
 leave of cantonal or federal councils, just as the State 
 has the right to change its constitution without asking 
 leave of bishops or clergy.' He forgets that the com- 
 munity, whom these cantonal and federal councils 
 represent, is the Church ; that they have religious 
 wants and have formed themselves into a religious 
 society to satisfy them ; that the bishops and clergy 
 
liv PREFACE TO 
 
 are but the ministers to the society, and a small frac- 
 tion of it ; and that the whole design of the society is 
 frustrated if the wants of the mass are to be of no 
 account, but the fraction of ministers is to rule every- 
 thing. As well might he say that the ministers and 
 magistrates in the State have a right to change its con- 
 stitution, without asking leave of the community. He 
 speaks in this way because he has no conception of 
 religion as of a real want of the community which the 
 community have to satisfy : he has not this conception, 
 and it would be a great embarrassment to him to 
 admit it into his calculations and to have to adjust 
 things to it. But it is a conception which may be 
 found working, more or less clearly, in the mind of 
 communities, of nations, wherever we turn ; and our 
 age will have to deal with it. 
 
 In Italy it is beginning to fix the attention of intelli- 
 gent men, who a few years ago thought that a free 
 Church in a free State was all they wanted. Signor 
 Bonghi, one of these persons, made last year a remark- 
 able speech on the subject in the Italian Parliament, 
 and has since published it. He blames the suppression 
 of the theological faculties in the national universities ; 
 he says that the clergy is more and more being cut 
 off from the life and thought of the nation, and that 
 this is not good for the clergy, not good for religion, 
 not good for the nation. A national church in 
 harmony with the community's wants is what he 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 drives at. But above all does this conception mani- 
 fest itself in the serious Germanic, or partly Germanic 
 nations, where the sense that rehgion is a genuine 
 concern of the community is native, and where the 
 indifferentism of philosophical Liberalism is a plant of 
 artificial growth. What is passing in Switzerland and 
 Germany shews the desire to give effect to the 
 idea of national churches, to the idea that rehgion is an 
 affair of the community, against the difficulties which 
 the peculiar constitution and relations of the Roman 
 Catholic clergy throw in the way of its working. The 
 governments are not trying to impose a rehgion of their 
 own, some modern enlightenment or other congenial 
 to governments and discouraging to religion ; they are, 
 at bottom, trying to give effect to this sincere desire of 
 the community. In one place there is some new 
 dogma which the community do not want to receive, 
 but which the clergy want to force upon them ; in 
 another place there is some religious reform for which 
 the community are ripe, but to which the clergy oppose 
 a stubborn resistance ; in another, there is some 
 cherished national aim of the community on which the 
 clergy frown. And the clergy retain, from the times 
 when they were the Church and the Church ruled the 
 State, all sorts of means of thwarting and punishing 
 the community which sticks to its own view and does 
 not comply with theirs. To remove all these means, 
 to make the community the Church, and self-ruling ; 
 
Ivi PREFACE TO 
 
 above all, to transform the clergy itself, to bring the 
 clergy, a body in many respects so excellent, into 
 closer sympathy with the community by bringing it to 
 share the community's best culture, — this, I believe, is 
 in general the sincere intention of the religious policy 
 of the German and Swiss governments, although in 
 particular points they may have acted harshly and un- 
 advisedly. The community, in Switzerland and Ger- 
 many, wishes religion a public institution and yet a 
 thing which may grow according to their needs and be 
 administered according to their needs. This is what 
 Prince Bismarck has to meet ; it is a wish which in 
 modem communities "will more and more make itself 
 felt, and which governments will have to meet more 
 and more. And neither the wish nor the trying to 
 meet it is Csesarism. 
 
 Well, but when we English praise Prince Bismarck 
 for what he is doing and sympathise with him, we pass 
 judgment on ourselves. We have not clean hands in 
 the matter for which we praise him. He is doing 
 what our mind has not been clear enough, our pre- 
 judices not enough under the control of our reason, to 
 put us in a position for doing. . Some people say he is 
 following our Tudor legislation. If he followed our 
 Tudor legislation, he would establish Protestantism 
 throughout Prussia, and pass an act of uniformity to 
 make Catholics conform to it. If he followed the 
 policy of our modem Liberals, he would withhold from 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. Ivii 
 
 the Catholic community any public institution of their 
 religion or any Catholic university to send either their 
 laymen or clergy to. He does nothing of the kind. He 
 is following a course which has its difficulties, indeed, 
 but which approves itself to reason. Our modern 
 Liberals, on the other hand, are for governing Ireland 
 in obedience to a maxim which turns out, when we 
 examine it, to be a falsism ; current enough, certainly, 
 but unsound ; trite and false ; — the maxim that a 
 modern State must not endow religion in any shape. 
 So that really the right thing to do is not to go about 
 saying : ' The Liberal party has emphatically con- 
 demned religious endowment, the Protestants of 
 Great Britain are implacably hostile to the endowment 
 of Cathohcism in any shape or form,' if in this both 
 the Liberal party and the Protestants of Great Britain 
 are proceeding upon a falsism. For Ireland can 
 never be successfully governed so long as, in a matter 
 which deeply interests her and in which her wishes 
 differ from ours, we proceed, however resolutely, upon 
 a falsism. The right thing is rather, if we believe in 
 the power of reason, and that the Liberal party and 
 the Protestants of Great Britain have faculties for 
 being persuaded of reason, to labour diligently to 
 convince them that it is a falsism they are going 
 upon. And the Liberal party so much values itself 
 upon its intelligence that with them we ought to 
 begin, and show them, as we have been trying to show 
 
Iviii PREFACE TO 
 
 them here, that this favourite old stock maxim of 
 theirs : '■ The State (that is, the nation in its collective 
 and corporate character) is of no religion,' is quite 
 unsound. In exchange for it we ought to solicit them, 
 with a persistency which never tires, to take a better : 
 * It is false to say the State is of no religion ; the State 
 is of the religion of all its citizens withoiU the fanaticisin 
 of any of the7nJ 
 
 Surely for getting this kind of return made upon 
 our minds and maxims there could not well be a more 
 favourable moment than the present ! The country is 
 profoundly Liberal ; that is, it is profoundly convinced 
 that a great course of growth and transformation lies 
 before it ; and whoever should try to make it think that 
 this is not so, but that all must stay where it is, would 
 soon find out his mistake. Still the actual policy and 
 principles of our Liberal friends do seem, if we may 
 judge by the recent elections, to be profoundly unin- 
 teresting to the country, or at any rate, to have lost 
 their charm for it. So instead of being angry with us 
 for having long said that their performance was not 
 quite what they supposed, that their doings wanted 
 more thought to direct them, that for the religious 
 difficulty in Ireland the abolition of the Protestant es- 
 tablishment by the power of our Dissenters' antipathy 
 to State churches was really no solution, that for the 
 difficulties arising out of the way in which the land in 
 England is held, bills like the Real Estates Intestacy 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. lix 
 
 Bill were no solution ; that even marriage with 
 one's deceased wife's sister was not a staff to help one 
 far on one's road ; — instead of being angry with us for 
 saying this, and declaring still, like the Daily Tele- 
 graph, that * there is no such thing as conquering the 
 principles of which Mr. Gladstone has been these 
 five years the triumphant exponent,' surely our Liberal 
 friends would do well to consider whether there may 
 not have been some truth in what we said, and to use 
 the leisure they seem likely to have for reviewing their 
 ideas a httle. 
 
 The Secularist Radicals, especially the younger 
 and more ardent among them, who have been 
 brought up to think that religion is dying out, and 
 who are all of them, perhaps, more or less in the 
 same case as Hume, who confessed that he had never 
 read the New Testament with attention, might well im- 
 prove their present opportunity by acquainting them- 
 selves a little with the nature and history of religion, and 
 to this end studying, among other books, the Bible. 
 But the benefit which we may expect from the 
 Secularist Radicals, during the present lull, thus re- 
 vising their ideas, is as nothing compared to what 
 may accrue from the Dissenters performing the same 
 process. It is not too much to say that the chief 
 hope of progress, in the next five years, for true 
 Liberalism, Hes in the conversion of the Protestant 
 
Ix PREFACE TO 
 
 Dissenters ; or to speak more correctly, as well as, 
 perhaps, more agreeably, in their nationalisation. 
 ' They can hardly be ignorant that a very strong 
 light has been turned lately upon them and upon 
 their proceedings, and that the general impression 
 left with the public has not been favourable. They 
 have offended, any clear-sighted looker-on can see 
 that they have offended, what Burke well calls ' the 
 ancient and inbred integrity, piety, good nature and 
 good humour of the English people.' We shall not 
 affect to regret this, for we have long said, and the 
 Dissenters have been very angry with us for saying, 
 that they are an obstacle to civilisation. They are 
 indeed ; our greatest. But we say this so resolutely 
 because we see so clearly of what good elements their 
 body is composed; how signal an example they furnish 
 of a false tendency given to admirable forces and of the 
 grievous waste of power caused thereby. We have 
 never forgotten, too, although perhaps we have never 
 said with emphasis enough that we remembered it, 
 how many of them have inherited their position of 
 conflict with the national church, not made it for 
 themselves. Such persons arc like men who have 
 inherited, not originated, a vexatious lawsuit ; a wise 
 man, however, when he has inherited such a lawsuit, 
 does not persist in it because he has inherited it, but 
 gets out of it as fast as possible. That it is a vexatious 
 lawsuit, a suit causing a fatal exasperation of temper, 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. Ixi 
 
 with a vain and most lamentable waste of life and 
 power, in which the Protestant Dissenters are engaged, 
 is more and more forcing itself upon the mind both of 
 the public in general, and of religious people in par- 
 ticular. As far as religion is concerned, that course 
 cannot be a wholesome one which has produced a 
 sort of temper so opposite to peace, that even in 
 Barrow's time the great evangelical injunction to 
 follozv peace had among the Nonconformists come, as 
 he remarked, to be ' by many esteemed an impossi- 
 bility, by others a wonder, by some a crime \ ' a temper 
 which has grown now to be more intense and fiercer 
 than ever. That course cannot, moreover, be for the 
 advancement of religion, which ends by setting up as 
 its great mark an object in no way religious : religious 
 equality. The cry, the watchword of the modern Dis- 
 senters, the eternal burden of Mr. Miall's song, is reli- 
 gious equality. But the evangelical watchword is re- 
 ligious submission ; submitting yourselves ojie to another 
 in the fear of God. Nay, and the very Pope, the 
 representative of the religion which is, as the Non 
 comforjnisfs correspondent says, ' heathenish supersti 
 tion,' has at least the grace to call himself by predi- 
 lection the servant of servants, servus servorum. 
 
 This, I say, so far as religion is cpncerned, is clear. 
 The general public, however, is getting indisposed to 
 the Dissenters not on grounds of religion only ; its 
 good sense and reflection are beginning to tell against 
 
 W 
 
Ixii PREFACE TO 
 
 them too. It has begun to dawn upon the general 
 pubhc, the Dissenters being of late perpetually before 
 it with the cry that their conscience constrains them to 
 do this and will not let them do the other, it has 
 dawned upon the public, the question having become 
 thus practical, that after all one must ask, where the 
 public action is concerned in what a man's conscience 
 commands or forbids, whether the conscience com- 
 mands or forbids reasonably. And it has come very 
 much to the conclusion that a man's conscience com- 
 manding himself is reasonable, but that his conscience 
 forbidding his neighbours is unreasonable. It is 
 agreed that a man is not to be made to say a thing is , 
 right if he does not think so; when his conscience pro- 
 tests against this, it protests reasonably. A man is 
 free to say he thinks monarchy wrong, he is free to 
 say he thinks an Established Church wrong ; he is 
 not to be compelled to accept the ministrations of 
 bishops, he is not to be compelled, even, to take off 
 his hat to the Queen. Positive approval and ad- 
 herence are matters of conscience. " Bui the majority 
 \vish for a monarchy, the majority wish for the public 
 institution of religion known as the Church of England. 
 PubHc funds, we will suppose, are applied directly or 
 indirectly to the support of both. Well, but a man 
 objects ; he feels his conscience violated by his con- 
 tributing to maintain an institution which he thinks 
 wrong. Well, now, what the public are more and 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. Ixiii 
 
 more coming to perceive is that this objection is not 
 reasonable, and that the proper answer to it, instead 
 of turning up one's eyes and saying ' How very 
 grievous !' is : 'Then you ought not to feel your con- 
 science violated by it.' No one has a right to oblige 
 you to say you approve of monarchy if you disapprove \ 
 of it, or to conform to the Church of England if you 
 differ from it ; but you, on the other hand, have no \ 
 right to prevent the majority from instituting mon- '\ 
 archy or instituting a national church, and providing i 
 for them directly or indirectly, partially or entirely, out 
 of public funds. To profess an opinion or adopt a \ 
 practice for oiieself, can reasonably be said to engage j 
 one's conscience ; to pay a tax laid by the majority / 
 for an institution which the opinion or practice of/ 
 the majority leads them to adopt, can engage the con- 1 
 science only if what is instituted is plainly flagitious. ' 
 Violent men easily allege, no doubt, that all opinion or 
 practice at variance with their own is flagitious and per- 
 nicious. But here, again, the public at large is the judge, 1 
 and more and more assumes the right of judging, j 
 whether this allegation is fairly sustainable. Direct sup- ' 
 port Dissenters have to give to the Church of England 
 none ; but a school rate, suppose, may in some cases 
 make them give an indirect support to it. Well, for 
 this to engage their conscience, the church- school 
 and what it teaches must be something plainly flagi- 
 tious. Many violent Nonconformists have alleged in 
 
Ixiv PREFACE TO 
 
 the past and do allege in the present against the 
 Church of England, that its opinion and practice are 
 plainly flagitious and pernicious ; but this allegation 
 all reasonable people, and the public at large also, feel 
 to be unsustainable. Pretensions that for their support 
 require this allegation to be true, are felt, therefore, 
 to be unsustainable also. And a dissatisfaction and 
 impatience, founded on an increasingly clear percep- 
 tion of all this, is beginning to pervade the nation at 
 large in respect to the action of the Dissenters. 
 
 No doubt the Dissenters will be slow to see this 
 themselves. They will be slow to yield, they are not 
 apt at yielding. Their first thought, their first effort, 
 will be to unite the discomfited Liberal party again in 
 a programme of their own dictating. They have 
 settled ideas, the Liberal party has not ; they know 
 clearly what they seek, the Liberal party does not. 
 Political Dissent will for a time become more 
 prominently political than ever, and contend more 
 fiercely ; but the more it does this, the more will its 
 inherent faults make themselves felt, the more will its 
 unattractiveness, its bitter narrowness, its essential un- 
 religiousness become apparent, and the more dissatis- 
 fied will the public grow with it. Mr. Miall does not 
 charm ; but the lead will pass from Mr. Miall to men 
 like Mr. Leatham, a spokesman whom really, when one 
 hears or reads some of his deliverances, a moralist might 
 be almost tempted to call the drunken Helot of Protes- 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. Ixv 
 
 tant Dissent, an example set up to show the temper and 
 tone Dissent, or the championing of it, at last leads to. 
 Or there will be efforts like Mr. Chamberlain's to win the 
 working men to the cause of Nonconformity by making 
 their jealousy of the Church, as a Conservative institu- 
 tion, combine its force with the Dissenters' jealousy of 
 the Church as a religious rival ; such efforts will have a 
 certain measure of success, and the confluence of two 
 jealousies may produce a considerable stream. But 
 Dissent is a religious cause : it has to stand or fall as 
 a rehgious cause. And the more partisans it has like 
 Mr, Leatham or Mr. Chamberlain, the more these 
 partisans take the lead, the more their efforts are 
 crowned with success, so much the more will Dissent 
 as a rehgious cause be discredited, so much the more 
 will it lose ground in the esteem of the nation. More 
 and more it will shock the 'integrity, piety, good 
 nature and good humour of the EngHsh people.' 
 It will lose ground in the attachment of its own best 
 men for the same reason. On all its best men the 
 dissatisfaction with its" temper will operate ; on the 
 younger amongst them, the growing modem percep- 
 tion that all the forms of Christianity are approximative 
 only, that one's own sect has not got the truth, the 
 gospel, while all other religious communities are in 
 error, will act in concert with the other ground for 
 dissatisfaction. Already this is manifest, already these 
 causes of dissolution are beginning to act. Twenty 
 . d 
 
Ixvi PREFACE TO 
 
 years hence, Dissent will have no such group to present 
 as the group of its best men is now ; these will have 
 passed away, and the younger men of like worth will 
 be elsewhere. Mr. Miall seems making preparation 
 to retire, and he will retire at the right time, for the 
 part which he has played will not be possible for a 
 man of his good qualities in the future. May he, 
 and Mr. Carvell Williams, and the rest of these men of 
 war, who have talked so much of religion, who have 
 really cared for it so much, and have stood so much 
 in its way, may they in the evening of their day, before 
 they close their eyes for ever, be allowed at least one 
 short glimpse of what the way of peace really is ! 
 
 Yes, the cause of the Nonconformists is destined 
 to suffer eclipse, not to be the rallying-point of the 
 Liberalism of the future. And religious history's final 
 sentence on this cause, whatever praise political history 
 may bestow on it, will be a severe one. It will say of 
 it, even after all its advocates have been heard and 
 everything has been weighed which tells in its favour, 
 that in temper and contentiousness it began, by 
 temper and contentiousness it perished. It was 
 originally embraced by the strong and serious middle 
 part of a somewhat hard, a high-tempered, and a self- 
 willed nation. Of these qualities of the nation, its 
 strong middle part had naturally most; and these 
 qualities are not religious. They have given to Non- 
 conformity a fatal ply ; so far one must speak unfavour- 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. Ixvii 
 
 ably. Then, however, comes the worthier side of 
 Nonconformity into view. Seriousness and strenuous- 
 ness and manHness and uprightness are religious ; and 
 the English Nonconformists have been eminent for 
 them, and they can never be lost. They will avail to 
 give their possessors a victory for good, though not 
 for evil. They will not give them a victory for sec- 
 tarianism over the national church, but they will enable 
 them to transform the national church as it needs 
 transformation. All the faults of the Church come not 
 from its being a public institution, but from its not 
 being enough a public institution. There is, even at 
 present, far more of popular sentiment and sympathy 
 among the clergy than is commonly supposed ; but all 
 the faults with which the Church is now reproached, 
 its close dependence upon the landed gentry, its sale 
 of livings, its disregard, in the choice of incumbents, 
 of the wants and wishes of the people, its retention of 
 worthless ministers, its over-ritualism and fantasticality, 
 all are to be remedied not by making the Church 
 a private institution but a more truly public one, and 
 by pouring into it that large portion of the middle 
 class, with its popular sentiment and its robust energy, 
 which the Dissenters constitute. If the Church has 
 effeminacy, they are the people to do it good; if it 
 has silliness and formalism, they are the people to 
 cure it. A majority of the nation desire a public 
 institution of religion and a national church ; how 
 d2 
 
Ixviii PREFACE TO 
 
 great a majority we cannot tell, for the Dissenters 
 have hindered our ascertaining, but I believe an 
 immense majority. Not to keep up a jealous and 
 angry struggle against this wish, but to adopt it, 
 to impress their stamp upon the national church, 
 and to aid in developing that religion of the future, 
 which, as all living things follow the law of growth 
 and change, will not in a great and living people be 
 the religion of to-day, is the new aim to which, in the 
 next five years, the Dissenters should have their 
 thoughts and wishes turned. 
 
 But in this and all the matters most important to us, 
 progress, at the point where our nation now stands, de- 
 pends on our getting just, clear, well-ordered thoughts 
 about them, and setting at defiance clap-trap and catch- 
 words. We have seen that Ireland has a right to a 
 Catholic university, and that it is really expedient she 
 should have one. We cannot expect her to be satisfied, 
 any quantity of agitation for Home Rule is justified, 
 so long as we refuse one to her. But she is governed in 
 deference to the British Protestant's clap-trap and 
 catchwords, which find their expression in such sayings 
 as that ' the Protestants of Great Britain are implacably 
 hostile to concurrent endowment in any shape or 
 form ;' and if she is to be governed aright, it can only 
 be in defiance of such clap-trap. But for an active 
 politician to go counter to clap-trap is, as we have 
 seen, hard; and, indeed, by the nature of things it 
 
THE SECOND EDITION. Ixix 
 
 must be hard. And therefore it is thatwe rejoice to see a 
 moment of lull in their active poHtical life come to so 
 many of our Liberal friends, because they thus escape 
 from great temptation, and are set free to use their 
 intelligence. For the active politician can hardly get 
 on without deferring to clap-trap and even employing 
 it. Nay, as Socrates amusingly said, the man who 
 defers to clap-trap and the man who uses his intel- 
 ligence are, when they meet in the struggle of active 
 politics, like a doctor and a confectioner competing 
 for the suffrages of a constituency of schoolboys ; the 
 confectioner has nearly every point in his favour. 
 The confectioner deals in all that the constituency 
 like ; the doctor is a man who hurts them, and makes 
 them leave off what they like and take what is dis- 
 agreeable. And accordingly the temptation, in deal- 
 ing with the public and with the trade of active politics, 
 the temptation to be a confectioner is extremely strong, 
 and we see that almost all our leading newspapers 
 and leading politicians do in fact yield to it. What 
 our policy towards Irish Catholicism has, in deference 
 to British Protestant feeling, really been, we now know ; 
 but the Daily Telegraph calls it * a great and genial 
 policy of conciliation/ and the Times says that 
 * English Liberals demanded, in 1868, that the 
 grievances which alienated the Irish Catholic should 
 be removed.' This is to speak like a confectioner j 
 for we know, and the Irish, alas ! know, that the 
 
Ixx PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 words ' so far as this was compatible with Protestant 
 prejudice, and could be made to fall in with Non- 
 conformist ends/ require to be understood. And Mr. 
 Lowe is even bolder than the newspapers, and declares 
 that by their Irish policy *the ministry resolved to 
 knit the hearts of the empire into one harmonious con- 
 cord, and knitted they were accordingly.' \Vhat could 
 be more fitted to delight the public % But this is 
 really to speak like a confectioner ; and just as Mr. 
 Lowe calls Mr. Disraeli a teratologist, so one may call 
 Mr. Lowe, in his turn, a confectioner, a brilliant and 
 accomplished con/ectioner. Only the confectioner is 
 not at this moment what we most require. Our wants 
 are the same as those which made Socrates, again, 
 say, that though himself no confectioner and taking 
 quite another line from the active politicians round 
 him, indeed, just because of this, he, or any man 
 who held the same course as to current clap-trap that 
 he did, was ^the only true poUtician of men now 
 living.' 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 (1868.) 
 
 I WAS in 1865 charged by the Schools Enquiry Com- 
 missioners with the task of investigating the system of 
 education for the middle and upper classes which 
 prevails in France, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland. 
 In the discharge of this task I was on the Continent 
 nearly seven months, and during that time I visited 
 the four countries named, and made as careful a study 
 as I could of the matters to which the Commissioners 
 had directed my attention. 
 
 It is expedient for the satisfactory resolution of 
 those educational questions, .which are at length 
 beginning seriously to occupy us, both that we should 
 attend to the experience of the Continent, and that 
 we should know precisely what it is which this ex- 
 perience says. As to compulsory education, denomi- 
 national education, secular education, the continental 
 precedents are to be studied, and they are to be studied 
 for the sake of seeing what they really mean, and not 
 
Ixxii PREFACE TO 
 
 merely for the sake of furnishing ourselves with help 
 from them for some thesis which we uphold. 
 
 Most English Liberals seem persuaded that our 
 elementary schools should be undenominational, and 
 their teaching secular ; and that with a public ele- 
 mentary school it cannot well be otherwise. Let them 
 clearly understand, however, that on the Continent 
 generally, everywhere except in Holland, the public 
 elementary school is denominational,^ and its teaching 
 religious as well as secular. 
 
 Then, again, as to compulsory education. It may 
 be broadly said, that in all the civilized states of Con- 
 tinental Europe education is compulsory except in 
 France and Holland. The opponents of compulsory 
 education quote Mr. Pattison, to show that in North 
 Germany ' compulsory attendance is a matter which 
 produces comparatively little practical result.' They 
 quote a report of mine, to show that in French 
 Switzerland ' the making popular education compul- 
 sory by law has not added one iota to its prosperity.' 
 But yet the example of the Continent proves, and 
 nothing which Mr. Pattison or I have said disproves, 
 that in general, where popular education is most pro- 
 sperous, there it is also compulsory. The compulsori- 
 ness is, in general, found to go along with the pro- 
 sperity, though it cannot be said to cause it ; but the 
 same high value among a people for education which 
 leads to its prospering among them, leads also in 
 
 > Of course with what we should call a conscience clause. 
 
THE FIRST EDITION. Ixxiii 
 
 general to its being made compulsory. Where the value 
 for it is not ardent enough to make it, as it is in Prussia 
 and Zurich, compulsory, it is not, for the most part, ardent 
 enough to give it the prosperity it has in Prussia and 
 Zurich. After seeing the schools of North Germany and 
 of German Switzerland, I am strongly of this opinion. 
 It is the same thing as in religion. The vitality of a 
 man's religion does not lie in his imposing on himself 
 certain absolute rules as to conduct. But in general, 
 if his religion is vital, it will make him lay on him- 
 self absolute rules as to conduct. Above all, it 
 will make a newly awakened sinner do this; and 
 England, in spite of what patriotic people say, I must 
 take leave to regard, in educational matters, as a newly 
 awakened sinner. 
 
 Therefore I do not think the example of Prussia 
 and Switzerland will serve to show that compulsoriness 
 of education is an insignificant thing ; and I believe 
 that if ever our zeal for the cause mounts high enough 
 in England to make our popular education ' bear fa- 
 vourable comparison,' except in the imagination of 
 popular speakers, with the popular education of 
 Prussia and Switzerland, this same zeal will also make 
 it compulsory. 
 
 But the Enghsh friends of compulsory education, 
 in their turn, will do well to inform themselves how 
 far on the Continent compulsory education extends, 
 and the conditions under which alone the working 
 classes, if they respect themselves, can submit to its 
 
Ixxiv PREFACE TO 
 
 application. In the view of the English friends of 
 compulsory education, the educated and intelligent 
 middle and upper classes amongst us are to confer 
 the boon of compulsory education upon the ignorant 
 lower class, which needs it while they do not. But, 
 on the Continent, instruction is obligatory for lower, 
 middle, and upper class alike. I doubt whether our 
 educated and intelligent classes are at all prepared for 
 this. I have an acquaintance in easy circumstances, 
 of distinguished connections, living in a fashionable 
 part of London, who, like many other people, deals 
 rather easily with his son's schooling. Sometimes the 
 boy is at school, then for months together he is away 
 from school, and left to run idle at home. He is not 
 the least an invalid, but it pleases his father and 
 mother to bring him up in this manner. Now I 
 imagine no English friends of compulsory education 
 dream of dealing with such a defaulter as this, and 
 certainly his father, who perhaps is himself a friend 
 of compulsory education for the working classes, 
 would be astounded to find his education of his own 
 son interfered with. But if my worthy acquaintance 
 lived in Switzerland or Germany, he would be dealt 
 with as follows. I speak with the school-law of Canton 
 Neufchatel immediately under my eyes, but the regu- 
 lations on this matter are substantially the same in all 
 the states of Germany and of German Switzerland. 
 The Municipal Education Committee of the district 
 
THE FIRST EDITION. Ixxv 
 
 where my acquaintance lived would address a sum- 
 mons to him, informing him that a comparison of the 
 school-rolls of their district' with the municipal list of 
 children of school-age showed his son not to be at 
 school; and requiring him, in consequence, to appear 
 before the Municipal Committee at a place and time 
 named, and there to satisfy them either that his son 
 did attend some public school, or that, if privately 
 taught, he was taught by duly trained and certificated 
 teachers. On the back of the summons my acquain- 
 tance would find printed the penal articles of the 
 school-law sentencing him to a fine if he failed to 
 satisfy the Municipal Committee; and, if he failed to 
 pay the fine, or was found a second time offending, 
 to imprisonment. In some Continental states he 
 would be liable, in case of repeated infraction of the 
 school-law, to be deprived of his parental rights, and 
 to have the care of his son transferred to guardians 
 named by the State. It is indeed terrible to think of 
 the consternation and wrath of our educated and 
 intelligent classes under a discipline like this; and I 
 should not like to be the man to try and impose it on 
 them. But I assure them most emphatically, — and 
 if they study the experience of the Continent they 
 will convince themselves of the tmth of what I say, — 
 that only on these conditions of its equal and uni- 
 versal application is any law of compulsory education 
 possible. 
 
Ixxvi PREFACE TO 
 
 Of the education of the middle and upper classes, 
 however, I have no need to speak at length here, for 
 the following work is devoted to that subject. Secon- 
 dary and higher education is not, like popular educa- 
 tion, a subject which very keenly interests at present 
 our educated and intelligent classes. It is their own 
 education, and with their own education they are, it 
 seems, tolerably well satisfied. Yet I hope that here 
 again these classes, — above all I hope that the great 
 middle class, which has much the widest and the gravest 
 interests concerned in the matter, — will not refuse 
 their attention to the experience afforded by the 
 Continent. Before concluding that they can have 
 nothing to learn from it, let them at any rate know 
 and weigh it. 
 
 To three points particularly let me invite their 
 consideration. In the first place, let them consider 
 in its length and breadth the fact that on the Con- 
 tinent the middle class in general may be said 
 to be brought up on the first plafie, while in 
 England it is brought up on the second plane. In the 
 public higher schools of Prussia or France some 
 65,000 of the youth of the middle and upper classes 
 are brought up ; in the public higher schools of 
 England, — even when we reckon as such many insti- 
 tutions which would not be entitled to such a rank on 
 the Continent, — only some 15,000. Has this state of 
 things no bad eff'ect upon us ? If the training of our 
 
THE FIRST EDITION. Ixxvii 
 
 working class, as compared with the working classes 
 elsewhere, inspires apprehension, has the training of 
 their employers, as compared with employers else- 
 where, no matter of apprehension for us ? There are 
 people who say that the labour questions which em- 
 barrass us owe their gravity and danger at least as 
 much to the inadequacy of our middle class for deal- 
 ing with such questions, as to the inadequacy of our 
 working class. ' English employers of labour,' these 
 people say, *are just now full of complaints of the 
 ignorance and unreasonableness of the class they 
 employ, and of suggestions, among other things, for 
 its better instruction. It never occurs to them that 
 their own bad instmction has much to do with the 
 matter. Brought up in schools of inferior standing, 
 they have no governing qualities, no aptitude, like 
 that of the aristocratic class, for the ruling of men ; 
 brought up with hollow and unsound teaching, they 
 have no science, no aptitude for finding their way out 
 of a difficulty by thought and reason, and creating 
 new relations between themselves and the working 
 class when the old relations fail.' I do not say that 
 this is certainly so, but I say that the bearings of our 
 education on the matter, — our education both in itself 
 and in comparison with that of the Continent, — are at 
 least worth studying. 
 
 The second point is this. The study of conti- 
 nental education will show our educated and intelli- 
 
Ixxviii PREFACE TO 
 
 gent classes that many things which they wish for 
 cannot be done as isolated operations, but must, if 
 they are to be done at all, come in as parts of a 
 regularly designed whole. Mr. Grant Duff, who, I 
 must say, directed his attention to educational matters 
 long before they were in everybody's thoughts as at 
 present, has pointed this out with great truth and 
 clearness. Our educated and intelligent classes, in 
 their solicitude for our backward working class, and 
 their alarm for our industrial preeminence, are begin- 
 ning to cry out for technical schools for our artisans. 
 Well-informed and distinguished people seem to think 
 it is only necessary to have special schools of arts and 
 trades, as they have abroad, and then we may take a 
 clever boy from our elementary schools, perfected by 
 the Revised Code, and put him at once into a special 
 school. A stucfy of the best Continental experience 
 will show them that the special school is the crown of 
 a long co-ordered series, designed and graduated by 
 the best heads in the country. A clever boy in a 
 Prussian elementary school, passes first into a Mittel- 
 schule, or higher elementary school, then into a 
 modem or real school of the second class, then into a 
 real school of the first class, and finally, after all these, 
 into the special school. A boy who has had this 
 preparation is able to profit by a special school ; to 
 send him there straight from the elementary school, is 
 like sending a boy from the fourth form at one of our 
 
THE FIRST EDITION. Ixxix 
 
 classical public schools to hear Professor Ritschl 
 lecture on Latin inscriptions. 
 
 I come, lastly, to the third point for our remark in 
 Continental education. These foreign Governments, 
 which we think so offensively arbitrary, do at least 
 take, when they administer education, the best edu- 
 cational opinion of the country into their counsels, 
 and we do not. This comes partly from our disbelief 
 in government, partly from our belief in machinery. 
 Our disbelief in government makes us slow to organise 
 government perfectly for any matter ; our belief in 
 machinery makes us think that when we have organised 
 a department, however imperfectly, it must prove effica- 
 cious and self-acting. The result is that while, on 
 the Continent, through Boards and Councils, the best 
 educational opinion of the country, — by which I mean 
 the opinion of men Hke Sir James bhuttleworth, Mr. 
 Mill, Dr. Temple, men who have estabHshed their 
 right to be at least heard on these topics, — neces- 
 sarily reaches the Government and influences its 
 action, in this country there are no organised means 
 for its ever reaching our Government at all. The 
 most important questions of educational policy may 
 be settled without such men being even heard. A 
 number of grave matters affecting public instruction 
 in this country, — our system of competitive examina- 
 tions, our regulation of studies, our whole school- 
 legislation, — are at the present moment settled one 
 
Ixxx PREFACE TO 
 
 hardly knows how, certainly without any care for the 
 best counsel attainable being first taken on them. 
 On the Continent it is not so ; and the more our 
 Government is likely, in England, to have to inter- 
 vene in educational matters, the more does the Con- 
 tinental practice, in this particular, invite and require 
 our attention. 
 
 In conclusion. There are two chief obstacles, as 
 it seems to me, which oppose themselves to our con- 
 sulting foreign experience with profit. One is, our 
 notion of the State as an ahen intrusive power in the 
 community, not summing up and representing the 
 action of individuals, but thwarting it. This notion 
 is not so strong as it once was, but still it is strong 
 enough to make it opportune to quote some words 
 from a foreign Report before me, which sets this much 
 obscured point in its true light : — 
 
 '■ Le Gouvernement ?te represente pas un hiteret par- 
 tkulier, distinct, ptcisqu'il est aic contraire la phis haute 
 et la plus sincere expressio7i de tous les inter ets ghieraux 
 du pays.^ 
 
 This is undoubtedly what a government ought to be, 
 and if it is not this, it is the duty of its citizens to try 
 and make it this, not to try and get rid of so powerful 
 and essential an agency as much as possible. 
 
 The other obstacle is our high opinion of our own 
 energy and prosperity. This opinion is just, but it is 
 possible to rely on it too long and to strain our energy 
 
THE FIRST EDITION. Ixxxi 
 
 and our prosperity too hard. At any rate, our energy 
 and our prosperity will be more fruitful and safer, 
 the more we add intelligence to them ; and here, if 
 anywhere, is an occasion for applying the words of the 
 wise man : — ' If the iron be blunt, and a man do not 
 whet the edge, then must he put forth more strength ; 
 but wisdom is profitable to direct.' 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN SECONDARY 
 OR HIGHER SCHOOLS. 
 
 PAG5 
 
 The Renascence and the Reformation — The German 
 Schools and the Reformation — Decline of the German 
 Schools and their Recovery — The Prussian Schools Re- 
 presentative of those of Germany .... i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF THE SECONDARY 
 OR HIGHER SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 
 
 Higher Schools of Prussia — Gymnasien — Progymnasien — 
 Realschulen — Hohere Burgerschulen — Vorschulen, or 
 Preparatory Schools — Numbers of Teachers and 
 Scholars 7 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF THE PRUSSIAN 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 Common Law of Prussia — State- Action and Regulation — 
 Origin and History of the Central Education Department 
 
Ixxxiv CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 — Origin and History of the Provincial School Authori- 
 ties — Provincial School Boards and District School 
 Boards — Examining Commissions — Local and Municipal 
 School Authorities — Endowments and Charities ; their 
 Management — Patronage of Schools ... 22 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. THE 
 ABITVRIENTENEXAMEN. 
 
 Preference for Public Schools — The Leaving Examination 
 (Abiturientenexamen) ; its History — Present Plan of the 
 Leaving Examination in Gynmasien — Object proposed 
 by the Founders of the Leaving Examination — Leaving 
 Examination in Realschulen — Examinations of Passage 44 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; THEIR TRAINING, 
 EXAMINATION, APPOINTMENT, AND PAYMENT. 
 
 Examination for Schoolmasters — Its History — Present Plan 
 of Examination for Schoolmasters — Normal Seminaries 
 for Schoolmasters — Probation and Practising Lessons of 
 Schoolmasters — Appointment of Schoolmasters, and 
 Jurisdiction over them — Intervention of the Education 
 Minister — Religious Instruction — Denominational cha- 
 racter of the Prussian Schools — Wide Acceptation of the 
 Denomination Evangelisch — Exclusion from School Posts 
 of certain Dissenters and of Jews — Rank and Title of 
 Schoolmasters — Payment of Schoolmasters. . . 67 
 
CONTENTS. Ixxxv 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN OPERATION IN 
 PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Berlin Schools — the Friedrich-Wilhelms Gjonnasium — 
 Its History — Its Confessional Character, Teachers and 
 Charges — Its Classes — Its Lessons — School-Books — The 
 Greyfriars Gymnasium — Its History and Endowment — 
 Day Scholars and Boarders in German Schools — The 
 Joachimsthalsche Gymnasium — Schulpforta — The Stu- 
 dientag at Schulpforta — Games and Gymnastics — The 
 Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium at Cologne — Studies of 
 the Gymnasium and of the Realschule — Conflict between 
 their Partisans io6 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION IN 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 Passage from Secondary to Superior Instruction — Special 
 Schools and Universities — Universities of Prussia — Pro- 
 portion of University Students to Population — German 
 Universities State-Establishments — University Authori- 
 ties — University Teachers — i. Full Professors — 2. Assis- 
 tant Professors — 3. Privatdocenten — Students— Fees — 
 Certificates of Attendance at Lectures — Degrees — The 
 Staatspriifung — Character of the German University 
 System 14S 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSION. SCHOOL STUDIES. 
 
 Probable Issue of the Conflict between Classical and Real 
 Studies — New Conception of the Aim and Office of In- 
 
Ixxxvi CONTENTS. 
 
 struction — The Circle of Knowledge takes in both the 
 Humanities and the Study of Nature — This not enough 
 recognised at present — Tyranny of the Humanists — 
 T)rranny of the Realists — Our Present School- Course — 
 How to Transform it — Excessive Preponderance of 
 Grammatical Studies, and of Latin and Greek Composi- 
 tion — The Ancient Languages to be more Studied as 
 Literature — And the Modem Languages likewise — 
 Summing up of Conclusions. . . . . , 167 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSION CONTINUED. SCHOOL 
 ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 England and the Continent — Civil Organisation in Modem 
 States — Civil Organisation Transformed not only in 
 France but also in other Continental States — Not in 
 England — A Result of this in English Popular Education 
 — English Secondary and Superior Instruction not touched 
 by the State — Inconveniences of this — The Social Incon- 
 venience — the Intellectual Inconvenience — Their Prac- 
 tical Results — Science and Systematic Knowledge more 
 prized on the Continent than in England — Effect of this 
 on our Application of the Sciences, and on our Schools 
 and Education in General — A Better Organisation of 
 Secondary and Superior Instruction a Remedy for our 
 Deficiencies — Public and Private Schools — Necessity for 
 Public Schools — With Public Schools, an Education 
 Minister Necessary — A High Council of Education De- 
 sirable — Functions of such a Council — Provincial School 
 Boards Requisite — How to make Public Schools — Defects 
 of our University System — Oxford and Cambridge merely 
 Hants Lycees — London University merely a Board of 
 Examiners — Insufficient Number of Students under 
 
CONTENTS. Ixxxvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Superior Instruction in England — Special Schools wanted 
 and a Reorganised University System, taking Superior 
 Instruction to the Students, and not Bringing these Stu- 
 dents to Oxford and Cambridge for it — Centres of 
 Superior Instruction to be formed in different parts of 
 England, and Professors to be Organised in Faculties — 
 Oxford, Cambridge, and London to remain the only 
 Degree-Granting Bodies— Education Minister should have 
 the Appointment of Professors — Probable Co-operation 
 of Existing Bodies with the State in Organising this New 
 Superior Instruction — How, when Established, it should 
 be Employed — Final Conclusion . . . . 196 
 
 APPENDIX 251 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN SECONDARY 
 OR HIGHER SCHOOLS. 
 
 The Renascence and the Reformation — The German Schools and 
 the Reformation — Decline of the German Schools and their 
 recovery — The Prussian Schools Representative of those of 
 Germany. 
 
 ^ The schools of France and Italy owed little to 
 
 the great modern movement of the Renas- 
 cence. In both these countries that movement 
 operated, in both it produced mighty results ; 
 but of the official establishments for instruction 
 it did not get hold. In Italy the mediaeval 
 routine in those establishments at first opposed 
 a passive resistance to it ; presently came the 
 
 Catholic reaction, and sedulously shut it out 
 
 / 
 
 B 
 
2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN 
 
 from them. In France the Renascence did 
 not become a power in the State, and the 
 routine of the schools sufficed to exclude the 
 new ' influence till it took for itself other 
 channels than the schools. But in Germany 
 the Renascence became a power in the State ; 
 allied with the Reformation, where the Re- 
 formation triumphed in German countries the 
 Renascence triumphed with it, and entered 
 with it into the public schools. Melancthon 
 and Erasmus were not merely enemies and 
 subverters of the dominion of the Church of 
 Rome, they were eminent humanists; and 
 with the great but single exception of Luther, 
 the chief German reformers were all of them 
 distinguished friends of the new classical 
 learning, as well as of Protestantism. The 
 Romish party was in German countries the 
 ignorant party also, the party untouched by 
 the humanities and by culture. 
 
 Perhaps one reason why in England our 
 schools have not had the life and growth of 
 the schools of Grermany and Holland is to be 
 
SECONDARY OR HIGHER SCHOOLS. 3 
 
 found in the separation, with us, of the power 
 of the Reformation and the power of the 
 Renascence. With us, too, the Reformation 
 triumphed and got possession of our schools ; 
 but our leading reformers were not at the 
 same time, like those of Germany, the nation's 
 leading spirits in intellect and culture. In 
 Germany the best spirits of the nation were 
 then the reformers. In England our best 
 spirits, — Shakspeare, Bacon, Spenser, — were 
 men of the Renascence, not men of the Re- 
 formation, and our reformers were men of the 
 second order. The Reformation, therefore, 
 getting hold of the schools in England was a 
 very different force, a force far inferior in light, 
 resources, and prospects, to the Reformation 
 getting hold of the schools in Germany. 
 
 But in Germany, nevertheless, as Protestant 
 orthodoxy grew petrified like Catholic ortho- 
 doxy, and as, in consequence, Protestantism 
 flagged and lost the powerful impulse with 
 which it started, the school flagged also, and 
 in the middle of the last century the classical 
 
 B 2 
 
4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN 
 
 teaching of Germany, in spite of a few honour- 
 able names like Gesner's, Ernesti's, and Heyne's, 
 seems to have lost all the spirit and power of 
 the i6th century humanists, to have been 
 sinking into a mere church appendage, and 
 fast becoming torpid. A theological student, 
 making his livelihood by teaching till he could 
 get appointed to a parish, was the usual school- 
 master. *The schools will never be better,* 
 said their great renovator, Friedrich August 
 Wolf, the well-known critic of Homer, * so long 
 as the schoolmasters are theologians by pro- 
 fession. A theological course in a university, 
 with its smattering of classics, is about as good 
 a preparation for a classical master as a course 
 of feudal law would be.'^ Wolf's coming to 
 
 * See a most interesting article on Wolf in the North British 
 Review for .June 1865. Not only for its account of Wolf, but for 
 its sketch of the movement in the higher education of Germany at a 
 very critical time, this article well deserves studying ; and having 
 been obliged to make myself acquainted with many of the matters 
 which its writer (Mr. Pattison) touches, I may perhaps be allowed, 
 without appearing guilty of presumption, to add that it seems to mc 
 as trustworthy as it is interesting. 
 
SECONDARY OR HIGHER SCHOOLS. 5 
 
 Halle in 1783, invited by Von Zedlitz, the 
 Minister for Public Worship under Frederick 
 the Great, a sovereign whose civil projects 
 and labours were not less active and remark- 
 able than his military, marks an era from 
 which the classical schools of Germany, 
 reviving the dormant spark planted in 
 them by the Renascence, awoke to a new 
 life, which, since the beginning of this century, 
 has drawn the eyes of all students of 
 intellectual progress upon them. 
 
 Prussia was the scene of Wolf's labours, 
 and the Prussian schools, both from their own 
 excellence and from the preponderating impor- 
 tance of Prussia at the present time, are 
 naturally the first in Germany to attract the 
 observer's attention. 
 
 As a rule, the secondary schools of Northern 
 and Central Germany are better than those of 
 Southern, and those of Protestant Germany 
 better than those of Catholic. This will hardly 
 be disputed ; yet the school system all through 
 Germany is in its main features much the 
 
6 DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 same, and is, in its completeness and careful- 
 ness, such as to excite a foreigner's admiration. 
 In Austria this excellent school system is not 
 wanting ; what is wanting there is the life, 
 power, and faith in its own operations which 
 animate it in other parts of Germany. No- 
 where has it this life and faith more than in 
 Prussia. It has them, indeed, in other and 
 smaller German territories as well ; a Prussian 
 will himself readily admit that the schools of 
 Frankfort,* or of the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, 
 are as good as his own. But it is in countries 
 of the scale and size of Prussia that a living 
 and powerful school system bears the most 
 noteworthy fruits ; and it is in Prussia, there- 
 fore, that I now proceed to trace them. 
 
 * This was written before Frankfort became Prussian. Prussia 
 now of course, stands for Germany in a degree, even, beyond what 
 could have been anticipated when the above was written. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF THE SECONDARY 
 OR HIGHER SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 
 
 Higher Schools of Prussia — Gymnasien — Progymnasien — Real- 
 schulen-^Hohere Biirgerschulen — Vorschulen, or Preparatory 
 Schools — Numbers of Teachers and Scholars. 
 
 The schools with which we are concerned, the 
 secondary schools as the French call them, the 
 higher schools (hohere Schulen) as the Germans 
 call them, are in Prussia thus classed : Gym- 
 nasiums, Progymnasiums, Real Schools, Upper 
 Burgher Schools (Gymnasien^ Progymnasien, 
 Realschulen, hohere Biirgerschulen). Above these 
 are the universities, below them the primary 
 or elementary schools.* 
 
 *The middle school {Mittelschule) , variously called Stadtschule, 
 
8 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 At the head of these secondary schools, and 
 directly leading to the universities, are the 
 Gymnasien, The uniform employment of this 
 term Gymnasium to designate them, dates from 
 a government instruction of 1812. Before this 
 they were variously called by the names of 
 Gymnasium, Lyceum, Paedagogium, College, 
 Latin School, and others. 
 
 A gymnasium has properly six classes, 
 counted upwards from the sixth, the lowest, 
 to the first (prima), the highest. But, in fact 
 in all large schools the classes have an upper 
 part and a lower part, and each part has, if 
 necessary, two parallel groups (ccetus). The 
 sixth and fifth classes form the lower division 
 of the school, the fourth and third the middle 
 division, the second and first the upper division. 
 In former times the Fachsystem, or system by 
 which the pupil was in different classes for the 
 different branches of his instruction, was pre- 
 
 Bilrgerschule, Rectnratschule, is in truth only an elementary school of 
 a higher grade, and in France is called ^cole ilementairc superieure ; 
 in Switzerland, hi'ihere Folkschule, Secundarschule. 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 9 
 
 valent ; since 1820 this system has been 
 gradually superseded by the Classensystem, which 
 keeps the pupil in the same class for all his 
 \York. The course in each of the three lower 
 classes is of one year, in each of the three 
 higher of two years, making nine in all ; it 
 being calculated that a boy should enter the 
 gymnasium when he is nine or ten years old, 
 and leave it for the university when he is 
 eighteen or nineteen. 
 
 The Lehrplan, or plan of work, is fixed for all 
 Gymnasien by ministerial authority, as in France 
 and Italy. It is far, however, from being a 
 reries of detailed programmes as in those 
 countries. What it does is to fix the matters 
 of instruction, the number of hours to be 
 allotted to them, the gradual development of 
 them from the bottom of the school to the top. 
 Within the limits of the general organisation of 
 study thus established, great freedom is left to 
 the teacher, and great variety is to be found in 
 practice. 
 
 Some years ago the hours of work were 32 in 
 
lo PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 the week. This was found too much, and since 
 1856, in the lowest class of a gymnasium there 
 are 28 hours of regular school work in the 
 week ; in the five higher classes there are 30 
 hours. The school hours are in the morning 
 from 7 to about 11 in summer, from 8 to 
 about 12 in winter; in the afternoon they are 
 from 2 to 4 all the year round. As in France, 
 there is but one half-holiday in the week, and it 
 is in the middle of the week. 
 
 Latin has ten hours a week given to it in all 
 five classes below prima, and eight in prima. 
 Greek begins in quarta, and thenceforward has 
 six hours a week in each class, by which the 
 reader will at once see that we are no longer in 
 France or Italy, but in a country whose schools 
 treat the study of Greek as seriously as the best 
 schools among ourselves. The mother tongue 
 (and here we quit the practice of English 
 schools) has two hours a week in all classes 
 helow prima, and three in prima. But in the 
 two lowest classes it is always taught in con- 
 nection with Latin and by the same teacher, 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA, il 
 
 and time may, if necessary, be taken from Latin 
 to give to it. Arithmetic or mathematics have 
 four hours a week in secunda and prima, three in 
 quinta, quarta, and tertia, and four again in the 
 lowest class. French begins in quintan and is 
 the only modern language except their own 
 which the boys learn as part of the regular 
 school work; it has three hours a week in 
 qtcinta, and two in all the classes above. Many 
 gymnasiums offer their pupils the opportunity 
 of learning English or Italian, but as an extra 
 matter. Geography and history have two 
 hours a week in sexta and quinta, and thence- 
 faiward three hours. The natural sciences get 
 two hours in prima and one in secunda ; in the 
 rest of the school they are the most movable 
 part of the work, the school authorities having 
 it in their power to take time from them to give 
 to arithmetic, geography, and history, or to 
 add time to them in places where there is no 
 Realschule and the boys in the middle of the 
 gymnasium wish to study the natural sciences 
 in preference to Greek. Drawing is a part of 
 
12 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 the regular school work in the three lower 
 classes of the school, and has two hours a week. 
 Sexta and quinta have three hours a week of the 
 writing master. 
 
 Every class has religious instruction ; sexta 
 and quinta for three hoars a week, the four 
 higher classes for two. All the boys learn 
 singing and gymnastics, and all who are des- 
 tined for the theological faculty at the univer- 
 sity learn in secimda and prima Hebrew ; but 
 these three matters do not come into the 
 regular school hours. 
 
 I have said that in places where there is no 
 Reahchule, boys in the middle division of a 
 gymnasium may substitute other studies for 
 that of Greek. Where there is a Reahchule 
 accessible, this is not permitted ; and in the 
 upper division of a gymnasium it is nowhere 
 permitted. In general, the gymnasium is 
 steadily to regard the allgemeine wissenschaftlicJie 
 Bildung of the pupil, the formation of his mind 
 and of his powers of knowledge, without pre- 
 maturely taking thought for the practical ap- 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 13 
 
 plicability of what he studies. It is expressly 
 forbidden to give this practical or professional 
 turn to the studies of a pupil in the highest 
 forms of a gymnasium, even when he is destined 
 for the army. 
 
 Progymnasiums are merely gymnasiums with- 
 out their higher classes. Most progymnasi- 
 ums have the lower and middle divisions of a 
 gymnasium, four classes ; some have only the 
 lower divisions and half of the middle, three 
 classes; some, again, have all the classes 
 except prima. The progymnasium follows, so 
 far as it has the same classes, the Lehrplan of 
 the gymnasium. In the small towns, where it 
 is not possible to maintain at once a progym- 
 nasium and a Realschule, the progymnasium 
 has often parallel classes for classical and for 
 non-classical studies. But, in general, the ten- 
 dency within the last five years has been for 
 the progymnasium to develope itself into the 
 lull gymnasium, and when I was at Berlin Dr. 
 Wiese, a member of the Council of Education 
 there, to whom I am indebted for much valu- 
 
14 -. PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 able assistance,* pointed out to me on the map 
 a number of places, scattered all about the 
 Prussian dominions, where this process was 
 either just completed or still going on. 
 
 To reform the old methods of teaching the 
 classics, to reduce their preponderance, to make 
 school studies bear more directly upon the 
 wants of practical life, and to aim at imparting 
 what IS called * useful knowledge,' were pro- 
 jects not unknown to the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth century as well as to ours. Come- 
 nius, a Moravian by birth, who in 1641 was in- 
 vited to England in order to remodel the schools 
 here, and in the following century Rousseau in 
 France and Basedow in Germany, promulgated, 
 with various degrees of notoriety and success, 
 various schemes with one or other of these 
 objects. The Philanthropinum of Dessau, an 
 institution established in pursuance of them, 
 
 * Dr. Wiese has written an interesting work on the English public 
 schools ; but his book on those of Prussia, Das hohere Schulwesen in 
 Preussen, Berlin, 1864 (pp. 740), is a mine of the fullest, mcst 
 authentic information on the subject of which it treats, and is indis- 
 pensable for all who have to study this closely. 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 15 
 
 was an experiment which made much noise in 
 its day. It was broken up about 1780, but its 
 impulse and the ideas which set this impulse in 
 motion, continued, and bear fruit in the Real- 
 schulen. The name Realschule was first used at 
 Halle ; a school with that title. was established 
 there by Christoph Semler, in 1738. This 
 Realschule did not last long, but it was followed 
 by others in different parts of the country. 
 They took a long time to hit their right line 
 and to succeed ; it is said to be only from 1822 
 that the first really good specimen dates. This 
 one was at Berlin, and though it did not begin to 
 work thoroughly well till 1822, it had been 
 founded in 1747, and had been in existence ever 
 since that time. Its founder's name was 
 Johann Hecker, who was a Berlin parish-cler- 
 gyman. The Government began to occupy 
 itself with the Realschulen in 1832, and as the 
 growth of industry and the spread of the 
 modern spirit gave them more and more im- 
 portance, a definite plan and course had to be 
 framed for them, as for the Gymnasien, This 
 
1 6 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 was done in 1859.* Realschulen were distin- 
 guished as of three kinds ; Realschulen of the 
 first rank, Realschulen of the second rank, and 
 higher Burgher Schools. For Realschulen of 
 the first rank the number and system of classes 
 was the same as that for the Gymnasien; the 
 full course was of nine years. The Lehrplan 
 fixes a rather greater number of hours of school 
 work for them than the Gymnasien have ; 30 for 
 the lowest class, 31 for the class next above, 32 
 for each of the four others. 
 
 All three kinds of Realschulen are for boys 
 destined to callings for which university studies 
 are not required. But Latin is still obligatory 
 in Realschulen of the first rank, and in the three 
 lower classes of these schools it has more time 
 allotted to it than any other subject. In the 
 highest class it comes to its minimum of time, 
 three hours ; and in this class, and in scctinday 
 the time given to mathematics and the natural 
 sciences amounts altogether to eleven hours a 
 
 * By the Unterrichts- und Priifungtordnung fur die Realschulen 
 und die hdheren BiirgerscKulen of the 6th of October in that year. 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 17 
 
 week. As the Realschule leads, not to the 
 university, but to business, English becomes 
 obligatory in it as well as French. French, 
 however, has most time allotted to it. Reli- 
 gious instruction has the same number of hours 
 here as in the Gymnasien, Drawing, which in 
 the Gymnasien ceases after quarta to be a part of 
 the regular school work, has in the Realschule 
 two hours a week in each of the five classes 
 below prima, and three in prima. 
 
 It is found that after quarta, that is, after 
 three years of school, many of the Realschule 
 boys leave ; and an attempt is therefore made 
 to render the first three years' course as sub- 
 stantial and as complete in itself as possible. 
 
 The Realschulen of the second rank have the 
 six classes of those of the first ; but they are 
 distinguished from them by not having Latin 
 made obligatory, by being free to make their 
 course a seven years' course instead of a nine, 
 and, in general, by being allowed a considerable 
 latitude in varying their arrangements to meet 
 special local wants. A general, not professional, 
 
 c 
 
1 8 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 mental training, is still the aim of the Realschtde 
 of the first rank, in spite of its not preparing for 
 the university. A lower grade of this training, 
 with an admixture of directly practical and pro- 
 fessional aims, satisfies the Realschtde of the 
 second rank. 
 
 Where a gymnasium and a Realschule are 
 united in a single establishment, under one 
 direction, the classes sexta and quinta may be 
 common to both, but above quinta the classes 
 must be separate. 
 
 The term Bilrgerschule was long used inter- 
 changeably with that of Realschule. The regu- 
 lations of 1859 have assigned the name of 
 higher Burgher School to that third class of 
 Realschulen, which has not the complete system 
 of six forms that the Gymnasien and the other 
 two kinds of Realschulen have. The higher 
 Burgher School stands, therefore, to the Real- 
 schtde in the same relation in which the Pro- 
 gymnasium stands to the Gymnasium. Some 
 Burgher Schools have as many as five classes, 
 only lacking prima. The very name of the 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 1 9 
 
 Bilrgerschulen indicates that in the predomi- 
 nance of a local and a municipal character, and 
 in the smaller share given to classics, they 
 follow the line of the Realschulen of the second 
 order. Still Latin has three or four hours a 
 week in all the best of these schools. They 
 are, however, the least classical of all the 
 higher schools ; but several of them, in small 
 places where there cannot be two schools, have 
 gymnasial classes parallel with the real classes 
 just as certain Gymnasieny in like circumstances, 
 have real classes parallel with their classical 
 classes. 
 
 As the elementary schools pursue a course of 
 teaching which is not specially designed as a 
 preparation for the higher schools, it has be- 
 come a common practice to establish Vorschulen, 
 or preparatory schools, as in France, to be ap- 
 pendages of the several higher schools, to re- 
 ceive little boys without the previous examina- 
 tion in reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar 
 and Scripture history, which the higher school 
 imposes, and to pass them on in their tenth 
 
 c 2 
 
20 PRESENT ORGANISATION OF 
 
 year, duly prepared, into the higher school. 
 These Vorschulen have in general two classes. 
 
 These are the higher or secondary schools of 
 Prussia. Before the Austrian war, the popula- 
 tion of Prussia was 18,476,500. The latest 
 complete school returns are those for the year 
 1863. In 1863, Prussia possessed 255 higher 
 schools, with 3,349 teachers in them, and 66,135 
 scholars. She had 84 Vorschulen, or public 
 preparatory schools, with 188 teachers, and 
 8,027 scholars. Of the 255 higher schools, 172 
 were classical schools, gymnasiums or pro- 
 gymnasiums, with 45,403 scholars ; 83 were 
 non-classical schools, belonging to one or other 
 of the three orders of Realschulen, with 20,732 
 scholars. 
 
 All these schools have a public character, are 
 subject to State inspection, must bring their 
 accounts to be audited by a public functionary, 
 and can have no masters whose qualifications 
 have not been strictly and publicly tried. We 
 find in the year 1865, I will not say in the 
 public schools df England, but in all the schools 
 
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 21 
 
 which by any straining or indulgence can pos- 
 sibly be made to bear that title, 15,880 scholars. 
 In the public higher schools and preparatory 
 schools of Prussia we find 74,162 scholars. 
 
 I will not now press this comparison, but will 
 pass on to show in what way the higher schools 
 of Prussia have a public character. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF THE PRUS- 
 SIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 Common Law of Prussia — State-action and Regulation — Origin and 
 History of the Central Education Department — Origin and 
 History of the Provincial School Authorities — Provincial School 
 Boards and District School Boards — Examining Commissions — 
 Local and Municipal School Authorities — Endowments and Cna- 
 rities ; their Management — Patronage of Schools. 
 
 There is no organic school-law in Prussia like 
 the organic school-law of France, though 
 sketches and projects of such a law have more 
 than once been prepared. But at present the 
 public control of the higher schools is exercised 
 through administrative orders and instructions, 
 like the minutes of our Committee of Council 
 on Education. But the administrative autho- 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 23 
 
 rity has in Prussia a very different basis for its 
 operations from that which it has in England, 
 and a much firmer one. It has for its basis 
 these articles of the Allgeme'me Landrecht, or 
 common law of Prussia, which was drawn up 
 in writing in Frederick the Great's reign, and 
 promulgated in 1794, in the reign of his suc- 
 cessor : — 
 
 * Schools and universities are State institu- 
 tions, having for their object the instruction of 
 youth in useful information and scientific 
 knowledge. 
 
 * Such establishments are to be instituted only 
 with the State's previous knowledge and consent. 
 
 * All public schools and public establishments 
 of education are under the State's supervision, 
 and must at all times submit themselves to its 
 examinations and inspections. 
 
 * Whenever the appointment of teachers is 
 not by virtue of the foundation or of a special 
 privilege vested in certain persons or corpora- 
 tions, it belongs to the State. 
 
 ' Even where the immediate supervision of 
 such schools and the appointment of their 
 
24 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 teachers is committed to certain private persons 
 or corporations, new teachers cannot be ap- 
 pointed, and important changes in the constitu- 
 tion and teaching of the school cannot be 
 adopted, without the previous knowledge or 
 consent of the provincial school authorities. 
 
 * The teachers in the gymnasiums and other 
 higher schools have the character of State 
 functionaries.' 
 
 To the same effect the Prussian Deed of 
 Constitution (Verfassungs-Urkunde) of 1850 has 
 the following : — 
 
 ^* For the education of the young sufficient 
 provision is to be made by means of public 
 schools. 
 
 * Every one is free to impart instruction, 
 and to found and to conduct establishments 
 for instruction, when he has proved to the 
 satisfaction of the proper State authorities 
 that he has the moral, scientific, and technical 
 qualifications requisite. 
 
 'All public and private establishments are 
 under the supervision of authorities named by 
 the State.' 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 25 
 
 With these principles to serve as a basis, 
 administrative control can be exercised with- 
 out much difficulty. These principles, how- 
 ever, may with real truth be said to form 
 part of the common law of Prussia, for they 
 form part of almost every Prussian citizen^s 
 notions of what is right and fitting in school 
 concerns. It would be a mistake to suppose 
 that the State in Prussia shows a grasping 
 and centralising spirit in dealing with educa- 
 tion ; on the contrary, it makes the adminis- 
 tration of it as local as it possibly can ; but 
 it takes care that education shall not be left 
 to the chapter of accidents. 
 
 Up to the middle of the last century, how- 
 ever, the higher schools were so far left to 
 this chapter of accidents, that the State 
 practised little or no interference with the 
 free action of patrons. But it is important 
 to observe that the State was always, in 
 Prussia, an important school patron itself, 
 and exercised its rights of patronage, while 
 in England these rights slipped from its hands. 
 
26 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 Royal foundations 4or schools are in Prussia 
 very numerous, and in all Prussian schools 
 of royal foundation the patronage remains 
 vested in the Crown till this day. Schools like 
 Eton and Westminster, like King Edward's 
 School at Birmingham, like the grammar 
 schools of Sherborne, of Bury St. Edmund^s, 
 and so many others, would have been in 
 Prussia * Crown patronage schools,' with a 
 public, responsible, disinterested authority no- 
 minating their masters. So far, therefore, 
 even without any assertion of the right of 
 the State to control private patrons, the higher 
 schools of Prussia have a security which ours 
 have not. The assertion of such a State right, 
 beyond the mere rights of the Crown as a 
 patron, appears in the reign of Friedrich 
 Wilhelm I., and gains definiteness and purpose 
 from that time forth. The General-Directorium 
 created by this sovereign, in 1722, was a minis- 
 terial body with a department for spiritualities 
 (Geistliches Departement) to which the exercise 
 of the Crown rights of control over churches 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 27 
 
 and schools were entrusted. This department 
 was in a few years attached to that of the 
 Minister of Justice, and as such it was held 
 by an able minister, formed in Frederick the 
 Great^s school. Von Zedlitz, who in 1787 
 separated the church and school affairs of the 
 Geistliches Departement, and committed the 
 school affairs to a High Board of Schools 
 {Ober-Schulcollegium). In the great movement 
 of reconstruction which between 1806 and 1812 
 renewed the civil and military organisation of 
 Prussia, the Board of Schools was abolished, 
 and the Education Department was made, in 
 1808, a section of the HomCtOffice. Wilhelm 
 von Humboldt was placed at its head.^ Finally, 
 in 1817, this Education section became an in- 
 dependent ministerial department, and its chief 
 took the title of Minister for Spiritualities and 
 Education {Minister der Geistlichen- und Unter- 
 richtsangelegenheiten). The first minister was 
 
 * In June, 1810, Wilhelm von Humboldt went as Prussian envoy 
 to Vienna, and the rest of his public life was chiefly passed, as is well 
 known, in the diplomatic service of his country. 
 
28 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 Freiherr von Altenstein. Medicine having been 
 added to the affairs over which this department 
 has supervision, the minister's full style now is 
 Minister der Geistltchen- Unterrichts- und Medicinal- 
 angelegenheiten. 
 
 When the Education Department was made 
 a section of the Home Office, Wilhelm von 
 Humboldt had two functionaries with the title 
 of technische Rathe, technical counsellors, placed 
 with him. These technische Rathe have now 
 grown into eight, and they, with the Minister 
 and the under Secretary of State for the depart- 
 ment, constitute the central authority ■ for the 
 affairs of education. 
 
 But in Prussia it is not the central minister 
 who has the most direct and important action 
 on the schools, it is the authorities representing 
 the State in the several parts of the country. 
 It is from Wilhelm von Humboldt's accession to 
 office in 1808 that the establishment of a fruit- 
 ful relation between these two authorities, the 
 schools and the central power, really dates. 
 Before that time, in accordance with the notions 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 29 
 
 which closely connected the School with the 
 Church, the provincial authorities with an action 
 upon the schools were the consistories. These 
 were, indeed, State authorities, for their mem- 
 bers are named by the Crown, or head of the 
 State; the head of the State being in Prussia 
 far more practically than in England the head 
 of the Church also, inasmuch as in Prussia the 
 Crown is actually summus episcopus ; the powers 
 of supervision and discipline vested of old in the 
 bishops, and in England, where we have kept 
 our bishops, still vested in them, having gone, 
 in Protestant Germany, straight to the Crown. 
 The Crown as summus episcopus exercises its 
 rights through consistories, and the members of 
 the consistories are in consequence nominees of 
 the State. The consistories therefore supplied 
 a provincial State authority for dealing with 
 schools. But the employment of them for this 
 purpose had two evident administrative incon- 
 conveniences, to say nothing of other objections 
 to it. In the first place, the consistories were 
 in relation at the centre of Government not 
 
30 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 with the Education Department but with the 
 High Consistory. In the second place, it is 
 only as a Protestant sovereign that the King of 
 Prussia is head of the Church and represented 
 throughout the country by consistories. As a 
 Catholic sovereign he is not head of the Church, 
 and has in the provinces no consistory or 
 ecclesiastical authority which is also a State 
 authority. But Prussia has nearly seven mil- 
 lions of Catholic subjects. For Catholic schools, 
 therefore, as well as for Protestant, a provincial 
 State authority was required, and this authority 
 the consistory coiild not supply. 
 
 The administration of 1808 established in 
 each of the Regierungen, or governmental dis- 
 tricts, into which Prussia was divided, a depu- 
 tation for worship and public instruction {Depu- 
 tation fur Cidtus und bffentlichen Unterricht.) 
 These deputations were in immediate connexion 
 with the Education Department at Berlin; they 
 represented, in the supervision of the schools 
 in the provinces, the State authority, and ex- 
 ercised for the most part the Crown patronage. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 31 
 
 In 1810 were added three Scientific Deputations 
 {Wissenschaftliche Deputationen), one at Berlin, 
 one at Konigsberg, one at Breslau, to examine 
 teachers for the secondary schools and to advise 
 the Government on all important matters re- 
 lating to these. The Berlin deputation had for 
 its members the two technische Rathe of the 
 Education Department, Silvern and Nicolovius, 
 and besides these, Ancillon, Friedrich August 
 Wolf, and Schleiermacher. The English reader 
 will observe the sort of persons who in Prussia 
 were chosen for the management, at a critical 
 moment, of the State's relations with education. 
 The higher schools of Prussia feel to this 
 day the benefits of that management. Varia- 
 tions took place in the organisation of the 
 provincial authority, as the different divisions of 
 the Prussian monarchy were constituted afresh, 
 but its general character remained the same, 
 and has remained so till this day. Prussia is 
 now divided into eight provinces,* and these 
 
 * I speak throughout of Prussia as she was before her late war 
 with Austria. 
 
32 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 eight provinces are again divided into twenty- 
 six governmental districts, or Regierungen. 
 There is a Provincial School Board {Provinzial- 
 Schulcollegium) in the chief town of each of the 
 eight provinces, and a Governmental District 
 Board in that of each of the twenty-six Regier- 
 ungen. In general, the State's relations with 
 the higher class of secondary schools are ex- 
 ercised through the Provincial Board ; its rela- 
 tions with the lower class of them, and with 
 the primary schools, through the District Board. 
 In Berlin, the relations with these also are 
 managed by the Provincial Board. A Provin- 
 zial-Schulcollegium has for its president the High 
 President of the province ; for its director the 
 vice-president of that governmental district 
 which happens to have for its centre the pro- 
 vincial capital. The Board has two or three 
 other members, of whom, in general, one is a 
 Catholic and one is a Protestant ; and one is 
 always a man practically conversant with school 
 matters. The District Board has in the pro- 
 vincial capitals the same president and director 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 33 
 
 as the Provincial Board ; in the other centres 
 of Regierungen it has for its president the Pre- 
 sident of the Regienmg, and three or four mem- 
 bers selected on the same principle as the 
 members of the Provincial Board. 
 
 The provincial State authority, therefore, is, 
 in general, for gymnasiums, the larger progym- 
 nasiums, and Realschulen of the first rank, the 
 Provincial School Board ; for the smaller pro- 
 gymnasiums, Realschulen of the second rank, 
 the higher Burgher Schools, and the primary 
 schools of all kinds, the Governmental District 
 Board. Both boards are in continual commu- 
 nication with the Education Minister at Berlin, 
 and every two or three years they have to draw 
 up for him a general report on the school affairs 
 of their province or district. 
 
 The Scientific Deputations are now replaced 
 by seven Examination Commissions {Wissen- 
 schaftliche Prufungscommissionen).* The most 
 
 * The seats of these seven Commissions are the towns of Berlin, 
 Konigsberg, Breslau, Halle, MiJnster, Bonn, and Greitswald. These 
 towns are also the seats of the Prussian universities. 
 
 D 
 
34 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 important business of these Commissions being 
 to examine teachers for the secondary schools, 
 they have seven members, one for each of 
 the main subjects in which teachers are 
 examined, — philology, history, mathematics, 
 paedagogy, theology, and the natural sciences. 
 These Commissions report to the Minister 
 every year. 
 
 Besides the central and provincial adminis- 
 tration there is a local or municipal administra- 
 tion for schools that are not Crown patronage 
 schools. Matters of teaching and discipline, 
 — interna as they are called, — do not in any 
 public schools, even when their patrons are 
 municipalities or private persons, come within 
 the jurisdiction of the local authority ; they are 
 referred to the provincial and district boards. 
 The local authority administers externay — that 
 is, it manages the school property, fixes the 
 school fees, gives free admissions to poor 
 scholars, and the like ; and it nominates, when 
 the patronage is private or municipal, the 
 teacher ; but for his confirmation recourse must 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 35 
 
 be had to the State authority, provincial or 
 central. Thus, if local or municipal patrons 
 chose to appoint a master who had not got his 
 certificate from one of the Examination Com- 
 missions, the appointment would be quashed. 
 In most towns the local authority for schools of 
 municipal patronage is the town magistracy, as- 
 sisted by a Stadtschulrath; sometimes the local 
 authority is a Curatorium or Schulcommission, To 
 take one case as a specimen. The two town gym- 
 nasiums at Breslau are under a Curatorium, of 
 which the composition is as follows : a member 
 of the magistracy (who must be a lawyer), 
 president ; two members chosen by the repre- 
 sentative body of the commune, and the rectors 
 of the two gymnasiums. This body draws up 
 the school estimate, of which presently ; looks 
 after the administration of the school property, 
 sees that the school premises are kept in order 
 and properly supplied with what they want, re- 
 presents the town at the leaving examinations, 
 or other public solemnities in which the gym- 
 nasiums are concerned, has a consultative voice 
 
 D 2 
 
36 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 as to any change in the mode of regulating the 
 free admissions, receives from the rector, when 
 he and the majority of the masters are agreed 
 on a boy's expulsion, notice that a boy has been 
 expelled, with the grounds for it ; if the rector 
 and a majority of his Lehrercollegium differ as 
 to the propriety of expelling, the Curatorium 
 decides. It is not the Curatorium that nomi- 
 nates the masters, but the town magistracy, 
 subject to approval by the proper State autho- 
 rity. The teaching and all that relates to it 
 are in each gymnasium under the rector's con- 
 trol, who is responsible on this head to the 
 Provincial Board and not to the Curatorium. 
 
 In cases where the Crown has had a share in 
 endowing a school, or has made a grant to it, it 
 acquires joint rights of patronage with the local 
 patrons, and for the exercise of these rights it 
 is represented by a commissioner, who is always, 
 as such, a member of the Curatorium. 
 
 Only a few Prussian schools, such as those 
 of Schulpforta and Rossleben, or the Joachims- 
 thal School at Berlin, have so large an endow- 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 37 
 
 ment that it can fully support them. But a 
 very large number have endowments of some 
 sort, or else grants from some school charity 
 or other, such as the Marienstift at Stettin for 
 schools in Pomerania, the Sacksche Stiftung in 
 Silesia for schools in the principalities of 
 Glogau, Wohlau, and Liegnitz, and many 
 other such foundations. The Provincial or 
 District Boards supervise the externa, the pro- 
 perty concerns, as well as the interna, the 
 teaching concerns, of all schools of Crown 
 patronage ; but by the Prussian law, wherever 
 there is an endowment, there is a public right to 
 see that this endowment is properly employed ; 
 so that there is a public control for the manage- 
 ment of all endowments of private as well as of 
 Crown patronage. The school appoints a man 
 of business (Rendant, Rechnungsfuhrer) charged 
 with the financial administration (Cassenfuhrung) 
 of the school ; the authority in whom the pa- 
 tronage of the school is vested (Patronatsbehdrde) 
 draws out a school estimate (Schul-Etat) every 
 three years, showing in detail the school's in- 
 
38 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 come, actual and estimated, for the three years 
 about to commence, and its estimated expendi- 
 ture. In every government district, or Regier- 
 ungy there is a public functionary whose 
 business it is to review these estimates, and 
 who addresses to the Rendant his remarks 
 and requirements (Revisionsennnerungeftf Re- 
 visionsfoYschungen), which the Rendant has to 
 lay before the Patronatshehorde, whatever this 
 may be, Curatorium, Schulcommission, etc., and 
 to which this authority must pay attention. 
 An abusive application of trust funds, or of 
 grants from a charity, is thus checked : all 
 expenses not in the estimate have to be 
 accounted for, and all improper expenses are 
 disallowed. The local patrons can only resist 
 by applying to the administrative authority next 
 above that which has dealt with them (vorgesetzte 
 Instanz), and this appeal they will never make 
 when they know they have a bad case. 
 
 The State has part in the patronage of more 
 than half of the secondary schools in Prussia ; 
 in 72 of them as absolute patron, in 74 of them 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 39 
 
 as part patron. The immense majority of the 
 schools of which it is absolute patron belong to 
 the category of Gymnasienj the highest and most 
 expensive class of secondary schools. There 
 were, in 1864,* 145 gymnasien in Prussia ; of 
 65 of these the Crown had the exclusive 
 patronage. At the same date there were 28 
 Progymnasien, 49 Realschulen of the first rank, 
 16 of the second, and 21 higher Burgher 
 Schools. Of only seven of these had the 
 Crown the exclusive patronage ; of three pro- 
 gymnasiums, two Realschulen of the first rank, 
 one of the second, and one higher Burgher 
 School. Under municipal patronage were 26 
 gymnasiums, 11 progymnasiums, 35 Realschden 
 of the first rank, 10 of the second, and 13 higher 
 Burgher Schools. The municipalities thus show 
 that leaning towards real instruction which 
 might be expected from them ; of the 49 
 Realschden of the first rank they have 35. 
 
 * A year later than the year for which I had complete returns, 
 and for which I gave, as the total of Prussian higher schools open in 
 that year, 255. In 1864 there were 259. 
 
40 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 What is most striking to an Englishman is 
 the small number of public schools under 
 patronage neither royal nor municipal, but 
 under the patronage of some church, or cor- 
 poration, or private person ; there are but 12 
 of them altogether, five Gymnasien, two Pro- 
 gymnasien, one Realschule of the first order, 
 and four higher Burgher Schools. The ques- 
 tion therefore as to the rights and interests 
 of private patrons of public schools does not 
 take, so far as the number of their school 
 goes, very important dimensions. The total 
 expenditure on the higher schools and their 
 Vorschulen v^as, in 1864, 2,580,684 thalers (in 
 round figures, about ^387,100). Of this sum 
 the scholars' fees contributed 1,193,055 thalers; 
 the State, 526,722 thalers; the municipalities, 
 401,046 thalers ; school property produced 
 384,224 thalers, and benefactions not under 
 public administration, 75,637 thalers. The 
 State is therefore, after the scholars them- 
 selves, the great supporter of the public schools, 
 as well as the principal patron of them. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 41 
 
 But the reader will ask, in what sense are 
 the schools with private patrons to be called 
 public schools ? They are public schools 
 because they fulfil the requirements, adopt 
 the title and constitution, and follow the 
 Lehrplan fixed by public authority for the 
 five classes of public secondary schools, and 
 by so doing obtain the status and privilege of 
 such schools. Are there not a great many 
 important establishments, then, the reader may 
 next ask, which do not care to get this status, 
 but prefer to be independent? I answer: No 
 school in Prussia can be independent, in the 
 sense of owing no account to any one for the 
 teacher it employs, or the way in which it is con- 
 ducted; because for every school there is a verord- 
 nete Aufsichtsgewalt, an ordained authority of 
 supervision. But private persons are no doubt 
 free to open establishments of their own, 
 give them a constitution of their own, 
 and follow a Lehrplan of their own. There 
 are ten large private schools in Berlin for the 
 class of b^ys who go to secondary schools ; 
 
42 GOVERNMENT AND PATRONAGE OF 
 
 these private schools, however, have the public 
 schools in view, and take boys whose parents 
 do not like to send them very young to the 
 great public schools, classical or non-classical ; 
 but when these boys are ready for the middle 
 divison of the public Gymnasium or Realschule, 
 they pass on there. These private schools are 
 merely preparatory schools for the public 
 schools, and accordingly they are organised 
 as progymnasiums and as higher Burgher 
 Schools. They represent no anti-public-school 
 feeling, no rival line in education. Two re- 
 markable institutions which did not prepare 
 for the public schools, which gave a complete 
 course of secondary instruction of their own 
 arranging, and which were private schools, 
 ecoles litres, in the full sense of the term, — the 
 Plamannsche Anstalt and the Cauersche Anstalt, — 
 existed at Berlin not long ago, but they exist 
 there no longer. Experiments of the same kind 
 are being tried elsewhere. The Victoria Institut, 
 at Falkenberg, is a prominent specimen of 
 them ; it is a regular private boarding school. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 43 
 
 charging 400 thalers (£60) a year, and it pro- 
 fesses to give the training either of the gym- 
 nasiums or of the Realschulen, whichever the 
 pupil prefers. The English generally know 
 more of schools of this kind than of the public 
 schools in Germany, because this kind of 
 private school has a boarding establishment 
 and the public schools have not^ and a foreign 
 parent generally looks out for a school with a 
 boarding establishment. For the most part he 
 is no judge at all of schools on their real 
 merits; he sends his son to a foreign school 
 that he may learn the modern languages, and 
 the boy will learn these at a private school just 
 as much as at a public one. But the Germans 
 themselves undoubtedly prefer their public 
 schools. An attendance in the public secon- 
 dary schools of 74,000 pupils, in a population 
 of 18,500,000, which is Prussia's population, 
 shows that the Prussians prefer them. And 
 it is the same in other German countries. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. THE 
 ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 
 
 Preference for Public Schools — The Leaving Examination (Abitu- 
 rientenexamen) ; its History — Present Plan of the Leaving Ex- 
 amination in Gymnasien — Object Proposed by the Founders of 
 the Leaving Examination — Leaving Examination in Realschulen 
 — Examinations of Passage. 
 
 I BELIEVE that the public schools are preferred, 
 in Prussia, on their merits. The Prussians are 
 satisfied with them, and are proud of them, and 
 with good reason ; the schools have been in- 
 telligently planned to meet their intelligent 
 wants. But the preponderance of the public 
 schools is further secured by the establishment 
 in connexion with them of the * leaving ex- 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 45 
 
 aminations^ {Abiturientenprufungen, Maturitdts- 
 prufungen, Entlassungsprilfungen, A bgangsprufun- 
 gen), on which depends admission to the uni- 
 versities, to special schools (Fachschulen) like 
 the Gewerbe-Institut or the Bauakademie, and to 
 civil and militar}'' service of the State. The 
 learned professions can only be reached through 
 the universities, so the access to these pro- 
 fessions depends on the leaving examination. 
 The pupils of private tutors or private schools 
 can present themselves for this examination ; 
 but it is held at the public schools, it turns 
 upon the studies of the upper forms of the public 
 schools, and it is conducted in great part by 
 their teachers. A public schoolboy undoubtedly 
 presents himself for it with an advantage ; and 
 its object undoubtedly is, not the illusory one of 
 an examination-test as in our public service it 
 is employed, but the sound one of ensuring as 
 far as possible that a youth shall pass a certain 
 number of years under the best school-teaching 
 of his country. This really trains him, which 
 the mere application of an examination-test 
 
46 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 does not ; but an examination-test is wisely 
 used in conjunction with this training, to take 
 care that a youth has really profited by it. No 
 nation that did not honestly feel it had made 
 its public secondary schools the best places of 
 training for its middle and upper classes, could 
 institute the leaving examination I am going to 
 describe ; but Prussia has a right to feel that 
 she has made hers this, and therefore she had a 
 right to institute this examination. It forms an 
 all-important part of the secondary instruction 
 of that country, and I hope the reader will give 
 me his attention while I describe it. 
 
 Before 1788 admission to the Prussian uni- 
 versities was a very easy affair. You went to 
 the dean of the faculty in which you wished to 
 study ; you generally brought with you a letter 
 of recommendation from the school you left ; 
 the dean asked you a few questions and ascer- 
 tained that you knew Latin ; then you were 
 matriculated. The Ober-Schulcollegium, which 
 was in 1788 the authority at the head of 
 Prussian public instruction, perceiving that 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 47 
 
 from the insufficiency of the entrance examina- 
 tion the universities were cumbered with un- 
 prepared and idle students, determined to try 
 and cure this state of things. In December of 
 that year a royal edict was issued to the public 
 schools and universities directing that the 
 public schools should make their boys undergo 
 an- examination before they proceeded to the 
 university; and that the universities should 
 make the boys who came up to them from 
 private schools undergo an examination cor- 
 responding to that of the public schoolboys. 
 Every one who underwent the examination was 
 to receive a certificate of his ripeness or un- 
 ripeness for univerity studies {Zeugniss der Retfe, 
 Zeugniss der Unreife), The candidates declared 
 to be unripe might still enter the university if 
 their parents chose ; but it was hoped that, 
 guided by this test, their parents would keep 
 them at school till they were properly prepared, 
 or else send them into some other line. No 
 plan of examination was prescribed, but the 
 certificate was to record, under the two heads 
 
48 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 of languages and scienceSy the candidate's pro- 
 ficiency in each of these matters. 
 
 The Allgemeine Landrecht, promulgated in 
 1794, after complaints had been rife that the 
 universities had still a number of unprofitable 
 students, and that young men went there merely 
 to escape military service, made yet stricter 
 regulations. It ordered the examination held at 
 the university for boys coming from private 
 schools to be conducted by a Commission ; and 
 it forbade the matriculation of any one who did 
 not obtain a certificate of his ripeness. 
 
 But the omitting to prescribe a definite plan 
 for the examination, and the entrusting them 
 to two different bodies, the schools and the 
 universities, caused the intentions of the 
 Government to be in great measure frustrated. 
 There was no uniform standard of examination. 
 The schools made the standard high, the uni- 
 versities made it low ; and numbers of young 
 men, leaving the public schools without under- 
 going the Abiturientenexamen there, waited a 
 little while, and then presented themselves to 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 49 
 
 be examined at the university, where the ex- 
 amination was notoriously much laxer than at 
 the school. 
 
 The great epoch of reform for the higher 
 schools of Prussia is Wilhelm von Humboldt's 
 year and a half at the head of the Education 
 Department. The first words of a memoran- 
 dum of this date on a proposal not to require 
 Greek except of students for orders : " Es ist 
 nicht darum zu thun, dass Schulen und Uni- 
 versitiiten in einem tragen und kraftlosen Ge- 
 wohnheitsgange blieben, sondern darum, dass 
 durch sie die Bildung der Nation auf eine 
 immer hohere Stufe gebracht werde,* — 
 might be taken as a motto for his whole 
 administration of public instruction. It was 
 Wilhelm von Humboldt who took the most im- 
 portant step towards making the A hiturienten- 
 priifung what it now is. He was the originator 
 of a uniform plan of examination obligatory 
 
 * * The thing is not, to let the schools and universities go on in a 
 drowsy and impotent routine ; the thing is, to raise the culture of 
 the nation ever higher and higher by their means.' 
 
 E 
 
50 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 on all who examined candidates for entrance to 
 the university. Schleiermacher, who, as I have 
 said, was a member of the Education Council, 
 wished to take away this examination from the 
 universities, and to give it entirely to the 
 schools. This was not done, but the course of 
 examination was strictly defined, and a form of 
 certificate, fully indicating its results, was pre- 
 scribed. The certificate was of three grades; 
 No. I declared its possessor to be thoroughly 
 qualified for the university ; No. 2 declared him 
 to be partially qualified ; No. 3 to be unqualified 
 (untuchtig). But this plan of reform, which was 
 brought into operation in 1812, could not 
 produce its due fruits so long as the double 
 examination was maintained. After the peace 
 of 1815 there was a great flow of students to 
 the universities; many of them were very ill 
 prepared ; but the universities, with the natural 
 desire to get as man}^ students as possible, 
 eased the examinations to them as much as 
 they could, and admitted the holders of any 
 certificate at all, even of No. 3, to matricula- 
 tion. At Bonn, in 1822, out of 139 certificates 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 5 1 
 
 for that year, 122 were of No. 3, declaring the 
 holder unqualified for the University ; 16 were 
 of No. 2, declaring him partially qualified ; only 
 one was of No. i, declaring him thoroughly 
 qualified. The Provincial School Boards re- 
 ported to the minister that the efforts of the 
 schools were frustrated by the laxity of the 
 university commissions, which got more and 
 more candidates. The schools in their turn 
 were inclined to make the first grade of certi- 
 ficate a reward of severe competitive examina- 
 tion, which was by no means what those who 
 instituted it intended. The admission to the 
 universities of young men declared to be un- 
 qualified, the two kinds of examining bodies with 
 differing views and standards, and the threefold 
 grade of certificate, were found fatal obstacles 
 to the successful working of the reform of 
 1812. 
 
 All three obstacles have been removed. The 
 regulations at present in force date from 1834 
 and 1856.^ The leaving examination is now 
 
 * Reglement vom 4 Juni 1834, completed by Ferfu^un^ vom 12 
 Jan. i8«;6. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 held at the Gymnasien only. The threefold 
 grade of certificate is abolished, and the can- 
 didate is, as in old times, certified to be reif or 
 unreif. No one, as a general rule, can without 
 a certificate attend university lectures at all ; 
 and no one without a certificate of ripeness can 
 be regularly matriculated in any faculty. The 
 examining body is thus composed : the director 
 of the gymnasium and the professors who teach 
 in prima; a representative of the Schul-Cura- 
 torium, where the gymnasium has a Curatonum ; 
 the Crown's Compatronats Commissarius (joint 
 patronage commissary) where there is one; 
 and a member or delegate of the Provincial 
 School Board. The representative of the Pro- 
 vincial School Board is always president of the 
 examining commission. The Ahiturient, or 
 leaving boy, must have been two years in 
 prima. The examination work is to be of the 
 same pitch as the regular work of this class, 
 though it must not contain passages that have 
 been actually done in school. But neither, on 
 the other hand, must it be such as to require 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 53 
 
 any specielle Vorstudien. It embraces the mother 
 tongue, Latin, Greek, and French ; mathe- 
 matics and physics, geography, history, and 
 divinity. An Abiturient who is going to enter 
 the theological faculty at the university is 
 examined in Hebrew. The examination is both 
 by writing and viva voce. The paper work lasts 
 a week,* and the candidate who fails in it is not 
 tried viva voce. The examination papers are 
 prepared by the director and teachers, but 
 several sets have to be in readiness, and the 
 president of the examining commission, who 
 represents the Provincial School Board and the 
 State, chooses each paper as it is to be given 
 out. He also, at the viva voce examination, 
 chooses the passages if he likes, and himself 
 
 * Specimens of the subjects set for the German and Latin essay at 
 these examinations are the following. For the German essay: — 
 • Haw did Athens come to be the centre of the intellectual life of 
 Greece ? ' — ' From Goethe's Gotz von Berlichingen draw out a 
 picture of the social state of Germany at the time in which the 
 action of the play is laid.' For the Latin essay: — " P. Clodio, cum, ut 
 Ciceronem in exilium ejiceret, in animum induxisset, quae res 
 fuerint adjumento ? — Hannibal quibus de causis, quod sibi pro- 
 posuerat, Italiam subigere, non potuit ? " 
 
54 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 puts any question he may think proper. The 
 Provincial School Board have at any time the 
 power to direct that the same examination 
 papers shall be used for all the gymnasiums of 
 the province. Each performance is marked 
 insufficient, sufficient, goody or excellent, and no 
 other terms, and no qualifications of these, are 
 admitted. A candidate who is fully up to the 
 mark in the mother tongue and in Latin, and 
 considerably above it either in classics or ma- 
 thematics, is declared reif, — passes, — though he 
 may fall below it in other things. If the com- 
 mission are not unanimous about passing a 
 candidate, they vote ; the youngest member 
 voting first and the president last. If the votes 
 are equal the president has a casting vote. 
 But the president may refuse to pass a can- 
 didate though the majority have voted for him. 
 In this case, however, the candidate's papers 
 must go to the highest examining authority, 
 the Wissenscliaftliche Pr'dfimgscommission in whose 
 district the province is, for their decision upon 
 them. To this same High Commission all the 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN, 55 
 
 papers of half the gymnasiums of each province 
 are each half year referred for their remarks ; 
 their remarks, if they have any to make, are 
 addressed by them to the Provincial School 
 Board, and by the Provincial School Board 
 transmitted to the gymnasiums concerned. 
 
 The examination takes place about six weeks 
 before the end of the half. The certificates 
 are given out to the successful candidates at 
 the solemnity^ which takes place in the Aula 
 of a German public school at the end of a half 
 year, or Semester. Each member of the ex- 
 amining commission signs the certificate, 
 which, besides defining the candidate's pro- 
 ficiency in each of the matters of examination, 
 has three additional rubrics for conduct, dilt- 
 
 * At this solemnity a dissertation is read by the director or one 
 of the professors, and every European student knows how much 
 valuable matter has appeared in these dissertations. I have be- 
 fore me the dissertations held in the last year or two at several 
 of the schools I visited. The following are specimens of their 
 subjects : — " De Sallustii dicendi genere commentatio. — Criticarum 
 scriptionum specimen. — Der Prediger Salomo. — Die Erziehung fiir 
 den Staatsdienst bei den Athenern. — Untersuchungen iiber die 
 Cissoide (mathematische Abhandlung)." 
 
56 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 gence, and attainments ^ which are filled up by 
 the school authorities as he deserves. 
 
 The candidate who is considered unreify and 
 not passed, is recommended, according to his 
 examination and his previous school career, 
 either to stay another half-year at school and 
 then try again, or to give up his intention of 
 going to the university. If he still persists in 
 going there at once, he may; but he must 
 carry with him a certificate of his present un- 
 fitness {Zeugniss der Nichtreife), a certificate 
 with the same rubrics as the other, and signed 
 in the same way. With this certificate, he 
 holds an exceptional, incomplete position at 
 the university ; he cannot enter himself in any 
 faculty except that of philosophy, and then he 
 is entered in a special register, and not regu- 
 larly matriculated. He can, therefore, attend 
 lectures ; but his time does not count for a 
 degree, and he can hold no public benefice or 
 exhibition. He may be examined once more, 
 and only once, going to a gymnasium for that 
 purpose ; the three or four years' course re- 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 57 
 
 quired in the faculty which he follows only 
 begins to count from the time when he 
 passes. 
 
 The reader will recollect that for the learned 
 professions, — the church, the law, and medi- 
 cine, — and for the post of teachers in the 
 high schools and universities, it is necessary 
 to have gone regularly through the university 
 course and to have graduated. 
 
 Candidates who have not been at a public 
 school, but who wish to enter the university, 
 must apply to the Provincial School Board of 
 their province for leave to attend a certificate 
 examination. They have to bring testimonials^ 
 and a curriculum vitce written by themselves in 
 German, and are then directed by the school 
 board to a gymnasium where they may be 
 examined. They have to pay an examination 
 fee of ten thalers. If they fail, the examining 
 commission of the gymnasium is empowered 
 to fix a time within which they may not try 
 again, and they may only try twice. They 
 may, however, if they fail to pass, go up to 
 
58 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 the university on the same condition as the 
 public schoolboys who fail. These externi, as 
 they are called, are not examined along with 
 the Ahitiirienten of the gymnasium, though 
 they are examined by the same examining 
 commission ; but the boys who come from 
 private instruction are by the minister's direc- 
 tions to have allowance made for their not 
 being examined by their own teachers, and, 
 so far, to be more leniently treated in the 
 examination than the Ahiturienten. On the 
 other hand, boys who have been at a gymna- 
 sium and who have left in order to prepare 
 themselves with a private tutor, are not en- 
 titled to any special indulgence. Indeed a 
 public school boy, who, to evade the rule 
 requiring two years in prima, leaves the gym- 
 nasium in secunda, goes to a private school or 
 private tutor, and offers himself for examina- 
 tion within two years, needs a special permis- 
 sion from the minister in order to be examined. 
 So well do the Prussian authorities know how 
 insufficient an instrument for their object, — 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 59 
 
 that of promoting the national culture and 
 filling the professions with fit men, — is the 
 bare examination test ; so averse are they to 
 cram ; so clearly do they perceive that what 
 forms a youth, and what he should in all 
 ways be induced to acquire, is the orderly 
 development of his faculties under good and 
 trained teaching. 
 
 With this view, all the instructions for the 
 examination are drawn up. It is to tempt 
 candidates to no special preparation and effort, 
 but to be such as *a scholar of fair ability and 
 proper diligence may at the end of his school 
 course come to with a quiet mind, and without 
 a painful preparatory effort tending to relaxa- 
 tion and torpor as soon as the effort is over.' 
 The total cultivation {Gesammtbildung) of the 
 candidate is the great matter, and this is why 
 the two years of prima are prescribed : * that 
 the instruction in this highest class may not 
 degenerate into a preparation for the examina- 
 tion, that the pupil may have the requisite 
 time to come steadily and without overhurry- 
 
6o PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 ing to the fulness of the measure of his powers 
 and character, that he may be securely and 
 thoroughly formed, instead of being bewildered 
 and oppressed by a mass of information 
 hastily heaped together.' All ttimultuarische 
 Vorbereitung and all stimulation of vanity and 
 emulation is to be discouraged, and the exami- 
 nation, like the school, is to regard das Wesent- 
 liche und Dauernde — the substantial and en- 
 during.* Accordingly, the composition and 
 the passages for translation are great matters 
 in German examinations, not those papers of 
 questions by which the examiner is so led to 
 show his want of sense, and the examinee his 
 stores of cram. 
 
 That a boy shall have been for a certain 
 number of years under good training is what, 
 in Prussia, the State wants to secure ; and it 
 uses the examination test to help it to secure 
 this. We leave his training to take its chance, 
 and we put the examination test to a use for 
 
 * Perverse studet qui examinibus sludety was a favourite saying 
 of Wolfs. 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 6i 
 
 which it is quite inadequate, to try and make 
 up for our neglect. 
 
 The same course is followed with the Real- 
 schulen and with the higher Burgher Schools. 
 For entrance to the different branches of the 
 public service, the leaving certificate of the 
 classical school had up to 1832 been required. 
 For certain of these branches it was deter- 
 mined in 1832 to accept henceforth the certi- 
 ficate of the Realschule or the higher Burgher 
 School instead of that of the gymnasium. 
 Different departments made their own stipu- 
 lations ; the Minister of Public Works, for 
 instance, stipulated that the certificate of 
 the candidate for the Bauakademie (School of 
 Architecture) should be valid only when the 
 candidate's Realschule or higher Burgher School 
 had been one of the first class, or with the 
 full number of six classes, and when he had 
 passed two years in each of the two highest 
 classes. I mention a detail of this kind to 
 show the English reader how entirely it is 
 the boy's school and training which the 
 
62 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 Prussian Government thinks the great matter, 
 and not his examination. Since 1832 the 
 tendency has been to withdraw again from 
 the Realschule certificate its vaHdity for the 
 higher posts in the scientific departments of 
 the public service ; for these posts, the gym- 
 nasial leaving certificate is now again re- 
 quired. But for a very great number of 
 posts in the public service the certificate of 
 the Realschule is still valid, and for a still 
 greater number of posts in the pursuits of 
 commerce and industry employers now require 
 it. The Education Department issued in 
 1859 the rules by which the examination for 
 this certificate is at present governed. They 
 are the same, mutatis mutandis, with those 
 for the Maturitdtspriifung at the gymnasium. 
 The examining commission is composed in 
 precisely the same way ; the examination and 
 the issue of the certificates follow the same 
 course. The subjects are : divinity, the mother 
 tongue and its literature, the translation of 
 easy passages from Latin authors, but, in 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 63 
 
 general, no Latin writing ; French and Eng- 
 lish, in translation, writing, and speaking ; 
 ancient history ; the history of Germany, 
 England, and France, for the last three cen- 
 turies ; geography ; physics and chemistry ; 
 pure and applied mathematics; and drawing. 
 Excellence in one subject may counterbalance 
 shortcomings in another, but no candidate 
 can pass who absolutely fails in any. Ex- 
 terni who want the certificate are admitted 
 to examination on the same terms, and at 
 the same fee, as in the Gymnasien. In Real- 
 schulen of the second rank the examination 
 is easier than in those of the first, but the 
 certificate has not the same value. The Ab- 
 gangsprilfung and Abgangszeugniss of a higher 
 Burgher School, again, are still more easily 
 passed and won, but still less valuable. The 
 Abgangszeugniss of a higher Burgher School 
 entitles the holder to enter the prima of a 
 first-rate Realschule ; often a very important 
 opening to a clever boy in a small country 
 place, who for one year can afford to go to 
 
64 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 a school away from home, but could not 
 have afforded to get all his schooling there. 
 
 To the passage from the tertia and sectmda of 
 the gymnasium or of the Realschule, examina- 
 tions are also attached, for which a certificate, 
 if the boy leaves after passing one of them, 
 is given, declaring his ripeness at that stage. 
 For many subordinate employments in the civil 
 service these certificates are accepted. To be 
 a teacher of drawing in a public school, for in- 
 stance, a certificate of ripeness for secunda of a 
 gymnasium or of a first rank Realschule or higher 
 Bugher School is required ; this if the candidate 
 has not been at a public school and has to be 
 examined as an externus ;* if he has been at a 
 public school, the certificate of his having 
 passed the examination out of secunda at a 
 second rank Realschule is sufficient. One im- 
 portant employment of school certificates is to 
 entitle the holder to shorter military service 
 {Zulassung zum einjdhrigen freiwilligen Militair- 
 
 • For the examination of externi for this lower kind of certifi- 
 cate, the fee is four thalers. 
 
THE ABITURIENTENEXAMEN. 65 
 
 dienst). Young men who volunteer to serve for 
 one year, arming and clothing themselves, the 
 term of military service to be then at an end, 
 must, to be accepted, produce a certificate of a 
 certain value, either from a gymnasium or a 
 Realschtde, 
 
 It shows how many more gymnasium boys 
 there are who go through the full school course 
 than Realschule boys, that whereas from the 
 Gymnasien in 1863 there were 1,765 Abiturienten 
 from prima, from the Realschulen in the same 
 year there were but 214. Adding to the 1,765 
 A biturienten 40 Externen who passed at the same 
 time, we have 1,805 boys who got the classical 
 certificate of ripeness in 1863. Of this number 
 1,563 went in that year to the Prussian univer- 
 sities. Of the 214 Abiturienten from the Real- 
 schulen (to whom are to be added three Externen, 
 making 217), 124 went into the public service, 
 92 into the pursuits of commerce or industry ; 
 one went to prepare for the gymnasial leaving 
 examination, that he might go into a learned 
 profession. Evidently the mass of those who 
 
 F 
 
66 PREPONDERANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 go into business leave the Realschule before 
 primaf and the majority of these who stay for 
 prima stay with the hope of public employment. 
 But the minor certificates accessible to those 
 who leave secunda and tertia promote an attend- 
 ance at school longer than that which boys 
 going into business would without the attrac- 
 tion of these certificates be willing to give; and 
 they promote, too, a wholesome return upon 
 the school work done, and a mastering of 
 it as a whole ; which tend, the school work 
 having in the first instance been sound and well 
 given, to make culture take a permanent hold 
 upon the future tradesman or farmer. Accord- 
 ingly, it is common to meet in Germany with 
 people of the tradesman class who even read 
 (in translation, of course) any important or 
 interesting book that comes out in another 
 country, a book like Macaulay's History of 
 England, for instance ; and how unlike this 
 state of culture is to that of the English 
 tradesman, the English reader himself knows 
 very well. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; THEIR TRAIN- 
 ING, EXAMINATION, APPOINTMENT, AND PAY- 
 MENT. 
 
 Examination for Schoolmasters — Its History —Present Plan of Ex- 
 amination for Schoolmasters — Normal Seminaries for School- 
 masters — Probation and Practising Lessons of Schoolmasters — 
 Appointment of Schoolmasters, and Jurisdiction over them — 
 Intervention of the Education Minister — Religious Instruction — 
 Denominational character of the Prussian Schools — Wide Accep- 
 tation of the Denomination Evangelisch — Exclusion from School 
 Posts of certain Dissenters and of Jews — Rank and Title of 
 Schoolmasters — Payment of Schoolmasters. 
 
 To insure that the school work, which so much 
 is done to encourage, shall indeed be sound and 
 well given, it is not in Prussia thought suffi- 
 cient to test the schoolboy and the candidate 
 for matriculation ; the candidate for the office 
 of teacher is tested too. This test is the famous 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; 
 
 Staatspriifung for schoolmasters {Prufung der 
 Candidaten des hoheren Schulamts), and is the 
 third great educational reform I have enume- 
 rated (the Lehrplan and the Maturitdtsprufung 
 being the other two) which owes its institution 
 to Wilhelm von Humboldt. Before 1810 a 
 certificate of having proved his fitness was not 
 required of a candidate for the post of school- 
 master. Municipal and private school-patrons, 
 in particular, made their nomination with little 
 regard to any test of the kind. There was 
 generally in their school a practice of promoting 
 the teachers by seniority to the higher classes, 
 and this practice had very mischievous results. 
 A project was canvassed for giving to the 
 authorities of public instruction the direct ap- 
 pointment to the more important posts in 
 schools even of municipal or private patronage. 
 This project was abandoned. * But,' said Wil- 
 helm von Humboldt, * the one defence we can 
 raise against the misuse of their rights by 
 patrons, is the test of a trial of the intending 
 schoolmaster's qualifications.' 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 69 
 
 This test was established in 1810. An ex- 
 amination and a trial lesson were appointed for 
 all candidates for the office of teacher. It was 
 made illegal for school patrons to nominate as 
 teachers any persons who were not gepriifte 
 Subjecte. As time went on, the security thus 
 taken was gradually made stronger. The trial 
 lesson was found to be an inutility, as any one who 
 has heard trial lessons in our primary Normal 
 Schools can readily believe, and a trial year in a 
 school {Probejahr) was in 1826 substituted for it. 
 In the following year it was ruled that the pada- 
 gogische Prilfung, which forms part of the exami- 
 nation of candidates for orders, and which had 
 hitherto been accepted in lieu of the new test, 
 was insufficient ; and that persons in orders, as 
 well as others, must go through the special ex- 
 amination for schoolmasters. This regulation 
 gave full development to a policy which had 
 been contained in the reform of 1810, a policy 
 which Wolf had long before done his best to 
 prepare and had declared to be indispensable 
 if the higher schools of Prussia were to be 
 
70 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 made thoroughly good : — the policy of making 
 the schoolmaster's business a profession by it- 
 self, and separating it altogether from theology. 
 The rules now in force for this examination 
 date in the main from 1831. It is held by the 
 High Examining Commissions {Konigliche 
 Wissenschaftliche Priifungscommissionen) of which 
 I have already described the composition, and 
 which are seven in number. The candidate 
 sends in his school-certificate of fitness for uni- 
 versity studies, and his certificate of a three 
 years' attendance at university lectures. With 
 these certificates he forwards to the commis- 
 sion a curriculum vitce, such as used to be re- 
 quired from candidates for many Oxford fellow- 
 ships. The candidate for the gymnasium 
 writes this in Latin ; the candidate for the 
 Realschule may write it in French. The certi- 
 ficate given takes the form of a facultas docendiy 
 or leave to teach ; and this is hedingte or tm- 
 bedingte, — conditional or unconditional. The 
 matters for examinations are grouped under four 
 main heads (Hauptfdcher) : first, Greek, Latin, 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC 71 
 
 and the mother tongue ; secondly, mathematics 
 and the natural sciences ; thirdly, history and 
 geography ; fourthly, theology and Hebrew. 
 This last Hauptfach concerns especially those 
 who are to give the religious instruction in the 
 public schools ; if they have been examined for 
 orders before a theological board and have 
 passed well, an oral examination is all the di- 
 vinity-examination they have to undergo before 
 the Commission. Those who are to give the 
 secular instruction have likewise only an oral 
 examination in divinity, and are not examined 
 in Hebrew ; but they must satisfy the Com- 
 mission as to their acquaintance with Scripture 
 and with the dogmatic and moral tenets of 
 Christianity. Candidates weak in their divinity 
 have this weakness noted in their certificate, 
 and the Provincial School Boards are directed 
 not to appoint any teacher weak in this par- 
 ticular till he has been re-examined and has 
 passed satisfactorily ; and the curriculum vitcB 
 of every candidate has in the first instance to 
 state what he has done at the university to 
 
72 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 keep up and increase his knowledge of divinity 
 (seine Religionswissenschaftlichen Kenntnisse zu er- 
 weitern und tiefer zu hegrunden). These latter 
 regulations date from within the last twenty 
 years. 
 
 The unconditional facuUas docendi is only 
 given to that candidate who in his Hauptfach 
 shows himself fit to teach one of the two 
 highest forms, and sufficiently acquainted with 
 the matters of the other Hauptfdcher to be useful 
 to his class in them. The candidate who in 
 one Hauptfach is strong enough for any class up 
 to secunda inclusive, but falls altogether below 
 the mark in other sciences, receives a bedingte 
 * facultas docendi ' for the middle or the lower 
 forms, according as his capacity and the extent 
 of his performance and of his failure seem to 
 merit. 
 
 All candidates are required to be able to 
 translate French with ease, and they must 
 know its grammar. All must show some ac- 
 quaintance with philosophy and paedagogic,* 
 
 * The Germans, as is well-known, attach much importance to 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 73 
 
 candidates for the unconditional facultas docendi 
 a very considerable acquaintance ; and all must 
 satisfy the examiners that they have some 
 knowledge of the natural sciences. 
 
 The candidate for a Realschule or a higher 
 Burgher School need not take Greek, but he 
 must pass in Latin. His Hauptfdcher are : 
 mathematics, natural sciences, history and geo- 
 graphy, the mother tongue, modern languages. 
 His examination in all the non-classical matters 
 is even more stringent than that of candidates 
 for the gymnasium, because of his comparative 
 exemption from classics. 
 
 The trials pro loco and pro ascenscione are ex- 
 aminations imposed w^hen the nominee to a 
 place has not yet proved his qualifications for 
 that place. For instance, the holder of a con- 
 ditional facultas docendi cannot be appointed to 
 
 the science of pgedagogic. That science is as yet far from being 
 matured, and much nonsense is talked on the subject of it ; still, 
 the total unacquaintance with it, and with all which has been 
 written about it, in which the intending schoolmaster is, in Eng- 
 land, suffered to remain, has, I am convinced, injurious effects both 
 on our schoolmasters and on our schools. 
 
74 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 a class in the highest division without being 
 re-examined, and the holder of an unconditional 
 facultas docendi cannot teach another matter 
 than the Hauptfach in which he has proved his 
 first-class qualification, without being re- 
 examined. 
 
 A special facultas docendi is given to the 
 foreign teacher of modern languages ; but even 
 he, besides the modern language he is to teach, 
 must know as much Latin, history, geography, 
 and philosophy as is required of candidates who 
 are to teach in the middle division of a gymna- 
 sium. This provision guards against the em- 
 ployment of subjects so unfit by their training 
 and general attainments to rule a class, as 
 those whom we too often see chosen as teachers 
 of modern languages. 
 
 The High Commissioners send yearly to the 
 Provincial School Board of each province a 
 report of these examinations for that province, 
 with the necessary remarks. The candidates 
 for masterships present themselves, with their 
 certificates, to the School Board of the province 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 75 
 
 in which they wish to be employed. In certain 
 exceptional cases candidates may be employed 
 two half-years running without a certificate; 
 but at the end of that time, if they have not 
 passed the examination, they must be dis- 
 missed. 
 
 Those who at the university have taken, after 
 examination, the degree of doctor, and have 
 published the Latin dissertation required for 
 that degree, are excused from the written part 
 of the schoolmaster's examination. When this 
 examination was first instituted, both Schleier- 
 macher and Wolf, being then members of the 
 Education section, declared themselves strongly 
 against allowing any university title to exempt 
 candidates for the hohere Schulamt from going 
 through the special examination. Probably 
 they were right, for the seriousness of the 
 degree examination, and the value of the degree, 
 is not the same in every German university. 
 They were overruled, however ; but little or no 
 inconvenience does in fact arise from the 
 allowance, in this case, of an equipollent title; 
 
76 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 because if a candidate brings the degree of 
 doctor from a university whose degrees are not 
 respected, and if he inspires any suspicion, the 
 patrons who are to nominate him, or the Pro- 
 vincial Board which is to confirm him, invite 
 him to go through the special examination 
 first ; and if he refuses, or if he cannot pass, 
 his appointment is not proceeded with. 
 
 The Probejahr, or year of probation, must, 
 as a general rule, be passed at a gymnasium or 
 a Realschukj not at a progymnasium or 
 a higher Burgher School. In this way the 
 schoolmaster of the lower class of secondary 
 schools is a man who has known the working 
 and standards of the higher. The probationer 
 is commonly unpaid, but if he is used in the 
 place of an assistant master, the school which 
 so uses must pay him. The schools are, how- 
 ever, expressly directed not to treat the pro- 
 bationer as a means of relieving an overtasked 
 staff, but to give him an opportunity of learn- 
 ing, in the best way for himself, the practice of 
 his business, and to let him therefore work with 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 77 
 
 several different classes in the course of his 
 year. At the end of his year he receives a 
 certificate from the school authorities as to the 
 efficiency which he shows. 
 
 The time passed in a Normal Seminary 
 counts instead of the Probejahr ; but these semi- 
 naries have not in Prussia, any of them, the 
 importance of the Ecok Normale in France. 
 There is not the same need of the institution in 
 Germany as in France, and no German pro- 
 fessor is obliged to pass through it. The Ecole 
 Normale is of much more use in giving its 
 stu'dent the thorough possession of what he 
 knows and the power of independent applica- 
 tion of it, than in teaching him to teach ; and 
 these more valuable functions of a Normal 
 School are performed in Germany by the Gym- 
 nasien and the universities, to an extent to 
 which the lyce'es and faculties in France by no 
 means perform them. Hence in France the 
 need and utility of the Ecole Normale, The 
 normal seminaries in Germany are connected 
 with the different, universities, and designed, in 
 
78 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 general, to give the future schoolmaster a more 
 firm and thorough grasp on the matters he 
 studies there. The psedagogical seminaries 
 have not been so important or so fruitful to him 
 as the philological seminaries, where this design 
 has been applied to w^hat has hitherto been the 
 grand matter of his studies, — Alterthumswissen- 
 schaft, the systematic know^ledge of classical 
 antiquity. It was as the head of the philo- 
 logical seminary at Halle that Wolf gave that 
 impulse to the formation of a body of learned 
 and lay schoolmasters of which Germany has 
 ever since felt the good effects. This seminary 
 was opened in 1787, and Wolf was its director 
 for nearly twenty years, till the University of 
 Halle was closed by Napoleon after the battle 
 of Jena, and Wolf went to Berlin to be a 
 member of the Department of Education there. 
 During the latter part of Wolf's time at Halle, 
 he was assisted in the seminary by Immanuel 
 Bekker. There are twelve seminarists, with a 
 small exhibition of 40 thalers (^6) a year each ; 
 the exhibition was tenable for two years. No 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 79 
 
 one was admitted to an exhibition who had not 
 already completed his first year's course in the 
 university, but students from any of the facul- 
 ties might attend the seminary lectures. They 
 attended in great numbers, and for the exhi- 
 bitions themselves there were at the first ex- 
 amination sixty candidates. The seminary 
 lessons were interpretation lessons and dispu- 
 tation lessons, the former being, as the name 
 implies, the interpretation of a given author ; 
 the latter being the discussion, between two or 
 more of the seminarists, either of a thesis set 
 long beforehand and treated by them in written 
 exercises, or of a thesis set by Wolf at the 
 moment and then and there treated orally, in 
 Latin, by his pupils. Wolf's great rule in all 
 these lessons was that rule which all masters 
 in the art of teaching have followed, — to take 
 as little part as possible in the lesson himself ; 
 merely to start it, guide it, and sum it up, and 
 to let quite the main part in it be borne by the 
 learners. The more advanced seminarists had 
 some practice in the Latin school of the Orphan 
 
8o THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; 
 
 House at Halle. The more recent statutes of 
 this philological seminary have set forth in 
 express words,- as the object of the institution, 
 the design which Wolf always had in his mind 
 in directing it ; — the design to form effective 
 classical masters for the higher schools. Every 
 Prussian university has a philological seminary, 
 or group of exhibitioners much like that which 
 I have described at Halle, not more than twelve 
 in number, with a two years' course following 
 one year's academical study, and Alterthums- 
 wissenschafi being the object pursued. There 
 are generally two professors specially attached 
 to the seminary, one for Greek, the other for 
 Latin. Besides the ordinary members or semi- 
 narists, a good number of extraordinary 
 members, and a yet much larger number of 
 Auscultanten, attend the lessons. The staff of 
 the philological seminary at Berlin has this 
 constellation of names, from 1812, when this 
 seminary was founded, to the present time : — 
 Boeckh, Buttmann, Bernhardy, Lachmann, 
 Haupt. The philological seminary of the 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 8 1 
 
 University of Bonn was founded in 1819, and 
 has had on its staff Professors Nake, Welcker, 
 Ritschl, Otto Jahn. The mouth of the student 
 of Alterth'umswissenschaft in other countries may 
 indeed water when he reads two such lists as 
 these. 
 
 At the University of Bonn there is also a 
 N aturwissenschaftliches Seminar, founded in 1825 
 on the express ground that qualified teachers 
 of the natural sciences in the secondary schools 
 were so much wanting. Bonn, has, too, a 
 historisches Seminar founded in 1861 for the pro- 
 motion of historical studies, and also to provide 
 good history-teachers for the secondary schools. 
 Dr. von Sybel, the well-known historian, is at 
 present one of its professors. The Universities 
 of Breslau, Greifswald, Konigsberg, have like- 
 wise historical seminaries, serving either by 
 statute or in practice the same end, of pre- 
 paring specially qualified teachers of history 
 for the public schools. Berlin, Konigsberg, 
 and Halle have also seminaries either for ma- 
 thematics, or for mathematics and the natural 
 
 G 
 
82 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 sciences together ; these, too, serve, in their 
 line of study, the same end as the philological 
 and historical seminaries serve in theirs. Ber- 
 lin has also travelling fellowships of a year's 
 duration, to enable Germans, who are to teach 
 French in the public schools, to study the 
 French language and literature in France itself. 
 Two exhibitions of ^^45 a year each are at- 
 tached to the Royal French School in Berlin, 
 with the like object of enabling the future 
 teacher of French to learn French practically 
 and thoroughly. These are Crown foundations; 
 the Crown, associations, and private individuals 
 are all founders of seminaries. The estimate 
 of none of those which I have named exceeds 
 1,000 thalers (;f 150) a year. It is astonishing 
 how much is done in Prussia with small sup- 
 plies of money. 
 
 Special paedagogic seminaries {pddagogische 
 Seminarien) exist at Berlin, Konigsberg, Breslau, 
 Stettin, and Halle. Of these the assigned 
 business with their seminarist is * to introduce 
 him to the practical requirements of the pro- 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 83 
 
 fession of schoolmaster ;' but this introduction 
 is still to be carefully accompanied by a con- 
 tinuance of his general intellectual culture. In 
 general, the seminarist here must have passed 
 the examination pro facultate docendi, and in- 
 stead of the Probejahr in a school he spends two 
 or three years in the paedagogic seminary. Each 
 seminarist has a certain number of hours' prac- 
 tice (six hours a week at Berlin) in a secondary 
 school ; he is present at the conferences, or 
 teachers' meetings^, of the school to which he is 
 attached, and he lives with one of its older 
 masters. The Berlin ^ddagogische Seminar was 
 founded in 1787, at first with a single gymnasium 
 (the Friedrich-Werdersche) assigned as its prac- 
 tising school ; since 1812 all the gymnasiums 
 for Berlin have served in common for this pur- 
 pose. There are now ten regular exhibitioners; 
 but the exhbitions here are good, and the esti- 
 mate for the seminary is much larger than that 
 of any other seminary I have named ; it is 2,390 
 thalers a year. Dr. Boeckh was in 1865 the 
 director of this seminary as well as of the philo- 
 
 G 2 
 
84 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 logical one ; and this joint direction well illus- 
 trates the close relation at present, in Germany 
 aselsewhere, of the schoolmaster with philolog}^ 
 At Stettin the seminary has only four regular 
 exhibitioners ; they have good exhibitions, last- 
 ing for two or three years. This seminary is for 
 the benefit in the first instance of the province of 
 Pomerania, and the seminarists have to engage 
 themselves to take, when their exhibition ex- 
 pires, any mastership the Provincial School 
 Board offers them, and to keep it three years. 
 
 It is evident from what I have said that these 
 exhibitions do not exist in sufficient number to 
 provide seminary training for anything like the 
 whole of that large body of teachers which the 
 secondary schools of Prussia employ. It is 
 found too that the directors and masters of 
 great schools in large towns, who have a great 
 deal to do and constant claims upon their atten- 
 tion, do not like being saddled with the care of 
 seminarists either at their homes or in their 
 classes. The same difficulties tell against their 
 giving to probationers in their trial year due 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. S5 
 
 supervision. But it is the living for a time with 
 an experienced teacher and the making the first 
 start in teaching under his eye, that is found to 
 be so especially valuable for promising novices. 
 It is proposed therefore, instead of founding 
 fresh pgedagogic seminaries, to make arrange- 
 ments for selecting a certain number of good 
 schoolmasters, who will take charge, for pay- 
 ment, of a batch of novices (not more than 
 three) for a two years' probationary course be- 
 fore launching them independently; and a stipen- 
 dium, or exhibition, such as is given in the semi- 
 naries, is to be bestowed on those probationers 
 whose circumstances require it. It is hoped in 
 this way to provide a preliminary training of 
 two years for all the most deserving subjects 
 who go into the profession. 
 
 At the end of his term of probation the pro- 
 bationer gets his appointment. I have said be- 
 fore that for all appointments to masterships in 
 the secondary schools, the intervention of the 
 State authority is necessary. In schools of 
 Crown patronage the appointment is called 
 
86 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 Bestallung ; in schools not of Crown patronage 
 it is called Vocation ; the State can give Instal- 
 lation, absolute occupation ; other patrons can 
 only nominate, and their nominee, if an im- 
 proper person, is rejected, with reasons assigned, 
 by the State authorities. The Crown, exer- 
 cising its patronage through the Education 
 Minister, appoints, in all Crown patronage 
 gymnasiums and RealschideUy the director. The 
 Provincial Boards, in the minister's name and 
 by commission from him, appoint the upper 
 masters (Oberlehrer) in these schools, and the 
 rector in all Crown patronage progymnasiums 
 and higher Burgher Schools. The other mas- 
 ters in Crown patronage schools, the Provincial 
 Board appoints by its own authority. The 
 nomination of a director in schools of municipal 
 or private patronage requires the Crown's as- 
 sent and the minister's confirmation. The 
 nomination of an Oberlehrer in such schools re- 
 quires the minister's assent and the Provincial 
 Board's confirmation. The nomination of other 
 masters in such schools the Provincial Board 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 87 
 
 is empowered to confirm without the assent 
 of the minister. All the directors and masters, 
 whether appointed by the State or only con- 
 firmed by it, take an Amtseid, or oath of office, 
 by which they swear obedience to the Crown, 
 In schools of Crown patronage^ when the 
 minister directs, on special grounds, the ap- 
 pointment, promotion, or transference, of a 
 master, the Provincial Board must comply. 
 
 The minister, however, has in Prussia a far 
 less immediate and absolute action upon the 
 secondary schools than the minister has in 
 France. In France the minister can dismiss 
 any functionary of secondary instruction ; in 
 Prussia he can reprimand him and stop his 
 salary for a month, but he cannot of his own 
 authority dismiss him. Directors and upper 
 masters are under the jurisdiction of the Court 
 of Discipline for the Civil Service {Disciplinarhof) 
 Sit Berlin ; this court is a judicial body, four of 
 its members belonging to the Supreme Court of 
 Berlin; and any complaint requiringthedismissal 
 of a director or upper master must be tried 
 
88 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; 
 
 before it. From the sentence of this court there 
 is an appeal to the minister ; but he is bound to 
 appoint, for hearing the appeal, two referees, 
 one of whom must be a member of the Depart- 
 ment of Justice; and their decision is final. 
 Complaints of like gravity against other masters 
 (ordentliche Lehrer) are tried by the Provincial 
 Board, which, like the Court of Discipline, hears 
 counsel and examines witnesses on oath ; from 
 the sentence of the board there is also an appeal 
 to the minister, who appoints in this case one 
 referee only, but the referee, before deciding the 
 appeal, has to take the opinion of the Court of 
 Discipline. Everywhere in Prussia and in all 
 German countries we shall find a disposition 
 to take security against that immediate and 
 arbitrary action of the executive which we re- 
 mark in France; and though the Germans give 
 effect in a very different way from ours to this 
 innate disposition of the Teutonic race, yet they 
 give such effect to it as to establish a notable 
 difference, — the more manifest the more one 
 examines the institutions of the two countries, — 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC, 
 
 between the habit and course of administration 
 in Germany and in France. 
 
 T cannot but think an Education Minister a 
 necessity for modern States, yet I know that in 
 the employment of such an agency there are 
 inconveniences, and I do not wish to hide any 
 of them from the English reader. I have said 
 that in France political considerations are in 
 my opinion too much suffered to influence the 
 whole working of the system of public education. 
 In Prussia the minister is armed with powers, 
 and issues instructions showing how he inter- 
 prets those powers, which in England would 
 excite very great jealousy. He tells the pro- 
 vincial authorities that no reproach must attach 
 to the private and public life, any more than to 
 the knowledge or ability, of a candidate for 
 school employment; he tells them that they are 
 to take into consideration the whole previous 
 career, extra professional as well as professional 
 {das gesammte bisherige amtliche und ausseramt- 
 liche Verhalten), of such a candidate; and that 
 schoolmasters should be men who will train up 
 
90 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; 
 
 their scholars in notions of obedience towards 
 the sovereign and the State. 
 
 I know the use likely to be made, in England, 
 of the admission that a Prussian Education 
 Minister uses language of this kind ; and I will 
 be candid enough to make bad worse by saying 
 that the present minister. Dr. von Miihler,* is 
 what we should call in England a strong Tory 
 and a strong Evangelical. It is not, indeed, 
 at all likely that in England, with the forces 
 watching and controlling him here, a minister 
 would use language such as I have quoted; and 
 even if it were, I am not at all sure that to have 
 a minister using such language, though it is 
 language which I cordially dislike, is in itself 
 so much more lamentable and baneful a thing 
 than that anarchy and ignorance in education 
 matters under which we contentedly suffer. 
 However, what I wish now to say is, that in 
 spite of this language, the political influence 
 which has such real effect upon the public 
 education of France, has no effect, or next to 
 
 • He is now (1873) removed. 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 9 1 
 
 none, upon that of Prussia. I do not believe 
 that it has more on that of Prussia than it has 
 on that of this country. I took great pains to 
 inform myself on this head. The last few years 
 before 1865 were a time of great political pressure 
 in Prussia; I arrived there when this pressure 
 was at its height, and I conversed mainly with 
 persons opposed, some of them bitterly opposed, 
 to the Government. They all told me that the 
 State administration of the schools and univer- 
 sities was in practice fair and right ; that public 
 opinion would not suffer it to be governed by 
 political regards, or by any but literary and 
 scientific regards; and that public opinion would 
 always, in this particular, find strong sympathies 
 among the ministers themselves. I heard of 
 one director to whom Dr. von Miihler had re- 
 fused confirmation because his politics, which 
 had been very strongly declared, were unac- 
 ceptable. This director I had the pleasure of 
 seeing ; he told me himself, what I heard also 
 from others, that his case was an isolated one ; 
 and that it had caused such strong dissatisfac- 
 
92 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 tion, not only among the public, but to the 
 school authorities who represent the State in 
 the provinces and consider themselves respon- 
 sible for the march and efficiency of secondary 
 instruction, that the minister had found himself 
 obliged to appoint him, within a very few 
 months, to a Crown patronage school of greater 
 importance than the municipal school for which 
 he had refused him confirmation. The director 
 added, and this too was confirmed by others, 
 that such an intrusion of political feeling as had 
 prevented his confirmation, was in the case of 
 a Lehrer or teacher, — either an upper teacher 
 or an ordinary teacher, — absolutely unknown. 
 
 The truth is, that when a nation has got the 
 belief in culture which the Prussian nation has 
 got, and when its schools are worthy of this 
 belief, it will not suffer them to be sacrificed to 
 any other interest ; and however greatly political 
 considerations may be paramount in other de- 
 partments of administration, in this they are 
 not. In France neither the national belief in 
 culture nor the schools themselves are suffi- 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 93 
 
 ciently developed to awaken this enthusiasm ; 
 and politics are too strong for the schools, and 
 give them their own bias. 
 
 I have spoken several times of the religious 
 instruction as forming part of school work and 
 of examinations. The two legally established 
 forms of religion in Prussia are the Protestant 
 (evangelisch) and the Catholic. All public schools 
 must be either Protestant, Catholic, or mixed 
 (Simultananstalten) . But the constitution of a 
 mixed school has not been authoritatively de- 
 fined, and though the practice has grown up, 
 especially in Realschulen, of appointing teachers 
 of the two confessions indifferently, yet these 
 Simultananstalten retain the fundamental charac- 
 ter of Christian schools, and indeed usually 
 follow the rule either that the director and the 
 majority of the masters shall be Catholic or 
 that they shall be Protestant. In general, the 
 deed of foundation or established custom deter- 
 mines to what confession a school shall belong. 
 The religious instruction and the services follow 
 the confession of the school. The ecclesiastical 
 
94 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; 
 
 authorities, — the consistories for Protestant 
 schools^ the bishops for Catholic schools, — must 
 concur with the school authorities in the 
 appointment of those who give the religious 
 instruction in the schools. The consistories 
 and the bishops have likewise the right of in- 
 specting, by themselves or by their delegates, 
 this instruction, and of addressing to the Pro- 
 vincial Boards any remarks they may have to 
 make on it. The ordinarius, or class-master, 
 who has general charge of the class, as distin- 
 guished from the teachers who give the different 
 parts of the instruction in it, is generally, if 
 possible, the religious instructor. In Protestant 
 schools the religious instructor is usually a lay- 
 man ; in Catholic, an ecclesiastic. The public 
 schools are open to scholars of all creeds; in 
 general, one of the two confessions, evangelical 
 or Catholic, greatly preponderates, and the 
 Catholics, in especial, prefer schools of their 
 own confession. But the State holds the balance 
 quite fairly between them ; where the scholars 
 of that confession which is not the established 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 95 
 
 confession of the school are in considerable 
 numbers^ a special religious instructor is paid 
 out of the school funds to come and give them 
 this religious instruction at the school. Thus 
 in the gymnasium at Bonn, which is Catholic, 
 I heard a lesson on the Epistle to the Galatians 
 (in the Greek) given to the Protestant boys of 
 one of the higher forms by a young Protestant 
 minister of the town, engaged by the gymnasium 
 for that purpose. When the scholars whose 
 confession is in the minority are very few in 
 number, their parents have to provide by private 
 arrangements of their own for their children's 
 religious instruction. 
 
 Prussia had, in 1864, 11,289,655 Protestant 
 inhabitants, 6,901,023 Catholic inhabitants. She 
 had nearly 300,000 inhabitants classed neither 
 as evangelisch nor as Catholic, and these were 
 principally Jews. In her public higher schools, 
 out of 66,135 boys, 46,396 were Protestant 
 (evangelisch), 14,919 were Catholic. The rest, 
 4,820, were Jews. 
 
 The wide acceptation which the denomina- 
 
96 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS; 
 
 tion evangelical takes in the official language of 
 Prussia prevents a host of difficulties which 
 occur with us in England. Under the term 
 evangelisch are included Lutherans, Calvinists, 
 and the United Church formed on the basis of 
 what is common to Lutherans and Calvinists ; 
 Baptists also, Independents, Wesleyans (for 
 there are Wesleyans in Prussia) are included 
 by it, and in short, all Protestants who are 
 Christians, in the common acceptation of that 
 word. The State, however, in Prussia, not only 
 declares itself Christian (der Preussische Staat ist 
 ein christlicher, says the Unterrichtsverfassung of 
 1816) but it expressly disclaims the neutral, 
 colourless, formless Christianity of the Dutch 
 schools and of our British schools (der Reli- 
 gionsunterricht darf durchaus nicht in einen allge- 
 meinen Religionsunterricht hiniibergespielt werden). 
 So the Protestant schools as well as the Catho- 
 lic employ a dogmatic religious teaching. In 
 all schools of the evangelical confession Luther's 
 Catechism is used, and all Protestant boys of 
 whatever denomination learn it. Not the 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC 97 
 
 slightest objection is made by their parents to 
 this. It is true that Luther's Catechism is 
 perhaps the very happiest part of Lutheranism, 
 and .therefore recommends itself for this common 
 adoption, while our Catechism can hardly be 
 said to be the happiest part of AngHcanism. 
 
 The various denominations of Protestant 
 Christians are thus harmoniously united in a 
 common religious teaching. But the State, 
 keeping in view the christlichen Grundcharakter 
 of itself and its public schools, refuses to employ 
 any masters who are not either Catholics, or, 
 in the wide sense assigned to the term evan- 
 gelisch, Protestants. Dissenters who are not 
 Christians, and specially the Lichtfreunde, as 
 they call themselves (they would with us gene- 
 rally go by the name of Unitarians or Socinians), 
 are thus excluded from the office of public 
 teacher, and so are Jews. In a country where 
 the Jews are so many and so able, this exclusion 
 makes itself felt. A Jew may hold a medical 
 or mathematical professorship in the Prussian 
 universities, but he may not hold a professor- 
 
 H 
 
98 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 ship of history or philosophy. France is in all 
 these matters a model of reason and justice, 
 and as much ahead of Germany as she is of 
 England. The religious instruction in her 
 schools is given by ministers of religion, and 
 the State asks no other instructor any questions 
 about his religious persuasion. 
 
 Restrictions such as that which I have just 
 described are said to be contrary to the provi- 
 sions of the Prussian Constitution of 1850. 
 The Prussian. Parliament has begun to occupy 
 itself w^ith them, and it is probable they v^ill 
 not long be maintained. 
 
 A master on his appointment takes the title 
 of ordentliche Lehrer, ordinary master (the title 
 of under-master is not used in the Prussian 
 schools), or of Oberlehrer, upper-master. The 
 Oberlehrer is so either by post or by nomination. 
 The posts conferring the title of Oberlehrer, posts 
 in the upper part of the school, can only be 
 held by a teacher whose certificate entitles him 
 to give instruction in one of the two highest 
 classes. Oberlehrer by nomination are masters 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 99 
 
 of long standing, who as ordinarii or general 
 class-masters have done good service, and have 
 the title of upper-master given to them in 
 acknowledgment of it; but the title so conferred 
 does not enable them to give instruction in any 
 class for which their certificate does not qualify 
 them. The regulations direct that there shall 
 be not more than three Oberlehrer, exclusive of 
 the director, for every seven ordentliche Lehrer ; 
 but in schools with a larger staff of ordentliche 
 Lehrer than this, the proportion of Oberlehrer to 
 ordentliche Lehrer may become much larger. 
 The minister confers the title of professor upon 
 masters distinguished by their attainments and 
 practical success. The directors rank as full 
 professors of the universities, the masters with 
 the title of professor rank as assistant professors 
 of the universities. It should be said that in 
 Germany the title of professor confers on its 
 holder a fixed rank, as a few official titles do 
 here in England. The director is more like 
 one of our head-masters than he is like a 
 French proviseur, but he does not, like our 
 
 H 2 
 
lOO THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 head -masters, give the whole of the instruction, 
 or even the whole of the classical instruction, 
 to the head class. Often he is not its ordinarius. 
 He, like other masters, cannot give any part of 
 the instruction for which he has not at some 
 time proved his qualification. In general he 
 has some special branch in which he is distin- 
 guished, and in this branch he gives lessons in 
 prima, and usually in other classes too; govern- 
 ing also, as his name implies, the whole move- 
 ment of the school, and appearing, much oftener 
 than our head-masters, in every class of it. 
 
 Formerly few masterships had fixed incomes 
 assigned to them, but it has more and more 
 become a rule of administration in Prussia to 
 give to all directors and teachers fixed incomes, 
 and to do away with their sharing the school 
 fees. Neither the proceeds of these, nor the 
 proceeds of foundations, are in any case aban- 
 doned to the school staff, to do what they like 
 with. On the school estimates which I have 
 described, all salaries appear, and all receipts 
 from endowments or from school fees; the 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. lOI 
 
 surplus of receipts over salaries and other 
 school expenses is funded, and becomes available 
 for enlarging or improving the school. There 
 are few large endowments; in one or two cases, 
 as at Schulpforta, the endowment is allowed to 
 create for the director and the teachers a posi- 
 tion above the average, and at Berlin, where 
 the proceeds of the school-fees are very great, 
 the masters of the public schools have also a 
 position above the average ; but all this is kept 
 within strict regulation, and is settled, as I 
 have said, by administrative boards of public 
 composition, or under public supervision, and is 
 not left to the disposition of the school staff 
 itself. Schulpforta has a yearly income of more 
 than ^8,000, but of this sum, less than ^^2,000 
 goes in salaries to the rector and masters. The 
 yearly sum funded, after all the expenses of 
 this noble foundation are paid, is not much 
 smaller than the sum spent in salaries. 
 
 By a Normaletat, or normal estimate, there is 
 fixed for the staff of State gymnasiums the fol- 
 lowing scale of payments, which is above 
 
I02 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS ; 
 
 rather than below the average scale in Real- 
 schiilen, or in any kind of secondary school not 
 of State patronage. The scale has three 
 classes : the first class is for nine places in 
 Prussia, exclusive of Berlin and Schulpforta, 
 which stand on an exceptional footing of their 
 own ; the second class is for thirty-four places ; 
 the third class for fifty-eight. Of course the 
 nine places in the first class, being the principal 
 towns in Prussia except the capital, have far 
 more than nine gymnasiums. In all the State 
 gymnasiums of these nine places^ the scale of 
 salaries is, for the director, ^270 a year ; for 
 the masters, according to their post and their 
 length of standing, from ^go a year to £igS' 
 In the thirty-four places of the second class, 
 the scale is, for a director, ^^240 a year; for the 
 masters, from 3^82 los to 3^172 los. In the 
 fifty-eight places of the third, for a director, 
 3^195 ; for the masters, from £y^ to 3^150. The 
 salaries thus fixed are meant to represent the 
 whole emoluments of the post ; when a house 
 is attached to a post, the rule is that a deduc- 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 103 
 
 tion of 10 per cent, shall be made from the 
 salary to balance the gain by the house. In 
 some places there are special endowments for 
 augmenting masters' salaries; thus the Streitsche 
 Stiftung gives ^455 a year to augment the 
 masters' salaries at the Greyfriars gymnasium, 
 in Berlin; but nowhere probably in Prussia 
 does a school salary reach £350 a year, and the 
 rector of Schulpforta, whose post is perhaps 
 the most desirable school post in the Prussian 
 dominions, has, I understand, about ^^300 a 
 year, and a house. To hold another employ- 
 ment (Nebenamt) along with his school post, is 
 not absolutely forbidden to the public teacher; 
 thus Dr. Schopen, the excellent Latin scholar 
 at the head of the Bonn gymnasium, is at the 
 same time professor in the philosophical faculty 
 of the university there; but the Nehenamt must 
 not interfere with his school duty, and the 
 supervising authorities take good care that it 
 shall not. So far as it does not interfere with 
 his school duty, the public teacher may give 
 private tuition, and in this manner increase his 
 
I04 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLMASTERS, 
 
 income; but to give private tuition for fee to 
 the pupils of his own form in the public school, 
 he needs the director's consent. Even when 
 every possible addition to it has been allov/ed 
 for, the salary of a Prussian schoolmaster will 
 appear to English eyes very low. 
 
 The whole scale of incomes in Prussia is, 
 however, much lower than with us, and the 
 habits of the nation are frugal and simple. 
 The rate of schoolmasters' salaries was raised 
 after 1815, and has been raised again since ; it 
 is not exceptionally low as compared with the 
 rates of incomes in Germany generally. The 
 rector of Schulpforta with his 3^300 a year and a 
 house, has in all the country round him, — 
 where there is great well-doing and comfort, — 
 few people more comfortably off than himself; 
 he can do all he wants to do, and all that any- 
 body about him does, and this is wealth. The 
 schoolmasters of the higher school enjoy, too, 
 great consideration ; and consideration, in a 
 country not corrupted, has a value as well as 
 money. As a class, the Prussian schoolmasters 
 
THEIR TRAINING, ETC. 105 
 
 are not, so far as I could find out, fretting or 
 discontented ; they seem to give themselves 
 heartily to their work, and to take pride and 
 pleasure in it. 
 
 What I have yet to say about Prussian 
 schools, their scholars, and their teachers, may 
 perhaps be best said in connection with two or 
 three of those institutions which I visited. In 
 this manner I shall have an opportunity of 
 rendering, by the help of particular illustra- 
 tions, general results and statements more in- 
 teresting to the English reader, and more in- 
 telligible to him. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN OPERATION 
 IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 
 
 The Berlin Schools — The Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium — Its 
 History — Its Confessional Character, Teachers and Charges — Its 
 Classes — Its Lessons — School-Books — The Greyfriars Gymnasium 
 — Its History and Endowment — Day Scholars and Boarders in 
 German Schools — The Joachimsthalsche Gymnasium — SchuU 
 pforta — The Studientag at Schulpforta — Games and Gymnastics — 
 The Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium, at Cologne — Studies of 
 the Gymnasium and of the Realschule — Conflict between their 
 Partisans. 
 
 Berlin has four royal gymnasiums, one with a 
 Realschule annexed ; four municipal gymna- 
 siums, one with a Realschule annexed ; four 
 other municipal Realschulen, and one higher 
 Burgher school. All these are full; there were. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM, JCJ 
 
 in 1863, 6,874 scholars in them, without count- 
 ing the children in the Vorschulen or preparatory 
 schools which several of them have as appen- 
 dages; but the supply of higher schools in Ber- 
 Hn is not sufficient for the demand, and the 
 municipality, which was spending in 1863 more 
 than £40,000 a year on the secondary and pri- 
 mary schools of the city, is about to provide 
 several higher schools more. All through 
 Prussia one hears the same thing: the secondary 
 schools are not enough for the increasing num- 
 bers whom the widening desire for a good edu- 
 cation (der welter verbreitete Bildungstrieb) sends 
 into them. The State increases its grants, and 
 those grants are met by increased exertions on 
 the part of the communes, but still there is not 
 room for the scholars who come in, and the rise 
 which has taken place in the rate of school fee 
 has in no degree stopped them. To obtain the 
 State's consent to the formation of a new school 
 with the name and rights of a public secondary 
 school, a commune must satisfy the State autho- 
 rity both that its municipal schools for the poor 
 
lo8 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 will not be pinched for the sake of the new esta- 
 blishment, and also that it can provide resources 
 to carry on the new establishment properly, and 
 in conformity with the requirements of the 
 Lehrplan, This is being done in all directions. 
 Perhaps the most remarkable of the higher 
 schools at Berlin is the Friedrich-Wilhelms 
 Gymnasium, The Greyfriars gymnasium {Gym- 
 nasium zum grauen Kloster) has about the same 
 number of scholars, but with the Friedrich- 
 Wilhelms Gymnasium is connected a Realschule ; 
 a Vorschuhy or preparatory school, common to 
 the gymnasium and the Realschule both ; and a 
 girls^ school, called from the then Crown 
 Princess of Prussia who gave it her name in 
 1827, the Elisahetschule, There were, at the 
 end of 1863, 2,200 scholars in the whole insti- 
 tution together ; 581 in the Gymnasium, 601 in 
 the Realschule, 522 in the preparatory school, 
 and 496 in the girls' school. The gymnasium 
 is remarkable as being the only higher school 
 in Prussia, except the Realschule on the Franck 
 foundation at Halle, where the receipts from 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 109 
 
 the scholars cover the expenditure of the school. 
 The annual expenditure for the gymnasium, 
 Realschule, preparatory school, Sind Elisabetschule 
 together, is in round figures 65,000 thalers ; the 
 receipts from the scholars' fees are in round 
 figures 53,000 thalers. The property of the in- 
 stitution is very small, producing about 3^400 a 
 year only, so the deficiency is made up by a 
 State grant of about 10,000 thalers ; this defi- 
 ciency, however, arises not in the gymnasium, 
 where the school-fees more than cover the ex- 
 penses, but in the schools allied with it. 
 
 The history of this institution is the history 
 of many public schools in Prussia. It owes its 
 origin to the Church, and has then in course of 
 time passed under the superintendence of the 
 State. I have mentioned the establishment by 
 Johann Hecker in 1747 of the first Realschule at 
 Berlin. Hecker was preacher at the Trinity 
 Church in the Friedrichsstadt, and he grouped to- 
 gether several small schools in his parish under 
 the name of a Realschule. The institution throve 
 from the first ; in 1748 it had 808 scholars, and 
 
no THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 20 years afterwards it had 1,267. It was 
 governed by the curators of the Trinity Church 
 and by inspectors of their appointment ; and it 
 was supported, having no endowment except a 
 very trifling house-property, by voluntary con- 
 tributions and by school-fees. The Latin 
 school, which was one of the grouped schools, 
 grew in importance, and at the fiftieth anni- 
 versary of the institution it received the name 
 of Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium, and in 1803 
 was rebuilt with a grant from the king of nearly 
 ;;f 10,000 towards the rebuilding. At the great re- 
 forming epoch of 1809 it passed with the other 
 secondary public schools of Berlin under the ad- 
 ministration of the Education Department; this 
 change being sanctioned, not only by public 
 opinion, but by the governing bodies of the 
 schools themselves, with the view of giving to 
 these great and important metropolitan esta- 
 blishments thebenefit of a common and intelligent 
 direction. The Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium 
 is now, therefore, both for interna and ex- 
 terna, under the School Board of the province of 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS, in 
 
 Brandenburg, to which, as soon as the School 
 Boards were constituted, the central depart- 
 ment transferred its direct charge of the public 
 schools. 
 
 The gymnasium is by foundation Protestant, 
 and out of the 600 boys whom I found there, 
 only 20 were Catholics and 15 were Jews. The 
 united schools have a joint director and a joint 
 administration of their affairs. They have al- 
 together 66 teachers, of whom 21 are for the 
 gymnasium. Of these 21, 11 are Oberlehrer, 
 and of these 11, six or seven have the title of 
 professor. The director is Dr. Ferdinand 
 Ranke, a brother of the historian ; he has been 
 nearly twenty-five years director here, and more 
 than forty years in the profession. He and 
 seven of the upper-masters of the gymnasium 
 are lodged in the school buildings, which are very 
 plain ; but in the school-court is one of those 
 relics of the past, so far more common in the 
 German schools, as in ours, than in the French, 
 — the inscription on Hecker^s original school- 
 house : ScholcB Trinitatis cedes in Dei honorem, 
 
112 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 regis gaudium, civ mm salutem, juventntis institu- 
 tioni dicatcB, There are no boarders ; a board- 
 ing establishment, which originally formed part 
 of the institution, having been done away with 
 in 1832. The scholars all through the school 
 pay the same fee, 26 thalers a year (£'^ 185). 
 In the Vorschule the fee is the same; in the 
 Realschule it is only two thalers a year lower. 
 In one gymnasium at Berlin the scholars pay 
 four thalers a year more than in the Friedrich- 
 Wilhelms Gymnasium ; in all the others they pay 
 one thaler less. There is very considerable 
 variety in the rate of school-fees in Prussia, the 
 circumstances of the school and locality being 
 always taken into account in fixing it. The rate 
 in the metropolitan schools is of course a com- 
 paratively high one, low as it seems to us. 
 Many schools have a rate rising with the class 
 or division ; thus in the gymnasium at Wetzlar 
 the boys in sexta and quinta pay 16 thalers, 
 those in quarta and tertia pay 10 thalers, those 
 in secunda and in prima pay 20 thalers. In 
 some schools the rate is as low as eight or ten 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 1 13 
 
 thalers for the lower classes, and 14 or 16 
 thalers for the higher. As an average rate for all 
 the gymnasiums of Prussia, 20 thalers (^f 3) a year, 
 would certainly be rather above the mark than 
 under it. The rates in the Realschulen and the 
 higher Burgher Schools do not in general range 
 below those of the classical schools. Moderate 
 as these present rates appear to us, they are 
 much higher than they used to be ; in the 
 Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium the school-fee 
 twenty years ago was only 16 thalers in sexta 
 and quinta, and 20 thalers in the other classes. 
 In many provincial schools it was astonishingly 
 low, as low as two, two and a half, and three 
 thalers. In a gymnasium I have already men- 
 tioned, the Magdalenen-Gymnas'mm at Breslau, 
 there was, in 1824, ^ uniform fee of 8 thalers, 
 and there is now a uniform fee of 24 thalers. 
 
 In the Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium I found 
 that ID per cent, of the 600 scholars had free 
 schooling. The number of free posts, as they 
 are called (Freistellen), varies in different 
 schools ; in some it goes up to 25 per cent., 
 
 I 
 
114 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 but I think lo per cent, may be taken as a 
 fair average. These free posts are given on 
 the ground of need and public claim. There 
 are also a few exhibitions in the Friedrich- 
 Wilhelms Gymnasium; but it will be best to 
 notice the subject of exhibitions when I am 
 speaking of some older and richer establish- 
 ment. 
 
 Of course in the very large schools it is 
 not possible to actually group and teach the 
 scholars in six classes, nor yet is it always 
 possible to observe the rule which enjoins 
 that there shall not be more than forty 
 scholars in either secunda or prima, or more 
 than fifty in any of the other classes. The 
 supply of class-rooms falls short, even more 
 than the supply of teachers. The highest 
 class, however, always remains prima, as in 
 our great schools it always remains the sixth ; 
 and in the higher classes the Germans, as I 
 have already mentioned, follow, when it is ne- 
 cessary, the plan of having an upper and lower 
 division {oberprima, unterprima), and in other 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 1 15 
 
 classes both this plan and the plan of having 
 two groups or assemblages (ccetus) at the same 
 stage of school work, and advancing parallel 
 to one another. 
 
 The first lesson I heard was Dr. Ranke's 
 own lesson to prima, on the Philoctetes of 
 Sophocles. He spoke Latin to his class 
 and his class spoke Latin in answer; this 
 is still a common practice in the German 
 schools, though not so common as formerly. 
 The German boys have certainly acquired 
 through this practice a surprising command 
 of Latin ; Dr. Schopen's lesson at Bonn to 
 his prima in extemporaneous translation into 
 Latin, — a lesson which has a deserved cele- 
 brity, — I heard with astonishment ; a much 
 wider command of the Latin vocabulary than 
 our boys have, and a more ready management 
 of the language, the Germans certainly suc- 
 ceed in acquiring. On the other hand, the 
 best style of the best authors is not, to my 
 mind, so well caught in Latin composition by 
 their boys as by ours. This is more particu- 
 
 I 2 
 
Ii6 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 larly the case in verse, where their best 
 scholars often show, I cannot but think, not 
 only a want of practical skill (that of course is 
 nothing), but a want of tact for judging what is 
 uncouth and inadmissible, which one would 
 not have expected of people who know the 
 Latin models so well. The same is true, in 
 a less degree, of their prose ; the best scho- 
 lars in the best schools of England or France, 
 if set to write a speech or a character in the 
 style of Cicero or Tacitus, would, I think, in 
 general acquit themselves of the task more 
 happily than the corresponding boys of a 
 German school. 
 
 But the feeling which was strongest with 
 me in the Berlin Philoctetes lesson was the 
 feeling that one seemed to be back in the 
 sixth form at Rugby again, as I remember it 
 nearly thirty years ago. After the lecture 
 rooms at Oxford, and the French lycees, and 
 the Italian licei, here was at last a body of 
 pupils once more who had worked at their 
 lessons, had learnt Greek, and were at home 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 1 17 
 
 in a Greek play. What the Berlin boys knew 
 about the scope of the play, its chief per- 
 sonages, and the governing idea and character 
 of each, was more than the Rugby boys would 
 have known; but the quantity of lines done, 
 the style of doing them, and the extent of 
 scholarship expected in the boys and found 
 in them, seemed to me as nearly as possible 
 the same thing at Berlin and at Rugby. I 
 thought the same in the afternoon when I 
 heard Professor Zumpt (a son of the famous 
 Latin scholar) take unterprima in Cicero's 
 speech Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino. The boys 
 had been through the oration during the 
 early part of the half-year ; they were now 
 going very rapidly through it again, trans- 
 lating into fluent German without taking the 
 Latin words. The master let the boys be 
 the performers, and spoke as little as pos- 
 sible himself, but every good or bad per- 
 formance was noticed. Just the same with 
 lessons in Thucydides, Livy, and Horace, 
 which I heard at other gymnasiums in Berlin. 
 
Ii8 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 The lessons had been well prepared by the 
 pupils, the master made few comments, and 
 only on really noteworthy matters, or to cite 
 some parallel passage which was not likely 
 to have come within his pupils' reading; in 
 general, when he spoke it was to question, 
 and he questioned closely. I was struck with 
 the exact knowledge of the Horatian metres 
 which the unterprima boys at Greyfriars showed 
 when questioned on them. I found that the 
 practice was to begin by taking eleven odes 
 as specimens of metre, and carefully studying 
 these before proceeding further. Then they 
 commence the Odes at the beginning and go 
 right through them. The portion of a Latin 
 or Greek author got through at a lesson is 
 about the same as in the corresponding form 
 in one of the best English schools, but either 
 in school or by private study the boys have 
 certainly read more than our boys or the 
 French; it is the general rule that a boy 
 who goes in for the leaving examination has 
 read Homer all through. A larger number of 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. IIQ 
 
 the boys, too, seem to have really benefited by 
 the instruction, and to be in the first flight of 
 their class, than with us. But the great 
 superiority of the Germans, and where they 
 show how much further they have gone in 
 Alterthumswissenschaft than we have, is in their 
 far broader notion of treating, even in their 
 schools, the ancient authors as literature, and 
 conceiving the place and significance of an 
 author in his country's literature, and in that 
 of the world. In this way the student's in- 
 terest in Greek and Latin becomes much more 
 vital, and the hold of these languages upon 
 him is much more likely to be permanent. 
 This is to be set against the superior finish 
 and elegance of the best of our boys in Latin 
 and Greek composition ; above all, in Latin 
 and Greek verse. Greek verse, indeed, can 
 scarcely be said to be a school exercise at 
 all, so far as I could see or hear, in the 
 foreign schools. 
 
 Instead of having to write Greek iambics, 
 the boys in prima at the Friedrich-Wilhelms 
 
I20 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 Gymnasium, on one of the days when I was 
 there, had had to write a summary of Lessing's 
 essay on the epigram. The summaries were 
 handed to the professor, who then made a boy 
 stand up and give in his own words the sub- 
 stance of Lessing's essay, beginning at the 
 beginning, the professor commenting and 
 asking questions as the boy proceeded. Pre- 
 sently another boy was set on, and in this 
 way they went through the essay. The lesson 
 was as much out of the range of my English 
 school experience as the lessons on the 
 Femmes Savantes of Moliere, which I heard, 
 as I have already said, with so much in- 
 terest in the Ecole Normale at Paris. The 
 Berlin lesson, like the Paris one, was very 
 interesting. 
 
 In the lower division of tertia (about the 
 middle of the school) I had another oppor- 
 tunity of observing a way, not, I think, in 
 use in England, of practising the boys in 
 Latin. The lesson was Ovid ; the boys had had 
 to translate at home a certain portion of Ovid 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 12 1 
 
 into German, and then 'to bring their transla- 
 tion with them to school. This they had then, 
 in school, to turn back into Latin, not me- 
 trical. After this, boys were called upon one 
 after another, as in England, to say a few 
 lines of Ovid by heart; but then, again, each 
 boy had also to say in German prose the pas- 
 sage he had just recited in Ovid's verse. 
 
 In quinta I heard the religious instruction. 
 For boys still so near the primary school 
 stage, religious instruction, as a part of the 
 school lessons, seems to me to be still, as 
 in the primary school, in place, and still 
 useful ; in the higher classes of the secondary 
 school, it seems to me, I confess, unprofitable 
 and inappropriate. Anything more futile and 
 useless than the lesson in the Galatians which. 
 I heard given to secunda at Bonn cannot pos- 
 sibly be imagined. In quinta here at Berlin, 
 it was different ; the boys were first ques- 
 tioned in Bible narratives from a text-book; 
 a good text-book and good questioning ; then 
 they said Luther's Short Catechism, and then 
 
122 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 they repeated hymns. The two or three 
 Catholic and Jewish boys belonging to the 
 class did not come to this lesson. 
 
 The mention of a text-book reminds me to 
 say a word about the rule in the Prussian 
 public schools for school-books. The masters 
 choose the books, but the approval of the 
 Provincial Board must be obtained for their 
 choice ; before approving for the first time any 
 new book, the Provincial Board must refer to 
 the Education Minister and his Council. When 
 a book has once been approved for a gymna- 
 sium, it may be used in any other gymnasium 
 or progymnasium of the same province ; but 
 approval for a gymnasium does not count for a 
 Realschule, and vice versd, 
 
 I must in passing observfe how greatly some 
 intelligent censorship like that of the Provincial 
 Boards and the Minister in Prussia, or that of 
 the Council of Public Instruction in France, is 
 needed for school-books in England. Many as 
 are the absurdities of our state of school 
 anarchy, perhaps none of them is more crying 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 1 23 
 
 than the book-pest which prevails under it. 
 Every school chooses at its own discretion ; 
 many schools make a trade of book-dealing, 
 and therefore it is for their interest to have 
 books which are not used elsewhere, and which 
 the pupil will not bring with him from his last 
 school ; so that a boy who has been at three or 
 four English schools has often had to buy a 
 complete new set of school-books for each. 
 The extravagance of this is bad enough ; but 
 then, besides, as there exists no intelligent 
 control or selection of them, half at least of our 
 school-books are rubbish, and to the other 
 defects of our school system we may add this, 
 that in no other secondary schools in Europe do 
 the pupils spend, so much of their time in learn- 
 ing such utter nonsense as they do in ours. 
 
 I have mentioned the Greyfriars gymnasium, 
 where I also heard lessons, and where they 
 were of the same character as at the Friedrich- 
 Wilhelms Gymnasium, a character much more 
 like that of the lessons in our best English 
 public schools than of the lessons in the French 
 
124 T^HE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 lycees. The history of Greyfriars is this. It 
 occupies the site of a Franciscan convent 
 abolished at the Reformation ; in 1574 the 
 third part of the convent premises was assigned 
 by the elector, at the instance of the town 
 magistracy, for use as a public school. The 
 magistracy endowed it, and the elector made it 
 over to them, but with an electoral Schulord- 
 nung. Here from the earliest times of the 
 school there was a convictorium (the Italian 
 convitto). The robust appetite of the sixteenth 
 century for the humanities appears in the 
 original plan of work ; Greek had thirteen 
 hours a week,, Latin ten, logic two, arithmetic 
 two, singing five. In 1655 the school had 400 
 scholars. In the second quarter of the 
 eighteenth century the mother-tongue and its 
 literature first appear as part of the school 
 course; the German public schools having thus 
 the start of ours^ in this particular, by about 
 125 years. In 1793 the school got the benefit 
 of a great endowment which I have already 
 mentioned, the Streitsche Stiftung ; the capital 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 125 
 
 of this endowment is now ;£'33,ooo. It is ad- 
 ministered by a Directorium composed, not of 
 Sigismund Streit's descendants, but as follows : 
 the provost of St. Nicholas (parish minister), 
 the director and the prorector of the school, a 
 councillor of the Education Department, a 
 merchant or tradesman, and a lawyer. The 
 financial administration of this Directorium is 
 controlled, in the manner I have already de- 
 scribed, by the public finance officers of the 
 Regierung or governmental district in which 
 Berlin stands. 
 
 Streit's endowment maintains at Greyfriars 
 teachers of the modern languages, of astronomy, 
 and of music, provides a Wohncommunitat 
 (lodging, bedding, fire, and lights) for twelve 
 scholars, and a Freitisch (board) for twenty- 
 four more ; and keeps improving the school 
 library (now 20,000 volumes), the observatory, 
 collections, etc. It also augments the salaries 
 of the director and a number of the masters. 
 Other benefactions provide the widows of 
 masters who die in office with a sum for their 
 
126 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 husbands' funeral expenses, and a pension of 
 £45 a year. There is an endowment of nearly 
 £4S^ ^ y^^r ^or exhibitions to be enjoyed at 
 the school, and of ;f 150 a year for exhibitions at 
 the universities. Every two years is held a 
 school-festival in honour of founders and bene- 
 factors. The school premises had an important 
 enlargement by Crown grants of land in 18 19 
 and 1831, and great additions have since that 
 time been made to the buildings. I found 
 about 550 boys, with a director and twenty-five 
 masters. On an average, twenty-five boys 
 pass the Abiturientenexamen from this school 
 every year. Here, too, as at the Friedrich- 
 Wilhelms Gymnasium, the number of free posts 
 is ten per cent. They are provided by the 
 municipality. The school gets a grant of about 
 jf 100 a year from the State and ^f 1,000 a year 
 from the city of Berlin. 
 
 By original foundation and by endowment 
 this school too is Protestant. Hardly any 
 Catholic boys are here, but of Jewish boys there 
 are seventy or eighty. About a third of the 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 1 27 
 
 whole number of the scholars are Auswdrtige ; 
 boys who came from a distance, and cannot, 
 therefore, live with their parents. The great 
 internals of the French lycees are unknown in 
 Germany; the Alumnate or Convicte of the 
 German schools are properly establishments 
 like college at Eton or Winchester, and are for 
 foundationers ; for establishments like the 
 School House and the masters' boarding- 
 houses at Rugby, or Commoners at Winchester, 
 the strict designation would in Germany be 
 Pensionat, Pensionsanstalt, and not Alumnat. 
 The practice of having one's son live at home 
 and go to school for his lessons only, obtains 
 much more widely in Germany than with us ; 
 40,000 of the 66,000 boys in the Prussian 
 higher schools are day scholars. Still this 
 leaves 26,000 who are not ; and of these the 
 vast majority live with some respectable family 
 in the place where they go to school. The 
 household with which their son is to board or 
 lodge is designated by the parent, but must, by 
 the school regulations of Prussia, be approved 
 
128 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 by the director of the boy^s school, who holds 
 the householder responsible for the boy^s con- 
 duct out of school. The family life in North 
 Germany is in general decent, kindly, and God- 
 fearing ; and a boy is, I think, much better 
 placed as a boarder in this way than as an 
 interne of a French lycee. Still the school 
 authorities in Prussia are of opinion that the 
 provision of boarding establishments in imme- 
 diate connection with the public schools needs 
 increasing, and they design to increase it. 
 
 The patron at Greyfriars, for matters that do 
 not come within the province of the Directorium 
 of Streit^s charity, is still, as the elector John 
 George originally appointed, the city of Berlin, 
 the municipality. The reader will remember 
 that for the interna of a Prussian gymnasium 
 the intervention of a Provincial Board always 
 subsists. 
 
 I must give a word in passing to the great 
 Alumnat of Berlin, the Joachimsthalsche Gymna- 
 sium. Here I found 404 scholars ; 120 of them 
 were collegers (Alumnen), 12 were boarders in 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 129 
 
 the establishment (Pensionaire) ; the rest were 
 the boys who came for the lessons only 
 (Hospiten). Ten per cent of these have free 
 schooling. The Pensionaire pay only £24. a 
 year ; the Alumnen are not all of them free of 
 all cost ; 25 of them pay £% 14s. a year ; 75 of 
 them pay £/[. los. There are 20 places with 
 board, lodging, and instruction all entirely free, 
 for 20 proved scholars of the highest forms. 
 
 The jfoachimsthalsche Gymnasium is a royal 
 foundation, endowed with lands by the elector 
 Joachim Frederick in 1607. It is Protestant. 
 The school has now an income of over ^3,000 a 
 year from land, and of over ^2,000 a year from 
 money in the funds. The Crown is the patron ; 
 the property is administered, owing to its con- 
 nection with the Crown domain, by the Regie- 
 rung at Potsdam. 
 
 This is an interesting school, for the list of 
 its masters contains the names of Buttmann, 
 Schneider, Passow, Zumpt, Kriiger, and Bergk. 
 The director is Dr. Kiessling, a son of the 
 editor of Theocritus. Constantly in the rolls 
 
 K 
 
130 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 of the German schools one is coming upon a 
 well-known name of this kind ; on the roll of 
 former teachers at Greyfriars are to be found 
 the names of Heindorf, Spalding, Droysen. 
 Nor are other recollections, as interesting as 
 any school in the world can boast, wanting to 
 the Prussian schools. The Joachimsthal 
 School had a scholar of quarta who, like so many 
 German schoolboys, joined the army in the 
 great uprising against the French in 1813. 
 This boy was wounded at Leipzig, made the 
 campaign of France, was at Waterloo, received 
 the decoration of the Iron Cross, and, finally, 
 with the decoration on his breast, took his 
 place again on his old school-bench as a scholar 
 of quarta. 
 
 But no Alumnat in Prussia, or indeed in 
 Germany, can compare with Schulpforta, 
 which by its antiquity, its beauty, its wealth, 
 its celebrity, is entitled to vie with the most 
 renowned English schools. The Cistercian 
 abbey of St. Mary's, Pforta, dates from 1137. 
 It was secularised in 1540 ; and Duke Maurice 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 131 
 
 of Saxony, in 1543, established in its place and 
 endowed with its revenues a Protestant school 
 for 100 scholars. It stands near the Saal, in 
 the pleasant country of Prussian Saxony ; and 
 the venerable pile of buildings rising among 
 its meadows, hills, and woods, is worthy of the 
 motto borne on the arms of the old abbey : 
 ' Hier ist nichts anderes denn Gottes Haus, und 
 hier die Pforte des Himmels.*'^ It has a beauti- 
 fully restored chapel, regular commemorative 
 services, and a host of local usages. A Latin 
 grace is sung in hall every day before dinner 
 by the whole body of scholars. Every scholar 
 has by ancient institution his tutotj every 
 master his famulus. This is the German school 
 where Latin verse has been most cultivated, 
 and the Muscb Portenses, like those of Eton, 
 have been published. 
 
 The property is very large, and considerable 
 Church patronage is attached to it. Up to 
 1815, when it passed into the possession of 
 
 * * This is none other but the house of God, and this is the gate 
 {porta, Pforte of heaven.' — Om. xxviii. 1 7. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 Prussia, the old abbey estate had still its 
 feudal privileges, and enjoyed full civil and 
 criminal jurisdiction. The property is now 
 entirely under the superintendence of the 
 School Board of the province of Saxony, 
 which appoints a procurator for it. The 
 revenues of Pforta are from ^8,000 to ^^9,000 
 a year. 
 
 The great head-master of Schulpforta was 
 Ilgen, whose name every one who has read the 
 Homeric Hymns ought to respect. Ilgen was 
 rector for nearly thirty years, from 1802 to 
 183 1, and his reforms make this period an 
 epoch in the school's history. Few schools 
 can show such a list of old scholars. Graevius, 
 Ernesti, Klopstock, Bottiger, Mitscherlich, 
 Fichte, Dissen, Thiersch, Spitzner, Doder- 
 lein, Spohn, were all of them schoolboys 
 here. 
 
 There are now about 205 pupils : 180 Alum- 
 nen proper, or collegers, 20 boarders {Pension- 
 aire, Extraneer), and four or five half-boarders 
 (Semi'Extraneer) , These half- boarders have. 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 133 
 
 in fact, all the advantages of collegers, except 
 board, for a payment of £y los. a year ; their 
 board they get at a master's. The real Extra- 
 neer board and lodge with a master ; -they pay to 
 him about ^^45 a year for their board and lodg- 
 ing, and to the school £5 8s. a year for their in- 
 struction. 
 
 The Alumnen proper have all of them cer- 
 tain payments to make ; those exacted, how- 
 ever, from the 140 who hold Freistellen are very 
 trifling. There are 30 old Koststellen, or posts 
 with board, the holders of which pay about ^3 a 
 year each, and 20 new Koststellen, the holders of 
 which pay ^fy. As a general rule, a boy is not 
 admitted at once to a Freistelle. The right of 
 nominating to about half the posts on the 
 foundation belongs to the Crown, that to the 
 other half to different municipalities. Of the 
 Crown appointments a certain number is re- 
 served, by convention with the Saxon Govern- 
 ment when Pforta passed into Prussia's pos- 
 session, for natives of the duchy of Saxony. 
 The rest are given, on grounds of public claim, 
 
134 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 by the Minister of Justice and the Home 
 Secretary. No boy is admitted till he is twelve 
 years old ; he must be able to pass for tertia. 
 The school begins with tertia, but it has six 
 forms, because there is an upper and a lower 
 division of each class. There are 77 boys in 
 the two divisions of tertia, 79 in the two of 
 secunda, 49 in the two of prima. For some of 
 the posts several boys are nominated, and the 
 one who passes the best examination gets 
 admitted ; but the candidates here, the English 
 reader will observe, must all of them be over 
 twelve years of age. The school is well pro- 
 vided with exhibitions, in general of from ^f 10 
 to 3^15 a year in value, to the universities. 
 
 There is a noteworthy usage here of making 
 one day in the week a Studientag, in which the 
 boy is free from all school lessons that he may 
 pursue his private studies. In the same spirit, 
 ; in the Gymnasien generally, promising boys in 
 l prima are excused certain of the school les- 
 sons, that they may work at matters which 
 specially interest them. Results of this private 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 135 
 
 study are to be produced at the Ahiturienten- 
 exameUy and are taken into account for the 
 leaving certificate. Nothing could better show 
 the freedom of Germany, as compared with 
 France, in treating school matters, than a 
 practice of this kind, which to the French 
 authorities would appear monstrous. In Eng- 
 land the school authorities would have a belief, 
 in general too well justified, that hardly any 
 one of our boys has any notion of such a thing 
 as systematic private study at all. 
 
 At Schulpforta they are very proud of their 
 playing-field, which is indeed, with the wooded 
 hill rising behind it, a pleasant place ; but the 
 games of English playing-fields do not go on 
 there : instead of goals or a cricket-ground, 
 one sees apparatus for gymnastics. .The Ger- 
 mans, as is well known, now cultivate gym- 
 nastics in their schools with great care. Since 
 1842, gymnastics have been made a regular 
 part of the public-school course ; there is a 
 Central-Turnanstalt at Berlin, with 18 civilian 
 pupils who are being trained expressly to sup- 
 
136 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 ply model teachers of gymnastics for the 
 public schools. The teachers profess to have 
 adapted their exercises with precision to every 
 age, and to all the stages of a boy's growth 
 and muscular development. The French are 
 much impressed by what seems to them the 
 success of the Germans in this kind of instruc- 
 tion, and certainly in their own lycees they 
 have not at present done nearly so much for it. 
 Nothing, however, will make an ex-school boy 
 of one of the great English schools regard the 
 gymnastics of a foreign school without a slight 
 feeling of wonder and compassion, so much 
 more animating and interesting do the games 
 of his remembrance seem to him. This much, 
 however, I will say: if boys have long work- 
 hours, or if they work hard, gymnastics 
 probably do more for their physical health in 
 the comparatively short time allotted to re- 
 creation than anything else could. In Eng- 
 land the majority of public schoolboys work 
 far less than the foreign schoolboy, and for 
 this majority the English games are delightful ; 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 137 
 
 but for the few hard students with us there is 
 in general nothing but the constitutional ^ and 
 this is not so good as the foreign gymnastics. 
 For Httle boys, again, I am inclined to think 
 that the carefully taught gymnastics of a 
 foreign school are better than the lounging 
 shiveringly about, which in my time used often 
 at our great schools to be the portion of 
 those who had not yet come to full age for 
 games. 
 
 All the schools I have hitherto described are 
 denominational schools. Before I conclude, I 
 must describe a mixed (simultan) school, or 
 the nearest approach to it to be found. Such a 
 school is the Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnasium at 
 Cologne. Cologne, as every one knows, is 
 Catholic ; up to 1825 it had only one gym- 
 nasium, a Catholic one. In 1865, it had 
 Catholic gymnasiums, one with 382 scholars, 
 the other with 281 ; it had also a Realschule 
 of the first rank, with 601 scholars. Besides 
 these schools it had a Protestant gymnasium, 
 with real classes ; as we should say, with a 
 
138 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 modern school forming part of it. This is the 
 Friedrich-Wilhelms Gymnashim. An old Carme- 
 lite college, which had become the property of 
 the municipality, was in 1825 made into a pub- 
 lic gymnasium, in order to relieve the over- 
 crowding in the Catholic gymnasium and to 
 provide special accommodation for the Protes- 
 tants. In 1862 this school was, by the sub- 
 scriptions of friends, both Catholic and Protes- 
 tant, provided with real classes up to secunda, the 
 two lowest classes {sexta and quinta) being 
 common to both classical and real scholars. 
 There are, therefore, in fact three special 
 classes for real scholars ; or as we should say, 
 a modern school of three classes. There are 
 356 boys in the classical school, and about 100 
 in the modern school. Of the boys in the 
 classical school, 125 only are Protestants, 
 though the school is by foundation evangelisch ; 
 215 are CathoHcs and 16 are Jews. Nothing 
 could better show how little the * religious 
 difficulty ' practically exists in Prussian schools 
 than this abundance of Catholic scholars in a 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 139 
 
 Protestant school, where the director and the 
 majority of the 15 masters are Protestants. 
 The regular religious instruction of the school 
 is of course Protestant ; but the Catholics 
 being in such numbers, a special religious in- 
 structor has been provided for them, as, too, 
 there is a special religious instructor provided 
 for the Protestants in the two Catholic gym- 
 nasiums. It will be remembered that where 
 the boys, not of the confession for which the 
 school is founded, are very few in number, the 
 parents have to make private arrangements for 
 their religious instruction, and the school does 
 not provide it. The school fee is from 18 to 22 
 thalers a year, according to the form a boy is 
 in. 
 
 The property of the school brings in less 
 than jf200 a year. The State contributes about 
 jfgoo a year. School fees produce almost 
 exactly the same sum. The municipality gave 
 in the first instance the school premises, and 
 now contributes about ^50 a year to keep them 
 up. It is a Crown patronage school, but the 
 
I40 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 externa, or property concerns, of this school, as 
 of all the gymnasiums and school endowments 
 of Cologne, are managed by a local Verwaltungs- 
 rath, or council of administration. This Ver- 
 waltungsrath is thus composed: a representa- 
 tive of the Provincial School Board, the di- 
 rectors of the three gymnasiums, with a lawyer, 
 a financier, an administrator, and two citizens 
 of Cologne ; these last five chosen, on the pre- 
 sentation of the Common Council, by the Pro- 
 vincial School Board. For the Studienfonds 
 which are endowments general for education in 
 Cologne, and not affected to particular institu- 
 tions, a Catholic ecclesiastic is added to the 
 Verwaltungsrath. These Studienfonds are very 
 considerable, producing close upon 60,000 
 thalers a year (;fg,ooo). The Verwaltungsrath 
 has a staff of seven clerks, office-keepers, etc., 
 and both council and staff are paid for their 
 services. 
 
 The director was the personage already men- 
 tioned, whose nomination to a school* the Edu- 
 
 ♦ The school was the gymnasium at Bielefeld. 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 141 
 
 cation Minister had refused to confirm, because 
 of the nominee's politics. I had much conver- 
 sation with him, and he struck me as a very 
 able man. He said, and his presence in this 
 Cologne school confirmed it, that the Govern- 
 ment found it impossible to treat their school 
 patronage politically, even so far as the direc- 
 tors or head-masters were concerned. The ap- 
 pointment of the professors and teachers, he 
 declared, it never even entered into the Govern- 
 ment's head to treat politically. We went 
 through the school admission-book together, 
 that I might see to what class in society the 
 boys chiefly belonged. We took a class in the 
 middle of the school, and went through this 
 boy by boy, both for the classical school and 
 the modern school. As it happened, the social 
 standing of the real scholars was on the whole 
 somewhat the highest, but there was very little 
 difference. There were a few peasants' children, 
 picked boys from the elementary schools in the 
 neighbourhood, but these were all of them 
 bursars. There were a good many sons of 
 
142 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM SEEN IN 
 
 Government ofBcials. But the designation I 
 found attached to by far the greater number of 
 parents' names was Kaufmann — * trader.' I 
 heard several lessons, and particularly noticed 
 the English lesson in the third class of the 
 modern school. This lesson was given by a 
 Swiss, who spoke English very well, and who 
 had been, he told me, a teacher of modern lan- 
 guages at Uppingham. I thought here, as I 
 thought when I heard a French lesson at Bonn, 
 that the boys made a good deal more of these 
 modern language lessons in Germany than in 
 England ; the Swiss master at Cologne said 
 this impression of mine was quite right. Even 
 in France I thought these lessons better done, 
 — with better methods, better teachers, and 
 more thoroughly learned, — than in England. 
 In Germany they were better than in France. 
 The lessons in the natural sciences, on the 
 other hand, which in France seemed to me 
 inferior to the mathematical lessons, I thought 
 less successfully given in Germany than even 
 in France. But of this matter I am a very in- 
 
OPERATION IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. 143 
 
 competent judge, and England, besides, sup- 
 plied me here with no standard of comparison, 
 for in the English schools, when I knew them, 
 the natural sciences were not taught at all. 
 The classical work in the Cologne gymnasium 
 was much the same that I had seen in other 
 Prussian gymnasiums, and calls for no par- 
 ticular remark. 
 
 Dr. Jager, the director of the united school, 
 — well placed, therefore, for judging, and, as I 
 have said, an able man, — assured me it was 
 the universal conviction with those competent 
 to form an opinion that the Realschulen were 
 not, at present, successful institutions. He 
 declared that the boys in the corresponding 
 forms of the classical school beat the Realschule 
 boys in matters V^^hich both do alike, such as 
 history, geography, the mother-tongue, and 
 even French, though to French the Realschule 
 boys devote so far more time than their com- 
 rades of the classical school. The reason for 
 this. Dr. Jager affirms, is that the classical 
 training strengthens a boy's mind so much 
 more. 
 
144 THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM. 
 
 This is what, as I have already said, the 
 chief school authorities everywhere in France 
 and Germany testify : I quote Dr. Jager's testi- 
 mony in particular, because of his ability and 
 because of his double experience. In Switzer- 
 land you do not hear the same story, but the 
 regnant Swiss conception of secondary instruc- 
 tion is, in general, not a liberal but a com- 
 mercial one; not culture and training of the 
 mind, but what will be of immediate palpable 
 utility in some practical calling, is there the 
 chief matter ; and this cannot be admitted as 
 the true scope of secondary instruction. Even 
 in Switzerland, too, there is a talk of intro- 
 ducing Latin into the Realschule course, which 
 at present is without it ; so impossible is it to 
 follow absolutely the commercial theory of edu- 
 cation without finding inconvenience from it. 
 But I reserve my remarks on this question for 
 my conclusion. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION IN 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 Passage from Secondary to Superior Instruction — Special Schools 
 and Universities — Universities of Prussia — Proportion of Univer- 
 sity Students to Population — German Universities State Establish- 
 ments — University Authorities— University Teachers — i. Full 
 Professors — z. Assistant Professors — 3. Privatdocenten — Students 
 — Fees— Certificates of Attendance at Lectures— Degrees — The 
 Staatspriifung — Character of the German University System. 
 
 The secondary school has essentially for its 
 object a general liberal culture, whether this 
 culture is chiefly pursued through the group of 
 aptitudes which carry us to the humanities, or 
 through the group of aptitudes which carry us 
 to the study of nature. It is a mistake to 
 
 L 
 
146 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 make the secondary school a direct professional 
 school, though a boy's aims in life and his 
 future profession will naturally determine, in 
 the absence of an overpowering bent, the group 
 of aptitudes he will seek to develope. It is the 
 function of the special school to give a profes- 
 sional direction to what a boy has learnt at the 
 secondary school, at the same time that it 
 makes his knowledge, as far as possible, 
 systematic, — developes it into science. It is 
 the function of the university to develope into 
 science the knowledge a boy brings with him 
 from the secondary school, at the same time 
 that it directs him towards the profession in 
 which his knowledge may most naturally be 
 exercised. Thus, in the university, the idea of 
 science is primary, that of the profession 
 secondary ; in the special school, the idea of 
 the profession is primary, that of science 
 secondary. Our English special schools have 
 yet to be instituted, and our English univer- 
 sities do not perform the function of a uni- 
 versity, as that function is above laid down. 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 147 
 
 Still we have, like Germany, great and famous 
 universities, and those universities are, as in 
 Germany, in immediate connection with our 
 chief secondary schools. It will be well, 
 therefore, to complete my sketch of the Prussian 
 school system by a sketch of the university 
 system with which it is co-ordered. 
 
 Prussia had, in 1865, six complete universi- 
 ties, with all the four faculties of theology, law, 
 medicine, and philosophy : and two incomplete 
 universities, with only the faculties of theology 
 and philosophy. The complete universities were 
 Berlin, Bonn, Breslau, Greifswald, Halle, and 
 Konigsberg; the incomplete ones, Miinster 
 and Braunsberg. In both of these last the 
 faculty of theology is Catholic. 
 
 These eight Prussian universities had, in 
 1864, 6,362 students and 600 professors. But 
 this number does not represent the number of 
 Prussians who come under university instruc- 
 tion_, because many Prussians go to German 
 universities out of Prussia, such as Heidelberg, 
 Gottingen, Leipzig, Jena. There is very free 
 
 L 2 
 
148 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 circulation of the German students through the 
 universities of the fatherland ; and to estimate 
 the proportion, in any German State, who come 
 under superior instruction, the fairest way is to 
 take the proportion which the whole number of 
 students in Germany bears to the whole popula- 
 tion. For else, while we get for Prussia but 
 about one student to every 2,800 inhabitants, 
 we shall get for Baden, and for the three Saxon 
 duchies, Weimar, Coburg, and Altenburg, about 
 one student to every 1,100 inhabitants; yet it 
 is not that in these territories more of the 
 population go to the university than in Prussia, 
 but Baden has the University of Heidelberg, 
 and the three Saxon duchies have in common 
 the University of Jena, and to these two uni- 
 versities students from all parts of Germany 
 come. Taking, therefore, the whole of Germany, 
 exclusive of the non-German States of Austria, 
 we get about one matriculated student for every 
 2,600 of population ; and this proportion is pro- 
 bably pretty near the truth for Prussia, and for 
 most of the single States. In England the pro- 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 149 
 
 portion is about one matriculated student tc 
 every 5,800 of the population. 
 
 The universities of the several German States 
 differ in many points of detail, but in their main 
 system and regulations they are alike. I shall 
 continue, in speaking of universities, to have 
 Prussia in immediate view ; but the English 
 reader will understand that what I say of the 
 Prussian university system may be applied in 
 general to that of all Germany. 
 
 The German university is a State establish- 
 ment, and is maintained, so far as its own 
 resources fall short, by the State. A uni- 
 versity's own resources are both the property 
 it has and the fees it levies. The two most 
 important of the Prussian universities, Berlin 
 with its 2,500 students and Bonn with its 
 1,000, date from this century, and foundations 
 of this century are seldom very rich in property. 
 For the year 1864, the income af the University 
 of Berlin was 196,787 thalers (£29,518) ; of this 
 sum, the real and funded property of the uni- 
 versity produced 161 thalers, fees produced 
 
150 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 7f557 thalers. The State gave all the rest, — 
 189,069 thalers (about ^f 28, 842). And the State 
 which does this is the most frugal and eco- 
 nomical State in Europe. 
 
 The Minister of Public Instruction appoints 
 the professors of a university, the academical 
 senate having the right of proposing names for 
 his acceptance ; and he has also his representa- 
 tive in each university, — the curator, — who acts 
 as plenipotentiary for the State, and whose 
 business it is to see to the observance of the 
 laws and regulations which concern the uni- 
 versities. Thus, for instance, a full professor 
 {Professor ordinarius) is bound by regulation to 
 give throughout the Semester, or half year, at 
 least two free lectures a week on his subject ; 
 if he tried to charge fees for them, it would be 
 the curator's business to interfere. And the 
 university authorities cannot make new regu- 
 lations for the government of the university 
 without obtaining for them the sanction of the 
 mmister and of Parliament. Still the university 
 authorities practically work, in Germany just as 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 151 
 
 much as in this country, their own university ; 
 the real direction of the university is in their 
 hands, and not, as in France, in those of the 
 minister. 
 
 These university authorities are the following. 
 First comes the rector, or, in cases where the 
 sovereign is the titular rector, as at Halle and 
 Jena, the pro-rector, who answers to our vice- 
 chancellor ; only he is elected for one year only, 
 instead of four. His electors are the full pro- 
 fessors. The rector or pro-rector is the visible 
 head of the university, and is charged with its 
 discipline. Like our vice-chancellor, he has an 
 assessor, or judge, who sits with him whenever 
 there is a question of inflicting fines, or when- 
 ever one of the parties appearing before him is 
 not a member of the university. The academi- 
 cal senate is also chosen by the full professors, 
 and for one year ; its members consisting of the 
 actual rector (or pro-rector), the outgoing rec- 
 tor, and a full professor of each faculty. In 
 some universities all the full professors are 
 members of the academical senate. The rector 
 
152 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 is president, and the internal affairs of the uni- 
 versity are brought before it for its discussion 
 and regulation. 
 
 Next come the faculties. The faculties in 
 nearly all German universities are four in num- 
 ber ;* theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. 
 Philosophy embraces the humanities, and the 
 mathematical and natural sciences. As a uni- 
 versity authority, a faculty consists only of its 
 full professors, headed by the dean, whom these 
 professors elect for one year. It is the business 
 of the faculty thus composed to see that the 
 students attend regularly the courses of lectures 
 for which they are entered, to summon defaulters 
 before it, to reprimand them, and to inflict on 
 them, if it think proper, a slight penalty. 
 
 The last university authority to be mentioned 
 is the qucestor. He has to collect from the stu- 
 dents the fees for the courses for which they 
 have entered themselves, and to pay those fees 
 
 • In one or two universities there is a separate faculty for political 
 economy ; in general this science is comprehended in the faculty of 
 philosophy. 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 153 
 
 to the professors to whom they are due, a small 
 deduction being made for the quaestor's salary 
 and for the university chest, 
 
 And now to take the university, not as an 
 administrative but as a teaching body. Of the 
 university, considered in this capacity, the 
 faculty is a very different thing from the limited 
 faculty above described. The university faculty, 
 as a teaching body, comprehends not only all 
 the full professors of that faculty, but all its 
 professors extraordinary, or assistant professors, 
 and all its Privatdocenten. The dean of faculty 
 ascertains from all the full professors, all the pro- 
 fessors extraordinary, and all the Privatdocenten 
 of his faculty, what subject each one of them 
 proposes to treat in the coming Semester : there is 
 perfect liberty of choice for each lecturer, but 
 by consent among themselves they so co-order 
 their teaching that the whole field of instruction 
 proper to their faculty may be completely 
 covered. Then the dean calls together the full 
 professors, who make the administrative faculty; 
 and the programme of lectures is by them drawn 
 
154 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 up from the data collected by the dean, and is 
 promulgated by their authority. 
 
 All full professors must have the degree of 
 doctor in their faculty. Each of them is named 
 for a special branch of the instruction of his 
 faculty ; and in this branch he is bound, as I 
 have said, to give at least two public lectures 
 a week without charging fees. He receives from 
 the State a fixed salary which is sometimes as 
 much as ^^350 or even ;f40o a year; he has 
 also a share in the examination fees, and he has 
 the fees for what lectures he gives besides his 
 public lectures. The regular number of full pro- 
 fessors in each university is limited, but the 
 State can always, if it thinks fit, nominate an 
 eminent man as full professor in a faculty, even 
 though the faculty may have its complement of 
 full professors ; and the State then pays him the 
 same salary as the other full professors. Both 
 from the consideration which attaches to the 
 post and from its emolument, a full professor's 
 place is in Germany the prize of the career of 
 public instruction, and no schoolmaster's place 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 155 
 
 can compare with it. At Heidelberg several 
 professors have, I am told, an income, from fixed 
 salary and fees together, of ^f 1,000 a year, and 
 one an income of ;f 1,500. 
 
 The professors extraordinary, or assistant 
 professors, are also named by the State, but 
 they have not in all cases a fixed salary. Their 
 main dependence is on fees paid by those who 
 come to their lectures. They are in general 
 taken from the most distinguished of the Privat- 
 docenten, and they rise through the post of pro- 
 fessor extraordinary to that of full professor. 
 
 Other countries have full professors and pro- 
 fessors extraordinary. France, for instance, has 
 her professeurs titulaires and her professeurs sup- 
 pleants ; but the Privatdocent is peculiar to Ger- 
 many, and is the great source of vigour and 
 renovation to her superior instruction. Some- 
 times he gives private lessons, like the private 
 tutors of our universities ; these lessons have 
 the title of Privatissima. But this is not his 
 main business. His main business is as unlike 
 the sterile business of our private tutors as pos- 
 
136 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 sible. The Privatdocent is an assistant to the 
 professorate ; he is free to use, when the pro- 
 fessors do not occupy them, the university lec- 
 ture-rooms, he gives lectures like the professors, 
 and his lectures count as professors' lectures for 
 those w^ho attend them. His appointment is on 
 this wise. A distinguished student applies to 
 be made Privatdocent in a faculty. He produces 
 certain certificates and performs certain exer- 
 cises before two delegates named by the faculty, 
 and this is called his Hahilitation. If he passes, 
 the faculty names him Privatdocent. The 
 authorisation of the minister is also requisite 
 for him, but this follows his nomination by the 
 faculty as a matter of course. He is then free 
 to lecture on any of the matters proper to his 
 faculty. He is on his probation, he receives no 
 salary whatever, and depends entirely on his 
 lectures; he has, therefore, every motive to 
 exert himself. In general, as I have said, the 
 professors and Privatdocenten arrange together to 
 parcel out the field of instruction between them, 
 and one supplements the other's teaching ; still 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 157 
 
 a Privatdocent may, if he likes, lecture on just 
 the same subject that a professor is lecturing 
 on ; there is absolute liberty in this respect. 
 The one precaution taken against undue com- 
 petition is, that a Privatdocent lecturing on a 
 professor's subject is not allowed to charge 
 lower fees than the professor. It does honour 
 to the disinterested spirit in which science is 
 pursued in Germany, that with these tempta- 
 tions to competition the relations between the. 
 professors and the Privatdocenten are in general 
 excellent ; the distinguished professor encou- 
 rages the rising Privatdocent, and the Privatdocent 
 seeks to make his teaching serve science, not 
 his own vanity. But it is evident how the 
 neighbourhood of a rising young Privatdocent 
 must tend to keep a professor up to the mark, 
 and hinder him from getting sleepy and lazy. 
 If he gets sleepy and lazy, his lecture-room is 
 deserted. The Privatdocent, again, has the 
 standard of eminent men before his eyes, and 
 everything stimulates him to come up to it. 
 In the faculty of philosophy at Berlin the 
 
158 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 number of Privatdocenten is almost exactly the 
 same as the number of full professors. There 
 are 28 full professors and 29 Privatdocenten. The 
 professors extraordinary are more numerous 
 than either. They are 33 in number. The 
 whole number of teachers in the University 
 of Berlin is 183.=* 
 
 Now I come to the students. The university 
 course in theology, law, and philosophy, takes 
 three years ; in medicine it takes four or five. 
 A student in his triennium often visits one or 
 two universities, seldom more. Lachmann (to 
 take an eminent instance) first went for half a 
 year to Leipzig to hear Hermann ; then he 
 passed on to Gottingen, where he afterwards got 
 his Hahilitation. To become a member of a 
 university, the student has to be entered on the 
 university register (Matrikel), and then on the 
 register of the faculty in which he means to 
 follow lectures ; for inscription on the university 
 register the production of the school leaving 
 
 * All these numicrs relate to the year 1864. For full details 
 respecting the provision of teaching n the University of Berlin, 
 see the appendix. 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 1 59 
 
 certificate {MaUmtdtszeugniss) , of which I have 
 already said so much, is indispensable. You 
 may get leave to attend lectures without being 
 a member of the university, and without any 
 school certificate; but such attendance counts 
 nothing for any purpose for which a university 
 course is by law or official rule required. The 
 university entrance fee is about i8s. The matri- 
 culating student signs an engagement to observe 
 the laws and regulations of the university. The 
 penalties for violating them are enforced by the 
 rector. These penalties are, according to the 
 nature of the offence, reprimand ; fine ; impri- 
 sonment for a period not exceeding one month in 
 the university career ; consilium abeundi, or dis- 
 missal from the particular university to which 
 the student belongs, but with liberty to enter at 
 another ; and finally. Relegation, or absolute ex- 
 pulsion, notice being sent to. the other univer- 
 sities, which then may not admit the student 
 expelled. 
 
 The lecture fees range from i6s. to £1 14s. 
 for every course which is not a public and gra- 
 
i6o SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 tuitous one. They are somewhat higher at 
 Berlin than in most German universities. In 
 the faculty of medicine they are highest ; here 
 they go up as high as £i 14s. a Semester for a 
 course of about five hours a week. A course 
 of the same length in theology or philosophy 
 costs at Berlin about jys. a Semester. The fees 
 are collected, as I have said, by the university 
 quaestor, and they must be paid in advance. 
 But every professor has the power to admit 
 poor auditors to his lectures without fee, and 
 often he does so. Poor students are also, by a 
 humane arrangement, suffered to attend lectures 
 on credit, and afterwards, when they enter the 
 public service, — which in Prussia means not 
 only what we in England call the public service, 
 but the learned professions as well, — their lec- 
 ture fees are recovered by a deduction from their 
 salary. Each university has besides, for the 
 benefit of poor scholars, a number of exhibitions 
 ranging from ^12 to ^60 a year; and it is com- 
 mon to allow the holders of school exhibitions — 
 which are of smaller amount, and range from 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. l6i 
 
 £6 to -f 30 a year, — to retain them at the 
 university. 
 
 Certificates of having followed certain courses 
 of lectures are required both for the university 
 degree and for the subsequent examination for 
 a public career [Staatsprufung) vv^hich almost 
 ' every university student has in view. It is said 
 that the professors whose lectures are very 
 numerously attended have difficulty in ascer- 
 taining who is there and who is not, and that 
 they give the certificates with too much laxity. 
 In general, however, it is certain that a student 
 who has his way to make, and who is worth 
 anything, will attend regularly the lectures for 
 which he has entered himself and paid his 
 money. There are, of course, many idlers; the 
 proportion of students in a German university 
 who really work I have heard estimated at one- 
 third ; certainly it is larger than in the English 
 universities. But the pressure put upon them 
 in the way of compulsion and university 
 examinations is much less than with us. The 
 paramount university aim in Germany is to 
 
 M 
 
SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 encourage a love of study and science for their 
 own sakes; and the professors, very unlike our 
 college tutors, are constantly warning their 
 pupils against Brodstudien, studies pursued with 
 a view to examinations and posts. The exami- 
 nations within the university course itself are 
 far fewer and less important in Germany than 
 in England. It is Austria, a country which 
 believes in the things of the mind as little as 
 we do, which is the great country for university 
 examinations. There they are applied with a 
 mechanical faith much like ours, and come as 
 often as once a month ; but the general intel- 
 lectual life of the Austrian universities is lower, 
 though Vienna and Prague are good medical 
 schools, than that of any other universities of 
 Germany. " Le pays a examens, TAutriche," — 
 exclaims an eminent French professor, M. 
 Laboulaye, who has carefully studied the Ger- 
 man university system with a view to reforming 
 that of France, — '* Le pays a examens, T Autriche, 
 est precisement celui dans lequel on netravaille 
 ,pas;" and every competent authority in Germany 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 163 
 
 will confirm what M. Laboulaye says. I do not 
 say that in countries like Austria and England, 
 where there is so little real lo/e for the things 
 of the mind, examinations may not be a protec- 
 tion from something worse.* All I say is that 
 a love for the things of the mind is what we 
 want, and that examinations will never give it. 
 Each faculty in a German university examines 
 for degrees in that faculty and confers them. 
 The Maturitdtszeugniss which the student brings 
 with him from school answeVs to our grade of 
 bachelor of arts. The degree of licentiate, 
 answering to our degree of master, is only given 
 in theology and philosophy, and is not often 
 sought for. The great faculty degree is the 
 degree of doctor. For this a certificate of 
 university studies, an oral examination, and a 
 written dissertation, are required. The disser- 
 tation is in Latin or German, and is usually 
 published. A doctor's degree in philosophy costs 
 £iy at Berlin ; there are faculties and univer- 
 
 * Although I am no very ardent lover of examinations, I am 
 inclined to think the non-Austrian universities of Germany might 
 with advantage make a somewhat greater use of them. 
 
 li 2 
 
1 64 SUPERIOR OR UNIVERSITY 
 
 sities in which a doctor's degree costs as much 
 as ^22 los. A poor student who passes a 
 brilliant examination has sometimes his degree 
 given him without fees. I have already said 
 that the degree of doctor is given much more 
 easily and carelessly in some German univer- 
 sities than in others. But in none is the degree 
 examination in itself such as to make it what 
 the degree examination is with us — the grand 
 final cause of the university life. " Der Zweck 
 des Lebens ist das Leben selbst," says the 
 German poet; and this is certainly true, in 
 Germany, of the university life. 
 
 The Staatspriifung, however, supplies a brac- 
 ing examination test ; but this examination 
 falls outside the sphere of the University itself. 
 As I have again and again begged the English 
 reader to remark, the examination test is never 
 used in Prussia as sufficient in itself; it is only 
 used to make the assurance of a really good 
 education doubly sure ; the really good educa- 
 tion is regarded as the main assurance, and no 
 one who has not had this may present himself 
 
INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 165 
 
 for the Staatsprufung, The student who leaves 
 a university receives from the rector a certifi- 
 cate mentioning what lectures he has attended, 
 and what the character of his university career 
 has been. With this certificate, and with the 
 leaving certificate of his school, the future 
 civil servant, clergyman, lawyer, or doctor, 
 presents himself before an examining commis- 
 sion {Prufungscommisslon) such as I have de- 
 scribed in an earlier part of this volume. He is 
 then examined, having three or four days of 
 paper work, and six or eight hours of vivd voce. 
 For lawyers and for clergymen there is a double 
 examination, the second coming three years 
 after the first. 
 
 Such, sketched in the briefest possible out- 
 line, is the system of the German universities. 
 Lehrfreiheit and Lernfreiheit, liberty for the 
 teacher and liberty for the learner ; and 
 Wissenschaft, science, knowledge systematically 
 pursued and prized in and for itself, are the 
 fundamental ideas of that system. The 
 French, with their ministerial programmes for 
 
i66 UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 
 
 superior instruction, and their ministerial 
 authorisations required for any one who wants 
 to give a course of public lectures, — authorisa- 
 tions which are by no means a matter of form, 
 — are naturally most struck with the liberty of 
 the German universities, and it is in liberty 
 that they have most need to borrow from them. 
 To us, ministerial programmes and ministerial 
 authorisations are unknown ; our university 
 system is a routine, indeed, but it is our want 
 of science, not our want of liberty, which 
 makes it a routine. It is in science that we 
 have most need to borrow from the German 
 universities. The French university has no 
 liberty, and the English universities have 
 no science ; the German universities have 
 both. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSION. SCHOOL STUDIES. 
 
 Probable Issue of the Conflict between Classical and Real Studies — 
 New Conception of the Aim and Office of Instruction — The 
 Circle of Knowledge takes in both the Humanities and the Study 
 of Nature — This not enough recognised at present — Tyranny of 
 the Humanists — Tyranny of the Realists — Our Present School - 
 Course — How to Transform it — Excessive Preponderance of 
 Grammatical Studies, and of Latin and Greek Composition — 
 The Ancient Languages to be more Studied as Literature — And 
 the Modern Languages likewise — Summing up of Conclu- 
 
 In what has been said, two points, above 
 all, suggest matter for reflection : the course 
 of study of foreign schools, and the way in 
 which these schools are established and ad- 
 ministered. I begin with the first. 
 
i68 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 Several times in the foregoing chapters I 
 have touched upon the conflict between the 
 gymnasium and the Realschule, betw^een the 
 partisans of the old classical studies and the 
 partisans of what are called real, or modern, 
 or useful studies. This conflict is not yet 
 settled, either by one side crushing the other 
 by mere violence, or by one side clearly getting 
 the best of the other in the dispute between 
 them. We in England, behindhand as our 
 public instruction in many respects is, are 
 nevertheless in time to profit, and to make our 
 schools profit, by the solution which will 
 certainly be found for this difference. I am 
 inclined to think that both sides will, as is 
 natural, have to abate their extreme preten- 
 sions. The modern spirit tends to reach a 
 new conception of the aim and office of in- 
 struction ; when this conception is fully 
 reached, it will put an end to conflict, and will 
 probably show both the humanists and the 
 realists to have been right in their main 
 ideas. 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 169 
 
 The aim and ofBce of instruction, say many 
 people, is to make a man a good citizen, or a 
 good Christian, or a gentleman ; or it is to fit 
 him to get on in the world, or it is to enable 
 him to do his duty in that state of life to which 
 he is called. It is none of these, and the 
 modern spirit more and more discerns it to be 
 none of these. These are at best secondary 
 and indirect aims of instruction ; its prime 
 direct aim is to enable a man to know himself 
 and the world. Such knowledge is the only 
 sure basis for action, and this basis it is the 
 true aim and office of instruction to supply. 
 To know himself, a man must know the capa- 
 bilities and performances of the human spirit; 
 and the value of the humanities, of Alterthums- 
 wissenschaft, the science of antiquity, is, that it 
 affords for this purpose an unsurpassed source 
 of light and stimulus. Whoever seeks help 
 for knowing himself from knowing the capa- 
 bilities and performances of the human spirit 
 will nowhere find a more fruitful object of study 
 than in the achievements of Greece in literature 
 
l7o GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 and the arts during the two centuries from the 
 birth of Simonides to the death of Plato. And 
 these two centuries are but the flowering-point 
 of a long period, during the whole of which the 
 ancient world offers, to the student of the capa- 
 bilities and performances of the human spirit, 
 lessons of capital importance. 
 
 This the humanists have perceived, and the 
 truth of this perception of theirs is the strong- 
 hold of their position. It is a vital and forma- 
 tive knowledge to know the most powerful 
 manifestations of the human spirit's activity, 
 for the knowledge of them greatly feeds and 
 quickens our own activity ; and they are very 
 imperfectly known without knowing ancient 
 Greece and Rome. But it is also a vital and 
 formative knowledge to know the world, the 
 laws which govern nature, and man as a part 
 of nature. This the realists have perceived, 
 and the truth of this perception, too, is inex- 
 pugnable. Every man is born with aptitudes 
 which give him access to vital and formative 
 knowledge by one of these roads ; either by the 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 171 
 
 road of studying man and his works, or by the 
 road of studying nature and her works. The 
 business of instruction is to seize and develope 
 these aptitudes. The great and complete 
 spirits which have all the aptitudes for both 
 roads of knowledge are rare. But much more 
 might be doije on both roads by the same mind, 
 if instruction clearly grasped the idea of the 
 entire system of aptitudes for which it has to 
 provide ; of their correlation, and of their eqtci- 
 pollency, so to speak, as all leading, if rightly 
 employed, to vital knowledge ; and if then, 
 having grasped this idea, it provided for them. 
 The Greek spirit, after its splendid hour of 
 creative activity was gone, gave our race 
 another precious lesson, by exhibiting, in the 
 career of men like Aristotle and the great 
 students of Alexandria, this idea of the correla- 
 tion and equal dignity of the most different 
 departments of human knowledge, and by 
 showing the possibility of uniting them in a 
 single mind's education. A man like Eratos- 
 thenes is memorable by what he performed. 
 
17-2 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 but Still more memorable by his commanding 
 range of studies, and by the broad basis of 
 culture out of which his performances grew. 
 As our public instruction gets a clearer view of 
 its own functions, of the relations of the human 
 spirit to knowledge, and of the entire circle of 
 knowledge, it will certainly more learn to 
 awaken in its pupils an interest in that entire 
 circle, and less allow them to remain total 
 strangers to any part of it. Still, the circle is 
 so vast and human faculties are so limited, that 
 it is for the most part through a single aptitude, 
 or group of aptitudes, that each individual will 
 really get his access to intellectual life and vital 
 knowledge ; and it is by effectually directing 
 these aptitudes on definite points of the circle, 
 that he will really obtain his comprehension of 
 the whole. 
 
 Meanwhile neither our humanists nor our 
 realists adequately conceive the circle of know- 
 ledge, and each party is unjust to all that to 
 which its own aptitudes do not carry it. The 
 humanists are loth to believe that man has any 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 173 
 
 access to vital knowledge except by knowing 
 himself, — the poetry, philosophy, history which 
 his spirit has created ; the realists, that he has 
 any access except by knowing the world, — the 
 physical sciences, the phenomena and laws of 
 nature. I, like so many others who have been 
 brought up in the old routine, imperfectly as I 
 know letters, — the work of the human spirit 
 itself, — know nothing else, and my judgment 
 therefore may fairly be impeached. But it 
 seems to me that so long as the realists persist 
 in cutting in two the circle of knowledge, so 
 long do they leave for practical purposes the 
 better portion to their rivals, and in the govern- 
 ment of human affairs their rivals will beat 
 them. And for this reason. The study of 
 letters is the study of the operation of human 
 force, of human freedom and activity ; the 
 study of nature is the study of the operation of 
 non-human forces, of human limitation and pas- 
 sivity. The contemplation of human force and 
 activity tends naturally to heighten our own 
 force and activity ; the contemplation of human 
 
174 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 limits and passivity tends rather to check it. 
 Therefore the men who have had the human- 
 istic training have played, and yet play, so 
 prominent a part in human affairs, in spite of 
 their prodigious ignorance of the universe ; 
 because their training has powerfully fomented 
 the human force in them. And in this way 
 letters are indeed runes, like those magic runes 
 taught by the Valkyrie Brynhild to Sigurd, the 
 Scandinavian Achilles, which put the crown to 
 his endowment and made him invincible. 
 
 Still, the humanists themselves suffer so 
 much from the ignorance of physical facts and 
 laws, and from the inadequate conception of 
 nature, and of man as a part of nature,— the 
 conduct of human affairs suffers so much from 
 the same cause, — that the intellectual insuffi- 
 ciency of the humanities, conceived as the one 
 access to vital knowledge, is perhaps at the 
 present moment yet more striking than their 
 power of practical stimulation; and we may 
 willingly declare with the Italians* that no 
 
 ♦ * Essendo diverse le parti dell'insegnamento, nessuno mostri di 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 175 
 
 part of the circle of knowledge is common or 
 unclean, none is to be cried up at the expense 
 of another. To say that the fruit of classics, 
 in the boys who study them, is at present 
 greater than the fruit of the natural sciences, 
 to say that the realists have not got their 
 matters of instruction so well adapted to teach- 
 ing purposes as the humanists have got theirs, 
 comes really to no more than this : that the 
 realists are but newly admitted labourers in the 
 field of practical instruction, and that while the 
 leading humanists, the Wolfs and the Butt- 
 manns, have been also schoolmasters, and have 
 brought their mind and energy to bear upon 
 the school-teaching of their own studies, the 
 leaders in the natural sciences, the Davys and 
 the Faradays, have not. When scientific 
 physics have as recognized a place in public 
 instruction as Latin and Greek, they will be 
 as well taught. 
 
 spregiare le altre, esaltando troppo quella cui e addetto. Nessun 
 ramo del sapere e meno necessario ; di tutte le scienze si avvan- 
 taggia I'utxic la societa; tutte cospirano al suo bene.' — Matteucci. 
 
17.6 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 The Abbe Fleury, than whom no man is a 
 better authority, says of the mediaeval univer- 
 sities, the parents of our public secondary 
 schools: ' Les universites ont eu le malheur 
 de commencer dans un temps ou le gout des 
 bonnes etudes etait perdu.' They were too 
 late for the influences of the great time of 
 Christian literature and eloquence, the first 
 five centuries after Christ ; they were even 
 too late for the influences of the time of 
 Abelard and Saint Bernard. And Fleury adds : 
 * De la (from these universities founded in a 
 time of inferior insight) nous est venu ce cours 
 regie d'etudes qui subsiste encore.' He wrote 
 this in 1708, but it is in the main still true in 
 1867. All the historical part of this volume 
 has shown that the great movements of the 
 human spirit have either not got hold of the 
 public schools, or not kept hold of them. What 
 reforms have been made have been patchwork, 
 the work of able men who into certain depart- 
 ments of school study which were dear to them 
 infused reality and life, but who looked little 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 177 
 
 beyond these departments, and did not concern 
 themselves with fully adjusting instruction to 
 the wants of the human mind. There is, 
 therefore, no intelligent tradition to be set 
 aside in our public schools ; there is only a 
 routine, arising in the way we have seen, and 
 destined to be superseded as soon as ever that 
 more adequate idea of instruction, of which the 
 modern spirit is even now in travail, shall be 
 fully born. 
 
 That idea, so far as one can already forecast 
 its lineaments, will subordinate the matter and 
 methods of instruction to the end in view; — 
 the end of conducting the pupil, as I have said, 
 through the means of his special aptitudes, to 
 a knowledge of himself and the world. The 
 natural sciences are a necessary instrument of 
 this knowledge; letters and Alterthumswissen- 
 schaft are a necessary instrument of this know- 
 ledge. But if school instruction in the natural 
 sciences has almost to be created, school in- 
 struction in letters and AUerthumswissemchaft 
 has almost to be created anew. The prolonged 
 
 N 
 
178 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 philological discipline, which in our present 
 schools guards the access to Alterthumswhsen- 
 schaft, brings to mind the philosophy of Albertus 
 Magnus, the mere introduction to which, — the 
 logic, — was by itself enough to absorb all a 
 student's time of study. To combine the philo- 
 logical discipline with the matter to which it is 
 ancillary, — with Alter thumswissenschaft itself, — a 
 student must be of the force of Wolf, who used 
 to sit up the whole night with his feet in a tub 
 of cold water and one of his eyes bound up to 
 rest while he read with the other, and who thus 
 managed to get through all the Greek and Latin 
 classics at school, and also Scapula's Lexicon 
 and Faber's Thesaurus ; and who at Gottingen 
 would sweep clean out of the library-shelves all 
 the books illustrative of the classic on which 
 Heyne was going to lecture, and finish them 
 in a week. Such students are rare ; and nine 
 out of ten, especially in England, where so 
 much time is given to Greek and Latin com- 
 position, never get through the philological 
 vestibule at all, never arrive at Altertlmms- 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES, 179 
 
 wissenschaft, which is a knowledge of the spirit 
 and power of Greek and Roman antiquity 
 learned from its original works. 
 
 But many people have even convinced them- 
 selves that the preliminary philological disci- 
 pline is so extremely valuable as to be an 
 end in itself; and, similarly, that the mathema- 
 tical discipline preliminary to a knowledge of 
 nature is so extremely valuable as to be an end 
 in itself. It seems to me that those who profess 
 this conviction do not enough consider the 
 quantity of knowledge inviting the human mind, 
 and the importance to the human mind of really 
 getting to it. No preliminary discipline is to 
 be pressed at the risk of keeping minds from 
 getting at the main matter, a knowledge of 
 themselves and the world. Some minds have 
 such a special aptitude for philology, or for 
 pure mathematics, that their access to vital 
 knowledge and their genuine intellectual life 
 lies in and through those studies ; but for one 
 whose natural access to vital knowledge is by 
 these paths, there will be ten whose natural 
 
 N 2 
 
l8o GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 access to it is through literature, philosophy, 
 history, or through some one or more of the 
 natural sciences. No doubt it is indispensable 
 to have exact habits of mind, and mathematics 
 and grammar are excellent for the promotion of 
 these habits ; and Latin, besides having so 
 large a share in so many modern languages, 
 offers a grammar which is the best of all gram- 
 mars for the purpose of this promotion. Here 
 are valid reasons for making every schoolboy 
 learn some Latin and some mathematics, but 
 not for turning the preliminary matter into the 
 principal, and sacrificing every aptitude except 
 that for the science of language or of pure 
 mathematics. A Latin grammar of thirty pages, 
 and the most elementary treatise of arithmetic 
 and of geometry, would amply suffice for the 
 uses of philology and mathematics as a univer- 
 sally imposed preparatory discipline. By keep- 
 ing within these strict limits, absolute exactness 
 of knowledge, — the habit which is here our 
 professed aim, — might be far better attained 
 than it is at present. But is well to insist. 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. i8i 
 
 besides, that all knowledge may and should, 
 when we have got fit teachers for it, be so 
 taught as to promote exact habits of mind; and 
 we are not to take leave of these when we pass 
 beyond our introductory discipline. 
 
 But it is sometimes said that only through 
 close philological studies and the close practice 
 of Greek and Latin composition, can Alterthums- 
 wissenschaft itself, the science of the ancient 
 world, be truly reached. It is said to be only 
 through these that we get really to know Greek 
 and Latin literature. For all practical pur- 
 poses this proposition is untrue, and its untruth 
 may be easily tested. Ask a good Greek 
 scholar, in the ordinary English acceptation of 
 that term, who at the same time knows a 
 modern literature, — let us say the French litera- 
 ture, — well, whether he feels himself to have 
 most seized the spirit and power of French 
 literature, or of Greek literature. Undoubtedly 
 he has most seized the spirit and power of 
 French literature, simply because he has read 
 so very much more of it. But if, instead of 
 
1 82 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 reading work after work of French literature, 
 he had read only a few works or parts of works 
 in it, and had given the rest of his time for 
 study to the sedulous practice of French com- 
 position and to minutely learning the structure 
 and laws of the French language, then he would 
 know the French literature much as he 
 knows the Greek ; he might write very credit- 
 able French verses, but he would have seized 
 the spirit and power of French literature not 
 half so much as he has seized them at present. 
 No doubt it is well to know French philology 
 like M. Littre, and to know French literature 
 too ; or to write Italian verse like Arthur 
 Hallam, and to know Italian literature too ; 
 just as it is well to know the Greek lexicogra- 
 phers and grammarians as Wolf did, and yet to 
 know, also, Greek literature in its length and 
 breadth. But it needs a very rare student for 
 this : and, as, if an Englishman is to choose 
 between writing Italian sonnets and knowing 
 Italian literature, it is better for him to know 
 Italian literature, so, if he is to choose between 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 183 
 
 writing Greek iambics and knowing Greek 
 literature, it is better for him to know Greek 
 literature. But an immense development of 
 grammatical studies, and an immense use of 
 Latin and Greek composition, take so much of 
 the pupil's time, that in nine cases out of ten he 
 has not any sense at all of Greek and Latin 
 literature as literature, and ends his studies 
 without getting any. His verbal scholarship 
 and his composition he is pretty sure in after 
 life to drop, and then all his Greek and Latin is 
 lost. Greek and Latin literature, if he had ever 
 caught the notion of them, would have been tar 
 more likely to stick by him. 
 
 I was myself brought up in the straitest 
 school of Latin and Greek composition, and am 
 certainly not disposed to be unjust to them. 
 Very often they are ignorantly disparaged. 
 Professor Ritschl, I am told, envies the English 
 schools their Latin verse, and he is no bad 
 judge of what is useful for knowing Latin. The 
 close appropriation of the models, which is 
 necessary for good Latin or Greek composition 
 
184 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 not only conduces to accurate and verbal 
 scholarship ; it may beget, besides, an intimate 
 sense of those models, which makes us sharers 
 of their spirit and power; and this is of the 
 essence of true Alterthumswissenschaft. Herein 
 lies the reason for giving boys more of Latin 
 composition than of Greek, superior though the 
 Greek literature be to the Latin ; but the power 
 of the Latin classic is in character, that of the 
 Greek is in beauty. Now, character is capable 
 of being taught, learnt, and assimilated ; beauty 
 hardly ; and it is for enabling us to learn and 
 catch some power of antiquity, that Greek or 
 Latin composition is most to be valued. Who 
 shall say what share the turning over and over 
 in their mind, and masticating, so to speak, in 
 early life as models of their Latin verse, such 
 things as Virgil's 
 
 * Disce, puer, virtutem ex me, verumque laborem ' — 
 
 or Horace's 
 
 * Fortuna saevo laeta negotio ' — 
 
 has not had in forming the high spirit of the 
 upper class in France and England, the two 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 185 
 
 countries where Latin verse has most ruled 
 the schools, and the two countries which most 
 have had, or have, a high upper class and a 
 high upper class spirit ? All this is no doubt to 
 be considered when we are judging the worth of 
 the old school training. 
 
 But, in the first place, dignity and a high 
 spirit is not all, or half all, that is to be got 
 out of Alterthumswissenschaft. What else is to be 
 got out of it, — the love of the things of the 
 mind, the flexibility, the spiritual moderation, 
 — is for our present time and needs still more 
 precious, and our upper class suffers greatly by 
 not having got it. In the second place, though 
 I do not deny that there are persons with such 
 eminent aptitudes for Latin and Greek com- 
 position that they may be brought in contact 
 with the spirit and power of Alterthumswissen- 
 schaft, and thus with vital knowledge, through 
 them,— as neither do I deny that there are 
 persons with such eminent aptitudes for gra- 
 matical and philological studies, that they may 
 be brought in contact with vital knowledge 
 
i86 GENERAL CONCLUSION, 
 
 through them, — nevertheless, I am convinced 
 that of the hundreds whom our present system 
 tries without distinction to bring into contact 
 with Alterthumswissenschaft through composi- 
 tion and philology almost alone, the immense 
 majority would have a far better chance of 
 being brought into vital contact with it through 
 literature, by treating the study of Greek and 
 Latin as we treat our French, or Italian, or 
 German studies. In other words, the number 
 of persons with aptitudes for being carried to 
 vital knowledge by the literary, or historical, or 
 philosophical, or artistic sense, — to each of 
 which senses we give a chance by treating 
 Greek and Latin as literature, and not as mere 
 scholarship, — is infinitely greater than the 
 number of those whose aptitudes are for com- 
 position and philology.* 
 
 * Since the above remarks were in print they have received 
 powerful corroboration from the eminent authority of Mr. Mill, in 
 his inaugural address at St. Andrews. The difference of my con- 
 clusions on one or two points from Mr. Mill's only makes the 
 general coincidence of view more conspicuous; Mr. Mill having 
 been conducted to this view by independent reflection, and I by ob- 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 187 
 
 I cannot help thinking, therefore, that the 
 modern spirit will deprive Latin and Greek 
 composition and verbal scholarship of their 
 present universal and preponderant application 
 in our secondary schools, and will make them, 
 as practised on their present high scale, 
 Privatstudien, as the Germans say, for boys 
 with an eminent aptitude for them. For the 
 mass of boys the Latin and Greek composition 
 will be limited, as we now limit our French, 
 Italian, and German composition, to the 
 exercises of translation auxiliary to acquiring 
 any language soundly ; and the verbal scholar- 
 ship will be limited to learning the elementary 
 grammar and common forms and laws of the 
 language with a thoroughness which cannot be 
 too exact, and which may easily be more exact 
 than that which we now attain with our much 
 
 servation of the foreign schools and of the movement of ideas on 
 the Continent. 
 
 A very interesting lecture from Mr. Farrar has still more recently 
 come to show us this movement of ideas extending itself to the schools 
 of England, and to disunguished teachers in the most distinguished 
 of these schools. 
 
l88 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 more ambitious grammatical studies. A far 
 greater quantity of Latin and Greek literature 
 might, with the time thus saved, be read, 
 and in a far more interesting manner. With 
 the 'Latin and Greek classics, too, might be 
 joined, as a part of the literary and humanistic 
 course for those whose aptitude is in this 
 direction, a great deal more of the classics of 
 the chief modern languages than we have time 
 for with our present system. 
 
 We have still to make the mother tongue 
 and its literature a part of the school course ; 
 foreign nations have done this, and we shall do 
 it ; but neither foreign nations nor we have yet 
 quite learnt how to deal, for school purposes, 
 with modern foreign languages. The great 
 notion is to teach them for speaking purposes, 
 with a view to practical convenience. This 
 notion clearly belongs to what I have called 
 the commercial theory of education, and not 
 the liberal theory; and the faultiness of the 
 commercial theory is well seen by examining 
 this notion and its fruits. Mr. Marsh, the 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 189 
 
 well-known author of the History of the English 
 Language, who has passed his Hfe in diplo- 
 macy and is himself at once a savant and a 
 linguist, told me he had been much struck by 
 remarking how, in general, the accomplishment 
 of speaking foreign languages tends to strain 
 the mind, and to make it superficial and averse 
 to going deep in anything. He instanced the 
 young dilpomatists of the new school, who, he 
 said, could rattle along in two or three lan- 
 guages, but could do nothing else. Perhaps in 
 old times the young diplomatists could neither 
 do that nor anything else, so in their case there 
 may be now a gain ; but there is great truth in 
 Mr. Marsh's remark that the speaking several 
 languages tends to make the thought thin and 
 shallow, and so far from in itself carrying us to 
 vital knowledge, needs a compensating force to 
 prevent its carrying us away from it. But the 
 true aim of schools and instruction is to 
 develop the powers of our mind and to give 
 us access to vital knowledge. 
 
 Again : if the speaking of foreign languages 
 
I go GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 is a prime school aim, this aim is clearly best 
 reached by sending a boy to a foreign school. 
 Great numbers of English parents, accordingly, 
 who from their own want of culture are par- 
 ticularly prone to the more obvious theory of 
 education, — the commercial one, — send their 
 boys abroad to be educated. Yet the basis of 
 character and aptitudes proper for living and 
 working in any country is no doubt best formed 
 by being reared in that country, and passing 
 the ductile and susceptible time of boyhood 
 there ; and in this case Solomon's saying 
 applies admirably : ' As a bird that wandereth 
 from her nest, so is a man that wandereth from his 
 place' That, therefore, can hardly be a prime 
 school-aim, which to be duly reached requires 
 from the scholar an almost irreparable sacrifice. 
 So the learning to speak foreign languages, 
 showy as the accomplishment always is, 
 and useful as it often is, must be regarded as 
 a quite secondary and subordinate school-aim. 
 Something of it may be naturally got in con- 
 nection with learning the languages ; and. 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. igi 
 
 above all, the instructor's precept and practice 
 in pronunciation should be sound, not, as in 
 our old way of teaching these languages through 
 incompetent English masters it too often was, 
 utterly barbarous and misleading ; but all this 
 part is to be perfected elsewhere, and is not to 
 be looked upon as true school business. It is 
 as literature, and as opening fresh roads into 
 knowledge, that the modern foreign languages, 
 like the ancient, are truly school business ; 
 and far more ought to be done with them, on 
 this view of their use, than has ever been done 
 yet. 
 
 To sum up, then, the conclusions to which 
 these remarks lead. The ideal of a general, 
 liberal training is, to carry us to a knowledge 
 of ourselves and the world. We are called to 
 this knowledge by special aptitudes which are 
 born with us ; the grand thing in teaching is 
 to have faith that some aptitudes of this kind 
 everyone has. This one's special aptitudes are 
 for knowing men, — the study of the humanities ; 
 that one's special apitudes are for knowing the 
 
192 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 world, — the study of nature. The circle of 
 knowledge comprehends both, and we should 
 all have some notion, at any rate, of the whole 
 circle of knowledge. The rejection of the 
 humanities by the realists, the rejection of the 
 study of nature by the humanists, are alike 
 ignorant. He whose aptitudes carry him to 
 the study of nature should have some notion of 
 the humanities ; he whose aptitudes carry him 
 to the humanities should have some notion of 
 the phenomena and laws of nature. Evidently, 
 therefore, the beginnings of a liberal culture 
 should be the same for both. The mother 
 tongue, the elements of Latin and of the chief 
 modern languages, the elements of history, of 
 arithmetic and geometry, of geography, and of 
 the knowledge of nature, should be the studies 
 of the lower classes in all secondary schools, 
 and should be the same for all boys at this 
 stage. So far, therefore, there is no reason for 
 a division of schools. But then comes a bifur- 
 cation, according to the boy's aptitudes and 
 aims. Either the study of the humanities or 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 193 
 
 the study of nature is henceforth to be the pre- 
 dominating part of his instruction. Evidently 
 there are some advantages in making one school 
 include those who follow^ both these studies. 
 It is the more economical arrangement ; and 
 when the humanistic and the real studies are 
 in the same school, there is less likelihood of 
 the social stamp put on the boy following the 
 one of them being different from that put on a 
 boy following the other. Still the bifurcation 
 within one school, as practised in France, did 
 not answer. But I think this was because the 
 character of the one school remained so over- 
 whelmingly humanistic, becausQ the humanist 
 body of teachers was in general much superior 
 to the realist body, and because the claims of 
 the humanities were allowed to pursue a boy 
 so jealously into his real studies. In my 
 opinion, a clever Realschuler, who has gone 
 properly through the general grounding of the 
 lower classes, is likely to develope the greater 
 taste for the humanities the more he is suffered 
 to follow his real studies without let or stint. 
 
 o 
 
194 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 The ideal place of instruction would be, I think, 
 one where in the upper classes (the instruction 
 in the lower classes having been the same for 
 all scholars) both humanistic and real studies 
 were as judiciously prosecuted, with as good 
 teaching and with as generous a consideration 
 for the main aptitudes of the pupil, as the dif- 
 ferent branches of humanistic study are now 
 prosecuted in the best German Gymnasien ; 
 where an attempt is certainly made, by exempt- 
 ing a pupil from lessons not in the direction of 
 his aptitudes, and by encouraging and guiding 
 him to develope these through Privatstudicfiy 
 to break through that Procrustean routine 
 which after a certain point is the bane of great 
 schools. There should, after a certain point, be 
 no cast-iron course for all scholars, either in 
 humanistic or naturalistic studies. According to 
 his aptitude, the pupil should be sufferedto follow 
 principally one branch of either of the two great 
 lines of study ; and, above all, to interchange 
 the lines occasionally, following, on the line 
 which is not his own line, such studies as have 
 
SCHOOL STUDIES. 1 95 
 
 yet some connection with his own line or, from 
 any cause whatever, some attraction for him. 
 He cannot so well do this if the Gymnasium and 
 the Realschule are two totally separate schools. 
 
 His doing it at all, however, is, it will be 
 said, only an ideal. True, but it is an ideal 
 which the modern spirit is, more and more, 
 casting about to realise. To realise it fully, 
 the main thing needful is, first, a clear central 
 conception of what one can and should do by 
 instruction. It is, secondly, a body of teachers 
 in all the branches of each of the two main 
 lines of study, thoroughly masters of their busi- 
 ness, and of whom every man shall be set to 
 teach that branch which he has thoroughly 
 mastered, and shall not be allowed to teach 
 any that he has not. 
 
 o 2 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSION CONTINUED. SCHOOL 
 ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 England and the Continent — Civil Organisation in Modem States — 
 Civil Organisation Transformed not only in France but also in 
 other Continental States — Not in England — A Result of this in 
 English Popular Education — English Secondary and Superior In- 
 struction not touched by the State — Inconveniences of this — The 
 Social Inconvenience — The Intellectual Inconvenience — Their 
 Practical Results — Science and Systematic Knowledge more 
 prized on the Continent than in England — Effect of this on our 
 Application of the Sciences, and on our Schools and Educa- 
 tion in General — A Better Organisation of Secondary and Superior 
 Instruction a Remedy for our Deficiencies — Public and Private 
 Schools — Necessity for Public Schools — With Public Schools, an 
 Education Minister Necessary — A High Council of Education 
 Desirable — Functions of such a Council — Provincial School 
 Boards Requisite — How to make Public Schools — Defects of our 
 University System — Oxford and Cambridge merely Hants Lycees 
 — London University merely a Board of Examiners — Insufficient 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. ig7 
 
 Number of Students under Superior Instruction In England — 
 Special Schools wanted, and a Reorganised University System, 
 taking Superior Instruction to the Students, and not bringing 
 these Students to Oxford and Cambridge for it — Centres of 
 Superior Instruction to be formed in different parts of England, 
 and Professors to be Organised in Faculties — Oxford, Cambridge, 
 and London to remain the only Degree-Granting Bodies — Educa- 
 tion Minister should have the Appointment of Professors — Pro- 
 bable Co-operation of Existing Bodies with the State in Organis- 
 ing this New Superior Instruction — How, when Established, it 
 should be Employed — Final Conclusion. 
 
 I COME next to the second point for consider- 
 ation : the mode of establishing and adminis- 
 tering schools. I have now on two occasions, 
 first in 1859 3-^^ again in 1865, had to make a 
 close study, on the spot and for many months 
 together, of one of the most important branches 
 of the civil organisation of the most civilised 
 states of the Continent. Few Englishmen 
 have had such an experience. If the convic- 
 tions with which it leaves me seem strange to 
 many Englishmen, it is not that I am diffe- 
 rently constituted from the rest of my country- 
 men, but that I have seen what would certainly 
 give to them too, if they had seen it with their 
 
igS GENERAL CONCLUSION, 
 
 own eyes as I have, reflections which they 
 never had before. No one of open mind, and 
 not hardened in routine and prejudice, could 
 observe for so long and from so near as I ob- 
 served it, the civil organisation of France, Ger- 
 many, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, without 
 having the conviction forced upon him that 
 these countries have a civil organisation which 
 has been framed with forethought and design 
 to meet the wants of modem society ; while 
 our civil organisation in England still remains 
 what time and chance have made it. The 
 States which we really resemble, in this respect, 
 are Austria and Rome. I remember I had the 
 honour of saying to Cardinal Antonelli, when 
 he asked me what I thought of the Roman 
 schools, that for the first time since I came on 
 the Continent I was reminded of England. I 
 meant, in real truth, that there was the same 
 easy-going and absence of system on all sides, 
 the same powerlessness and indifference of the 
 State, the same independence in single institu- 
 tions, the same free course for abuses, the same 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 199 
 
 confusion, the same lack of all idea of co-order- 
 ing things, as the French say, — that is, of 
 making them work fitly together to a fit end : 
 the same waste of power, therefore, the same 
 extravagance and the same poverty of result, 
 of which the civil organisation of England 
 offers so many instances. Modern States can- 
 not either do without free institutions, or do 
 without a rationally planned and effective civil 
 organisation. Unlike in other things, Austria, 
 Rome, and England are alike in this, that the 
 civil organisation of each implies, at the 
 present day, a denial or an ignorance of the 
 right of mind and reason to rule human affairs. 
 At Rome this right is sacrificed in the name of 
 religion ; in Austria, in the name of loyalty ; 
 in England, in the name of liberty. All respect- 
 able names ; but none of them will in the long 
 run save its invoker, if he persists in disregard- 
 ing the inevitable laws which govern the life of 
 modern society. 
 
 Every one is accustomed to hear that France 
 paid the horrors of her great Revolution as the 
 
200 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 price for having a tabula rasa upon which to 
 build a new civil organisation. But what one 
 learns when one goes upon the Continent and 
 looks a little closely into these things, is, that 
 all the most progressive states of the Continent 
 have followed the example of France, and have 
 transformed or are transforming their civil 
 organisation. Italy is transforming hers by 
 virtue of the great opportunity which the events 
 of the last fifteen years have given her. Prussia 
 transformed hers from 1807 to 1812, by virtue of 
 the stern lesson which her disasters and humi- 
 liation had then read her. Russia is at this 
 moment accomplishing a transformation yet 
 more momentous. The United States of Ame- 
 rica came into the world, it may be said, with a 
 tabula rasa for a modern civil organisation to be 
 built on, and they have never had any other. 
 What I say is^ that everywhere around us in 
 the world, wherever there is life and progress, 
 we find a civil organisation that is modern ; 
 and this is in States which have not, like 
 France, gone through a tremendous revolution, 
 as well as in France itself. 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 20 1 
 
 Who will deny that England has life and pro- 
 grass ? but who will deny also that her course 
 begins to show signs of uncertainty and em- 
 barrassment ? This is because even an energy 
 like hers cannot exempt her from the obligation 
 of obeying natural laws ; and yet she tries to 
 exempt herself from it when she endeavours to 
 meet the requirements of a modern time and of 
 modern society with a civil organisation which 
 is, from the top of it to the bottom, not 
 modern. Transform it she must, unless she 
 means to come at last to the same sentence as 
 the Church of Sardis : 'Thou hast a name 
 that thou livest, and art dead.' However, on 
 no part of this immense task of transformation 
 have I now to touch, except on that part which 
 relates to education. But this part, indeed, is 
 the most important of all ; and it is the part 
 whose happy accomplishment may render that 
 of all the rest, instead of being troubled and 
 difficult, gradual and easy. 
 
 About popular education I have here but a 
 very few words to say. People are at last 
 
202 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 beginning to see in what condition this really 
 is amongst us. Obligatory instruction is 
 talked of. But what is the capital difficulty in 
 the way of obligatory instruction, or indeed any 
 national system of instruction, in this country ? 
 It is this : that the moment the working class 
 of this country have this question of instruction 
 really brought home to them, their self-respect 
 will make them demand, like the working classes 
 on the Continent, public schools, and not 
 schools which the clergyman, or the squire, or 
 the mill-owner, calls ' my school.' And what is 
 the capital difficulty in the way of giving them 
 public schools ? It is this : that the public 
 school for the people must rest upon the muni- 
 cipal organisation of the country. In France, 
 Germany, Italy, Switzerland, the public ele- 
 mentary school has, and exists by having, the 
 commune, and the municipal government of the 
 commune, as its foundations, and it could not 
 exist without them. But we in England have 
 our municipal organisation still to get ; the 
 country districts, with us, have at present only 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 203 
 
 the feudal and ecclesiastical organisation of 
 the Middle Ages, or of France before the Revo- 
 lution. This is what the people who talk so 
 glibly about obligatory instruction, and the 
 Conscience Clause, and our present abundant 
 supply of schools, never think of. The real 
 preliminary to an effective system of popular 
 education is, in fact, to provide the country 
 with an effective municipal organisation ; and 
 here, then, is at the outset an illustration of 
 what I said, that modern societies need a civil 
 organisation which is modern.^ 
 
 * France had, in 1865, 37,500 communes, and nearly 37,500,000 
 inhabitants ; about one commune, therefore, to every 1 ,000 inha- 
 bitants. The mayor of the commune is named by the Crown, and 
 represents the State, the central power ; the municipal council, of 
 which the mayor is president, is elected by universal suffrage of the 
 commune. 
 
 We have in England 655 unions and about 12,000 parishes ; but 
 our communes, or municipal centres, ought at the French rate to be 
 20,000 in number. Nor is this number, perhaps, more than is re- 
 quired in order to supply a proper basis for the national organisation 
 of our elementary schools. A municipal organisation being once 
 given, the object should be to withdraw the existing elementary 
 schools from their present private management, and to reconstitute 
 them on a municipal basis. This is not the place to enter into 
 details as to the manner in which such a withdrawal is to be 
 
204 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 We have nearly all of us reached the notion 
 that popular education it is the State's duty to 
 deal with. Secondary and superior instruction 
 many of us still think should be left to take care 
 of themselves. Well, this is what was gene- 
 rally thought, or at any rate practised, in old 
 times, all over Europe. I have shown how the 
 State's taking secondary instruction seriously 
 in hand dates, in Prussia, from Wilhelm von 
 Humboldt in 1809 ; in the same year, a year 
 for Prussia of trouble and anxious looking 
 forward, he created the University of Berlin. 
 In Switzerland the State's effective dealing 
 with all kinds of public instruction dates from 
 within the last thirty years ; in Italy it dates 
 from 1859. In all these countries the idea of a 
 sound civil organisation of modern society has 
 been found to involve the idea of an organisa- 
 tion of secondary and superior instruction by 
 public authority, by the State. 
 
 effected ; I will remark only that all reforms which stop short 
 of such a withdrawal and reconstitution are and must be mere 
 patchwork. 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 205 
 
 The English reader will ask : What incon- 
 venience has arisen in England from pursuing 
 the old practice ? The investigations of the 
 Schools Enquiry Commission, I feel sure, will 
 have made it clear that we have not a body of 
 65,000 boys of the middle and upper classes re- 
 ceiving so good an instruction as 65,000 boys of 
 the same classes are receiving in the higher 
 schools of Prussia, or even of France. The 
 English reader will not refuse to believe, though 
 no Royal Commission has yet made enquiries 
 on this point, that we have not a body of 6,300 
 university students in England receiving so 
 good an instruction as the 6,300 matriculated 
 students in the Prussian universities, or even as 
 the far more numerous students in the French 
 faculties, are receiving. Neither is the second- 
 ary and superior instruction given in England 
 on the whole so good, nor is it given, on the 
 whole, in schools of so good a standing. Of 
 course, what good instruction there is, and what 
 schools of good standing there are to get it in, 
 fall chiefly to the lot of the upper class. It is 
 
206 GENERAL CONCLUSION. . 
 
 on the middle class that the inconvenience, 
 such as it is, of getting indifferent instruction, 
 or getting it in schools of indifferent standing, 
 mainly comes. This inconvenience, as it strikes 
 one after seeing attentively the schools of the 
 Continent, has two aspects. It has a social 
 aspect, and it has an intellectual aspect. 
 
 The social inconvenience is this. On the 
 Continent, the upper and middle class are 
 brought up on one and the same plane. In 
 England the middle class, as a rule, is brought 
 up on the second plane. One hears many discus- 
 sions as to the limits between the middle and 
 the upper class in England. From an educa- 
 tional point of view these limits are perfectly 
 clear. Half-a-dozen famous schools, Oxford or 
 Cambridge, the army or navy, and those posts 
 in the public service supposed to be posts for 
 gentlemen, — these are the schools all or any one 
 of which give a training, a stamp, a cast of ideas, 
 which make a sort of association of all those 
 who share them, and this association is the 
 upper class. Except by one of these modes of 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 207 
 
 access an Englishman does not, unless by some 
 special play of aptitude or of circumstances, be- 
 come a vital part of this association, for he does 
 not bring with him the cast of ideas in which 
 its bond of union lies. This cast of ideas is 
 naturally for the most part that of the most 
 powerful and prominent part of the association, 
 the aristocracy. The professions furnish the 
 more numerous but the less prominent part ; in 
 no country, accordingly, do the professions so 
 naturally and generally share the cast of ideas 
 of the aristocracy as in England. This cast of 
 ideas, judged from its good side, is characterised 
 by a high spirit, by dignity, by a just sense of the 
 greatness of great affairs, — all of them govern- 
 ing qualities ; and the professions have ac- 
 cordingly long recruited the governing force of 
 the aristocracy, and assisted it to rule. Judged 
 from its bad side, this cast of ideas is charac- 
 terised by its indisposition and incapacity for 
 science, for systematic knowledge. The pro- 
 fessions are on the Continent the stronghold of 
 science and systematic knowledge ; in England, 
 
2o8 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 from the reason above assigned, they are not. 
 They are also in England separate, to a degree 
 unknown on the Continent, from the commercial 
 and industrial class with which in social stand- 
 ing they are naturally on a level. So we have 
 amongst us the spectacle of a middle class cut 
 in two in a way unexampled anywhere else ; of 
 a professional class brought up on the first 
 plane, with fine and governing qualities, but 
 without the idea of science ; while that immense 
 business-class, which is becoming so important 
 a power in all countries, on which the future so 
 much depends, and which in the leading schools 
 of other countries fills so large a place, is in 
 England brought up on the second plane, cut 
 off from the aristocracy and the professions, and 
 without governing qualities. 
 
 If only, in compensation, it had science, 
 systematic knowledge ! The stronghold of 
 science should naturally be in a nation's 
 middle class, who have neither luxury nor 
 bodily toil to bar them from it. But here 
 comes in the intellectual inconvenience of 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 209 
 
 the bad condition of the mass of our secondary 
 schools. On the Continent,, if the professions 
 were as aristocratic in their indifference to 
 science as they are here, the business class, 
 educated as it is, would at once wrest the 
 lead from them, and would be fit to do so. 
 But here in England, the business class is 
 not only inferior to the professions in the 
 social stamp of its places of training, it is 
 actually inferior to them, maimed and incom- 
 plete as their intellectual development is, in 
 its intellectual development. Short as the 
 offspring of our public schools and univer- 
 sities come of the idea of science and systematic 
 knowledge, the offspring of our middle class 
 academies probably come, if that be possible, 
 even shorter. What these academies fail to 
 give in social and governing qualities, they 
 do not make up for in intellectual power. 
 
 If this is true, then that our middle class 
 does not yet itself see the defects of its own 
 education, perceives no practical inconvenience 
 to itself from them, and is satisfied with things 
 
 p 
 
21 o GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 as they are, is no reason for regarding this 
 state of things without disquietude. ' He 
 that wandereth out of the way of understand- 
 ing shall remain in the congregation of the 
 dead ; ' sooner or later, in spite of his self- 
 confidence, in spite of his energy, in spite of 
 his capital, he must so remain, by virtue of 
 nature's laws. But if the English business 
 class can listen to testimonies that in the 
 judgment of others, at any rate, its inferior 
 education is beginning to threaten it with 
 practical inconvenience, such testimonies are 
 formidably plentiful. A diplomatist of great 
 experience, not an Englishman but much at- 
 tached to England, who in the course of the 
 acquisition and the construction of the Italian 
 lines of railroad, had been brought much in 
 contact with young men of business of all 
 nations, told me that the young Englishman 
 of this class was manifestly inferior, both in 
 manners and instruction, to the corresponding 
 young men of other countries. That is, he 
 had been brought up, as I say, on a lower 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 21 1 
 
 plane. And the Swiss and Germans aver, if 
 you question them as to the benefit they have 
 got from their Realschulen and Polytechnicums, 
 that in every part of the w^orld their men of 
 business trained in those schools are beating 
 the English v^hen they meet on equal terms 
 as to capital ; and that when English capital, 
 as so often happens, is superior, the advan- 
 tage of the Swiss or the German in instruction 
 tends more and more to balance this superiority. 
 M. Duruy, till lately the French Minister 
 of Public Instruction, confirms this averment, 
 not as against England in especial, but gene- 
 rally, by saying that all over the Continent 
 the young North German, or the young Swiss 
 of Zurich or Basle, is seizing, by reason of 
 his better instruction, a confidence and a com- 
 mand in business which the young men of no 
 other nation can dispute with him. This con- 
 fidence, whether as yet completely justified or 
 not by success, is a force which will go far to 
 ensure its own triumph. 
 
 But the idea of science and systematic 
 
 P 2 
 
212 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 knowledge is wanting to our whole instruction 
 alike, and not only to that of our business 
 class. While this idea is getting more and 
 more power upon the Continent, and while 
 its application there is leading to more and 
 considerable results, we in England, having 
 done marvels by the rule of thumb, are 
 still inclined to disbelieve in the paramount 
 importance, in whatever department, of any 
 other. And yet in Germany every one will 
 tell you that the explanation of the late asto- 
 nishing achievements of Prussia is simply 
 that every one concerned in them had tho- 
 roughly learnt his business on the best plan 
 by which it was possible to teach it to him. 
 In nothing do England and the Continent 
 at the present moment more strikingly 
 differ than in the prominence which is now 
 given to the idea of science there, and 
 the neglect in which this idea still lies here ; a 
 neglect so great that we hardly even know the 
 use of the word science in its strict sense, and 
 only employ it in a secondary and incorrect 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 213 
 
 sense. The English notion, — for which there 
 is much to be said if it were not pushed to such 
 an excess, — is, that you come to do a thing 
 right by doing it, and not by first learning how 
 to do it right and then doing it. The French, 
 who in the extent and solidity of their instruc- 
 tion are, as a nation, so much behind the Ger- 
 mans, are yet in their idea of science quite in a 
 line with the Germans, and ahead of us. That 
 is because there is in France a considerable 
 highly instructed class into whose whole train- 
 ing this idea of science has come, and whose 
 whole influence goes to procure its application. 
 We have no considerable class of this kind. 
 We have, probably, a larger reading class than 
 the French, but reading for amusement, not 
 study ; occupied with books of popular reading 
 that leave the mind as inaccurate, as shallow, 
 and as unscientific as it was before. The French 
 have a much more considerable class than we 
 have which really studies. A good test of this 
 is the description of foreign books which get 
 translated. Now the English reader will, per- 
 
214 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 haps, be surprised to hear that a German 
 scientific book of any sort, — on philosophy, 
 history, art, religion, etc., — is much more sure 
 of being translated into French than it is into 
 English. A popular story or a popular religious 
 book is sure enough of being translated into 
 English ; there is a public for a translation of 
 that ; but in France there is a public, not large 
 certainly, but large enough to take an edition 
 or two, for a translation of works not of this 
 popular character.* In Germany, of course, 
 there is a yet far larger public of such a kind. 
 The very matter of public instruction suggests 
 an illustration on this point, and an illustration 
 at my own expense. It has been quite the order 
 of the day here, for some years past, to discuss 
 the subject of popular education. This is a 
 -subject which can no more be known without 
 being treated comparatively, than anatomy can 
 
 * There is nothing like an illustration, so let me name these 
 three standard works, Creuzer's " Symbolik,'' Preller's *' Romische 
 Mythologie,'' and Von Hammer's " Geschichte des Osmanischen 
 Reichs," of each of which there is a translation in French, and 
 none in English. 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 215 
 
 be known without being treated comparatively. 
 When it was under discussion in foreign 
 countries, these countries procured accounts 
 of what was done for popular educa- 
 tion elsewhere, which were published, found 
 a public to study them for their bear- 
 ing on the general question, and went 
 through two or three editions. But I doubt 
 whether two hundred people in this country 
 have read Mr. Pattison's report, or mine, on the 
 popular schools of the Continent; simply be- 
 cause the notion of treating a matter of this 
 kind as a matter of scientific study hardly occurs 
 to any one in this country ; but almost every 
 one treats it as a matter which he can settle by 
 the light of his own personal experience, and of 
 what he calls his practical good sense. 
 
 Our rule of thumb has cost us dear already, 
 and is probably destined to cost us dearer still. 
 It is only by putting an unfair and extravagant 
 strain on the wealth and energy of the country, 
 that we have managed to hide from ourselves 
 the inconvenience we suffer, even in the lines 
 
2i6 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 where we think ourselves most successful, from 
 our want of systematic instruction and science. 
 I was lately saying to one of the first mathe- 
 maticians in England, who has been a distin- 
 guished senior wrangler at Cambridge and a 
 practical mechanician besides, that in one de- 
 partment at any rate, — that of mechanics and 
 engineering, — we seemed, in spite of the absence 
 of special schools, good instruction, and the idea 
 of science, to get on wonderfully well. * On the 
 contrary,* said he, ' we get on wonderfully ill. 
 Our engineers have no real scientific instruction, 
 and we let them learn their business at our 
 expense by the rule of thumb ; but it is a ruin- 
 ous system of blunder and plunder. A man 
 without the requisite scientific knowledge un- 
 dertakes to build a difficult bridge; he builds 
 three which tumble down, and so learns how to 
 build a fourth which stands ; but somebody 
 pays for the three failures. In France or 
 Switzerland he would not have been suffered to 
 build his first bridge until he had satisfied com- 
 petent persons that he knew how to build it, 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 217 
 
 because abroad they cannot afford our extrava- 
 gance. The scientific training of the foreign 
 engineers is therefore perfectly right. Take 
 the present cost per mile of the construction of 
 an English railway, and the cost per mile as it 
 was twenty years ago ; and the comparison will 
 give you a correct notion of what rule-of-thumb 
 engineering, without special schools and without 
 scientific instruction, has cost the countr}^' 
 
 Our dislike of authority and our disbelief in 
 science have combined to make us leave our 
 school system, like so many other branches of 
 our civil organisation, to take care of itself as 
 it best could. Under such auspices, our school 
 system has very naturally fallen all into confu- 
 sion ; and though properly an intellectual 
 agency, it has done and does nothing to coun- 
 teract the indisposition to science which is our 
 great intellectual fault. The result is, that we 
 have to meet the calls of a modern epoch, in 
 which the action of the working and middle 
 class assumes a preponderating importance, and 
 science tells in human affairs more and more. 
 
2i8 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 with a working class not educated at all, a 
 middle class educated on the second plane, and 
 the idea of science absent from the whole course 
 and design of our education. 
 
 On popular education I have already touched 
 so far as is proper for my present purpose. 
 Secondary, and superior instruction remain. It 
 is through secondary instruction that the social 
 inconvenience I spoke of is to be remedied. 
 The intellectual inconvenience is to be remedied 
 through superior instruction, at first acting by 
 itself, and then, through the teachers whom it 
 forms and its general influence on society, act- 
 ing on the secondary schools. I will sketch, 
 guided by the comparative study of education 
 which I have been enabled to make, the organ- 
 isation of schools which seems to me required 
 for this purpose. My part is simply to say 
 what organisation seems to me to be required ; 
 it is for others to judge what organisation seems 
 to them possible, or advisable to be attempted. 
 The times, however, are moving ; and what is 
 not advisable to-day, may perhaps be called for 
 to-morrow. 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 219 
 
 But the English reader will hardly, I think, 
 have accompanied me thus far, without 
 sharing the conclusion that at any rate 
 a public system of schools is indispensable in 
 modern communities. From the moment you 
 seriously desire to have your schools efficient, 
 the question between public and private schools 
 is settled. Of public schools you can take 
 guarantees, of private schools you cannot. 
 Guarantees cannot be absolutely certain. It is 
 possible for a private school, which has given 
 no guarantees, to be good; it is possible for a 
 public school, which has given guarantees, to be 
 bad. But even in England the disbelief in 
 human reason is hardly strong enough to make 
 us seriously contend that a rational being can- 
 not frame for a known purpose guarantees which 
 give him, at any rate, more numerous chances 
 of reaching that purpose than he would have 
 without them. 
 
 If public schools are a necessity, then an 
 Education Minister is a necessity. Merely for 
 administrative convenience he is, indeed, indis- 
 
220 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 pensable. But what is yet more important 
 than administrative convenience is to have what 
 an Education Minister alone supplies, a centre 
 in which to fix responsibility J^ 
 
 The country at large is not yet educated 
 enough, political considerations too much over- 
 bear all others, for a minister with a board 
 of six or seven councillors, like the minister at 
 Berlin, to be left alone to perform such a task 
 as the reconstruction of public education in 
 this country must at first be. A High Council 
 of Education, such as exists in France and 
 Italy, comprising without regard to politics the 
 personages most proper to be heard on questions 
 of public education, a consultative body only, 
 but whose opinion the minister should be 
 obliged to take on all important measures not 
 purely administrative, would be an invaluable 
 aid to an English Education Minister, an in- 
 valuable institution in our too political country. 
 
 * I need hardly point out that at present, with our Lord President, 
 Vice-President, and Committee of Council on Education, we 
 entirely feiil to get, for primary instruction, this distinct centre of 
 resj'cnsibility. 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 One or two matters which I have already 
 approached or touched in the course of this 
 volume are matters on which it would be the 
 natural function of such a Council to advise. It 
 would be its function to advise on the propriety 
 of subjecting children under a certain age to 
 competitive examination, in order to determine 
 their admission to public foundations. It would 
 be its function to advise on the employment 
 of the examination test for the public service ; 
 whether this security should, as at present, be 
 relied on exclusively, or whether it should not be 
 preceded by securities for the applicant having 
 previously passed a certain time under training 
 and teachers of a certain character, and stood 
 certain examinations in connection with that 
 training. It would be its function to advise on 
 the organisation of school and university exami- 
 nations, and their adjustment to one another. 
 It would be its function to advise on the gradua- 
 tion of schools in proper stages, from the 
 elementary to the highest school ; it would be 
 its function to advise on school books, and, 
 
22 2 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 above all, on studies, and on the plan of work 
 for schools ; a business which, as I have said, 
 is more and more inviting discussion and ripen- 
 ing for settlement. We have excellent materials 
 in England for such a Council. Properly com- 
 posed, and properly representing the grave 
 interests concerned in the questions it has to 
 treat, it would not only have great weight with 
 the minister, but great weight, as an illustrious, 
 unpaid, deliberative, and non-minjsterial body, 
 with the country, and would greatly strengthen 
 the minister's hand for important reforms. 
 
 Provincial School Boards, too, we have in this 
 country very good materials for forming, and 
 this institution of Germany is well suited to 
 our habits, supplies a basis for local action, 
 and preserves one from the inconveniences of 
 an over-centralised system like that of France. 
 Eight or ten Provincial School Boards should 
 be formed, not too large, five or six members 
 being the outside number for each Board, and 
 one member being paid. This board would be 
 administrative ; it would represent the State in 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 223 
 
 the country, keeping the Education Minister 
 informed of local requirements and of the state 
 of schools in each district ; being the direct 
 public organ of communication with the schools, 
 superintending the execution of all public regu- 
 lations applied to them, visiting them so far as 
 may be necessary, and representing the State 
 by the presence of one of its members at their 
 main annual examinations. An elaborate sys- 
 tem of inspection, modelled on that of primary 
 schools, is out of place when applied to higher 
 schools ; the French school-authorities com- 
 plained to me that they were over-inspected, 
 and no doubt there are evident and solid ob- 
 jections to putting a lycee on the same footing, 
 as regards inspection^ with an elementary school. 
 The Prussian system is far better,, which re- 
 solves inspection, for higher schools, mainly into 
 a concert of the State with the school authori- 
 ties in great examinations, — as effective a way 
 of inspection, in real truth, as can be found. 
 What special visits may happen to be re- 
 quired are best made, as in Prussia^ by mem- 
 
224 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 bers of the Provincial Boards, or by councillors 
 of the Central Department ; and a staif of 
 school inspectors for higher schools is neither 
 requisite nor desirable. 
 
 Where are the English higher schools, it will 
 be asked, with which this Minister, this Coun- 
 cil, and these School Boards are to deal ? 
 Guided by the experience of every country I 
 have visited, I will venture to lay down certain 
 propositions which may help to supply an 
 answer to this question. Wherever there is 
 a school-endowment, there is a right of public 
 supervision, and, if necessary, of a resettlement 
 of the endowment by public authority. Where- 
 ever, again, there is a school endowment from 
 the Crown or the State, there is a right, to the 
 State, of participation in the management of 
 the endowment, and of representation on the 
 body which manages it. These two proposi- 
 tions, which in ten years' time will even in 
 England be admitted on all hands to be indis- 
 putable, supply all that is necessary for a public 
 system of education. School endowments will 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 225 
 
 certainly be dealt with ere long, and the extra- 
 ordinary immunity which from the peculiar 
 habits and isolation of this country the corpora- 
 tions or private trustees administering them 
 have hitherto enjoyed, is really a reason for 
 applying the principles of common sense and 
 public policy, when they are at last applied to 
 these matters, the more stringently instead of 
 the less stringently. Endowments enough have 
 merited an absolute withdrawal from their pre- 
 sent bad application, and an absolute appro- 
 priation by public authority for the purposes of 
 a better application, to furnish the State with 
 means for creating, as a commencement, a 
 certain number of Royal or Public schools, 
 to be under the direct control of the Education 
 Department and the Provincial Boards ; and in 
 which all the regulations for management, fees, 
 books, studies, methods, and examinations, 
 devised by public authority as most expedient, 
 should have force unreservedly. Other schools 
 would be found offering to place themselves 
 under public administration, as soon as this 
 
 Q 
 
2 26 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 administration began to inspire respect and 
 confidence ; and organised rightly, it would 
 immediately inspire respect and confidence. A 
 body of truly public schools would thus be 
 formed, offering to the middle classes places 
 of instruction with sound securities and with 
 an honourable standing. Nor would these new 
 schools long be in antagonism with our present 
 chief schools, and following a different line of 
 movement from them. Some of our present 
 chief schools, like Eton and Westminster 
 and Christ's Hospital, are royal foundations. 
 Here the right of the State to have a 
 share in the whole administration of the 
 institution, and a voice in the nomina- 
 tion of the masters, immediately arises. 
 Others, like Winchester, Rugby, and Harrow, 
 are not royal foundations, but all of them are 
 foundation schools, and therefore to all of them, 
 as such, a right of public supervision applies. 
 The best form this supervision can possibly 
 take is that of a participation, as in Germany, 
 by the public authority represented through 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 227 
 
 the Provincial School Boards or through mem- 
 bers of the High Council of Education, in their 
 main examinations. On these examinations 
 matriculation at the university,* and access 
 to all the higher lines of public employment 
 should be made to depend. The pupils of 
 private schools should be admitted to undergo 
 them. In this way every endowed school in 
 the kingdom would have yearly an all-im- 
 portant examination following a line traced or 
 sanctioned by the most competent authority, 
 the Superior Council of Education ; and with a 
 direct or indirect representation of this autho- 
 rity taking part in it. The organisation of 
 studies in our very best schools could not fail 
 to gain by this ; in all but the very best, it 
 would be its regeneration. Even in England, 
 where the general opinion would be opposed to 
 requiring, as in Germany, for the appointment 
 of all public schoolmasters the sanction of a 
 
 * But there should be a different matriculation examination for 
 each faculty, and, except for the faculties of theology and arts. Greek 
 should not be required. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 public authority, there could be no respectable 
 objections urged to such a mode of public in- 
 tervention as this ; the one bulwark, to repeat 
 Wilhelm von Humboldt's words, which we can 
 set up against the misuse of their patronage by 
 private trustees. And we should at the same 
 time get the happiest check put to the cram 
 and bad teaching of private schools, by com- 
 pelling them either to adjust their studies to 
 sound and serious examinations, or to cease to 
 impose upon the credulity of ignorant parents. 
 
 The mention of the matriculation examination 
 brings me to superior or university instruction. 
 This is, in the opinion of the best judges, the 
 weakest part of our whole educational system, 
 and we must not hope to improve effectually 
 the secondary school without doing something 
 for the schools above it, with which it has an 
 intimate natural connection. The want of the 
 idea of science, of systematic knowledge, is, as 
 I have said again and again, the capital want, 
 at this moment, of English education and of 
 English life ; it is the university, or the supe- 
 
 • f 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 229 
 
 rior school, which ought to foster this idea. 
 The university or the superior school ought to 
 provide facilities, after the general education is 
 finished, for the young man to go on in the line 
 where his special aptitudes lead him, be 
 it that of languages and literature, of mathe- 
 matics, of the natural sciences, of the appli- 
 cation of these sciences, or any other line, and 
 follow the studies of this line systematically 
 under first-rate teaching. Our great univer- 
 sities, Oxford and Cambridge, do next to 
 nothing towards this end. They are, as Signor 
 Matteucci called them, hauts lycees ; and though 
 invaluable in their way as places where the 
 youth of the upper class prolong to a very great 
 age, and under some very admirable influences, 
 their school education, and though in this 
 respect to be envied by the youth of the upper 
 class abroad and if possible instituted for their 
 benefit, yet, with their college and tutor system, 
 nay, with their examination and degree system, 
 they are still, in fact, schools, and do not carry 
 education beyond the stage of general and 
 
230 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 school education. The examination for the 
 degree of bachelor of arts, which we place at 
 the end of our three years' university course, is 
 merely the Ahiturientenexamen of Germany, the 
 epreuve du baccalaureat of France, placed in both 
 of these countries at the entrance to university 
 studies instead of, as with us, at their close. 
 Scientific instruction, university instruction, 
 really begins when the degree of bachelor (bas 
 chevalier, knight of low degree) is taken, and 
 the preparation for mastership in any line of 
 study, or for doctorship (fitness to teach it), 
 commences. But for mastership or doctorship, 
 Oxford and Cambridge have, as is well known, 
 either no examination at all, or an examination 
 which is a mere form ; they have consequently 
 no instruction directed to these grades ; no real 
 university-instruction, therefore, at all. A 
 machinery for such instruction they have, 
 indeed, in their possession ; but it is notorious 
 that they do not practically use it. 
 
 The University of London labours under a 
 yet graver defect as an organ of scientific or 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 231 
 
 superior instruction. It is a mere collegium, 
 or board, of examiners. It gives no instruc- 
 tion at all, but it examines in the different 
 lines of study, and gives degrees in them. It 
 has real university-examinations, which Oxford 
 and Cambridge have not ; and these examina- 
 tions are conducted by an independent board, 
 and not by college tutors. This is excellent ; 
 but nevertheless it falls immensely short of 
 what is needed. The idea of a university is, 
 as I have already said, that of an institution 
 not only offering to young men facilities for 
 graduating in that line of study to which their 
 aptitudes direct them, but offering to them, 
 also, facilities for following that line of study sys- 
 tematically, under first-rate instruction. This 
 second function is of incalculable importance ; 
 of far greater importance, even, than the first. 
 It is impossible to overvalue the importance to 
 a young man of being brought in contact with 
 a first-rate teacher of his matter of study, and 
 of getting from him a clear notion of what the 
 systematic study of it means. Such instruc- 
 
232 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 tion is so far from being yet organised in this 
 country, that it even requires a gifted student 
 to feel the want of it; and such a student 
 must go to Paris, or Heidelberg, or Berlin, 
 because England cannot give him what he 
 wants. Some do go ; an admirable English ma- 
 thematician who did not, told me that he should 
 never recover the loss of the two years which 
 after his degree he wasted without fit instruc- 
 tion at an English university, when he ought 
 to have been under superior instruction, for 
 which the present university course in Eng- 
 land makes no provision. I dare say he will 
 recover it, for a man of genius counts no 
 worthy effort too hard ; but who can estimate 
 the loss to the mental training and intellectual 
 habits of the country, from an absence, — so 
 complete that it needs genius to be sensible 
 of it, and costs genius an effort to repair it, — 
 of all regular public provision for the scientific 
 study and teaching of any branch of know- 
 ledge ? 
 
 England had, in 1865, twenty millions of 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 233 
 
 inhabitants, and the matriculated students in 
 England numbered then about 3,500. Prussia, 
 ' — the Prussia of this volume, — has 18,500,000 
 inhabitants, and 6,362 matriculated students. 
 France has at least as large a proportion of her 
 population coming under superior instruction. 
 England, with her wealth and importance, has 
 barely one-half the proportion of her population 
 coming, even nominally, under superior in- 
 struction, that Prussia and France have. But 
 this comparison by no means gives the full 
 measure of her disadvantage, because, as I 
 have just shown, Oxford and Cambridge being 
 in reality but hauts lycees, and London Univer- 
 sity being only a board of examiners, the vast 
 majority of even the 3,500 students of superior 
 instruction whom England nominally pos- 
 sesses, do not, in fact, come under superior 
 instruction at all. This entire absence of the 
 crowning of the edifice not only tends to give 
 us, as I have said, a want of scientific intellect 
 in all departments, but it tends to weaken and 
 obliterate, in the whole nation, the sense of 
 
234 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 the value and importance of human knowledge; 
 to vulgarise us, to exaggerate our estimate, 
 naturally excessive, of the importance of ma- 
 terial advantages, and to make our teachers, 
 all but the very best of them, pursue their 
 calling in a mere trade spirit, and with an 
 eye to little except these advantages. 
 
 Exactly the same effect which in the field 
 of university teaching our want of any real 
 course of superior instruction produces, is pro- 
 duced, in the field of the applied sciences, by 
 our want of special schools like the School of 
 Arts and Trades in Paris, or the Gewerbe-In- 
 stitut of Berlin, or the Zurich Polytechnicum. 
 It is the same crowning of the edifice of in- 
 struction which is wanting in both cases ; the 
 same bad intellectual habits and defective intel- 
 lectual action, which are in both cases fostered 
 by this want. Our Science and Art Department 
 at South Kensington is a recent experiment 
 in this country, and has been a mark for much 
 obloquy here. I am totally unconnected with 
 that department ; I am barely acquainted with 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 235 
 
 Mr. Cole who directs it, and I have not the 
 special knowledge requisite for criticising its 
 operations. But I am bound to say that every- 
 where on the Continent I found a strong interest 
 directed to this department, a strong sense of 
 its importance and of the excellent effect it had 
 already produced on our industry, with a con- 
 viction that in the mere interests of this industry 
 we should be obliged to go on and give to this 
 idea of a special school greater development. 
 I, too, believe that we must have a system of 
 special schools; but this is a subject which well 
 deserves a separate study, and some one to treat 
 it who is better qualified for the business than 
 I am. I touch on it here merely as a branch of 
 the great subject of superior instruction, — the 
 instruction which is properly, and in all but 
 special cases, to be given by universities. 
 
 To extend this amongst us is the great mat- 
 ter. Considering the wealth and occupations 
 of the middle and upper classes of this country, 
 we ought to have at least 8^000 students coming 
 under this instruction. The Education Depart- 
 
236 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 ment, by the leaving examination which T have 
 mentioned, — an examination to be held at the 
 different schools and to represent the present 
 matriculation examination, — should take the 
 admission of university students entirely out of 
 the hands of the colleges, and thus save Oxford 
 and Cambridge from the ahsolute non-valeurs (to 
 use M. Duruy*s term) of which at present, owing 
 to the laches of many of the colleges, they have 
 far too many. The degree examination should 
 be taken out of the hands of the college tutors, 
 and entrusted, for reasons which I will give 
 presently, to a board of examiners named by 
 public authority. Beyond these changes, it is 
 not in Oxford and Cambridge that the great 
 work to be done is to be accomplished. All 
 around me I hear people talking of university 
 reform, university extension ; all these projects 
 end in Oxford or Cambridge, and the most 
 liberal of them with a year's residence there. 
 If there is one thing which my foreign experience 
 has left me convinced of, — as convinced of as I 
 am of our actual want of superior instruction,— 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 237 
 
 it is this : that we must take this instruction to 
 the students, and not hope to bring the students 
 to the instruction. We must get out of our 
 heads all notion of making the mass of students 
 come and reside three years, cr two years, or 
 one year, or even one month, at Oxford or Cam- 
 bridgC;, which neither suit their circumstances 
 nor offer them the instruction they want. We 
 must plant faculties in the eight or ten principal 
 seats of population, and let the students follow 
 lectures there from their own homes, or with 
 whatever arrangements for their living they and 
 their parents choose. It would be everything 
 for the great seats of population to be thus 
 made intellectual centres as well as mere places 
 of business ; for the want of this, at present, 
 Liverpool and Leeds are mere overgrown pro- 
 vificial towns, while Strasburg and Lyons are 
 European cities. Oxford and Cambridge would 
 contribute in the noblest and most useful way 
 to the spread of university instruction, if they 
 placed a number of their professors, — of whom 
 they themselves make little use owing to the 
 
238 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 college system, — in these new faculties, to be 
 established in London or the provinces, where 
 they might render incalculable service, and, still 
 retaining the title of Oxford or Cambridge pro- 
 fessors, unite things new and old, and help in 
 the happiest manner to inaugurate a truly 
 national system of superior instruction. Ox- 
 ford and Cambridge can from the nature of 
 things be nowadays important schools only in 
 theology, arts, and the mathematical and natural 
 sciences. Owing to their college system, which 
 for certain purposes, as I have said, and for a 
 certain class, works well, they do not really 
 need half their professors in even these three 
 faculties, and could spare half of them for use 
 elsewhere. They are actually bad places for 
 schools in law and medicine, and all their 
 professors in these faculties they might with 
 advantage employ where there would be a 
 better field for their services. All future ap- 
 plication of Oxford and Cambridge emoluments 
 to national purposes might, with advantage to 
 the country, and honour to Oxford and Cam- 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 239 
 
 bridge themselves, be made in this direction of 
 endowing chairs for professors and exhibitions 
 for students in university faculties to be orga- 
 nised in the great towns of England. The Uni- 
 versity of London should be re-cast and should 
 have faculties formed in connection with it, in 
 order to give some public voice and place to 
 superior instruction in the richest capital of the 
 world ; and for this purpose the vStrangely devised 
 and anomalous organisations of King's College 
 and University College should be turned to 
 account, and co-ordered, as the French say, with 
 the University of London. Contributions from 
 Oxford and Cambridge, and new appointments, 
 might supply what was wanting to fill the 
 faculties, which in London, the capital of the 
 country, should, as at Paris or Berlin, be very 
 strong. London would then really have, what 
 it has not at present, a university. 
 
 It is with our superior instruction as with so 
 much else ; we have plenty of scattered 
 materials, but these materials need to be co- 
 ordered, and made, instead of being useless or 
 
240 GENERAL CONCLUSION, 
 
 getting in one another's way as at present, to 
 work harmoniously to one great design. This 
 design should be, to form centres of superior 
 instruction in at least ten different parts of 
 England, with first-rate professors to give this 
 instruction. These professors should of course 
 be grouped in faculties, each faculty having its 
 dean. So entirely have Oxford and Cambridge 
 become mere hauts lycees, so entirely has the 
 very idea of a real university been lost by them, 
 that the professors there are not even organised 
 in faculties ; and their action is on this account 
 alone, if it were not on other accounts also, 
 perfectly feeble and incoherent. The action of 
 professors grouped in faculties, and concerting, 
 as the professors and Privatdocenten of a faculty 
 concert in Germany, their instruction together, 
 is quite another thing. In a place like London 
 all the five faculties of arts, mathematical 
 and natural sciences, theology, law, and 
 medicine, should of course be represented ; 
 but it is by no means necessary that 
 each centre of superior instruction should 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 241 
 
 have all these five faculties. Durham, 
 for instance, ought probably to have, as 
 I think a Royal Commission once proposed, 
 but two faculties, — a faculty of theology, and a 
 faculty of mathematical and natural sciences. 
 The requirements of different localities, and the 
 facilities they offer for certain lines, must be 
 taken into account. It is evident, for example, 
 that faculties of medicine are best placed in 
 very large towns, where hospitals and hospital 
 patients are numerous. 
 
 Neither is it by any means necessary, or even 
 expedient, that each centre of faculties should 
 have the power of conferring degrees. To 
 maintain a uniform standard of examination 
 and a uniform value for degrees is most im- 
 portant, and this is impossible when there 
 are too many bodies examining for degrees and 
 giving them. Germany suffers from having too 
 many universities granting degrees, and from 
 these degrees bearing a very unequal value. 
 We have two old and important universities, 
 Oxford and Cambridge ; one new and important 
 
 R 
 
242 GENERAL CONCLUSION, 
 
 university, London, and we want no more 
 degree-granting bodies than these. The dif- 
 ferent centres of faculties throughout the country 
 should be in connection with one or other of 
 the universities, according as they may have 
 received professors from them, or may be nearest 
 to one or the other of them ; and each of these 
 three universities should have its board of 
 examiners, composed of professors holding 
 chairs in its district, and with the Superior 
 Council of Education represented on each 
 board. Thus composing your examining board 
 substantially of professors, you would avoid the 
 objection urged against the present examina- 
 tions of the London University, that they are 
 in the air, and that their standard fluctuates : 
 composing it from among the professors of a 
 third part of England, you would avoid the in- 
 conveniences of letting the teachers of any set 
 of students have the sole decision of the degrees 
 to be granted to them. All the lesser examina- 
 tions, such as should at the end of each year be 
 held in order to determine whether the student 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 243 
 
 makes progress and is to be allowed to go on 
 with his course, belong naturally, in each centre, 
 to the professors in that centre. 
 
 Such a system as that of which I have thus 
 given the bare outline, can be properly organised 
 only by an Education Minister, with the con- 
 cert and advice of a Superior Council of Public 
 Instruction, and, if necessary, with the help of 
 a public grant. The intervention of the State 
 becomes especially necessary in superior in- 
 struction, because here the body of public 
 opinion educated enough to discern what is 
 wanted gets smaller than ever, while the im- 
 portance of organising your instruction well 
 and committing it to first-rate men becomes 
 greater than ever. It is not from any love of 
 bureaucracy that men like Wilhelm von Hum- 
 boldt, ardent friends of human dignity and 
 liberty, have had recourse to a department of 
 State in organising universities ; it is because 
 an Education Minister supplies you, for the 
 discharge of certain critical functions, the agent 
 
 who will perform them in the greatest blaze of 
 
 R z 
 
244 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 daylight and with the keenest sense of responsi- 
 bility. Convocation made me formerly a pro- 
 fessor, and I am very grateful to Convocation ; 
 but Convocation is not a fit body to have the 
 appointment of professors. It is far too nu- 
 merous, and the sense of responsibility does not 
 tell upon it strongly enough. A board is not a fit 
 body to have the appointment of professors ; men 
 will connive at a job as members of a board who 
 single-handed would never have perpetrated it. 
 Even the Crown, — that is, the Prime Minister, 
 — is not the fit power to have the appointment 
 of professors ; for the Prime Minister is above 
 all a political functionary, and feel's political 
 influences overwhelmingly. An Education Mi- 
 nister, directly representing all the interests of 
 learning and intelligence in this great country, a 
 full mark for their criticism and conscious of his 
 responsibility to them, that is the power to 
 whom to give the appointment of professors, not 
 for his own sake, but for the sake of public educa- 
 tion. Even if the apppointment of professors at 
 Oxford and Cambridge be left as at present, the 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 245 
 
 appointment of every professor in the new 
 faculties should be vested in the Education 
 Minister, and he should be responsible for it ; 
 though the faculties should have the right, as 
 they have abroad, of themselves proposing to 
 him candidates they may think proper. 
 
 Putting Oxford and Cambridge out of the 
 question, all other places in England, even 
 London, would have so much to gain by a 
 regular public organisation being given to 
 superior instruction in them, and by their pro- 
 fessors acquiring the status and authority of 
 public functionaries, that I cannot doubt that 
 bodies like the Senate of the London Univer- 
 sity, the Council of London University College, 
 or the trustees of Owens College, at Man- 
 chester, would gladly co-operate with an Edu- 
 cation Minister in transforming and co-ordering 
 their institution so as to give them a national 
 character and an increased effectiveness. 
 Several of the personages in the Senate of the 
 London University are personages who would 
 naturally have a place in any Superior Council 
 
246 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 of Public Instruction. Following the Prussian 
 division of school interests into externa and in- 
 terna, trustees might remain charged with ex- 
 terna, the management of property ; while 
 interna, the appointment of professors and the 
 organisation of faculties, devolved upon the 
 Education department. The great towns 
 chosen to be the seats of the new faculties 
 would most of them gladly charge themselves 
 with providing a fit habitation for a public 
 establishment adding so much to their resources 
 and importance. Many of them would furnish 
 an annual contribution to the expenses of the 
 faculties. I believe there would be more chance 
 of a brisk competition among the chief towns 
 for the honour of being made seats of university 
 faculties, than of their undervaluing it. At any 
 rate, no such town would be the seat of them 
 long without learning to value them. The im- 
 portant thing is to establish them. 
 
 Once established, they should be employed 
 as in a country which relying on its good inten- 
 tions, its industry, and its wealth, has too long 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 247 
 
 set at nought Solomon's warning : * They that 
 hate instruction love death.' The end to have in 
 view is, that every one who presents himself to 
 exercise any calling shall have received for a 
 certain length of time the best instruction pre- 
 liminary to that calling. This is not, it must 
 be repeated again and again, an absolute 
 security for his exercising the calling well, but 
 it is the best security. It is a thousand times 
 better security than the mere exammation-test 
 on which with such ignorant confidence we are 
 now, in cases where we take any security at all, 
 leaning with our whole weight. The Civil 
 Service Examination should be used in strict 
 subordination to this better and ampler 
 security, and with a view of keeping it 
 real. For some classes of post in the public 
 service the having passed the leaving examina- 
 tion of a public school ought to be demanded ; 
 for others, the having gone through the appointed 
 courses and passed the appointed examinations 
 in certain faculties or in certain special schools; 
 for all, one or the other. Then, and not till 
 
248 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 then, may come in, as a confirmatory and sup- 
 plementary test, a rationally regulated civil 
 service examination. No minister of religion, 
 to whom, as such, any public functions are 
 assigned, no magistrate, no schoolmaster of a 
 higher school, no lawyer, no doctor, should be 
 allowed to exercise his function without having 
 come for a certain time under superior instruc- 
 tion and passed its examinations. The Phar- 
 maceutical Society should be co-ordered with 
 the faculties of medicine, and no druggist should 
 be allowed to practise without its instruction 
 and certificates. It is with the industrial class 
 that the great difficulty of applying superior 
 instruction arises ; this class so large, wealthy, 
 and important, and which needs superior in- 
 struction so much just because it feels that it 
 needs it so little. Owens College at Manches- 
 ter with its 100 students, and London University 
 with its 450 students (even if these, who have 
 no appointed faculty instruction, are to be called 
 university students at all), sufficiently show, 
 what is well known, that practically the English 
 
SCHOOL ESTABLISHMENT. 249 
 
 industrial class cannot be said to come under 
 superior instruction at all. Their present in- 
 diiference to it, however, affords no true criterion 
 for judging of their probablewillingness to accept 
 it if it were properly organised, brought home 
 to their doors, and made compatible with the 
 necessary conditions of their lives. 
 
 Thus I have attempted to sketch in outline 
 the plan of reorganisation for English instruc- 
 tion which is suggested almost irresistibly by 
 a study of public instruction in other European 
 countries, and of the actual condition and 
 prospects of the modern world. The reor- 
 ganisation proposed will to many people in 
 England appear chimerical. Yet I have a 
 profound conviction that if our country is des- 
 tined, as I trust it is destined, still to live and 
 prosper, the next quarter of a century will see 
 a reconstruction of English education as entire 
 as that which I have recommended in these 
 remarks, however impossible such a reconstruc- 
 tion may to many now seem. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 List of the Courses of Lectures by Pro- 
 fessors, Privatdocenten, and Readers, in the 
 University of Berlin, during the Winter 
 Semester of 1865-66. 
 
 E. Faculty of Theology. 
 Full Professors. 
 
 1. Special Dogmatics (6 hours a week) 
 
 2. Theology of the New Testament, and Life of 
 
 Christ (5 hours) 
 
 3. God's Kingdom till the Coming of Christ (i h.) 
 
 4. Introduction to the books of the Old Testament 
 
 5. Explanation of the Psalms (5 h.) 
 
 6. Life of Christ, and Critical History of the Gospels 
 
 (2 h.) 
 
252 APPENDIX. 
 
 7. History of the Church of the Reformation (6 h.) 
 
 8. Exercises in Catechisation and Preaching (2 h.) 
 
 9. The same (2 h.) 
 
 10. Practical Theology (5 h.) 
 
 11. The Creeds (i h.) 
 
 12. Symbolical Theology, and Introduction to the 
 
 Criticism of the New Testament (5 h.) 
 
 Assistant Professors. 
 
 13. The book of Judges (i h.) 
 
 14. The book of Genesis (5 h.) 
 
 15. Life and Doctrine of St. Paul (i h.) 
 
 16. The Epistle to the Romans (5 h.) 
 
 17. The Circle of Knowledge and Methodology 
 
 (2h.) 
 
 18. Church History, part 1(5 h.) 
 
 19. Archaeology and Patristic Study (i h.) 
 
 20. Homiletics, theoretical and practical (2 h.) 
 
 21. Biblical History (4 h.) 
 
 22. Dogmatics (i h.) 
 
 23. The book of Isaiah (6 h.) 
 
 24. Introduction of the books of the Old Testament 
 
 (5M 
 
 Privatdocenten. 
 
 25. The book of Genesis (5 h.) 
 
APPENDIX. 253 
 
 26. Prophetical Inspiration (2 h.) 
 
 27. The book of Isaiah (5 h,) 
 
 28. History of the Israelitish Worship (2 h.) 
 
 29. The book of Isaiah (5 h.) 
 
 30. Chaldaic and Syriac Grammar (2 h.) 
 
 31. Three of St. Paul's Epistles explained (2 h.) 
 
 32. History of the Christian Dogmas (5 h.) 
 0,^. Symbolical Theology (i h.) 
 
 34. The Dogmatical Passages in the Old and New 
 
 Testament explained (5 h.) 
 
 35. Church History, part i (5 h.) 
 
 ^6. History of Christian Dogmas (5 h.) 
 
 II. Faculty of Law. 
 Full Professors. 
 
 1. Psychology of Crimes (i h.) 
 
 2. Natural Law, Philosophy of Law (4 h.) 
 
 3. Criminal Law (4 h.) 
 
 4. Criminal Procedure (2 h.) 
 
 5. Law of Nations (2 h.) 
 
 6. Private German Law, Commercial Law (5 h.) 
 
 7. Practical Exercises (i h.) 
 
 8. The Pandects (i h.) 
 
 9. Practical Law of the Pandects (6 h.) 
 10. History of English Law (i h.) 
 
254 APPENDIX, 
 
 1 1 . Roman Law of Inheritance (2 h.) 
 
 12. Common and Prussian Civil Process (4 h.) 
 
 13. German and Prussian Public Law (4 h.) 
 
 14. Canon Law (4 h.) 
 
 15. Prussian Law (i h.) 
 
 16. Methodology of Law (3 h.) 
 
 17. Prussian Civil Law (4 h.) 
 
 18. History of the German Empire and German Law 
 
 (4h.) 
 
 19. History of the Provincial Estates in Germany 
 
 (3h) 
 
 20. The fourth book of Gaius explained (2 h.) 
 
 21. History of Roman Law (5 h.) 
 
 22. Institutes and Antiquities of Roman Law (5 h.) 
 
 Assistant Professors. 
 
 23. History and actual state of the German Confedera- 
 
 tion (3 h.) 
 
 24. Common Law of Prussia (4 h.) 
 
 25. French Civil Law (4 h.) 
 
 26. Catholic and Protestant Law of Marriage (i h.) 
 
 27. Prussian Civil Law (4 h.) 
 
 28. Cathohc and Protestant Canon Law (4 h.) 
 
 29. Ecclesiastical and Canon Law (4 h.) 
 
 30. Practice of Ecclesiastical and Canon Law (i h.) 
 
APPENDIX, 255 
 
 31. Capital Punishment (i h.) 
 
 32. Common and Prussian Criminal Law (4 h.) 
 
 33. French Criminal Procedure (2 h.) 
 
 34. German Public Law, Rights of Sovereigns (2 h.) 
 
 35. Law of Nations (3 h.) 
 
 ^6. Practical Exercises on the Criminal Law (i h.) 
 
 Privatdocenten. 
 
 37. Prussian Law (i h.) 
 
 38. History of Roman Law (i h.) 
 
 39. Institutes and Antiquities of Roman Law (4 h.) 
 
 40. Prussian Civil Law (4 h.) 
 
 41. Feudal Law (i h.) 
 
 42. Private German Law (4 h.) 
 
 43. Commercial Law, Maritime Law, and Law of Ex- 
 
 change (4 h.) 
 
 44. History of Roman Law in Germany (i h.) 
 
 4j. History of the Empire, and of German Law 
 (4h.) 
 
 46. Prussian Law of Succession (i h.) 
 
 47. Practical Exercises on the Jurisprudence of the 
 
 Pandects (i h.) 
 
 48. Institutes and Antiquities of Roman Law (5 h.) 
 
 49. Relations between Church and State (i h.) 
 
 50. Ecclesiastical and Marriage Law (4 h.) 
 
256 APPENDIX. 
 
 51. German Public Law, Private Rights of Sovereigns 
 
 (2 h.) 
 
 52. Prussian Public Law (3 h.) 
 
 ^3. Practical Exercises on Public and Canon Law 
 
 (ih.) 
 
 54. Private Justice among the Romans (2 h.) 
 
 ^^. Roman Law of Succession (3 h.) 
 
 ^6. Modern Law of Exchange in Germany (i h.) 
 
 57. Private Law and Feudal Law in Germany (4 h.) 
 
 58. Commercial and Maritime Law in Germany (4 h.) 
 
 59. The Speculum Saxonicum explained (2 h.) 
 
 60. History of the Empire, and of German Law (4 h.) 
 
 61. Interpretation of the Solutions in the Digests 
 
 (ih.) 
 
 62. Methodology of Law (3 h.) 
 
 IIL Faculty of Medicine. 
 Full Professors. 
 
 1. On certain Discoveries of the Naturalists (i h.) 
 
 2. Experimental Physiology (5 h.) 
 
 3. Practical Exercises in Experimental Physiology 
 
 (ih.) 
 
 4. Comparative Physiology with the Microscope 
 
 (I h.) 
 
 5. General History of Medicine (i h.) 
 
APPENDIX. 257 
 
 6. Pathology and Therapeutics (3 h.) 
 
 7. Clinical Medicine (6 h.) 
 
 8. Diseases of the Nervous System (5 h.)* 
 
 9. Medical Practice (6 h.) 
 
 10. History of Popular Maladies (i h.) 
 
 11. General History of Medicine (3 h.) 
 
 12. Pathology and Therapeutics (5 h.) 
 
 13. Hernia (2 h.) 
 
 14. General and Special Surgery (4 h.) 
 
 15. Clinical Surgery and Clinical Ophthalmics, Clinical 
 
 Surgery, (5 h.)* 
 
 16. Experiments in Surgery and Anatomy 
 
 17. Clinical Surgery and Clinical Ophthalmics (6 h.)* 
 
 18. Midwifery (4 h.) 
 
 19. Clinical Midwifery (6 h.)* 
 
 20. Practical Exercises in Midwifery (i h.) 
 
 21. Excitant Drugs in Medicine (2 h ) 
 
 22. Materia Medica (6 h.) 
 
 23. Osteology (i h.) 
 
 24. Anatomy of the Brain and Spinal Marrow (i h.) 
 
 25. General Anatomy (6 h.) 
 
 * Delivered either at one of the hospitals, or at one of the 
 medical institutions, of Berlin. 
 
258 APPENDIX. 
 
 26. Structure of the Human body, with the Micro- 
 
 scope (i h.) 
 
 27. Practical Exercises in Anatomy (24 h.) 
 
 28. Methodology of Medicine (2 h.) 
 
 29. General Pathology and Therapeutics, and their 
 
 History (4 h.) 
 
 30. Materia Medica, with Experiments (6 h.) 
 
 31. Pathological Anatomy (4 h.) 
 
 32. Practical Course of Anatomy and Pathology, with 
 
 the Microscope (6 h.) 
 2,2>' Practical Course of Pathological Osteology (6 h.) 
 
 Assistant Professors. 
 
 34. Spectacles (i h.) 
 
 ^<f. Ophthalmology (2 h.) 
 
 ^6. The same (2 h.) 
 
 37. Clinical Ophthalmics (6 h.) 
 
 38. Practical Course of Ophthalmics, with Experiments 
 
 (I h.) 
 
 39. General Surgery (6 h.) 
 
 40. Surgical Operations on Dead Bodies. 
 
 41. Diseases of Children (6 h.) 
 
 42. Errors of Modern Medicine (i h.) 
 
 43. Hygiene (j h.) 
 
APPENDIX. 259 
 
 44. Theory and Practice of Treatment of Diseases of 
 
 the Eye (4 h.) 
 
 45. Anatomy of the Organs of Sense (i h.) 
 
 46. Osteology and Syndesmology of the Human Body 
 
 (3h.) 
 
 47. Pubhc Hygiene (i h.) 
 
 48. Legal Medicine (3 h.) 
 
 49. Medico-legal Dissection (6 h.) 
 
 50. The Nerves (2 h.) 
 
 51. Clinical Study of Diseases of the Nerves (6 h.) 
 
 52. Toxicology (2 h.) 
 ^2,- Legal Medicine (3 h.) 
 
 54. Medico-legal Dissection (6 h.) 
 
 55. Pathology and Therapeutics (i h.) 
 ^6. Auscultation (4 h.) 
 
 57. Clinical Lectures on Auscultation and Percussion 
 
 (6 h.)* 
 
 58. Wounds ( I h.) 
 
 59. Fractures and Dislocations (2 h.) 
 
 60. Application of Bandages (3 h.) 
 
 Privatdocenten. 
 
 61. Diseases of the Teeth and Mouth (2 h.) 
 
 * Delivered either at one ot the hospitals, or at one of the 
 medical institutions, of Berlin. 
 
 S 2 
 
26o APPENDIX. 
 
 62. Diseases of the Teeth and their Cure, with Experi- 
 ments (6 h.) 
 6;^. Surgical and Ophthalmological Experiments 
 64. Drawing up of Prescriptions (2 h.) 
 6^. Special Pathology and Therapeutics (6 h.) 
 
 66. Venereal Diseases (2 h.) 
 
 67. Cutaneous Diseases (2 h.) 
 
 68. Clinical Lectures on Diseases of Children (2 h.) 
 
 69. Diseases of the Ear (i h.) 
 
 70. Moral Responsibility (i h.) 
 
 71. Pathology of Venereal Diseases (i h.) 
 
 72. Surgery (6 h.) 
 
 73. Legal Medicine (2 h.) 
 
 74. Diseases of Women (2 h.) 
 
 75. Theory and Practice of Midwifery (4 h.) 
 
 76. Baths and Thermal Waters (2 h.) 
 
 77. Drawing up of Prescriptions (3 h.) 
 
 78. Physiological Effects of Gases (3 h.) 
 
 79. Toxicology (3, h.) 
 
 80. Going over previous Lectures in Physiology and 
 
 Osteology (i h.) 
 
 81. Theory and Practice of Midwifery (4 h.) 
 
 82. Operations in Midwifery (i h.) 
 
 83. Clinical Study of Cutaneous and Venereal Diseases 
 
 (3 h) 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 84. Use of the Laryngoscope (i h.) 
 
 85. Diseases of the Heart (i h.) 
 
 86. Percussion, Auscultation, etc. (3 h.) 
 
 87. Auscultation, Percussion, and use of the Laryngo- 
 
 scope (4 h.) 
 . 88. General and Special Surgery 
 
 89. Physiology of Animal Generation (i h.) 
 
 90. Physiology of the Nerves and Muscles (4 h.) 
 
 91. Hernia (i h.) 
 
 92. Puncture with Experiments (i h.) 
 
 93. Hereditary Vices (i h.) 
 
 94. General and Special Surgery (4 h.) 
 9j. Auscultation, Percussion, etc. (i h.) 
 
 96, Diagnostics (2 h.) 
 
 97. Use of Electricity in Medicine (i h.) 
 
 98. Experimental Physiology (2 h.) 
 
 99, Going over previous Lectures on different points 
 
 of Physiology (i h.) 
 100. Ophthalmology (3 h.) 
 loi. Use of the Ophthalmoscope (i h ) 
 
 102. Diagnostics of abnormal states of the Eye (i h.) 
 J 03. Theory and Practice of Midwifery (4 h.) 
 
 104. Operations in Midwifery (i h.) 
 
 105. Thermal Waters (2 h.) 
 
262 APPENDIX. 
 
 106. Going over previous Lectures on Pharmacology 
 
 (I h.) 
 
 107. Position of the Viscera m the Human Body (i h.) 
 
 108. The Laryngoscope (i h.) 
 
 109. The Laryngoscope, Auscultation. Inhalations, 
 
 etc. (i h.) 
 no. Cure of Insanity j the Diseases of the Brain 
 (2 h.) 
 
 IV. Faculty of Philosophy. 
 Full Professors. 
 
 1. ^schines in Ctesiphontem (2 h.) 
 
 2. Palaeontology (5 h.) 
 
 3. Greek Antiquities (6 h.) 
 
 4. Botany (i h.) 
 
 5. Special Botany (4 h.) 
 
 6. Cryptogama, etc. (i h.) 
 
 7. Meteorology (i h.) 
 
 8. Experimental Physics (4 h.) 
 
 9. Grecian History (4 h.) 
 
 10. Modern History, from 17 18 to 18 15 (5 h.) 
 
 11. Archaeology (2 h.) 
 
 12. Greek Mythology (i h.) 
 
 13. National Economy (4 h.) 
 
APPENDIX. 263 
 
 14. Science of Finance (4 h.) 
 
 15. The PerscB of ^schylus (4 h.) 
 
 16. The Miles Gloriosus of Plautus (4 h.) 
 
 17. Politics and Political Economy (i h.) 
 
 18. Principles of Political Economy (4 h.) 
 
 19. Logic and Metaphysics (4 h.) 
 
 20. Political Economy ; Theory of Finance (4 h.) 
 
 21. Organic Chemistry (i h.) 
 
 22. Experimental Chemistry (3 h.) 
 
 23. The Speeches of Lysias (2 h.) 
 
 24. The Homeric Poems, and particularly the Odyssey 
 
 (4h.) 
 
 25. Surfaces of the Fourth Order (i h.) 
 
 26. Analytical Mechanics (4 h.) 
 
 27. History of Egypt (i h.) 
 
 28. Grammar of Hieroglyphics (3 h.) 
 
 29. Explanation of Egyptian Monuments (i h.) 
 
 30. Physical Experiments (i h.) 
 
 31. The 41st book of Livy, and onwards (i h.) 
 
 32. Latin Inscriptions (4 h.) 
 
 ^^. Monuments of the Ancient German Language 
 explained (i h.) 
 
 34. History of the Ancient Poetry of Germany (4 h.) 
 
 35. The Germany of Tacitus (4 h.) 
 
264 APPENDIX. 
 
 ^6. Analysis of Determinate Numbers (3 h.) 
 
 37. General and Special Geology (6h.) 
 
 38. Zootomy (4 h.) 
 
 39. Historical Exercises (i h.) 
 
 40. Modern History of England and of her Parlia- 
 
 ment (4 h.) 
 
 41. History of Politics (i h.) 
 
 42. The Syriac Language (i h.) 
 
 43. Grammar of the Semitic Languages (i h.) 
 
 44. Explanation of the Psalms (5 h.) 
 
 45. Principles of Arabic Grammar (3 h.) 
 
 46. Comparison of Persian with Sanscrit (i h.) 
 
 47. Crystallography (i h.) 
 
 48. Mineralogy (6 h.) 
 
 49. The sixth book of Aristotle's Nicomach. Eth. (2 h.) 
 
 50. Psychology (4 h.) 
 
 5 1 . History of Philosophy (5 h.) 
 
 52. Theory of Analytical Functions (6 h.) 
 c^o^. Algebraical Equations (6 h.) 
 
 Assistant Professors. 
 
 54. History of Modern Philosophy (2 h.) 
 
 55. Logic (4 h.) 
 
 56. General History of Philosophy in 17th century 
 
 (4 h-) 
 
APPENDIX. 265 
 
 57. Theory of Determinants (2 h.) 
 
 58. Algebra (4 h.) 
 
 59. Differential Calculus (4 h.) 
 
 60. Physical Geography, and History of the Mediter- 
 
 ranean (3 h.) 
 
 61. Simple Drugs examined with the Microscope 
 
 (I h.) 
 
 61. Botany of Medical Plants (6 h.) 
 6^. Pharmacognosy (4 h.) 
 
 64. Certain Arabic Authors explained (i h.) ' 
 
 65. Arabic Grammar (3 h.) 
 
 66. The book of Genesis (5 h.) 
 
 6^]. Theory of Geographical Phenomena (3 h.) 
 
 68. Analytical Mechanics (i h.) 
 
 69. History of Astronomy (2 h.) 
 
 70. Theory of the motion of Planets and Comets 
 
 71. Exercises in Archaeology (i h.) 
 
 72. History of Greek Sculpture (3 h.) 
 
 73. National Economy (4 h.) 
 
 74. The Epidicus of Plautus (2 h.) 
 
 75. Roman Antiquities (4 h.) 
 
 76. History of Greek Philosophy (2 h.) 
 
 77. Esthetics (2 h.) 
 
566 APPENDIX. 
 
 78. Select Epistles of Cicero (i h.) 
 
 79. Philological Exercises (i h.) 
 
 80. Greek Mythology (3 h.) 
 
 81. Exercises in Palaeography (i h.) 
 
 82. Latin Palaeography (i h.) 
 
 83. National History of Glumaceous Plants (i h.) 
 
 84. Systems of Medical Plants (6 h.) 
 
 85. Exercises in Anatomy and Physiology (4 h.) 
 
 86. Ancient Geography (3 h.) 
 
 87. Botany, Diseases of Plants (4 h.) 
 
 88. Agronomical Science (i h.) 
 
 89. Historical Exercises (i h.) 
 
 90. History of Germany (4 h.) 
 
 91. Art of Singing, especially Church Singing (2 h.) 
 
 92. Musical Composition (4 h.) 
 
 93. Paedagogy (2 h.) 
 
 94. The Nihelungen (6 h.) 
 
 95. Exercises in deciphering Manuscripts (i h.) 
 
 96. Logic J Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences 
 
 (4 b-) 
 
 97. History of Philosophy (4 h.) 
 
 98. History of the New World (2 h.) 
 
 99. Geography and Ethnography of Europe (4 h.) 
 100. The Chaldee Language (i h.) 
 
APPENDIX. 267 
 
 loi. History of the Armenians (3 h.) 
 
 102. General History of Physics since Galileo (2 h.) 
 
 103. Theory of Electricity (i h.) 
 
 104. Physics applied to Mathematics, Acoustics (4 h.) 
 10^, Chemical Metallurgy (3 h.) 
 
 106. Principles of Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis 
 
 (ih.) 
 
 107. Experimental Chemistry (6 h.) 
 
 108. Pharmacy (3 h.) 
 
 109. Chemical Experiments (8 h. daily) 
 no. The Turkish Language (3 h.) 
 
 111. Principles of National Psychology (1 h.) 
 
 112. Philosophy of Language 3 General Grammar 
 
 (4 h-) 
 
 113. Character of the Indo-Germanic Languages (4 h.) 
 
 114. Universal History of the Arts (5 h.) 
 
 115. The Sacontala of Calidasa (2 h.) 
 
 116. Sanscrit Grammar (3 h.) 
 
 117. Zend or Pali Grammar (2 h.) 
 
 118. The Rigveda or the Atharvaveda explained (i h.) 
 
 119. Course of Sanscrit, Zend, or Pali (i h.) 
 
 120. The Dramatic Art (i h.) 
 
 121. Psychology and Anthropology (3 h.) 
 
 Privatdocenten. 
 
 122. Experimental Organic Chemistry (4 h.) 
 
268 APPENDIX. 
 
 123. Experiments in Organic Chemistry (6 h.) 
 
 124. Schleiermacher (i h.) 
 
 125. Logic, and Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical 
 
 Sciences (4 h.) 
 
 126. The Limits between Poetry and Philosophy (i h.) 
 
 127. The American Political Economist, Henry Carey 
 
 128. Logic and Metaphysics 
 
 129. Political Economy 
 
 130. History of Modern Civilisation 
 
 131. Agronomical Zoology (3 h.)* 
 
 132. Entomology (3 h.) 
 
 133. The Koran (2 h.) 
 
 134. The Semitic Dialects (i h.) 
 
 135. Differential Calculus (4 h.) 
 
 136. Analytical Geometry (4h.) 
 
 137. The Bhagvatgita (i h.) 
 
 138. Panini's Sanscrit Grammar (3 h.) 
 
 139. Hindustani or Pali Grammar (2 h.) 
 
 140. Indian Philosophy (i h.) 
 
 141. The Satires of Juvenal (2 h.) 
 
 142. Syntax of the Latin Language (4 h.) 
 
 143. Lucretius, De Rerum Natura (i h.) 
 
 * This course treats ol the animals which do harm to agricul- 
 ture. 
 
APPENDIX. 269 
 
 144. Rhetoric and Rhetorical Exercises (2 h.) 
 
 145. Aristotle, and the Natural Philosophy of the 
 
 Ancients (4 h.) 
 
 146. History of the German Universities (i h.) 
 
 147. Systems of Modern Philosophy since Kant (4 h.) 
 
 148. Experimental Chemistry (6 h.) 
 
 149. The Olynthiac Orations of Demosthenes (i h.) 
 
 150. The Epistles of Horace (4 h.) 
 
 151. Physics applied to Mathematics, Acoustics, Optics 
 
 etc. (3 h.) 
 
 152. General Geology 
 
 153. Natural History of En tozoa (i h.) 
 
 154. General Zoology 
 
 155. The Climate of Italy (i h.) 
 
 156. Medical Climatology (2 h.) 
 
 1^7. Conversational Lecture on Chemistry (i h.) 
 
 158. History of Chemistry (i h.) 
 
 159. Qualitative and Quantitative part of Analytical 
 
 Chemistry (3 h.) 
 
 160. Medico- Legal Chemistry (3 h.) 
 
 161. Chemical Experiments (8 h. daily) 
 
 162. Theory of Irrigation and Drainage (i h.) 
 
 163. Principles of Agriculture (3 h.) 
 
 164. Management of Cattle (3 h.) 
 
270 APPENDIX. 
 
 165. Book-keeping (i h.) 
 
 Readers (for Modern Languages). 
 
 166. Lectures in Italian on Italian Literature (2 h.) 
 
 167. Italian Grammar (2 h.) 
 
 168. Lectures on the Italian and French Languages 
 
 (2 h.) 
 
 169. German shorthand (2 h.) 
 
 170. German, English, French, and Italian Shorthand 
 
 (2h.) 
 
 171. Lectures in Polish on Persian Grammar and the 
 
 Zend Language (2 h.) 
 
 172. The Turkish Language j Kirk Fezir read (3 h.) 
 
 173. Practical Lectures on the Persian and Turkish 
 
 Languages (2 h.) 
 
 174. Lectures in English on English Literature down 
 
 to the 1 6th century (i h.) 
 
 175. Lectures on the English Language (2 h.) 
 
 Lownow : printbd bt 
 
 BFOmSWOOUE XVJ} CO., NEW-8TKBI-T HQUARB 
 AND PABLIAMKJIT 8TBKET. 
 
October, 1873. 
 
 A Catalogue of Educational Books, 
 with a Short Account of their 
 Character and Aim^ 
 
 Published by 
 MACMILLAN AND CO., 
 
 Bedford Street, Strand, London, 
 
 CLASSICAL. 
 
 ^SChyluS.— .ESCFIYLI EUMENIDES. The Greek Text, with 
 
 English Notes and English Verse, Translation, and an Introduction. 
 
 By Bernard Drake, M.A., late Fellow of King's College, 
 
 Cambridge. 8vo. 3^. dd. 
 
 The Greek text adopted in this Edition is based upon that of Wellauer. 
 
 But advantage has been taken of the suggestions of Hermann, Pale)', 
 
 Linwood, and other commentators. In the Translation, the simple 
 
 character of the y^schylean dialogues has generally enabled the author 
 
 to render them without any material deviation from the construction and 
 
 idioms of the original Greek. 
 
 " The Notes are judicious, and, a rare merit in English Notes, not too 
 numerous or too long. A most useful feature in the work is the Analysis 
 of Mailer's celebrated dissertations.''' — British Quarterly Review. 
 
 Aristotle. — AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLE'S 
 RHETORIC. With Analysis, Notes, and Appendices. By E. 
 M. Cope, Senior Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. 8vo. 1 3 J. 
 The author has aimed to illustrate the general bearings and relations 
 
 of the Art of Rhetoric in itself, as well as the special mode of treating it 
 
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 adopted by Aristotle in his tectiliar system. The evidence upon obscure 
 or doubtful questions connected with the subject is exatfiined ; and 
 the relations which Rhetoric bears, in Aristotle's view, to the kitidred art 
 of Logic are considered. A connected Analysis of the treatise is given, 
 someti?nes in the form of paraphrase ; and a few important matters are 
 separately discussed in Appendices. There is added, as a general Appendix, 
 by way of specimen of the antagonistic system of Isocrates and others, a 
 complete atialysis of the treatise called 'PTjTopixv irphs ^AKe^avBpoi/, with a 
 discussion of its authorship and of the probable results of its teaching. 
 
 ARISTOTLE ON FALLACIES ; OR, THE SOPHISTICI 
 
 ELENCHI. With a Translation and Notes by Edward Poste, 
 
 M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 8vo. %s. 6d. 
 
 Besides the doctrine of FallcLcies, Aristotle offers, either in this treatise 
 
 or in other passages of his works quoted in the commentary, various 
 
 glances over the world of science and opinion, various suggestions or 
 
 problems which are still agitated, and a vivid picture of the ancietit system 
 
 of dialectics. ^^ It is not only scholarlike and careful, it is also 
 
 perspicuous. '" — Guardian. "// is indeed a work of great skUl." — 
 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 Blackie.— GREEK AND ENGLISH DIALOGUES FOR USE 
 IN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. By John Stuart Blackie, 
 Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. Fcap. 8vo. 
 2s. 6d. 
 ** Why should the old practice of conversing in Latin and Greek be 
 altogether discarded! " — Professor Jowett. 
 P7-ofessor Blackie has been in the habit, as part of the regular 
 training of his class in Edinburgh University, of accustoming the students 
 to converse in Greek, This method he has found to be eminently 
 successful as a means of furnishing the students with a copious vocabulary, 
 training them to use it promptly, confidently, and with correct articulation, 
 and instilling into them an accurate and intelligent knowledge of Greek 
 Grammar, which he hopes may aid other teachers in realizing the same 
 ends. The present little volume furnishes a series of twenty-five gradu- 
 ated dialogues in parallel columns of Greek and English on a great variety 
 of interesting subjects. The author has had the advantage ofsubmittitig 
 his work to the judgment of several scholars of repute, both English and 
 Scotch. The Globe says: ''* Professor Blackie' s system is sensible; his 
 book is likely to be useful to teachers of Greek ; and his suggestions 
 valuable to the learners of any language." 
 
CLASSICAL. 
 
 Cicero.— THE SECOND PHILIPPIC ORATION. With an 
 Introduction and Notes, translated from the German of Karl 
 Halm. Edited, with Corrections and Additions, by John E. B. 
 Mayor, M.A., Fellow and Classical Lecturer of St. John's 
 College, Cambridge. Fourth Edition, revised. Fcap. 8vo. 5^. 
 This vohune opens with a List of Books useful to the Stitdent of Cicero^ 
 and some account of various editions, mostly German, of the works of 
 Cicero, The Introdtiction is based on Halm. The English editor has 
 further illustrated the work by additions drawn, for the most part, 
 (l) from the ancient authorities ; (2) from his own private marginal 
 references, and from collectioits ; {"^ from the notes of previous com- 
 mentators, A copious ^argument'' is also given. ** On the whole we 
 have rarely met with an edition of a classical author which so thoroughly 
 fulfils tlie requirements of a good school-book.'^ — EDUCATIONAL TiMES. 
 *^ A valuable edition," says the Athenaeum. 
 
 THE ORATIONS OF CICERO AGAINST CATILINA. With 
 Notes and an Introduction. Translated from the German of Karl 
 Halm, with many additions by A. S. Wilkins, M.A. Professor 
 of Latin in Owens College, Manchester. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 
 
 3J. ed. 
 
 The historical introduction of Mr, Wilkins brings together all the 
 details which are known respecting Catiline and his relations with 
 the great orator. A list of passages where conjectures have been 
 admitted into the text, and also of all variations from the text of 
 Kayser (1862), is added at the end. Finally, the English editor has 
 subjoined a large number of notes, both original and selected, from 
 Curtitts, Schleischer, Corssen, and other well-known critics, an analysis 
 of the orations, and an index. 
 
 Demosthenes. — DEMOSTHENES ON THE CROWN. The 
 Greek Text with English Notes. By B. Drake, M. A., late Fellow 
 of King's College, Cambridge. Fifth Edition, to which is 
 prefixed ^SCHINES AGAINST CTESIPHON, with English 
 Notes. Fcap. 8vo. 5^-. 
 
 An Introduction discusses the immediate causes of the two orations, and 
 their general character. The Notes contain frequent references to the best 
 authorities. Among the appendices at the end is a chronological table of 
 the life and public career of ^schines and Demosthenes. " A neat and 
 useful edition." — Athen^^UM. 
 
 A 2 
 
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Greenwood.— THE ELEMENTS OF GREEK GRAMMAR, 
 
 including Accidence, Irregular Verbs, and Principles of Derivation 
 
 and Composition ; adapted to the System of Crude Forms. By 
 
 J.G.Greenwood, Principal of Owens College, Manchester. Fourth 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 5^. dd. 
 
 This Gj-ammar is intended to do for Greek what the Grammars of Key 
 
 and others have done for Latin. Ufttil this work was published, no Greek 
 
 Grammar had appeared based on the system of crude for7ns, though the 
 
 'system is perhaps still better adapted to Gj-eek than to Latin. 
 
 Hodgson.— MYTHOLOGY FOR LATIN VERSIFICATION. 
 A brief Sketch of the Fables of the Ancients, prepared to be 
 rendered into Latin Verse for Schools. By F. Hodgson, B.D., 
 late Provost of Eton. New Edition, revised by F. C. Hodgson, 
 M.A. i8mo. 3 J. 
 The late Provost of Eton has here supplied a help to the composition of 
 
 Latin Verse^ combined with a brief introduction to Classical Mythology. 
 
 In this new edition a few mistakes have been rectified ; rules have been 
 
 added to the Prosody ; and a more uniform system has been adopted with 
 
 regard to the help afforded. 
 
 Homer's Odyssey. — the NARRATIVE OF ODYSSEUS. 
 
 With a Commentary by John E. B. Mayor, M. A., Kennedy Pro- 
 fessor of Latin at Cambridge. Part I. Book IX. — XII. Fcap. 8vo. 
 
 Horace.— THE works of Horace, rendered into English 
 Prose, with Introductions, Running Analysis, and Notes, by 
 James Lonsdale, M.A., and Samuel Lee, M-A. Globe Svo. 
 3J. 6^. ; gilt edges, 4r. (id. 
 " The main merits of this version are its persistent f del ity to the sens,- 
 and spirit of the Latin, the beauty of its form of presentation, its freedom, 
 and its force. To the schoolboy it will be available as a help, because it is, 
 beyond all comparison, the most accurate and trustworthy of all transla- 
 tions. " — English Churchman. 
 
 Juvenal.— THIRTEEN SATIRES OF JUVENAL. With a 
 Commentary. By John E. B. Mayor, M.A., Kennedy Professor 
 of Latin at Cambridge. Second Edition, enlarged. Vol. I. Crown 
 Svo. 7^-. 6.'/. Or Parts I. and II. Crown Svo. 3.^. 6</. each. 
 
CLASSICAL, 
 
 Besides the author's own, there are various other notes, for which 
 the author is indebted to Professors Munro and Conington. All the 
 citations have been taken anew from the original authors. * ' A painstaking 
 and crilical edition.''^ — Spectator. '^ For really ripe scholarships 
 extensive acquaintance with Latin literature, and familiar knowledge 
 of continental criticism, ancient and modern, it is unsurpassed among 
 English editions.'" — Edinburgh Review. 
 
 Marshall.— A table of irregular greek verbs, 
 
 classified according to the arrangement of Cur tius' Greek Grammar. 
 By J. M. Marshall, M. A., Fellow and late Lecturer of Brasenose 
 College, Ojcford ; one of the Masters in Clifton College. 8vo. 
 cloth. New Edition. \s. 
 
 The system of this table has been borrowed from the excellent Greek 
 Grammar of Dr. Curtius. 
 
 Mayor (John E. B.)— FIRST GREEK READER. Edited 
 after Karl Halm, with Corrections and large Additions by John 
 E. B. Mayor, M.A., Fellow and Classical Lecturer of St. John's 
 College, Cambridge. Third Edition, revised. Fcap. 8vo. 4^-. dd. 
 
 A selection of short passages, serviftg to ilhistrate especially the Greek 
 Accidence. A good deal of syntax is incidentally taught, and Madvigand 
 other books are cited, for the use of masters : but no learner is expected to 
 know m.ore of syntax than is contained in the Notes and Vocabulary. 
 A preface " To the Reader,^'' not only explains the aim and method of 
 the volume, but also deals, with classical instruction generally. The 
 extracts are tiniforinly in the Attic dialect. This book may be used in 
 connection with Mayor's ^^ Greek for Beginners." "After a careful 
 examination we are inclined to consider this volume unrivalled in the 
 hold which its pithy sentences are likely to take on the memory, and 
 for the amount of true scholarship embodied in the annotations.^'' — 
 Educational Times. 
 
 Mayor (Joseph B.)— GREEK FOR BEGINNERS. By the 
 Rev. J. B. Mayor, M.A., Professor of Classical Literature in 
 King's College, London. Part I., with Vocabulary, is. 6d. Parts 
 11. and III., with Vocabulary and Index, 3J-. 6d., complete in one 
 vol. Fourth Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 4^, 6d. 
 The distinctive method of this book consists in building up a boy's 
 
 knowledge of Greek upon the foundation of his knowledge of English and 
 
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Laiin, instead of trusting everything to the unassisted memory. Greek 
 ■words have been used in the earlier pari of the book except such as have 
 connections either in English or Latin. Each step leads naturally on 
 to its successor ; grammatical fornis and rules are at once applied 
 in a series of graduated exercises, accompanied by ample vocabularies. 
 
 Thus the book serves as Grarnmar, Exercise book, and Vocabulary. The 
 ordinary ten declensions are reduced to three, which correspond to the 
 first three in Latin ; and the system of stems is adopted. A ge7ieral 
 
 Vocabulary, and Index of Greek words, completes the work. " We knorv 
 of no book of the same scope so complete in itself, or so well calculated to 
 make the study of Greek interesting at the very commencemmt.'''' — ■ 
 Standard. ^ 
 
 Peile (John, M.A.)— an INTRODUCTION TO GREEK 
 
 AND LATIN ETYMOLOGY. By John Peile, M.A., Fellow 
 
 and Assistant Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, formerly 
 
 Teacher of Sanskrit in the University of Cambridge. New and 
 
 Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. \os. 6d. 
 
 These Philological Lectures are the result of Notes made during the 
 
 author's reading for sevei'al years. These Notes were put into the shape of 
 
 Lectures, delivered at Christ'' s College, as one set ijithe ^^ Intercollegiate'^ 
 
 list. They are now printed with some additions and modifications. 
 
 * * The book may be excepted as a very valuable contHbution to the science 
 
 of language.'''' — Saturday Review. 
 
 Plato.— THE REPUBLIC OF PLATO. Translated into English, 
 
 with an Analysis and Notes, by J. Ll. Davies, M.A.,and D. J. 
 
 Vaughan, M.A. Third Edition, with Vignette Portraits of Plato 
 
 and Socrates, engraved by Jeens from an Antique Gem. iSmo. 
 
 4J. dd. 
 
 An i7itroductory notice supplies some account of the life of Plato, and 
 
 the translation is preceded by an elaborate analysis. " The translators 
 
 have,^'' in the judgment of the Saturday Review, '^produced a book 
 
 which any reader, whether acqjiairited with the original or not, cati peruse 
 
 with pleasure as well as profit. " 
 
 Plautus (Ramsay). — the mostellaria of plau- 
 
 TUS. With Notes Critical and Explanatory, Prolegomena, and 
 Excursus. By William Ramsay, M.A., formerly Professor of 
 Humanity in the University of Glasgow. Edited by Professor 
 George G. Ramsay, M.A., of the University of Glasgow. 
 8vo. i^s. 
 
CLASSICAL, 7 
 
 " The fruits of thai exhaustive research and that ripe and well-digested 
 scholarship which its author broui^ht to bear upon everything- thai he 
 undertook are visible throughout. It is furnished with a complete 
 apparatus of prolegoviena^ notes, and excursus ; and for the use of veteran 
 scholars it probably leaves nothing to be desired." — PallMall Gazette. 
 
 Potts (Alex. W., M. A.)— HINTS TOWARDS LATIN 
 PROSE COMPOSITION. By Alex. W. Potts, M.A., late 
 Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge ; Assistant Master in 
 Rugby School ; and Head Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh. 
 Third Edition, enlarged. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth. 3^. 
 
 An attempt is here made to give students, after they have mastered 
 ordinary syntactical rules, some idea of the characteristics of Latin Prose 
 and the means to be employed to reproduce them. Some notion of the 
 treatment of the subject may be gathered from the * Contents.^ Chap. I. — 
 Characteristics of Classical Latin, Hints on turning English into Latin ; 
 Chap. II. — Arrangement of Words in a Sentence; Chap. III. — Unity 
 in Latin Prose, Subject and Object ; Chap. IV. — On the Period in 
 Latin Prose ; Chap. V. — On the position of the Relative and Relative 
 Clauses. 77ie Globe characterises it as ^^ an admirable little book which 
 teachers of Latin will find ofveiy great service.''^ 
 
 Roby.— A GRAMMAR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE, from 
 
 Plautus to Suetonius. By H. J. Roby, M.A., late Fellow of St. 
 
 John's College, Cambridge. Part I. containing : — Book I. Sounds. 
 
 Book 11. Inflexions. Book HI. Word-formation. Appendices. 
 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. %s. 6d. 
 This work is the result of an independent and careful study of the 
 writers of the strictly classical pe7'iod, the period embraced between the 
 ti?ne of Plautus and that of Suetonius. The author^ s aim has been to give 
 the facts of the language in as fetv words as possible. This is a Grammar 
 strictly ofthelu^tm language ; not a Universal Grammar illustrated from, 
 Latin, nor the Latin section of a Comparative Grammar of the Indo- 
 European languages, nor a Gra^jtmar of the group of Italian dialects, of 
 which Latin is one. It will be found that the arrangement of the book and 
 the treatment of the various divisions differ in many respects from those of 
 previous grammars. Mr. Roby has given special prominence to the treatment 
 of Sounds and Word formation ; and in the First Book he has done much 
 towards settling a discussion which is at present largely engaging -the 
 attention of scholars, viz. , the pronunciation of the classical laf?guages. 
 
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 ** The book is 7narked by the clear and practised insight of a master tn his 
 art. . It is a book that would do honour to any country." — ATHENAEUM, 
 
 Rust. — FIRST STEPS TO LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 By the Rev. George Rust, M.A. of Pembroke College, Oxford, 
 
 Master of the Lower School, King's College, London. New 
 
 Edition. i8mo. is. 6d. 
 
 This little work consists of carefully graduated vocabularies and 
 
 exercises, so arranged as gradually to familiarise the pupil with the 
 
 elements of Latin Prose Composition, and fit him to commence a more 
 
 advanced work. 
 
 Sallust.— CAII SALLUSTII CRISPI CATILINA ET JUGUR- 
 
 THA. For Use in Schools. With copious Notes. By C. 
 
 Merivale, B.D. (In the present Edition the Notes have been 
 
 carefully revised, and a few remarks and explanations added.) 
 
 New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 4J. (>d. 
 
 This edition of Sallust^ prepared by the distinguished historian of Rome^ 
 
 contains an Introduction, concerning the life and works of Sallust, lists 
 
 of the Consuls, and elaborate Notes. ** A very good edition, to which the 
 
 Editor has not only brought scholarship but independent judgment and 
 
 historical criticism." — Spectator. 
 
 The JUGURTHA and the CATILINA may be had separately, price 
 2.S. 6d. each. 
 
 Tacitus. — THE HISTORY OF TACITUS TRANSLATED 
 
 INTO ENGLISH. By A. J. Church, M.A., and W. J. 
 
 Brodribb, M.A. With Notes and a Map. New and Cheaper 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 The translators have endeavoured to cuihere as closely to the original as 
 
 was thought consistent with a proper observance of English idiom. At 
 
 the same time, it has been their aim to reproduce the precise expressions of 
 
 the author. The campaign of Civills is elucidated in a note of some length, 
 
 which is illustrated by a map, containim^ the names of places and of tribes 
 
 occurring in the work. There is also a complete account of the Roman army 
 
 as it was constituted in the time of Tacitus. This work is characterised 
 
 by the Spectator as '' a scholarly and faithful translation." 
 
 THE AGRICOLA AND GERMANIA OF TACITUS. A Revised 
 Text, English Notes, and Maps. By A. J. Church, M.A., 
 and W. J. Brodribb, M.A. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 3^. dd. 
 
CLASSICAL. 
 
 Tacitus — continued. 
 
 " We have endeavoured, with the aid of recent editions, thoroughly w 
 elucidate the text, explaining the various difficulties, critical and gramma- 
 tical, which occur to the student. We have consulted throughout, besides 
 the older commentators, the editions of Ritter and Orelli, but we are 
 under special obligations to the labours of the recent German editors, Wex 
 and Kritz." Two Indexes are appended, (i) of Proper Names, (2) of 
 Words and Phrases explained. '^ A model of careful editing,'^ says the 
 Athen-(EUM, " being at once compact, co?nplete, and correct, as well as 
 neatly printed and elegant in style.'^ 
 
 THE AGRICOLA and GERMANIA may be had separately, price 
 2s. each. 
 
 THE AGRICOLA AND GERMANIA. Translated into English 
 by A. J. Church, M.A., and W. J. Brodribb, M.A. With 
 Maps and Notes. Extra fcap, 8vo. 2s. 6d, 
 
 The translators have sought to produce such a version as 7nay satisfy 
 scholars who demaiid a faithfid rendering of the original, and English 
 readers zvho are offended by the baldness and frigidity which cofnmonly 
 disfigure translations. The treatises are accompanied by Introductions, 
 Notes, Maps, and a chronological Summary. The Athen^UM says of 
 this work that it is " a version at once readable attd exact, which may be 
 perused with pleasure by all, and consulted with advantage by the classical 
 student." 
 
 Theophrastus. — the CHARACTERS OF THEO- 
 PHRASTUS. An English Translation from a Revised Text. 
 With Introduction and Notes. By R. C, Jebb, M.A., Public 
 Orator in the University of Cambridge. Extra fcap. 8vo. ds. 6d. 
 
 TJie first object of this book is to make these lively pictures of old Greek 
 manners better known to English readers. But as the Editor and Trans- 
 lator has been at considerable fains to procure a trtistworthy text, and 
 has recorded the results of his critical labours in an Introduction, Notes, 
 and Appendices, it is hoped that the work will prove of value even to 
 the scholar. *' We must not omit to give due honour to Mr. Jebb^s trans- 
 lation, which is as good as translation can be . . . . Not less commendable 
 are the execution of the Notes and the critical handling of the Text." — 
 Spectator. The Saturday Review speaks or it as "« very handy 
 
lo EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 and scholarly edition of a 7vofk which till now has been beset with 
 hindrances and difficulties, but which Mr. Jebb's critical skill and 
 pidgfnent have at len^h placed within the grasp and covipreJiension of 
 ordinary reader s.^^ 
 
 Thring. — Works by the Rev. E. THRING, M.A., Head Master 
 
 of Uppingham School. 
 A LATIN GRADUAL. A First Latin Construing Book for 
 
 Beginners. New Edition, enlarged, with Coloured Sentence Maps. 
 ,rcap. 8vo. 2.S. 6d. 
 
 The Head Master of Uppingham has here sought to supply by easy steps 
 a knowledge of grammar, combined with a good Vocabulary. Passages 
 have been selected from the best Latin authors in prose and verse. These 
 passages are gradually built up in their grammatical structure, and 
 finally printed in full. A short practical manual of common mood con- 
 structions, with their English equivalents, forms a second part. To the 
 Nov Edition a circle of grammaticcd Constrjictions with a Glossary has 
 been added ; as also some coloured Sentence Maps, by means of which the 
 different parts of a sentence can easily be distinguished, and the p-actice of 
 dissecting phrases carried out with the greatest benefit to the student. 
 
 A MANUAL OF MOOD CONSTRUCTIONS. Fcap.Svo. \s. 6d. 
 
 Treats of the ordinary mood constructions, as found in the Latin, Greek, 
 and English languages. The EDUCATIONAL TIMES thinks it '■'■veiy 
 well suited to young students. " 
 
 A CONSTRUING BOOK. Fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d 
 
 Thucydides. — the SICILIAN EXPEDITION. Being Books 
 
 VI. and VII. of Thucydides, with Notes. A New Edition, revised 
 
 and enlarged, with a Map. By the Rev. Percival Frost, M. A., 
 
 late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Fcap. 8vo. ^s. 
 
 This edition is mainly a grammatical one. Attention is called to the 
 
 force of compound verbs, and the exact meaning of the various tenses 
 
 employed. *' The notes are excellent of their kind. Mr. Frost seldom 
 
 passes ovei' a difficulty, and what he says is always to the point. " — 
 
 Educational Times. 
 
 Virgil. — THE WORKS OF VIRGIL RENDERED INTO 
 ENGLISH PROSE, with Notes, Introductions, Running Analysis, 
 and an Index, by James Lonsdale, M.A. and Samuel Lee, 
 M.A. Second Edition. Globe 8vo. 3^. 6d. ; g;!t edges, 4^. td. 
 
CLASSICAL. II 
 
 The original has been faithfully rendered, and paraphrase altogether 
 avoided. At the same tirae, the translators have endeavoured to adapt 
 the book to the use of the English reader. Some amount of rhythm in 
 the strjicture of the sentence has been generally maintained ; and, when in 
 the Latin the sound of the words is an echo to the sense {as so frequently 
 happens in Virgil), an attempt has been made to produce the same result 
 in English. The general introduction contains whatever is known of 
 the poefs life, an estimate of his genius, an account of the principal 
 editions and translations of his works, and a brief view of the influence 
 he has had on modern poets ; special introductory essays are prefixed 
 to the ^^ Eclogues,'' ^^ Georgics,'' and '■^JEneid.'^ The text is divided into 
 sections, each of which is headed by a concise analysis of the subject ; 
 the Index contains references to all the characters and events of any 
 impoHance. " A more complete edition of Virgil in English it is scarcely 
 possible to conceive than the scholarly work before us.'' — Globe. 
 
 Wright. — Works by J. WRIGHT, M.A., late Head Master of 
 Sutton Coldfield School. 
 
 HELLENICA ; OR, A HISTORY OF GREECE IN GREEK, as 
 
 related by Diodorus and Thucydides ; being a First Greek Reading 
 Book, with explanatory Notes, Critical and Historical. Third 
 Edition, with a Vocabulary. i2mo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 In the last twenty chapters of this vohtme, Thucydides sketches the rise 
 and progress of the Athenian Empire in so clear a style and in stich simple 
 language, that the editor has doubts whether any easier or more ijtstrtic- 
 live passages can be selected for the use of the pupil who is commencing 
 Greek. This book includes a chronological table of the events recorded. 
 The Guardian speaks of the work as ^^ a ^ood plan well executed." 
 
 A HELP TO LATIN GRAMMAR ; or, The Form and Use of Words 
 in Latin, with Progressive Exercises. Crown 8vo. 4^. 6d. 
 
 This book is not intended as a rival to any of the excellent Grammars 
 now in tcse ; but as a help to enable the beginner to understand them. 
 
 THE SEVEN KINGS OF ROME. An Easy Narrative, abridged 
 from the First Book of Livy by the omission of Difficult Passages ; 
 being a First Latin Reading Book, with Grammatical Notes. 
 Fifth Edition. Fcap. 8vo. y. With Vocabulary, 3^. 6d. 
 
12 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 Wr i gh t — contin ued. 
 
 This work is intended to suf>ply the pupil with an easy construing booky 
 which may at the same tifne be vtade the vehicle for instructing him in the 
 rules of grammar and principles of composition. The notes profess to 
 teach zuhat is comjnonly taught in grammars. It is conceived that the 
 pupil will learn the rides of construction of the language much more 
 easily from separate examples, which are pointed out to hif?i in the course 
 of his reading, and which he may himself set down in his note-book after 
 some scheme of his own, than from a heap of quotations amassed for him 
 by others. ** The Notes are abundant, explicit, and full of such grammatical 
 and other information as boys require." — Athen^UM. *' This is 
 really," the MoRNiNG Post saySy *^ what its title imports, and we 
 believe that its general introduction into Grammar Schools would not 
 only facilitate the progress of the boys beginning to learn Latin, but 
 also relieve the Masters from, a very considerable amount of irksome labour 
 . . . . a really valuable addition to our school libraries. " 
 
 FIRST LATIN STEPS; OR, AN INTRODUCTION BY A 
 SERIES OF EXAMPLES TO THE STUDY OF THE 
 LATIN LANGUAGE. Crown 8vo. 5^. 
 
 The following points in the plan of the work may be noted: — I. 
 The pupil has to deal with only one construction at a time. 2. This 
 construction is made clear to him by an accutnulation of instances. 
 3. As all the constructions are classified as they occur, the construction 
 in each sentence can be easily referred to its class. 4. As the author 
 thinks the pupil ought to be thoroughly familiarized, by a repetition 
 of instances, with a construction in a foreign language, before he at- 
 tempts himself to render it in that language, the present volume contains 
 only Latin sentences. 5- ^^^ author has added to the Rules on Prosody 
 tn the last chapter, a few familiar lines from Ovid^s Fasti by way 
 of illustration. Tn a brief Introduction the author states the rationale 
 of the principal points of Latin Grammar. Copious Notes are appended, 
 to which reference is made in the text, from the clear and rational 
 method adopted in the arrangement of this elementary work, from the 
 simple way in which the various rules are convey>ed, and from the abun- 
 dance of examples given, both teachers and pupils will fend it a vahtabh 
 help to the learning of Latin. 
 
CLASSICAL. 13 
 
 CLASSIC VERSIONS OF ENGLISH BOOKS 
 AND LATIN HYMNS. 
 
 The following works are, as the heading indicates, classic 
 renderings of English Books. For scholars, and parti- 
 cularly for writers of Latin Verse, the series has a special 
 value. The Hymni Ecclesiae are here inserted, as partly 
 falling under the same class. 
 
 Church (A. J., A.M.)— HOR^ TENNYSONIAN^, sive 
 Eclogae e Tennysono. Latine redditse. Cura A. J. Church, 
 A.M. Extra fcap. 8yo. 6s. 
 
 Latin versions of Selections froi7i Tennyson. Among the authors are 
 the Editor, the late Professor Conington, Professor Seeley, Dr. Ilessey, 
 Mr. Ivebbel, and other gentlemen, 
 
 Latham. — SERTUM SHAKSPERIANUM, Subnexis aliquot 
 aliunde excerptis fioribus. Latine reddidit Rev, H. Latham, M. A. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. ^s. 
 
 Besides versions of Shakespeare this volume contains, among other pieces, 
 Gray's ^^ Elegy" Campbell's ^' Hohenlinden," Wolfe's'^ Burial of Sir 
 John Moore," and selections fro??i Cowper and George Herbert. 
 
 Lyttelton.— THE COMUS OF MILTON, rendered into Greek 
 Verse. By Lord Lyttelton. Extra fcap. 8vo. 5^-. 
 
 THE SAMSON AGONISTES OF MILTON, rendered into Greek 
 Verse. By Lord Lyttelton. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
14 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Merivale. — KEATS' HYPERION, rendered into Latin Verse. 
 By C, Merivale, B. D. Second Edit. Extra fcap. 8vo. y. 6d. 
 
 Newman. — HYMNI ECCLESI.E. Edited by the Rev. Dr. 
 Newman. Extra fcap. 8vo. 7^. 6d. 
 
 Hymns of the Medueval Church. The first Part contains selections 
 from the Parisian Breviary ; the second from those of Ro77ic, Salisbury ^ 
 and York. 
 
 Trench (Archbishop). — SACRED LATIN poetry, 
 
 chiefly Lyrical, selected and arranged for Use ; with Notes and 
 Introduction. Fcap* 8vo. Ts. 
 
 In this work the editor has selected hymns of a catholic religious 
 sentiment that are common to Christendom^ while i-ejecting those of a 
 distinctively Romish character. 
 
MATHEMATICS. 15 
 
 MATHEMATICS, 
 
 Airy. — Works by Sir G. B. AIRY, K.C.B., Astronomer Royal :— 
 
 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PARTIAL DIFFERENTL\L 
 EQUATIONS. Designed for the Use of Students in the Univer- 
 sities. With Diagrams. Crown 8vo. cloth. 5,^. dd. 
 
 It is hoped that the methods of solution here explained , and the instances 
 exhibited, zvill be found sufficient for application to nearly all the important 
 problems of Physical Science, which require for their complete investigation 
 the aid of Partial Differential Equations. 
 
 ON THE ALGEBRAICAL AND NU>IERICAL THEORY OF 
 ERRORS OF OBSERVATIONS AND THE COMBINA- 
 TION OF OBSERVATIONS. Crown 8vo. cloth. 6s. 6d. 
 
 In order to spare astronomers and observers in natural philosophy the 
 confusion and loss of time which are produced by referring to the ordinary 
 treatises embracing both branches of probabilities (the first relating to 
 chances which can be altered only by the changes of entire units or in- 
 tegral mtdtiples of units in the fundamental conditions of the problem ; 
 the other concerning those chances which have respect to insensible grada- 
 tions in the value of the element measured), the present tract has been dj'awn 
 tip. It relates only to errors of observation, and to the rules, dei'ivable 
 from the consideration of these errors, for the combinatio7i of the results 
 of observations. 
 
1 6 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Airy (G. B.) — continued. 
 
 UNDULATORY THEORY OF OPTICS. Designed for the Use of 
 Students in the University. New Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth. 
 6$. 6d. 
 
 The undulatory theory of optics is presented to the reader as having the 
 same claims to his attention as the theory of gravitation : namely, that it is 
 certainly true, and that, by mathematical opei-ations of general elegance, it 
 leads to results of great interest. This theory explains with accuracy a 
 vast variety of phenomena of the most complicated kind. The plan of this 
 tract has been to include those phenomena only which admit of calculation, 
 and the investigations are applied only to phenomena which actually have 
 been observed. 
 
 ON SOUND AND ATMOSPHERIC VIBRATIONS. With the 
 Mathematical Elements of Music. Designed for the Use of Students 
 of the University. 'Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo. 9^. 
 This volume consists of sections, which again are divided into numbered 
 articles, on the following topics: — General recognition of the air as the 
 medium which conveys sound ; Properties of the air on which the forina- 
 tio7t afid transmission of sound depend ; Theory of undulatiotis as applial 
 to sound, ^T'c. ; Investigation of the motion of a wave of air through the 
 atmosphere ; Transmission of waves of soniferous vibrations through dif- 
 ferent gases, solids, and fluids ; Experiments on the velocity of sound, 
 cr'f. ; On musical sounds, and the manner of producing them ; On the 
 elements of musical harffiony and melody, and of simple f/iusical composi- 
 tion ; On imtrumental music ; On the htcman organs of speech and 
 hearing. 
 
 A TREATISE OF MAGNETISM. Designed for the use of 
 Students in the University. Crown 8vo. 9^. dd. . 
 As the laws of Magnetic Force have been experimentally examined with 
 philosophical accuracy, only in its connection with iron and steel, and in 
 the influences excited by the earth as a whole, the accurate portions of this 
 work are confined to the investigations connected with these metals and the 
 earth. The latter part of the work, howtver, treats in a more general 7vay 
 of the laws of the connection between Magnetism on the other hand and Gal- 
 vanism and Thermo-electricity on the other. The work is divided into 
 Twelve Sections, and each section into numbered articles, each of which 
 states concisely the subject of the following paragraphs. 
 
AIA THE MA TICS. 1 7 
 
 Airy (Osmund). — a TREATISE ON GEOMETRICAL 
 
 OPTICS. Adapted for the use. of the Higher Classes in Schools. 
 
 By Osmund Airy, B.A., one of the Mathematical Masters in 
 
 Wellington College. Extra fcap. 8vo. 3^. dd. 
 " This is, I imagine, the first time that any attempt has been made to 
 adapt the subject of Geometrical Optics to the reading of the higher 
 classes in our good schools. That this should be so is the more a matter 
 for remark, since the subject would appear to be peculiarly fitted for such 
 an adaptation. . . \ . I have endeavoured, as mtich as possible, to avoid 
 the example of those popular lecturers who explain difficulties by igno7'ing 
 them. But as the nature of my design necessitated brevity, i have omitted 
 entirely one or two portions of the subject which I considered unnecessary 
 to a clear understanding of the rest, atrd which appear to me better learnt 
 at a more advanced stage.'' — Author's Preface. *' This book," the 
 Athen/EUM say's, ^^ is carefully and lucidly wHtten, and rendered as 
 simple as possible by the zise in all cases of the most elejuentary form of 
 investigation. " 
 
 Bay ma. —THE ELEMENTS OF MOLECULAR MECHA- 
 NICS. By Joseph Bayma, S.J.', Professor of Philosophy. 
 Stonyhurst College. Demy 8vo. cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 Of the Twelve Books into which the present treatise is divided, the firU 
 and second give the demonstration of the principles which bear directly on 
 the constitution and the properties of matter. The next three books contain 
 a series of theorems and of problems on the laws of motto jj of elementary 
 substances. In the sixth and seventh, the inechamcal constitution of mole- 
 cules is investigated and determined : and by it the general properties of 
 bodies are explaiiied. The eighth book treats of biminiferous cether. The 
 ninth explains some special properties of bodies. The tenth and eleventh 
 contain a radical and lengthy investigation of chemical principles and 
 relations, which may lead to practical results of high importance. The 
 t7velfth dnd last book treats of molecular masses, distances, and pozvers. 
 
 Beasley.— AN elementary treatise on plane 
 
 , TRIGONOMETRY. With Examples. By R. D. Beasley, 
 M.A., Head Master of Grantham Grammar School. Fourth 
 Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth. 2)-- ^^' 
 
 This treatise is specially intendecTfor use in schools. The choice of matter 
 has been chiefiy guided by the requiremeitts of the three days' excjnination. 
 
 B 
 
1 8 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 at Cambridge. About four hundred examples were added to the second 
 edition, mainly collected from the Examination Papers of the last ten 
 years. In this edition several ne%v articles have been added, the examples 
 have been largely increased, and a series of Examination Papers appended. 
 
 Blackburn (Hugh). — ELEMENTS OF PLANE 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY, for the use of the Junior Class of Mathematics 
 in the University of Glasgow. By Hugh Blackburn, M.A., 
 Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. Globe 
 8vo. IS. dd. 
 
 The author having felt the want of a short treatise to be used as a 
 Text-Book after the Sixth Book of Euclid had been lear^ied and some 
 knowledge of Algebra acquired, which should contain satisfactory de- 
 jnonstrations of the propositions to be used in teaching Junior Students 
 the solution of Triangles, and should at the same time lay a solid 
 foundation for the study of Analytical Trigonofnetry, thinking that 
 others may have felt the same want^ has attempted to supply it by the 
 publication of this little work. 
 
 Boole. — Works by G. BOOLE, D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of 
 Mathematics in the Queen's University, Ireland. 
 
 A TREATISE ON DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. New and 
 Revised Edition. Edited by I. Todhunter. Crown 8vo. cloth. 
 1 4?. 
 Professor Boole has endeavoured in this treatise to convey as complete an 
 account of the present state of knowledge on the subject of Differential Equa- 
 tions as was consistent with the idea of a work intended, primarily, for 
 elementary instruction. The earlier sections of each chapter contain thai 
 kind of matter which hcLS usually been thought suitable for the beginner, 
 while the latter ones are devoted cither to an account of recent discovery, or 
 the discussion of such deeper questions of principle as are likely to present 
 themselves to the rejlective student in coniiection with the methods and 
 fyrocesses of his previous course. *' A treatise incomparably superior to 
 any other elementary book on the same subject with which we are 
 acquainted. "—Pill LOSOni IC AL M AG AZ i N E. 
 
 A TREATISE ON DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. Supple- 
 nientary Volume. Edited by 1. Toi>HUMEK. Crown 8vo. cloth. 
 %s. (yd. 
 
MATHEMATICS. 19 
 
 Boole — cojitinued. • 
 
 This volume contains all that Professor Boole wrote for the purpose cf 
 enlarging his treatise on Differential Equations. 
 
 ' THE CALCULUS OF FINITE DIFFERENCES. Crown 8vo. 
 cloth, los. ^d. New Edition, revised by J. F. MoULTON. 
 
 In this exposition of the Calculus .of Finite Differences, particular 
 attention has been paid to the conriection of its methods with those of the 
 Differential Calculus — a connection which in some instances involves far 
 more than a merely formal analogy. The work is in some measure 
 designed as a sequel to Professor Poolers Treatise on Differential Equa- 
 tions. ^^ As an original booh by one oj the first mathematicians of the 
 age, it is out of all comparison with the viere second-hand co7npilations 
 which have hitherto been alone accessible to the student." — PHILOSOPHICAL 
 Magazine. 
 
 Brook -Smith (J.)— ARITHMETIC IN THEORY AND 
 PRACTICE. By J. Brook-Smith, M.A., LL.B., St. John's 
 College, Cambridge ; Barrister-at-Law ; one of the Masters of 
 Cheltenham College. Complete, Crown 8vo. 4^. dd. Part I. 
 Zs. 6d. 
 
 Writers on Arithmetic at the pj-esentday feel the necessity of explaining the 
 principles on which the rules of the subject are based, but few as yet feel the 
 necessity of making these explanations strict and complete. If the science 
 of Arithmetic is to be made an effective instrument in developing and 
 strengthening the 7nental powers, it ought to be worked out rationally and 
 conclusively ; and in this work the author has endeavoured to reason out 
 in a clear and accurate manner the leading propositiojts of the science, and 
 to illustrate and apply those propositions in practice. In the practical 
 part of the subject he has advanced somewhat beyojtd the majority cf 
 preceding writers; particularly in Division, in Greatest Common 
 Measure, in Cube Root, in the Chapters on Decimal Money and the 
 Metric System, and more especially in the application of Decimals to 
 Percentages and cognate subjects. Copious examples, original and selected^ 
 are given. " This strikes us as a valuable Alanual of Arithmetic of the 
 Scientific kind. Indeed, this really appears to us the best we have seen.-'' 
 — Literary Churchman. " This is an essentially practical book, 
 providing very drfimte help to candidates for abnost every kind of com- 
 petitive examinauon." — BRITISH JOUARTERLY. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 Cambridge Senate-House Problqms and Riders, 
 
 WITH SOLUTIONS :— 
 
 1848-1851.— PROBLEMS. By Ferrers and Jackson. 8vo. 
 cloth. 1 5 J. dd. 
 
 1848-1851.— RIDERS. By Jameson. Svo. cloth, 'js.dd. 
 
 1854. — PROBLEMS AND RIDERS. By Walton and 
 Mackenzie. 8vo. cloth. loj. 6c/, 
 
 1857. — PROBLEMS AND RIDERS. By Campion and 
 Walton. Svo. cloth. %s. 6d. 
 
 i860.— PROBLEMS AND RIDERS. By Watson and Routh. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth, "js. 6d. 
 
 1864.— PROBLEMS AND RIDERS. By Walton and Wil- 
 kinson. Svo. cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 These volumes will be found of great value to Teachers and Students^ as 
 indicating the style and range of mathematical study in the University of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE COURSE OF ELEMENTARY NATURAL 
 PHILOSOPHY, for the Degree of B. A. Originally compiled by 
 J. C. Snowball, M.A., late Fellow of St. John's College. 
 Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged, and adapted for the Middle- 
 Class Examinations by Thomas Lund, B.D., Late Fellow and 
 Lecturer of St. John's College, Editor of Wood's Algebra, &c. 
 Crown Svo. cloth. . 5^. 
 
 This 7vork will be found adapted to the wants, not only of University 
 Students y but also of many others who require a short course of Mechanics 
 and Hydrostatics^ and especially of the catididates at our Middle Class 
 Examinations. At the end of each chapter a series of easy questions is 
 added for the exercise of the student. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE AND DUBLIN MATHEMATICAL JOURNAL. 
 The Complete Work, in Nine Vols. Svo. cloth. 7/. 45. 
 Only a few copies remain on hand. Among Contributors to this 
 work will be found Sir W. Thomson^ Stokes, Adams, Boole, Sir IV. R. 
 Hamilton, De Morgan, Cayley, Sylvester, Jellett, and other distinguished 
 mathematicians. 
 
 Candler.— HELP TO ARITHMETIC. Designed for the use of 
 Schools. By H. Candler, M.A., Mathematical Master of 
 Uppingham School. Extra fcap. , Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
MA THE MA TICS, 
 
 This work is intended as a companion to any text-book that may be 
 tn use. " The main difficulties which boys experience in the different 
 rules are skilfully dealt with and refuoved.^' — Museum. 
 
 Cheyne. — Works by C. H. H. CHEYNE, M.A., F.R.A.S. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE PLANETARY 
 
 THEORY. With a Collection of Problems. Second Edition. 
 
 CroAvn 8vo. cloth. 6^. 6d. 
 
 In this volume an attempt has been made to produce a treatise on the 
 
 Planetary theory^ which, being eleme?itary in character, should be so far 
 
 complete as to contain all that is usually required by students in the 
 
 University of Cambridge. In the New Edition the work has been carejully 
 
 revised. The stability of the Plajietary System has been more Jul ly treated, 
 
 and an elegant geo?netrical explanation of the formulcB for the secular 
 
 variation of the node and inclination has been introduced. 
 
 THE EARTH'S MOTION OF ROTATION. Crown 8vo. 
 
 y. 6d. 
 The first part of this work consists of an application of the method of the 
 variation of elements to the general problem oj rotation. In the second 
 part the general rotation formulce are applied to the particular case of 
 the earth. 
 
 Childe. — THE SINGULAR PROPERTIES OF TPIE ELLIP- 
 SOID AND ASSOCIATED SURFACES OF THE Nth 
 DEGREE. By the Rev. G. F. Childe, M.A., Author of 
 "Ray Surfaces," "Related Caustics," &c. 8vo. loj. dd. 
 
 The object of this volume is to develop peculiarities in the Ellipsoid ; 
 and, further, to establish analogous properties in the unlimited congeneric 
 series oj which this remarkable surface is a constituent. 
 
 Christie. — a COLLECTION OF ELEMENTARY TEST- 
 QUESTIONS IN PURE AND MIXED MATHEMATICS ; 
 with Answers and Appendices on Synthetic Division, and on the 
 Solution of Numerical Equations by Horner's Method. By James 
 R. Christie, F.R.S., late First Mathematical Maste. at the 
 Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Crown 8vo. cloth. Zs. 6d. 
 This series of Mathematical Exercises is collected from those which the 
 
 author has, from time to time, proposed for solution by his pupils during 
 
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 a long career at the Royal Military Academy. A student who finds 
 that he is able to solve the larger portion of these Exercises^ may consider 
 that he is thoroughly well grounded in the elementary principles of pure 
 and mixed Mathematics. 
 
 Dalton.— ARITHMETICAL EXAMPLES. Progressively 
 arranged, with Exercises and Examination Papers. By the Rev. 
 T. Dalton, M.A., Assistant Master of Eton College. New 
 Edition. i8mo. cloth. 2.s. 6d. Answers to the Examples are 
 appended. 
 
 Day. — PROPERTIES OF CONIC SECTIONS PROVED 
 GEOMETRICALLY. Part L, THE ELLIPSE, with 
 Problems. By the Rev. PI. G. Day, M.A., Head Master of 
 Sedburgh Grammar School. Crown 8vo. 3^-. dd. 
 The object of this book is the introduction of a treatment of Conic 
 Sections which shoidd be simple and natural^ and lead by an easy transi- 
 tion to the analytical methods, without departing froiii the strict geometry 
 of Euclid. 
 
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 MINANTS, with their Application to Simultaneous Linear 
 Equations and Algebraical Geometry. By Charles L. Dodgson, 
 M.A,, Student and Mathematical Lecturer of Christ Church, 
 Oxford. Small 4to. cloth. \os. 6d. 
 
 The object of the author is to present the subject as a continuous chain of 
 argument, separated from all accessories of explanation or illustration. 
 All such explanation and illustration as seemed necessary for a beginner 
 are introduced, either in the form of foot-7totes, or, where that would have 
 occupied too much room, of Appendices. '■'■The work,'" says the 
 Educational Times, *' forms a valuable addition to the treatises we 
 possess on Modern Algebra.'''' 
 
 Drew.— GEOMETRICAL TREATISE ON CONIC SEC- 
 TIONS. By W. H. Drew, M. A., St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth. 45-. 6^/. 
 
 In this work the subject of Ccnic Sections has teen placed before the student 
 in such a form that, it is hoped, after mastering the elements of Eticlid, he 
 
MATHEMATICS. 23 
 
 D r e w — continued. 
 
 may find it an easy and interesting continuation of his geometrical studies. 
 With a view, also, of rendering the work a complete manual of what is 
 required at the Universities, there have either been embodied into the text or 
 inserted among the exafnples, every book-work question, probletn, and rider, 
 which has been proposed in the Cambridge examinations up to the present 
 time, 
 
 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS IN DREW'S CONIC 
 SECTIONS. Crown 8vo. cloth. 4^. dd. 
 
 Earnshaw (S.) — partial differential equa- 
 tions. An Essay towards an entirely New Method of Inte- 
 grating them. By S. Earnshaw, M.A., St. John's College, 
 Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 5-^' 
 
 The peculiarity of the system expounded in this zvork is, that in every 
 equation, whatever be the number of original independent variables, the work 
 of integration is at once reduced to the use of one independent variable 
 only. The author'' s object is merely to render his method thoroughly intel- 
 ligible. The various steps of the investigation are all obedient to one 
 general principle, and though in some degree novel, are not really difficult, 
 but on the contrary easy when the eye has become accustomed to the novelties 
 of the notation. Many of the results of the integrations are far more 
 general than they were in the shape in which they have appeared in former 
 treatises, and many Equations will be found in this Essay integrated 
 with ease in finite terms tvhich were never so integi'ated before. 
 
 Edgar (J. H.) and Pritchard (G. S.) — NOTE-BOOK ON 
 PRACTICAL SOLID OR DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 
 Containing Problems with help for Solutions. By J. H. Edgar, 
 M.A., Lecturer on Mechanical Drawing at the Royal School of 
 Mines, and G. S. Pritchard, late Master for Descriptive 
 Geometry, Royal Military xVcademy, Woolwich. Second Edition, 
 revised and enlarged, Globe 8vo. 3^. 
 
 In teaching a large class, if the method of lecturing and demonstrating 
 from the black board only is pursued, the more intelligent students have 
 generally to be kept back, from the necessity of frequent repetition, for the 
 sake of the less promising ; if the plan of setting problei?is to each pupil is 
 adopted, the teacher finds a difficulty in giving to each sufficient attention. 
 
24 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 A judicious combination of both ?nethods is doubtless the best ; and it is 
 hoped that this result may be arrived at in some degree by the use of this 
 book, which is simply a collection of examples, tuith helps for solution^ 
 arranged in progressive sections. The new edition has been enlarged by the 
 addition of chapters on the straight line and plane, with explanatory dia- 
 grams and exercises on tangent planes, and on the cases of the spherical 
 iri angle. 
 
 Ferrers. — AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON TRILINEAR 
 CO-ORDINATES, the Method of Reciprocal Polars, and 
 Theory of Projectors. By the Rev. N. M. Ferrers, M. A., Fellow 
 and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. ds. 6d. 
 
 The object of the author in wrifmg on this subject has mainly been to 
 place it on a basis altogether independent of the ordinary Cartesian system^ 
 instead of regarding it as only a special form of Abridged Notation, 
 A short chapter on Determinants has been introduced. 
 
 Frost. — Works by PERCIVAL FROST, M.A., formerly Fellow 
 of St. John's College, Cambridge j Mathematical Lecturer o 
 King's College. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON CURVE TRACING. 
 
 Percival Frost, M.A. 8vo. \2s. 
 
 The author has written this book under the conviciwn that the skill 
 and power of the young mathematical student, in oi'der to be thoroughly 
 available afterwards, ought to be developed in all possible directions. The 
 subject which he has chosen presents so many faces, that it would be 
 difficult to find another whichf "^vith a very limited extent of readings 
 combines^ to the same extent, so many valuable hints of methods of cal- 
 culations to be employed hereajter, with so much pleaiure in its present 
 use. In order to understand the work it is not necessary to have much 
 knowledge of what is called Higher Algebra, nor of Algebraical Geometry 
 of a higher kind than that which simply relates to the Conic Sections. 
 From the study of a tvork like this, it is believed that the student wi 
 derive many advantages. Especially he will become skilled in making 
 correct approximations to the values of quantities, which cannot be found 
 exactly, to any degree of accuracy 7vhich may be required. 
 
MATHEMATICS. 25 
 
 Frost — co7itiniied. 
 
 THE FIRST THREE SECTIONS OF NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 
 With Notes and Illustrations. Also a collection of Problems, 
 principally intended as Examples of Newton's Methods. By 
 Percival Frost, M.A. Second Edition. 8vo. cloth. lOi'. dd. 
 
 The author's principal intention is to explain difficulties which may be 
 encountered by the student on first reading the Principia, and to illustrate 
 the advantages of a careful study of the methods employed by Newton, by 
 sho7ving the extent to which they may be applied in the solution of problems ; 
 he has also endeavoured to give assistance to the student who is engaged in 
 the study of the higher branches of mathe>natics, by representing in a 
 geometrical form several of the processes employed in the Differential and 
 Integral Calctdus, and in tht analytical investigations of Dynamics. 
 
 Frost and Wolstenholme.— a TREATISE ON SOLID 
 GEOMETRY. By Percival Frost, M.A., and the Rev. J. 
 Wolstenholme, M.A., Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Christ's 
 College. 8vo. cloth. i8j. 
 
 The authors have endeavoured to present before students as comprehensize 
 a view of the subject as possible. Intending to make the subject accessible, 
 at least in the earlier portion, to all classes of sttidents, they have endea- 
 voured to explain cojnpletely all the processes which are most useful in 
 dealing with ordinary theorems and problems, thus directing the student 
 to the selection of methods which are best adapted to the exigencies of each 
 problem. In the more difficult portions of the subject, they have considered 
 themselves to be addressing a higher class of students ; and they have there 
 tried to lay a good foundation on which to build, if any reader should 
 wish to pursue the science beyond the limits to which the work extetids, 
 
 Godf ray. —Works by HUGH GODFRAY, M.A., Mathematical 
 Lecturer at Pembroke College, Cambridge. 
 
 A TREATISE ON ASTRONOMY, for the Use of Colleges and 
 Schools. Svo. cloth. 12s. 6d. 
 
 This book embraces all those branches of Astronomy which have, from, 
 time to time, been recommended by the Cambridge Board of Mathematical 
 Studies: but by far the larger and easier portion, adapted to the first three 
 days of the Exa?nination for Honours, mav be read by the more 
 
26 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 G o dfray — co?itinued. 
 
 advanced pupils in many of our schools. The author's aim has been to 
 convey clear and distinct ideas of the celestial phenomena. ** It is a 
 -working book" says the Guardian, "taking Astronomy in its proper 
 place in mathematical sciences. . . . It is a book which is not likely to 
 be got up unintelligently." 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE LUNAR THEORY, 
 with a Brief Sketch of the Problem up to the time of Newton. 
 Second Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 5^. 6d. 
 
 These pages will, it is hoped, form an introduction to more recondite 
 works. Difficulties have been discussed at considerable length. The 
 selection of the method followed with regard to analytical solutions, 
 which is the same as that of Airy, Herschel, ^c. was made on account 
 of its simplicity ; it is, moreover, the method which has obtained in the 
 University of Cambridge. " As an ele?fientary treatise and introduction 
 to the subject, we think it jnay justly claim to supersede all former ones." — 
 London, Edin. and Dublin Phil. Magazine. 
 
 Hemming.— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE 
 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS, for the 
 Use of Colleges and Schools. By G. W. Hemming, M.A., 
 Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Second Edition, with 
 Corrections and Additions. 8vo. cloth. 2s. 
 
 " There is no book in common use from zvhich so clear and exact a 
 knowledge of the pHnciples of the Calculus can be so readily obtained." — 
 Literary Gazette. 
 
 Jackson. — GEOMETRICAL CONIC SECTIONS. An Elemen- 
 tary Treatise in which the Conic Sections are defined as the Plane 
 Sections of a Cone, and treated by the Method of Projection. 
 By J. Stuart Jackson, M.A., late Fellow of Gonville and Caius 
 College, Cambridge. 4J. dd. 
 
 This work has been written with a view to give the student the benefit oj 
 the Method of Projections as applied to the Ellipse and Hyperbola. 
 When this Method is admitted into the treatment of the Conic Sections, 
 there are many reasons why they should be defined, not with reference to 
 the focus and direction, but according to the original definition from which 
 
MATHEMATICS. 27 
 
 they have their name as plane sections of a cone. This method is calcu- 
 lated to produce a mata-ial simplification in these curves, and to make the 
 proof of their properties more easily understood and remembered. It is also 
 a powerful instrument in the solution of a large class of problems relating 
 to these curves. 
 
 Jellet (John H.)— a treatise on the theory of 
 
 "FRICTION. By John H. Jellet, B.D., Senior Fellow of 
 Trinity College, Dublin ; President of the Royal Irish Academy, 
 8vo. 8j. dd. 
 
 The theory of friction is as truly a part of Rational Mechanics as the 
 theory of gravitation. This book is taken up xvith a special investigation 
 of the laivs of friction ; and some of the principles confaijied in it are 
 believed to be here enunciated for the first time. The work consists of eight 
 Chapters as follows : — /. Definitions and Principles. II. Equilibrium 
 with Friction. III. Extreme Positions of Equilibrium. IV. Movement 
 of a Particle or System of Particles. V. Motion of a Solid Body. VI. 
 Necessary and Possible Equilibrium. VII. Determination of the Actual 
 Value of the Acting Force of Friction. VIII. Miscellaneous Problems — 
 I. Problem of the Top. 2. Frictiofi Wheels and Locomotives. 3. 
 Questions for Exercise. " The work is one of great research, and will 
 add much to the already great reputation of its author." — SCOTSMAN. 
 
 Jones and Cheyne.— algebraical exercises. Pro- 
 gressively arranged. By the Rev. C. A. Jones, M.A., and C. H. 
 Cheyne, M.A., F. R. A. S., Mathematical Masters of Westminster 
 School. New Edition. i8mo. cloth. 2s. 6d. 
 
 This little book is intended to 7neet a difficulty which is probably felt more 
 or less by all engaged in teaching Algebra to beginners. It is, that while 
 new ideas are being acquired, old ones are forgotten. In the belief that 
 constant practice is the only retnedy for this, the present series of miscel- 
 laneous exercises has been prepared. Their peculiarity consists in this, 
 that though miscellaneous they are yet progressive, and may be used by 
 the pupil almost from the com77iencement of his studies. The book 
 being intended chiefly for Schools and Junior Students, the higher parts 
 of Algebra have not been included. 
 
28 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Kitchener.— A geometrical NOTE-BOOK, containing 
 Easy Problems in Geometrical Drawing preparatory to the Study 
 of Geometry. For the Use of Schools. By F. E. Kitchener, 
 M. A., Mathematical Master at Rugby. New Edition. 410, 2s. 
 
 It is the object of this book to make so?fte way in overcoming the difficulties 
 of Geometrical conception, before the mind is called to the attack of 
 Geometrical theorems. A few simple methods of construction are given ; 
 and space is left on each page, in order that the learner may draw in the 
 figiires. 
 
 Morgan. — a COLLECTION OF PROBLEMS AND EXAM- 
 PLES IN MATHEMATICS. With Answers. By H. A. 
 Morgan, M.A., Sadlerian and Mathematical Lecturer of Jesus 
 College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. cloth, ds. 6d. 
 
 This book contains a number of problems, chiefly elementary, in the 
 Alathematical subjects usually read at Ca?nbridge. They have been 
 selected from the papers set during late years at Jesus College, Very few 
 of them are to be met with in other collections, and by far the larger 
 number are due to some of the most distinguished Mathematicians in the 
 University. 
 
 Newton's PRINCIPIA. Edited by Professor Sir W. Thomson 
 and Professor Blackburn. 4to. cloth. 31J. dd. 
 
 It is a sufficient guarantee of the excelletice of this complete edition of 
 Newton's Principia that it has been printed for and under the care of PrO' 
 fessor Sir William Thomson and Professor Blackburn, of Glasgow Uni- 
 versity. The following notice is prefixed : — * * Finding that all the editions 
 of the Principia are now out of print, we have been induced to reprint 
 Newton's last edition [of 1 726] without note or comment, only introducing 
 the 'Corrigenda' of the old copy and correcting typographical errors." 
 The book is of a handsome size, tuith large type, fine thick paper, and cleanly 
 cut figures, and is the only modern edition containing the whole of Newton's 
 great work. " Undoubtedly the finest edition of the text of the ' Principia ' 
 which has hitherto a//mr^^."— EDUCATIONAL Times. 
 
 Parkinson.— Works by S. Parkinson, D.D., F.R.S., Fellow and 
 .Tutor of St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 
MATHEMATICS, 29 
 
 Parkinson — contiimed. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON MECHANICS. For the 
 Use of the Junior Classes at the University and the Higher Classes 
 in Schools. With a Collection of Examples. Fourth edition, revised. 
 Crow^n 8vo. cloth, qj-, 6^. 
 
 In preparing this work the authoi-'s object has been to inchide in it 
 stich portio7ts of Theoretical Mechanics as can be conveniently investigated 
 without the use of the Differential Calculus, and so render it statable as 
 a manual for the jicnior classes in the University and the higher classes 
 in Schools. With one or two short exceptions, ihe student is not presumed 
 to require a knozvledge of any branches of Mathematics beyond the eletnents 
 of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry. Several additional propositions 
 have been incorporated in the work for the purpose of rendering it more 
 complete : and the collectioji of Examples and Problems has been largely 
 increased. 
 
 A TREATISE ON OPTICS. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth, 10.9. (yd. 
 A collection of examples and prroblems has been appended to this work, 
 which are sufficiently numerous and 7>aried in character to afford useful 
 exercise for the student. For the greater part of them, recourse has been 
 had to the Exat?i.ination Papers set in the University and the several 
 Colleges during the last tiventy years. 
 
 Phear.— ELEMENTARY HYDROSTATICS. With Numerous 
 Examples. By J. B. Phear, M.A., Fellow and late Assistant 
 Tutor of Clare College, Cambridge. Fourth Edition. Crown 
 8vo. cloth. 5 J. 6d. 
 
 This edition has been carefully revised throughout, and many new 
 illustrations and examples added, which it is hoped zvill increase its 
 usefulness to students at the Umverstties and in Schools. In accordance 
 with suggestions from many engaged in tuition, answers to all the 
 Examples have been given at the end of the book. 
 
 Pratt.— A TREATISE ON ATTRACTIONS, LAPLACE'S 
 FUNCTIONS, AND THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 
 By John H. Pratt, M.A., Archdeacon of Calcutta, Author of 
 ' * The Mathematical Principles of Mechanical Philosophy. " Fourth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth. 6^. 6</. 
 
30 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 The author's chief design in this treatise is to give an answer to the 
 question^ " Has the Earth acquired its present form from being originally 
 in a fluid state? " This Edition is a complete revision of the former ones. 
 
 Puckle.— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON CONIC SEC- 
 TIONS AND ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY. With Numerous 
 Examples and Hints for their Solution ; especially designed for the 
 Use of Beginners. By G. H. Puckle, M.A. New Edition, 
 Tevised and enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth. 7^. dd. 
 
 This work is recommended by the Syndicate of the Cambridge Local 
 Examinations. The Athenaeum says the author ** displays an intimate 
 acquaintance with the difficulties likely to be felt, together with a singular 
 aptitude in remoidng them." 
 
 Rawlinson. — ELEMENTARY STATICS, by the Rev. George 
 Rawlinson, M.A. Edited by the Rev. EdwatvD Sturges,M.A., 
 of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and late Professor of the Applied 
 Sciences, Elphinstone College, Bombay. Crown 8vo. cloth. 4J, 6d. 
 
 Published under the authority of Her Afajesty'^s Secretary of State for 
 India, for use in the Goi'ernment Schools and Colleges in India. 
 
 Reynolds.— MODERN methods in elementary 
 
 GEOMETRY. By E. M. Reynolds, M.A., Mathematical 
 Master in Clifton College. Crown 8vo. y. 6d. 
 
 This little book has been constructed on one plan throughout, that of 
 always giving in the simplest possible form the direct proof from the nature 
 of the case. The axioms necessary to this simplicity have been assumed 
 without hesitation, and no scruple has been felt as to the increase of 
 their number, or the acceptance of as many eletnentary notions as 
 co^myn experience places past all doubt. Thebook differs most from estab- 
 lished teaching in its constructijus, and in tts early application of Arith- 
 metic to C'ometry. 
 
 Routh.— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE DYNA- 
 MICS OF THE SYSTEM OF RIGID BODIES. With 
 Numerous Examples. By Edward John Routh, M.A., late 
 
MATHEMATICS. 31 
 
 Fellow and Assistant Tutor of St. Peter's College, Cambridge j 
 Examiner in the University of London. Second Edition, enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth. 14-5-. 
 
 In this edition the author has made several additions to each chapter. 
 He has tried to make each chapter, as far as possible, complete in itself, 
 so that all that relates to any one part oj the sttbject may be found in the 
 same place. This arrangement will enable every student to select his 
 own order in which to read the subject. The Examples which will be 
 found at the e7td op each chapter have been chiefly selected from, the 
 Examination Papers which have been set in the University and the 
 Colleges in the last /nv years. 
 
32 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 WORKS 
 By the REV. BARNARD SMITH, M.A., 
 
 Rector of Glaston, Rutland, late Fellow and Senior Bursar 
 of St. Peter's College, Cambridge. 
 
 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA, in their Principles and Appli- 
 
 . cation ; with numerous systematically arranged Examples taken 
 
 from the Cambridge Examination Papers, with especial reference 
 
 to the Ordinary Examination for the B.A. Degree. Twelfth 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 This manual is nozv extensively used in Schools and Colleges^ both in 
 England and in the Colonies. It has also been found of great sei'Z'ice for 
 students pi'eparing for the Middle Class and Civil and Military Sei'vice 
 Examinations, from the care that has been taken to elucidate the principles 
 of all the rules. The present edition has been carefully revised. " To 
 all those whose 7ninds are sufficiently developed to comprehend the simplest 
 mathematical reasoning, and who have not yet thoroughly mastered the 
 principles of Arithmetic and Algebra, it is calculated to be of great 
 advantage. " — Athen^um. Of this work, also, one of the highest possible 
 authorities, the late Dean Peacock, zvrites : " ATr. Smith's work is a most 
 useful publication. The rules are stated with great clearness. The 
 examples are well selected, and worked out with just sufficient detail, 
 without being encumbered by too minute explanations ; and there prevails 
 throughout it that just proportion of theory and practice which is the 
 crowning excellence of an elementary work.^' 
 
 ARITHMETIC FOR SCHOOLS. New Edition. Crown Svo. 
 clofh. 4J. 6d. 
 
 Adapted from the author'' s work on ** Arithmetic and Algebra,'^ by the 
 omission of the algebraic portion, and by tJu introduction of new exercises. 
 The reason of each arithmetical process is fully exhibited. The system < 
 Decimal Coinage is explained ; and answers to the exercises are append, 
 at the end. The Arithmetic is characterised as " admirably adapted for 
 instruction, combining just sufficicitt theory 7vith a large aitd well-selected 
 collection of excercises for practice.''— ]r>vv.KK'L OF EDUCATION. 
 
MATHEMATICS. zz 
 
 Barnard Smith — conthmed. 
 
 A KEY TO THE ARITHMETIC FOR SCHOOLS, Tenth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth. Ss. 6d. 
 
 EXERCISES IN ARITHMETIC. With Answers. Crown 8vo. 
 imp cloth. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Or sold separately, Part I. is. ; Part II. u. ; Answers, dd. 
 
 These Exercises have been published in order to give the pupil examples 
 in every rule of Arithmetic. The {greater number have been carefully 
 compiled from the latest University and School Examination Papers. 
 
 SCHOOL CLASS-BOOK OF ARITHMETIC. i8mo. cloth. 3^. 
 
 Or sold separately, Parts I. and II. lod. each; Part III. is. 
 
 This manual, published at the request of many schoolmasters, and 
 chiefly intended for National ajid Elementary Schools, has been prepared 
 on the same plan as that adopted in the author's School Arithmetic, which 
 is in extensive circulation in England and abroad. The Metrical Tables 
 have been introduced, from the conviction on the part of the author that 
 the knozvledge of such tables, and the mode of applying them, will be of 
 great use to the rising generation. 
 
 KEYS TO SCHOOL CLASS-BOOK OF ARITHMETIC. Com- 
 plete in one volume, iSmo. cloth, ds. 6d.; or Parts I., II., and 
 III., 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 SHILLING BOOK OF ARITHMETIC FOR NATIONAL AND 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. i8mo. cloth. Or separately, 
 Part I. 2d.'y Part II. 30^.; Part III. ^d. Answers, 6d. 
 
 THE SAME, with Answers complete. i8mo. cloth, is. dd. 
 
 This Shilling Book of Arithmetic has been prepared for the use oj 
 National and other schools at the urgent request of numerous Masters of 
 schools both at home and abroad. The Explanations of the Rules and 
 the Examples will, it is hoped, be found suited to the most elementary 
 classes. 
 
 KEY TO SHILLING BOOK OF ARITHMETIC. i8mo. cloth. 
 4^. dd. 
 
 C 
 
34 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Barnard Smith — continued. 
 
 EXAMINATION PAPERS IN ARITHMETIC. i8mo. cloth. 
 \s. 6d. The same, with Answers, i8mo. is. ()d. 
 
 The object of these Examination Papers is to test students both in the 
 theory and practice of Arithmetic. It is hoped that the method adopted 
 will lead students to deduce results from general principles rather than 
 to apply stated rules. The author believes that the practice of giving 
 examples under particular rules makes the working of Arithmetic quite 
 mechanical, and tends to throw all but very clever boys of[ their balance 
 when a general paper on the subject is put before them. 
 
 KEY TO EXAMINATION PAPERS IN ARITHMETIC. 
 l8mo. cloth. 4J. dd. 
 
 THE METRIC SYSTEM OF ARITHMETIC, ITS PRINCIPLES 
 AND APPLICATION, with numerous Examples, written 
 expressly for Standard V, in National Schools. Fourth Edition, 
 i8mo. cloth, sewed, -^d. 
 
 In the New Code of Regulations issued by the Council of Education it 
 is stated " that in all schools children in Standards V. and VI. should 
 know the principles of the Metric System, and be able to explain the 
 advantages to be gained from uniformity in the method of forming multiples 
 and sub-multiples of the unit.''' In this little book, Mr. Smith clearly 
 and simply explains the principle of the Metric System, and in con- 
 siderable detail expounds the French system, and its relation to the 
 ordinary English method, taking the pupil on as far as Compound 
 Division. The book contains numerous Examples, and tivo wood-cuts 
 illustrating the Metric Tables of Surface and Solidity. Ansxvers to the 
 Examples are appended. 
 
 A CHART OF THE METRIC SYSTEM, on a Sheet, size 42 in. 
 by 34 in. on Roller, mounted and varnished, price 3^. 6^. Fourth 
 Edition. 
 
 By the New Educational Code it is ordained that a Chart of the Metric 
 System be conspicuously hung up on the walls of every school under 
 Government inspection. The publishers believe that thepresefit Chart will 
 be found to answer all the requirements of the Code, and afford a full and 
 perfectly intelligible view of the principles of the Metric System. the 
 principle of the system is clearly stated and illustrated by examples ; the 
 
MATHEMATICS. 35 
 
 Barnard Smith — continued. 
 
 Method of Forming the Tables is set forth ; Tables follo^u, clearly showin<y 
 the English eqtiivalent of the French measures of—i. Length ; 2. Surface; 
 '^.Solidity; 4. Weight; 5. Capacity. At the bottom of the Chart is drawn 
 a full-length Metric Measure, subdivided distinctly and intelligibly into 
 Decimetres ^ Centimetres, and Millimetres. *' We do not remember that 
 ever we have seen teaching by a chart more happily carried out. " — School 
 Board Chronicle. 
 
 Also a Small Chart on a Card, price \d. 
 
 EASY LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC, combining Exercises in 
 Reading, Writing, Spelling, and Dictation. Part I. for Standard 
 I. in National Schools. Crown 8vo. 9^. 
 
 Diagrams for School-room walls in preparation. 
 
 From the novel method and the illustrations used this little book cannot 
 but tend to make the teaching of Arithinetic even to very young childj'en 
 interesting and successful. If the book be used according to the directions of 
 the author, the method of instruction cannot but prove sound and easy, and 
 acceptable to teacher and child. The Standard of Examination fixed by 
 the Edtication Department for 1872 has been adhered to. The West- 
 minster Review says : — " We should strongly advise everyone to study 
 carefully Mr. Barnard Smithes Lessons in Arithmetic, Writing, and 
 Spelling. A more excellent little work for a first introduction to know- 
 ledge cannot well be written. Mr. Smithes larger Text-books on Arithmetic 
 and Algebra are already most favourably known, and he has proved no7v 
 that the difficulty of writing a text-book which begins ab ovo is really sur- 
 mountable ; but we shall be much mistaken if this little book has not cost 
 its author more thought and mental labour than any of his more elaborate 
 text-books. The plan to combine arithmetical lessons with those in reading 
 and spelling is perfectly novel, and it is worked out in accordance with the 
 aims of our National Schools ; and we are convinced that its general in- 
 troduction in all elementary schools throughout the country will produce 
 great educational advantages.^'' 
 
 THE METRIC ARITHMETIC. 
 
 This book will go thoroughly into the principles of the System, intro- 
 ducing the money tables of the various countries which have adopted it, 
 and containing a very large number of Examples and Examination 
 Papers. [Nearly ready. 
 
 C 2 
 
^6 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Snowball.— THE ELEMENTS OF PLANE AND SrHERI- 
 CAL TRIGONOMETRY ; with the Construction and Use of 
 Tables of Logarithms. By J. C. Snowball, M.A. Tenth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth. 7^. dd. 
 In preparing the present edition for the press ^ the text has been 
 subjected to a careful revision ; the proofs of some of the more impor- 
 tant propositions have been rendered more strict and general ; and more 
 than two hundred examples, taken principally from the questions set of 
 late years in the public Examinations of the University and of individual 
 Colleges^ have been added to tJie collection of Examples and Problems for 
 practice, 
 
 Tait and Steele.— A TREATISE ON DYNAMICS OF A 
 
 PARTICLE. With numerous Examples. By Professor Tait and 
 
 Mr. Steele. New Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth. \os. 6d. 
 
 In this treatise will be found all the ordinary propositions^ connected 
 
 iwitk the Dynamics of Particles, wJiicJi can be conveniently deduced without 
 
 .the use of D "" Alemberf s Principle. Throughout the book will be foufid a 
 
 number of illustrative examples introduced in the text, and for the most 
 
 part completely tvorked out ; others with occasional solutions or hints to 
 
 assist the student are appended to each chapter. For by far the greater 
 
 portion of these, the Cambridge Senate-House and College Examination 
 
 Papers have been applied to. In the netu edition numerous trivial errors, 
 
 and a few of a more serious character, Iiave been corrected, while many 
 
 new examples have been added. 
 
 Taylor. — geometrical CONICS ; including Anharmonic 
 
 Ratio and Projection, with numerous Examples. By C. Taylor, 
 
 B. A., Scholar of St. John's Coll. Camb. Crown 8vo. cloth. 7^. 6</. 
 
 This work contains elementary proof s of the principal properties op Conic 
 
 Sections, together with chapters on Projection and Anharmonic Ratio. 
 
 Xebay.— ELEMENTARY MENSURATION FOR SCHOOLS. 
 
 With numerous Examples. By Septimus Tebay, B.A., Head 
 
 Master of Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Rivington. Extra 
 
 fcap. 8vo. 3J. dd. 
 
 The object of the present work is to enable boys to acquire a moderate 
 
 knowledge of Mensuration in a reasonable time. All difficult and useltss 
 
 matter has been avoided. The examples for the most part are easy, ami 
 
 the rules are concise. *' A very compact useful manual. " — Spfctatur. 
 
MATHEMATICS. 37 
 
 WORKS 
 
 By I. TODHUNTER, M.A., F.R.S., 
 
 Of St. John's College, Cambridge. ' 
 
 * ' They are all good, and each volume adds to the value of the rest. " — 
 Freeman. " Perspicuous language, vigorous investigations, scrutiny of 
 difficulties, and methodical treatment, characterise Mr. Todhunter^ s works.' ^ 
 — Civil Engineer. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF EUCLID. For the Use of Colleges and 
 Schools. New Edition. i8mo. cloth. 3^. 6d. 
 
 No method of overco?ning the difficulties experienced by young students of 
 Euclid appears to be so useful as that of breaking up the demonstrations 
 into their constituent parts ; a plan strongly recommettded by Professor 
 De Morgan. In the present Edition each distinct assertion in the argu- 
 ment begins a new line ; and at the ends of the lilies are placed the 
 necessary references to the preceding principles on which the assertions 
 depend. The longer propositions are distributed into subordi^tate parts, 
 which are distinguished by breaks at the beginning of the lines. Notes, 
 Appendix, and a collection of Exercises are added, 
 
 MENSURATION FOR BEGINNERS. With numerous Examples^ 
 New Edition. i8mo. cloth. 2s. 6d. 
 
 The subjects included in the present work are those which have usually 
 found a place in Elementary Treatises on Mensuration. The mode of 
 treatment has been determined by the fact that the work is intended for the 
 use of beginners. Accordingly it is divided into short independent chapters, 
 which are followed by appropriate exa7nples. A knowledge of the elements 
 of Arithmetic is all that is assumed; and in connection with most of the 
 Rules of Mensuration it has been found practicable to give such explana- 
 tions and illustrations as will supply the place of formal mathematical 
 demonstrations, which would have been unsuitable to the character of the 
 work. ^^ For simplicity and clearness of arrangement it is unsurpassed 
 by any text-book on the subject which has come under our notice.'' — 
 Educational Times. 
 
38 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Todhunter (I.) — co7itinued. 
 
 ALGEBRA FOR BEGINNERS. With numerous Examples. New 
 Edition. i8mo. cloth. 2.s. (>d. 
 
 Great pains have been taken to render this work intelligible to young 
 students, by the use of simple language and by copious explanations. In 
 determining the subjects to be included and the space to be assigned to each, 
 the author has been guided by the Papers given at the various examinations 
 in elementary Algebra which are now carried on in this country. The 
 book may be said to consist of three parts. The first part contains the 
 elementary operations in integral and fractional expressions ; the second 
 the solution of equations and problems ; the third treats of various subjects 
 which are introduced but rarely into Examination Papers, and are nioi'e 
 briefly discussed. Provision has at the same time been made for the 
 introduction of easy equations and problems at an early stage— for those 
 who prefer such a course. 
 
 KEY TO ALGEBRA FOR BEGINNERS. Crown 8vo. cloth. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY FOR BEGINNERS. With numerous Examples. 
 New Edition. i8mo. cloth. 2s. 6d. 
 Intended to serve as an introduction to the larger treatise on Plane 
 Trigonometry, published by the author. The same plan has been adopted 
 as in the Algebra for Beginners : the subject is discussed in short chapters^ 
 and a collection of examples is attached to each chapter. The first fourteen 
 chapters present the geometrical part of Plane Trigonometry ; and contain 
 all that is necessary for practical purposes. The range of matter included 
 is such as seems required by the various examinations in elementary Tri- 
 gonometry which are now carried on in this country. Answers are 
 appended. 
 
 MECHANICS FOR BEGINNERS. With numerous Examples. 
 New Edition. i8mo. cloth, a^s. 6d. 
 Intended as a companion to the two preceding books. The work forms an 
 elementary treatise on demonstrative mechanics. A knowledge of the elements 
 at least of the theory of the subject is extremely valuable even for those who 
 are mainly concerned with practical results. The author has accordingly 
 endeavoured to provide a suitable introduction to the study of applied as 
 well as of theoretical mechanics. The work consists of tuio parts, namely. 
 Statics and Dynamics. It will be found to contain all that is usually 
 comprised in elementary treatises on Mechanics, together with some additions. 
 
MA THE MA TICS. 3 9 
 
 Todhunter (I.) — co7itinued. 
 
 ALGEBRA. For the Use of Colleges and Schools. Fifth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. cloth. *]s. 6d. 
 
 This work contains all the propositions which are usvully included in 
 elementary treatises on Algebra, and a large number of Examples for 
 Exercise. The author has sought to render the work easily intelligible to 
 students, without impairing the accuracy of the demonstrations, or con- 
 trading the limits of the subject. The Examples, about Sixteen hundred 
 and fifty in number, have been selected with a viezv to illustrate every part 
 of the subject. Each chapter is complete in itself ; and the work will be 
 found peculiarly adapted to the wants of students who are without the aid 
 of a teacher. The Answers to the Examples^ with hints for the solution of 
 some in which assistance may be needed, are given at the end of the book. 
 In the present edition two New Chapters and Three hundred miscellaneous 
 Examples ha;ve been added. The latter are arranged in sets, each set 
 containing ten Examples. ^^ It has merits which unquestionably place 
 it first in the class to which it belongs.''^ — EDUCATOR. 
 
 KEY TO ALGEBRA FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES AND 
 SCHOOLS. Crown 8vo. \os. 6d. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE THEORY OF 
 EQUATIONS. Second Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 
 7^. 6d. 
 This treatise contains all the propositions which are usually included 
 in elementary treatises on the theory of Equations, together with Examples 
 for exercise. These have been selected from, the College and University 
 Examination Papers, and the results have been given when it appeared 
 necessary. In order to exhibit a comprehensive view of the subject, the 
 treatise includes investigations which are not found in all the preceding 
 elementary treatises, and also some investigations which are not to be found 
 in any of them. For the Second Edition the work has been revised and 
 some additions have been made, the most important being an account of 
 the researches of Professor Sylvester respecting Newton! s Rule. ** A 
 thoroughly trustworthy, complete, and yet not too elaborate treatise^* 
 Philosophical Magazine. 
 
 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. For Schools and Colleges. Fourth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5^. 
 The design of this work has been to render the subject intelligible to 
 beginners, and at the same ti7fie to afford the student the opportunity of 
 
40 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Todhunter (I.) — continued. 
 
 obtaining all the information which he will require on this bra7ich of 
 Mathematics. Each chapter is followed by a set of Exat?iples : those 
 which are entitled Miscellaneous Examples, together with a few in some 
 of the other sets, may be advantageously reserved by the student for exercise 
 after he has made some progress in the subject. In the Second Edition 
 the hi7its for the solution oj the Examples have been considerably increased. 
 
 A TREATISE ON SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. New 
 
 Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth. 4J-. dd. 
 
 The present work is constructed on the satne plan as the treatise on 
 Plane Trigonometry^ to which it is intended as a sequel, hi the account 
 of Napier's Rules of Circular Parts, an explanation has been given of a 
 method of proof devised by Napier, which seems to have been overlooked 
 by most modern writers on the subject. Considerable labour has been 
 bestowed on the text in order to render it comprehensive and accurate, and 
 the Examples {selected chiefly from College Examination Papers) have 
 all been carefully verified. ^^ For educational purposes this work seems 
 to be superior to any others on the subject.'''' — Critic. 
 
 PLANE CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY, as applied to the Straight 
 Line and the Conic Sections. With numerous Examples. Fourth 
 Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth, 'js. 6d. 
 
 The author has here endeavoured to exhibit the subject in a simple 
 manner for the benefit of beginners, and at the same time to include in one 
 volume all that students usually require. In addition, therefore, to the 
 propositions which have always appeared in such treatises, he has intro- 
 duced the methods of abridged notation, which are of more recait origin ; 
 these methods, which are of a less elementary character than the rest of the 
 work, are placed in separate chapters, and may be omitted by the student 
 at first. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. With 
 numerous Examples. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 The author has endeavoured in the present work to exhibit a compre- 
 hensive view of the Differential Calculus on the method of limits. In the 
 more elementary portions he has entered into considerable detail in the 
 explanations, with the hope that a reader who is without the assistance of a 
 tutor may be enabled to acquire a competent acquaintance with the subject. 
 The method adopted is that of Differential Coefficients. To the different 
 
MATHEMATICS. 41 
 
 Todhunter (I.) — continued. 
 
 chapters are appended examples sufficiently numerous to render another 
 book unnecessary ; these exam.ples being mostly selected from College Ex- 
 amination Papers. " It has already taken its place as the text-book 
 on that subject'^ — PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND ITS 
 APPLICATIONS. With numerous Examples. Third Edition, 
 revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth. loj. dd. 
 This is designed as a work at once elementary and complete^ adapted 
 for the use of beginners^ and sufficient for the wants of advanced students. 
 In the selection of the propositions, and in the mode of establishing them^ 
 it has been sought to exhibit the principles clearly, and to illustrate 
 all their most important results. The process of summation has been 
 repeatedly brought forward, with the view of securing the attention of 
 the student to the notions which form the true foundation of the Calculus 
 itself, as zvell as of its most valuable applications. Every atte?npt has been 
 made to explain those difficulties which usually perplex beginners, especially 
 with reference to the limits of integrations. A new method has been adopted 
 in regard to the transformation of multiple integrals. The last chapter 
 deals zvith the Calculus of Variations. A large collection of exercises^ 
 selected from College Examination Papers j has been appended to the several 
 chapters. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THREE 
 DIMENSIONS. Third Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 
 
 A TREATISE ON ANALYTICAL STATICS. With numerous 
 Examples. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown Svo. 
 cloth. \os. 6d. 
 In this work on statics [treating of the laws of the equilibrium of bodies^ 
 will be found all the propositions which usually appear in treatises on 
 Theoretical Statics. To the different chapters examples are appended, 
 which have been principally selected from University Examination Papers. 
 In the Third Edition many additions have been made, in order to illus- 
 trate the application of the principles of the subject to the solution of 
 problems, 
 
 A HISTORY OF THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF 
 PROBABILITY, from the time of Pascal to that of Laplace. 
 Svo. 8 J-. 
 
42 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Todhunter (I.) — contirmed. 
 
 The subject of this volutne Jias high claims to consideration on account of 
 the subtle p'oblems which it involves, the valuable contributions to analysis 
 which it has produced, its important practical applications, and the emi- 
 nence of those who have cidivvated it. The subject claims all the interest 
 which illustrious na?nes can confer : nearly every great mathematician 
 ivithin the range of a century and a half comes up in the course of the 
 history. The present work, though principally a history, may claim the 
 title of a comprehensive treatise on the Theory of Probability, for it assumes 
 in the reader only so much knowledge as can be gained from an elementary 
 book on Algebra, and introduces him to almost evay process and every 
 species of problem, which the literature of the subject can furnish. The 
 author has been careful to reproduce the essential elements of the original 
 zuorks which he has analysed, and to corroborate his statejnents by exact 
 quotations from the originals, in the languages in which they were 
 published. 
 
 RESEARCHES IN THE CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS, 
 principally on the Theory of Discontinuous Solutions : an Essay 
 to which the Adams Prize was awarded in the University of Cam- 
 bridge in 187 1. 8vo. 6j. 
 The subject of this Essay was prescribed in the following terms by the 
 Examiners: — "^ determination of the circumstances under which dis- 
 continuity of any kind presents itself in the solution of a problem of 
 muximum or minimum in the Calculus of Variations, and applications to 
 particular instances. It is expected that the discussion of the instances 
 should be exemplified as far as possible geometrically, and that attention be 
 especially airected to cases of real or supposed failure of the Calculus. ^^ The 
 Essay, then, is mainly devoted to the consideration of discontinuous solutions ; 
 but incidentally various other questions in the Calctilus of Variations are 
 examined and elucidated. The author hopes that he has definitely contri- 
 buted to the 'extension and improvement of our knowledge of this refined 
 department of analysis. 
 
 Wilson (J. M.) — ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY. Books 
 I. II. HI. containing the subjects of Euclid's first Four Books 
 following the Syllabus of Geometry prepared by the Geometrical 
 Association. Third Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. 3J. dd. By J. M. 
 Wilson, M.A., late Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, 
 and Mathematical Master of Rugby School. 
 
MATHEMATICS. 43 
 
 Wilson (J. M.) — continued. 
 
 SOLID GEOMETRY AND CONIC SECTIONS. With Appen- 
 dices on Transversals and Haraionic Division. For the use of 
 Schools. By J. M. Wilson, M.A. Second Edition. Extra fcap. 
 8vo. 3J. dd. 
 
 This work is an endeavour to introduce into schools some portions of 
 Solid Geometry which are now very little read in England. The first 
 twenty-one Propositions of Euclid'' s Eleventh Book are usually all the 
 Solid Geometry that a boy reads till he meets with the subject again in the 
 cmirse of his analytical studies. And this is a matter of regret, because 
 this part of Geometry is specially valuable and attractive. In it the atten- 
 tion of the student is strongly called to the subject matter of the reasoning ; 
 the geometrical imagination is exercised ; the methods employed in it 
 are more ingenious than those in Plane Geometry, and have greater diffi- 
 culties to meet ; and the applications of it in practice are more varied. 
 
 Wilson (W. P.) — A TREATISE ON DYNAMICS. By 
 
 W. P. Wilson, M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 and Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast. 8vo. 
 9J. dd. 
 
 ^'■This treatise supplies a great educational need.''^ — Educational 
 Times. 
 
 Wolstenholme. — A BOOK OF MATHEMATICAL 
 PROBLEMS, on Subjects included in the Cambridge Course. 
 By Joseph Wolstenholme, Fellow of Chnst's College, some- 
 time Fellow of St. John's College, and lately Lecturer in Mathe- 
 matics at Christ's College. Crown 8vo. cloth. 8^. dd. 
 
 Contents: — Geometry {Euclid) — Algebra — Plane Trigonometry — 
 Geometrical Come Sections — Analytical Conic Sections — Theory of Equa- 
 tio7ts — Differential Calculus — Integral Calculus — Solid Geometry — Statics 
 — Elementary Dynamics — Newton — Dynam-ics of a Point — Dynamics of 
 a Rigid Body — Hydrostatics — Geometrical Optics — Spherical Trigonometry 
 and Plane Astronomy. ^''Judicious, symmetrical, and well arranged." — 
 Guardian. 
 
44 EDUCAI'IONAL BOOKS. 
 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 ELEMENTARY CLASS-BOOKS. 
 
 The importance of Science as an element of sound educa- 
 tion is now generally acknowledged \ and accordingly it 
 is obtaining a prominent place in the ordinary course of 
 school instruction. It is the intention of the Publishers to 
 produce a complete series of Scientific Manuals, affording 
 full and accurate elementary information, conveyed in clear 
 and lucid EngUsh. The authors are well known as among 
 the foremost men of their several departments ; and their 
 names form a ready guarantee for the high character of the 
 books. Subjoined is a list of those Manuals that have 
 already appeared, with a short account of each. Others 
 are in active preparation ; and die whole will constitute a 
 standard series specially adapted to the requirements of be- 
 ginners, whether for private study or for school instruction. 
 
 ASTRONOMY, by the Astronomer Royal. 
 
 POPULAR ASTRONOMY. With Illustrations. By Sir G. B. 
 
 Airy, K.C.B,, Astronomer Royal. New Edition. i8mo, 
 
 cloth. 4_f. dd. 
 This work consists of six lectures^ which are intended " to explain to 
 intelligent persons the principles on which the instruments of an Observa- 
 tory are constructed (omitting all details^ so far as they are merely sub- 
 sidiary)^ and the principles on which the observations made with these 
 instruments are treated for deduction oj the distances and weights of the 
 bodies of the Solar System, and of a few stars, omitting all minutiii of 
 
SCIENCE, 45 
 
 Elementary Class- Books — continued. 
 
 formula, and all troublesome details of calculation.''^ The speciality of this 
 volume is the direct reference of every step to the Observatory, and the full 
 description of the methods and instruments of observation. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 MR. LOCKYER'S ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ASTRO- 
 NOMY. With Coloured Diagram of the Spectra of the Sun, 
 Stars, and Nebulae, and numerous Illustrations. By J. NoRMAN 
 LOCKYER, F.R.S. New Edition. i8mo. ^s. dd. 
 
 The author has here aimed to give a connected view of the whole subject, 
 and to supply facts, and ideas founded on the facts, to serve as a basis for 
 subsequent study and discussion. The chapters treat 0/ the Sia/s and 
 Nebuhe ; the Sun; the Solar System ; Apparent Movements of the Heavenly 
 Bodies ; the Measurement of Time; Light ; the Telescope and Spectroscope ; 
 Apparent Places of the Heavenly Bodies ; the Real Distances and Ditneti- 
 sions; Universal Gravitation. The most recent astronomical discoveries 
 are incorporated. Mr. Lockyer's work supplements that of the Astronomer 
 Royal mentioned in the previous article. " The book is full, clear, sound, 
 and worthy of attention, not only as a popular exposition, but as a scientific 
 * Index.' " — Athen^UM. *' The most fascinating of elementary books 
 on the Sciences."" — Nonconformist. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LOCKYER'S ELEMENTARY LESSONS 
 IN ASTRONOMY. For the Use of Schools. By John Forbes- 
 Robertson. i8mo. cloth limp. is. 6d. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 PROFESSOR HUXLEY'S LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY 
 PHYSIOLOGY. With numerous Illustrations. By T. H. 
 HuxT,EY, F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal School 
 of Mines. New Edition. i8mo. cloth. 4^-. 6d. 
 
 This book describes and explains, in a series of graduated lessons, the 
 principles of Human Physiology ; or the Structure and Functions of the 
 Human Body. The first lessoft supplies a general view of the subject. 
 This is followed by sections on the Vascular or Venous System, and the 
 Circulation ; the Blood and the Lymph ; Respiration ; Sources of I oss 
 and of Gain to the Blood ; the Function of Alimentation ; Motion and 
 Locomotion ; Sensat ons and Sensory Organs; the Organ of Sight ; the 
 
46 ED UCA TIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Elementary Class- Books — continued. 
 
 Coalescence of Sensations with one another and with other States of Con- 
 sciousness ; the Nervous System and Innervation; Histology ^ or the 
 Minute Structure of the Tissues. A Table of Anatomical and Physio- 
 logical Constants is appended. The lessons are fully illustrated by 
 numerous engravings. The new edition has been thoroughly revised^ and 
 a considerable number of nrdo illustrations added, several of these having 
 been taken fro?n the rabbit, the sheep, the dog, and the frog, in order to aid 
 those who attempt to make their knowledge real by acquiring some practical 
 acquaintance with the facts of Anatomy and Physiology. ** Pure gold 
 throughout.'''' — GUARDIAN. ** Unquestionably the clearest and most 
 complete elementary treatise on this subject that we possess in any lan- 
 guage.'' — Westminster Review. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON HUXLEY'S PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. 
 By T. Alcock, M.D. i8mo. \s. 6d. 
 
 These Questions were drazvn up as aids to the instruction of a class of 
 young people in Physiology. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 PROF'ESSOR OLIVER'S LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY 
 BOTANY. With nearly Two Hundred Illustrations. New 
 Edition. i8mo. cloth. 4^. dd. 
 
 This book is designed to teach the Elements of Botany on Professor 
 Henslow' s plaft of selected Types and by the use of Schedules. The earlier 
 chapters, embracing the ele?nents of Structural and Physiological Botany, 
 introduce us to the methodical study of the Ordinal Types. The con- 
 cluding chapters are entitled, ^* How to dry Plants^' and ^'^ How to 
 describe Plants." A valuable Glossary is appended to the volume. In 
 the preparation of this work free use has been made of the manuscript 
 materials of the late Professor Henslow. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 PROFESSOR ROSCOE'S LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY 
 CHEMISTRY, INORGANIC AND ORGANIC. By Henry 
 E. RoscoE, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, 
 Manchester. With numerous Illustrations and Chromo-Litho of 
 ' the Solar Spectrum, and of the Alkalies and Alkaline Earths, 
 New Edition. i8mo. cloth. A^s.^d. 
 
SCIENCE. 47 
 
 Elementary Class- Books — continued. 
 
 It has been the endeavour of the author to arrange the most important 
 facts and principles of Modern Chemistry in a plain but concise and 
 scientific form, suited to the present requirem.ents of elementary instrtcction. 
 For the purpose of facilitating t]ie attainment of exactitude in the knozvledge 
 of the subject, a series of exercises and questions upon the lessons have been 
 added. The metric system of weights and measures, and the centigrade 
 thermometric scale, are used throughout the work. The New Edition, 
 besides new wood-cuts, contains many additions and improvements, and 
 includes the most important of the latest discoveries. ** As a standard 
 general text-book it deserves to take a leading place.''— SiVY.CTA.tok. *' We 
 unhesitatingly pronounce it the best of all our elementary treatises on 
 Chemistry.''' — Medical Times. 
 
 In ordering, please specify Macmillan' s Edition. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY FOR BEGINNERS. By Millicent 
 
 G. Fawcett. New Edition. i8mo. 2j-, dd. 
 This work has been written mainly with the hope that a short and 
 elementary book might help to make Political Economy a more popular 
 study in boys' and girls' schools. In order to adapt the book especially for 
 school use, questions have been added at the end of each chapter. In the 
 New Edition each page has been carefully revised, and at the end of each 
 chapter after the questions a few little puzzles have been added, which wil^ 
 add interest to the book and teach the learner to think for himself. * ' Clear, 
 compact, and comprehensive.'^ — Daily News. " The relations of capital 
 and labour have never been more simply or more clearly expounded. " — 
 Contemporary Review. 
 
 LOGIC. 
 
 ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN LOGIC ; Deductive and Indue- 
 tive, with copious Questions and Examples, and a Vocabulary of 
 Logical Terms. By W. Stanley Jevons, M. A., Professor of Logic 
 in Owens College, Manchester. New Edition. i8mo. 3^. dd. 
 
 In preparing these Lessons the author has attempted to show that Logic, 
 even in its traditional form, can be made a highly useful subject of study, 
 and a powerful means of mental exercise. With this view he has avoided 
 the use of superfluous technical terms, and has abstained f'om etitering 
 into questions of a purely speculative or metaphysical character. For the 
 puerile illustrations too often found in works on Logic, examples drawn 
 
 } 
 
48 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Elementary Class-Books — conti?iued. 
 
 from the distinct objects and ideas treated in the natural and experimental 
 sciences have been generally substituted. At the end oj almost every 
 Lesson -will be found references to the works in which the student will most 
 profitably continue his reading of the subject treated, so that this little 
 volume may serve as a guide to a more extended course of study. The 
 Guardian thinks '■^ nothing can be better for a school-book,'^ and the 
 AtheN/EUM calls it "a mamial alike simple, interesting, and scientific. '^ 
 
 PHYSICS. 
 
 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By Balfour 
 
 Stewart, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Owens 
 
 College, Manchester. With numerous Illustrations and Chromo- 
 
 liths of the Spectra of the Sun, Stars, and Nebulae. New Edition. 
 
 i8mo. 4-?. dd. 
 
 A description, in an elementary manner, of the most important of those 
 
 laws which regulate the phenomena of nature. The active agents, heat, 
 
 light, electricity, etc. , are regarded as varieties of energy, and the work is 
 
 so arranged that their relation to one another, looked at in this light, and 
 
 the paramount itnportance oj the laws of energy, are clearly brought cut. 
 
 The volume contains all the necessary illustrations, and a plate represent' 
 
 ing the Spectra of Sun, Stars, and Nebulce, forms a frontispiece. The 
 
 Educational Times calls this " the beau ideal of a scientific text-book, 
 
 dear, accurate, and thorough.'''' 
 
 PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 THE OWENS COLLEGE JUNIOR COURSE OF PRAC- 
 TICAL CHEMISTRY. By Francis Jones, Chemical Master 
 in the Grammar School, Manchester. With Preface by Professor 
 ROSCOE. With Illustrations. New Edition. i8mo. 2s. 6d. 
 This little book contains a short description of a course of Practical 
 Chemistry, which an experience of many years has proved suitable for 
 those commencing the study of the science. It is intended to supplement, 
 not to supplant, instr^tction given by the teacher. The subject-matter has 
 been very careftdly compiled, and many useful cuts are introduced. 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY ANATOMY. By St. George 
 Mivart, F.R.S., Lecturer in Comparative Anatomy at St. Mary's 
 Hospital. W'ith upwards of 400 Ilkistrations. l8mo. 6j. dd. 
 
SCIENCE, 49 
 
 These Lessons are intended for teachers and students of both sexes not 
 already acquainted with Anatomy. The author has endeavoured, by 
 certain additions and by the mode of treatment, also to fit them for students 
 in medicine, and generally for those acquainted with human anatoj?iy, but 
 desirous of learning its more significant relations to the structure of other 
 animals. The Lancet says, ^^ It may be questioned whether any other 
 work on Anatomy contains in like compass so proportionately great a mass 
 of information^" 77/i? MEDICAL Times remarks, " The tvork is excellent ^ 
 and should be in the hands of every student of human anatomy.'''' 
 
 MANUALS FOR STUDENTS. 
 
 Flower (W. H.)— an introduction to the oste- 
 ology OF THE MAMMALIA. Being the substance of 
 the Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons 
 of England in 1870. By W. H. Flower, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., 
 Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Globe 8vo. Is. 6d. 
 
 Although the present work contains the substance of a Course of Lectures^ 
 the form has been changed, so as the better to adapt it as a handbook for 
 students. Theoretical views have been almost entirely excluded : and while 
 it ts impossible in a scientific treatise to avoid the employment of technical 
 termsy it has been the author^ s endeavour to use no more than absolutely 
 necessary, and to exercise due care in selecting only those that seem most 
 appropriate, or which have received the sanction of general adoption. With 
 a very few exceptions the illustrations have bee?i drawn expressly for this 
 work from specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 
 Hooker (Dr.)— the STUDENT'S FLORA OF THE 
 
 BRITISH ISLANDS. By J. D. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S., 
 
 M.D., D.C.L., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Globe 
 
 Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 The object of this work is to supply students and field-botanists with a- 
 
 fuller account of the Plants of the British Islands than the manuals 
 
 hither'to in use aim at giving. The Ordinal, Generic, and Specific 
 
 characters have been re-written, and are to a great extent original, and 
 
 drawn from living or dried specimens, or both. *' Cannot fail to peifectly 
 
 fulfil the purpose for which it is intended." — Land and Water.. 
 
 *' Containing the fullest and most accurate manual of the kind that has yet 
 
 appeared." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 D 
 
so EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Oliver (Professor).— FIRST BOOK OF INDIAN BOTANY. 
 
 By Daniel Oliver, F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the Herbarium 
 and Library of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and Professor of Botany 
 in University College, London. With numerous Illustrations. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. 6j. dd. 
 
 This manual is^ in stihstance, the author's "Lessons in Elementary 
 Botany," adapted for use in India. In preparing it he has had iji vieiv 
 the zvant, often felt, of some handy XQiumi of Indian Botany, which might 
 be serviceable not only to residents of India, but also to any one about to 
 proceed thither, desirous of getting some preliminary idea of the Botany of 
 that country. ** It contains a well-digested summary of all essmtial know- 
 ledge pertaining to Indian botany, wrought out in accordaiue with the best 
 principles of scientific arrangement.'^ — Allen's Indian Mail. 
 
 Other volumes of these Manuals will follow. 
 
 Ball (R. S., A.M.)— EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS. 
 A Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Science 
 for Ireland. By Robert Stawell Ball, A.M., Professor of 
 Applied Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of 
 Science for Ireland (Science and Art Department). Royal 8vo. 
 1 6 J. 
 
 The author's aim has been to create in the mind of the student physical 
 ideas corresponding to theoretical laws, and thus to produce a work which 
 may be regarded either as a supplement or an introduction to manuals oj 
 theoretic mechanics. To realize this design, the copious use of experimental 
 illustrations was necessary. The apparatus used in the Lectures, and 
 figured in the volume, has been principally built up from Professor Willis's 
 most admirable system. In the selection of the subjects, the question op 
 practical utility has in many cases been regarded as the otie of paramount 
 importance. The elementajy truths of Mechanics are too well knaivn to 
 admit of novelty, but it is believed that the mode of treatment which is 
 adopted is more or less original. This is especially the case in the Lectures 
 relatittg to friction, to the mechanical pozvers, to the strength of timber and 
 structures, to the laws of motion, and to the penduhim. The illustrations, 
 drawn from the apparatus, are nearly all original, and are beautifully 
 executed. 
 
SCIENCE. 51 
 
 Clodd.— THE CHILDHOOD OF THE WORLD : a Simple 
 Account of Man in Early Times. By Edward Clodd, F.R. A.S. 
 Second Edition. Globe 8vo. 3^. 
 
 Professor Max Muller, i7i a letter to the Author, says: ^^ I read 
 your hook with great pleasure. I have no doubt it will do good, and I 
 hope you will continue your work. Nothing spoils our temper so much as 
 having to tmlearn in youth, juanhood, and even old age, so many things 
 which we wei'e taught as children. A book like yotirs zaill prepare a far 
 better soil in the child'' s mind, and I was delighted to have it to read io 
 my childj'en.'''' 
 
 Cooke (Josiah P., Jun.)— FIRST PRINCIPLES OF 
 CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY. By Josiah F. Cooke, Jun., 
 Ervine Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Har\'ard College. 
 Crown 8vo. \2s. 
 
 The object of the author in this book is to present the philosophy of 
 Chemistry in such a form that it can be made with profit the subject of 
 College recitations, and furnish the teacher with the means of testing the 
 students faithfulness and ability. With this view the subject has been 
 developed in a logical order, and the principles of the science are taught 
 independently of the experimental evidence on which they rest. 
 
 Guillemin.— THE FORCES OF NATURE: a Popular Intro- 
 duction to the study of Physical Phenomena. By Amedee Guille- 
 min. Translated from the French by Mrs. Norman Lockyek, 
 and Edited, with Additions and Notes, by J. Norman Lockyer, 
 F.R. S. With II Coloured Plates and 455 W^oodcuts. Second 
 Edition. Royal 8vo. cloth, gilt. 31J. 6d. 
 
 '• Translator and Editor have done justice to their tmst. The text has 
 all the force and flow of original writing, combining faithfulness to the 
 author's meaning with pwity and independence in regard to idiom ; zvhile 
 the histoHcal precision and accuracy pervading the zvoi'k throughout, speak 
 of the watchful editor ud supervision which has been given to every scientific 
 detail. . . . Altogether, the work may be said to have no parallel, either in 
 point of fulness or attraction, as a popular manual of physical science.''^ — 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 D 2 
 
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Lockyer. — THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICA- 
 TIONS. By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. With Coloured 
 Plate and numerous illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 
 
 This forms vohitne one of "Nature Series" a Series of Popular 
 Scientific Works now in course of publicatioti, consisting of popular and 
 instructive works, on particular scientific subjects — Scientific Discovery ^ 
 Applications, History, Biography — by some of the most eminent scientific 
 men of the day. They will be so written as to be interesting and intelli- 
 gible even to non-scientific readers. Air. Lockyer s work in Spectrum 
 Analysis is widely known. In the present short treatise will be found an 
 exposition of the principles on which Spectrum Analysis rests, a description 
 of the various kinds of Spectroscopes, and an accouiit of what has already. 
 been done with the instrument, as well as of what may yet be dojie both in 
 science and iti the industrial arts. 
 
 Roscoe (H. E.)— SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. Six Lectures, 
 with Appendices, Engravings, Maps, and Chromolithographs. 
 By H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens 
 College, Manchester. Third Edition, revised throughout. Royal 
 8vo. 2lS, 
 '^ In six lectures he has given the history of the discovery and set forth 
 the facts relatiitg to the analysis of light in such a way that any reader of 
 ordinary intelligence and information will be able to understand what 
 ' Spectrum Analysis' is, and what are its claims to rank among the most 
 signal triumphs of science of which even this century can boast.^' — NON- 
 CONFORMIST. " The illustrations— no unimportant part of a book on 
 such a subject— are marvels of zvood-printing, and reflect the clearness 
 zohich is the distinguishing ma-it of Mr. Roscois explanations.^' — 
 Saturday Review. " The lectures themselves furnish a most ad- 
 mirable elementary treatise on the subject, whilst by the insertion in 
 appendices to each lecture of extracts from the most important published 
 memoirs, the author has rendered it equally valuable as a text-book 
 for advanced students."— WESTMINSTER Review. 
 
 Thorpe (T. E.)— a SERIES OF CHEMICAL PROBLEMS, 
 
 for use in Colleges and Schools. Adapted for the preparation of 
 
 Students for the Government, Science, and Society of Arts Ex- 
 
 . aminations. With a Preface by Professor Roscoe. i8mo. 
 
 cloth. IS. 
 
SCIENCE. 53 
 
 In the Preface Dr. Roscoe says — ** My experience has led me to feel more 
 and more strongly that by no method can accuracy in a knowledge of 
 <:hemistry be more surely secured than by attention to the working of well- 
 selected problems, and Dr. Thorpis thorough acquaintance with the wants 
 of the student is a sufficient guarantee that this selection has been carefully 
 made. I intend largely to use these questions in my own classes, and I can 
 •confidently recommend them to all teachers and students of the science." 
 
 Wurtz.— A HISTORY OF CHEMICAL THEORY, from the 
 Age of Lavoisier down to the present time. By Ad. Wurtz. 
 Translated by Henry Watts, F.R.S. Crown 8vo. 6j. 
 
 *' The treatment of the subject is admirable, and the translator has 
 ^evidently done his duty most efficiently." — Westminster Review. 
 ** The discourse, as a resume of chemical theory and research, unites 
 singular luminousness and grasp. A few judicious notes are added by the 
 translator." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
54 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 SCIENCE PRIMERS FOR ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 The necessity of commencing the teaching of Science in Schools at an 
 early stage of the pupil's course has now become generally recog- 
 nized, and is enforced in all Schools under Government inspection. 
 For the purpose of facilitating the introduction of Science 
 Teaching into Elementary Schools, Messrs. Macmillan are now 
 publishing a New Series of Science Primers, under the joint 
 Editorship of Professors Huxley, Roscoe, and Balfour 
 Stewart. The object of these Primers is to convey information 
 in such a manner as to make it both intelligible and interesting to 
 pupils in the most elementary classes. They are clearly printed on 
 good paper, and illustrations are given whenever they are necessary 
 to the proper understanding of the text. The following are just 
 published : — 
 
 PRIMER OF CHEMISTRY. By li. E. Roscoe, Professor ot 
 Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester. i8mo. is. Second 
 Edition. 
 
 PRIMER OF PHYSICS. By Balfour Stewart, Professor of 
 Natural Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester. l8mo. u. 
 Second Edition. 
 
 PRIMER OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By Archibald 
 
 Geikie, F.R.S., Murchison- Professor of Geology and Mineralogy 
 
 at Edinburgh. Second Edition. l8mo. \s. 
 
 Everyone ought to know something about the air we breathe and the 
 
 varth we live tipon, and about the relations bet^veen them; and in this 
 
 little work the author wishes to sho7U what sort of questions may be put 
 
 about some of the chief parts of the book of nature, and especially about t-ivo 
 
 of them— the Air and the Earth. The divisions of the book are as 
 
 follows:— The Shape of the Earth— Day and Night— The Air— The 
 
 Circulation of Water on the Land—The Sea— The Inside of the Earth. 
 
SCIENCE. 55 
 
 In these Manuals the authors have aimed, not so much to give informa- 
 tion, as to endeavour to discipline the mind in a way which has not 
 hitherto been customary, by bringing it into immediate contact with 
 Nature herself. For this purpose a series of simple experiments {to be 
 performed by the teacher^ has been devised, leading up to the chief truths 
 of each Science. Thus the power of observation in the pupils will be 
 awakened and strengthened. Each Mattual is copiously illustrated, and 
 appended are lists of all the necessary apparatus, with prices, and 
 directions as to how they may be obtained. Professor Huxley'' s introduc- 
 tory volu?ne has been delayed through the illness of the author, but it is 
 now expected to appear very shortly. ** They are ivonderfully clear and 
 lucid in their instruction, simple in style, and admirable in plan.'''' — 
 Educational Times. 
 
 In preparation : — 
 INTRODUCTORY. By Professor Huxley. 
 
 PRIMER OF GEOLOGY. By Archibald Geikie, E.R.S. 
 
 \ffust ready, 
 
 PRIMER OF BOTANY. By Dr. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S. 
 PRIMER OF ASTRONOMY. By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. 
 ^c. ^c. 
 
S6 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Abbott.— A SHAKESPEARLAN GRAMMAR. An Attempt to 
 illustrate some of the Differences between Elizabethan and Modem 
 English. By the Rev. E. A. Abbott, M. A., Head Master of the 
 City of London School. For the Use of Schools. New and 
 Enlarged Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6j-. 
 
 The object of this work is to ftcrnish students of Shakespeare and Bacon 
 roith a short systematic account of some points of difference between Eliza- 
 bethan syntax and our own. A section on Prosody is added, and Notes 
 and Questions. The success which has attended the First and Second 
 Editions of the "SHAKESPEARIAN Grammar," «w^ the demand for a 
 Third Edition within a year of the publication of the First^ have encouraged 
 the author to endeavour to make the work somezvhat more useful , and io 
 render it, as far as possible^ a complete book of reference for all difficulties of 
 Shakespearian syntax or prosody. For this purpose the whole of Shake- 
 speare has beett re-read, and an attempt has been made to include within 
 this Edition the explanation of every idiomatic diffi-culty that comes within 
 the province of a gi-ammar as distinct from a glossary. The great object 
 being to make a useful book of reference for students, and especially for 
 classes in schools, several Plays haz>e been indexed so fully that with the aid 
 of a glossary and historical notes the references will serve for a cofnplete com- 
 mentary. ** A critical inquiry, conducted with great skill and kno7vledge, 
 and with all the appliances of modern philology' .... We venture to believe 
 that those who consider themselves most proficient as Shakespearians will 
 find something to learn from its pages.'" — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 " Valuable not only as an aid to the critical study of Shakespeare, but 
 as tending to familiarize the reader with Elizabethan English in 
 generaV^ — ATHENAEUM. 
 
 Berners.— FIRST LESSONS ON HEALTH. By J. Ber- 
 NERS. i8mo. IS. Third Edition. 
 
 This little book consists of the notes of a number of simple lessons on 
 sanitary subjects given to a class in a National School, and listened to 
 
MISCELLANE OUS, 57 
 
 ivith great interest and intelligence. They have been made as easy and 
 familiar as possible, and as far as they go may be deemed perfectly trust- 
 worthy. One of the authoi's main attempts has been, to translate the 
 concise and accurate language of science into the colloquial nursery 
 dialect comprehensible to children. The book will be found of the highest 
 7!alue to all who have the training of children, who, for tvant of knoiving 
 what this little book teaches, too often grozu up to be unhealthy, defective 
 men and women. The Contents are — /. Introductory. II. Fresh Air. 
 III. Food and Drink. IV. Warmth. V. Cleanliness. VI. light, 
 VII Exercise. VIII Rest. 
 
 Besant.— STUDIES IN EARLY FRENCH POETRY. By 
 Walter Besant, M.A. Crown 8vo. Si', dd. 
 
 A sort of impression rests on most minds that French literature begins 
 with the ^^ siecle de Louis Quatorze f any previous literature being for 
 the most part unknown or ignored. Few know anything of the enormous 
 literary activity that began in the thirteenth century, was carried on by 
 Rulebeuf Marie de France, Gaston de Foix, Thibault de Champagne, 
 and Lorris : zuas fostered by Charles of Orleans, by Margaret of Valois, 
 by Francis the First ; that gave a crowd of versifiers to France, enriched, 
 strengthened, developed, and fixed the French language, and prepared the 
 way for Corneille and for Racine. The present woi'k aims to afford 
 information and direction touching these early efforts of France in poetical 
 literature. " In one moderately sized volume he has contrived to introduce 
 us to the very best, if not to all of the early French poets. ^^ — Athen^UM. 
 ^^ Industry, the insight of a scholar, and a genuine enthusiasm for his 
 subject, combine to make it of very considerable value.''^ — SPECTATOR. 
 
 Calderwood.— HANDBOOK OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 By the Rev. Henry Calderwood, LL.D., Professor of Moral 
 Philosophy, University of Edinburgh. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 6j. 
 
 While in this work the interests of University Students have been con- 
 stantly considered, the author has endeavoured to produce a book suitable 
 to those who wish to prosecute privately the study of Ethical questions. 
 The author has aimed to present the chief problems of Ethical Science, to 
 give an outline of discussion under each, and to afford a guide for private 
 study by references to the Literature of the Science. The uniform object 
 has been to give a careful representation of the confiicting theories, supplying 
 the readei' with materials for independent judgjnent. 
 
58 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Cameos from English History.— See Yonge (C. M.) 
 
 Delamotte.— A BEGINNER'S drawing book. By P. H. 
 Delamotte, F.S.A. Progressively arranged, with upwards of 
 Fifty Plates. Crown 8vo. Stiff covers. 2s. (yd. 
 
 This work is intended to give such instruction to Beginners in Drawings 
 and to place before them copies so easy^ that they may not find any obstacle 
 in makijtg the first step. The^tce forward the lessons are gradually 
 progressive. Mechanical ij?iprovements, too, have lent their aid. The whole 
 of the Plates have been engraved by a netu process, by means of which a 
 varying depth of tone — up to the present time the distinguishing character- 
 istic of pencil drawing — has been imparted to woodcuts. " We have seen 
 and examined a great many drawing-books, but the one now before us strikes 
 us as being the best of them all." — Illustrated Times. *M concise, 
 simple, and thoroughly practical work. Tlie letter-press is throughout 
 intelligible and to the point. '^ — Guardian. 
 
 D'Oursy and Feillet. — a FRENCH GRAMMAR AT 
 SIGHT, on an entirely new method. By A. D'Oursy and 
 A. Feillet. Especially adapted for Pupils preparing for Ex- 
 amination. Fcap. 8vo. cloth extra. 2s. 6d. 
 
 The method followed in this volume consists in presenting the grainmar 
 as miich as possible by synoptical tables, which, striking the eye at once, and 
 folloaving throughout the same order — ** used — not used ; " " changes — 
 does not change " — are easily remembered. The parsing tables will enable 
 the pupil to parse easily from the beginning. The exercises consist of 
 translations from French into English, and from English into Fraich ; 
 and of a number of grammatical questions. 
 
 Green.— A HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. By the 
 Rev. J. R. Green, M.A. For the use of Colleges and Schools. 
 Crown 8vo. 8j. dd. 
 
 Hales.— LONGER ENGLISH POEMS, with Notes, Philological 
 and Explanatory, and an Introduction on the Teaching of English. 
 Chiefly for use in Schools. Edited by J. W. Hales, M.A., late 
 Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, 
 Lecturer in English Literature and Classical Composition at King's 
 College School, London, &c. &c. Extra fcap. 8vo. 4J. (>d. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 59 
 
 This work has been in preparation for some years, and part of it has 
 been used as a class-book by the Editor. It is intended as an aid to the 
 Critical study of English Literature, and contains one or more of the 
 larger poems, each complete, of prominent English authors, from Spenser 
 to Shelley, including Burns' ^^ Cotter's Saturday Night""' and ''' Twa 
 Dogs.'' In all cases the original spelling and the text oj the best editions 
 have beett given : only in one or two poems has it been deemed necessary 
 to make slight omissions and changes, " that the reverence due to boys 
 might be well observed." The Introduction consists of Suggestions on 
 Teaching of English. The latter half of the volume is occupied with 
 copious notes, critical, etymological, and explanatory, calculated to give 
 the learner much insight into the structure and connection of the English 
 tongue. An Index to the Notes is appended. 
 
 Helfenstein (James).— a comparative grammar 
 
 OF THE TEUTONIC LANGUAGES. Being at the same 
 time a Historical Grammar of the English Language, and comprising 
 Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Early English, Modern English, Icelandic 
 (Old Norse), Dani.-h, Swedish, Old High German, Middle High 
 German, Modem Germjfn, Old Saxon, Old Frisian, and Dutch. 
 By James Helfenstein, Ph.D. 8vo. i8j. 
 
 This work traces the different stages of developtnent through which 
 the various Teutonic languages have passed, and the laws which have 
 regulated their growth. The reader is thus enabled to study the relation 
 which these languages bear to one another, and to the English language in 
 particular, to which special attention is devoted throughout. In the 
 chapters 071 Ancient and Middle Teutonic Languages 7io grammatical form 
 is omitted the knowledge of which is required for the study of ancient 
 literature, whether Gothic, or Anglo-Saxon, or Early English. To each 
 chapter is prefixed a sketch showing the relation of the Teutonic to the 
 cognate languages, Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit. Those who have mastered 
 the book will be in a positioft to proceed with intelligence to the more 
 elaborate works of Grimm, Bopp, Pott, Schleicher, and others. 
 
 Hole.— A GENEALOGICAL STEMMA OF THE KINGS OF 
 ENGLAND AND FRANCE. By the Rev. C. Hole. On 
 Sheet. IS. 
 
 The diferent families are printed in distinguishing colours, thus 
 acilitating reference. 
 
6o EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Jephson.— SHAKESPEARE'S "TEMPEST." With Glossarial 
 and Explanatory Notes. By the Rev. J. M. Jephson. Second 
 Edition. i8mo. is. 
 
 It is important to find some substitute for classical study ^ and it is 
 believed that suck a substitute may be found in the Plays of Shakespeare. 
 For this purpose the present edition of the ** Tempest" has been prepared. 
 The introduction treats briefly of the value of the study of language, the 
 fable of the play, and other points. The notes are intended to teach the 
 student to analyse every obscure sentence and trace out the logical sequence 
 ofthepoefs thoughts ; to point out the rules of Shakespeare's versification ; 
 to explain obsolete words and meanings ; and to guide the studenfs taste by 
 directing his attention to such passages as seem especially worthy of note for 
 their poetical beauty or truth to nature. The text is in the main founded 
 upon that of the first collected edition of Shakespeari s Plays. 
 
 Kington-Oliphant.— THE SOURCES OF STANDARD 
 ENGLISH. By J. Kington-Oliphant. Globe 8vo. 6^. 
 
 Martin.— THE POET'S HOUR: Poetry Selected and Arranged 
 for Children. By Frances Martin. Second Edition. i8mo. 
 2.S. 6d. 
 
 This volume consists of nearly 200 Poems selected from the best Poets, 
 ancient and modern, and is intended mainly for children between the ages 
 of eight and twelve. 
 
 SPRING-TIME WITH THE POETS. Poetry selected by Frances 
 Martin. Second Edition. i8mo. 3J. 6d. 
 
 This is a selection of poetry intejided mainly for girls and boys between 
 the ages of twelve and seventeen. 
 
 Masson (Gustave). — a FRENCH-ENGLISH AND ENG- 
 LISH-FRENCH DICTIONARY. By Gustave Masson, B.A., 
 Assistant Master in Harrow School. Small 4to. 6s. 
 
 M'Cosh (Rev. Principal). — For other Works by the same 
 Author, see Philosophical Catalogue. 
 
 THE LAWS OF DISCURSIVE THOUGHT. Being a Text-Book 
 of Formal Logic. By James M'Cosh, D.D., LL.D. 8vo. 5^. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS, 61 
 
 In this treatise the Notion {^with the Term and the Relation of Thought 
 to Language, ) will be found to occupy a larger relative place than in any 
 logical work written since the time of the famous " Art of Thinking^ 
 * ' We heartily ivelcome his book as one which is likely to be of great value 
 in Colleges and Schools.'' — AtheN/EUM. 
 
 Morris.— HISTORICAL OUTLINES OF ENGLISH ACCI- 
 DENCE, comprising Chapters on the History and Development 
 of the Language, and on Word-formation. By the Rev. Richard 
 Morris, LL.D., Member of the Comicil of the Philol. Soc, 
 Lecturer on English Language and Literature in King's College 
 School, Editor of " Specimens of Early English," &c. &c. TLird 
 Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6s. 
 Dr. Morris has endeavoured to write a work which can be profitably 
 used by students and by the upper forms in our public schools. English 
 Grammar, he believes, without a reference to the older forms, must appear 
 altogether anomalous, inconsistent, and unintelligible. His almost un- 
 equalled kftowledge of early English Literature renders him peculiarly 
 qualified to write a work of this kind. In the writing of this volume, 
 moreover, he has taken advantage of the researches into our language 
 made by all the most eminent scholars in Ettgland, America, and en the 
 Continent. The author shows the place of English among the languages 
 of the world, expounds clearly and with great minuteness '''■Qrimni's 
 Law,"" gives a brief history of the English language and an account of 
 the various dialects, investigates the history and principles of Phonology, 
 Orthography, Accent, and Etymology, and devotes several chapters to the 
 consideration of the various Farts of Speech, and the final one to Deri- 
 vation and Word-formation. " It makes an era in the study of the 
 English tongue."" — SATURDAY REVIEW. ^^ He has done his work with 
 a fulness and completeness that leave nothing to be desired.'' — NON- 
 CON FORMIST. ' ' A gejiuine and sound book."— Athene um. 
 
 Oppen.— FRENCH READER. For the Use of Colleges and 
 Schools. Containing a graduated Selection from modern Authors 
 in Prose and Verse ; and copious Notes, chiefly Etymological. By 
 Edward A. Oppen. Fcap. 8vo. cloth. 4^. 6d. 
 This is a Selection from the best modern authors of France. Its dis- 
 tinctive feature consists in its etymological notes, connecting French with 
 the classical and modern languages, including the Celtic. This subject 
 has hitherto been little discussed ruen by the best-educated teachers. 
 
62 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Pylodet.— NEW GUIDE TO GERMAN CONVERSATION ; 
 containing an Alphabetical List of nearly 800 Familiar Words 
 similar in Orthography or Sound and the same Meaning in both 
 Languages, followed by Exercises, Vocabulary of Words in 
 frequent use. Familiar Phrases and Dialogues; a Sketch of German 
 Literature, Idiomatic Expressions, &c. ; and a Synopsis of German 
 Grammar. By L. Pylodet. i8mo. cloth limp. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Sonnenschein and Meiklejohn. — THE ENGLISH 
 METHOD OF TEACHING TO READ. By A. Sonnenschein 
 and J. M. D. Meiklejohn, M.A. Fcap. 8vo. 
 
 Comprising : 
 The Nursery Book, containing all the Two-Letter Words in 
 the Language. id. (Also in Large Type on Sheets for 
 School Walls. 5^. ) 
 
 The First Course, consisting of Short Vowels with Single 
 Consonants. 3^. 
 
 The Second Course, with Combinations and Bridges, con- 
 sisting of Short Vowels with Double Consonants. 4^. 
 
 The Third and Fourth Courses, consisting of Long 
 Vowels, and all the Double Vowels in the Language. 6d. 
 
 A Series of Books in which an attempt is made to place the process of 
 learning to read English on a scientifc basis. This has been done by 
 separating the perfectly regular parts of the language fj'om the irregular, 
 and by giving the regular parts to the learner in the exact order of their 
 difficulty. The child begins with the smallest possible elemait, and adds to 
 that element one letter — in only one of its functions — at one time. Thus 
 the sequence is natural and complete. ** These are admirable books, becatise 
 they are co7tstructed on a principle, and that the simplest principle on which 
 it is possible to learn to read English. ^^ — Spectator. 
 
 Taylor.— WORDS and places ; or. Etymological Illus- 
 trations of History, Ethnology, and Geography. By the Rev. 
 Isaac Taylor, "M.A. Third and cheaper Edition, revised and 
 compressed. W-ith Maps. Globe 8vo. 6j. 
 
 In this edition the work has been recast with the intention of fitting il 
 for the us: of students and general readers, rather than, as before, to 
 
MISCELLANE OUS. 63 
 
 appeal to the judgment of phiLlogers. The book has already been adopted 
 by many teachers, and is prescribed as a text-book in the Cambridge Higher 
 Examinations for Women: and it is hoped that the reduced size and price ^ 
 and the other changes nozu introduced, may make it more generally useful 
 than heretofore for Educational purposes. 
 
 Thring. — Works by Edward Thring, M.A., Head Master of 
 Uppingham. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR TAUGHT IN ENGLISH, 
 with Questions. Fourth Edition. i8mo. 2s. 
 This little work is chiefly intended for teachers and learners. It took its 
 rise fro jn questionings in National Schools, and the whole of the first part 
 is merely the writing out in order the answers to questions which have bce^i 
 used already with success. A chapter on Learning Language is especially 
 addressed to teachers. 
 
 THE CHILD'S GRAMMAR. Being the Substance of "The 
 Elements of Grammar taught in English," adapted for the Use of 
 Junior Classes. A New Edition. i8mo. is. 
 
 SCHOOL SONGS. A Collection of Songs for Schools. With the 
 Music arranged for four Voices. Edited by the Rev. E. Thring 
 and H. Riccius. Folio, yi-. 6d. 
 
 There is a tendency in schools to stereotype the forms of life. Any genial 
 solvent is valuable. Games do much ; but games do not penetrate to 
 domestic life, and are much limited by age. Music supplies the want. 
 The collection includes the "Agnus Dei," Tennyson's "Light Brigade,'* 
 Alacaulays " Ivry," &'c. amo7tg other pieces. 
 
 Trench (Archbishop). — HOUSEHOLD BOOK OF ENG- 
 LISH POETRY. Selected and Arranged, with Notes, by 
 R. C. Trench, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. Extra fcap. 8vo. 
 5^. dd. Second Edition. 
 
 This volume is called a " Household Book,'^ by this name implying that 
 it is a book for all — that there is nothing in it to prevent it from being 
 confidently placed in the hands of eveiy Jfiember of the household. Spc:i- 
 mens of all classes of poetry are given, including selections from living 
 authors. The Editor has aimed to produce a book '^ which the emigrant, 
 finding rootn for little not absolutely necessary^ might yet fiiui room for 
 
64 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 Trench (Archbishop). — continued. 
 
 in his trunk, and the traveller in his knapsack, and that on some narroio 
 shelves where there are few books this might be one'* ** The Archbishop 
 has conferred in this delightful volume an important gift on the whole 
 English-speaking population of the worlds — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 ON THE STUDY OF WORDS. Lectures addressed (originally) 
 to the Pupils at the Diocesan Training School, Winchester. 
 Fourteenth Edition, revised. Fcap. 8vo. 4^. dd. 
 
 This, it is believed, was probably the first work which drew general 
 attention in this country to the i??tpo7'tance and interest of the critical and 
 historical study of English. It still retains its place as one of the most 
 successful, if tiot the only, exponent of those aspects of words of which it 
 treats. The subjects of the several Lectures are, (i) Introduction ; (2) 
 On the Poetry of Woi'ds ; (3) On the Morality of Words; {4) On the 
 History of Words ; (5) On the Rise of New Words ; (6) On the Dis- 
 tinction of Words ; (7) The Schoolmaster's Use of Words. 
 
 ENGLISH, PAST AND PRESENT. Eighth Edition, revised 
 and improved. Fcap. 8vo. 4J. (>d. 
 
 This is a series of Eight Lectures, in the first of which Archbishop 
 Treiuh considers the English language as it now is, decomposes some 
 specimens of it, and thus discova-s of what element it is compact. In 
 the second Lecture he considers what the language might have been if the 
 Norman Conquest had never taken place. In the following six Lectures 
 he institutes from various points of view a comparison between the present 
 language and the past, points out gains which it has made, losses which it 
 has endured, and generally calls attention to some of the more important 
 changes through ^vhich it has passed, or is at present passing. 
 
 A SELECT GLOSSARY OF ENGLISH WORDS, used formerly 
 in Senses Different from their Present. Fourth Edition, enlarged. 
 Fcap. 8vo. 4J. 6d. 
 This alphabetically arranged Glossary contains many of the most im- 
 portant of those English words which in the course of time have gradually 
 changed their meanings. The author's object is to point out some of these 
 changes, to suggest hozu many more there may be, to show how slight and 
 subtle, mhile yet most real, these changes have often been, to trace here atid 
 there the progressive steps by ivhich the old meaning has been put off and the 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 65 
 
 not) put on, — the exact road which a word has travelled. The author thus 
 hopes to render some assistance to those who regard this as a serviceable 
 discipline in' the training of their own minds or the minds of others^ 
 Although the book is in the form, of a Glossary, it will be found as interest- 
 ing as a series of brief well-told biographies. 
 
 Vaughan (C. M.)~A SHILLING BOOK OF WORDS 
 FROM THE POETS By C. M. Vaughan. i8mo. cloth. 
 
 // has been felt of late years that the children of our parochial schools, 
 and those classes of our countrymen which they commonly represent, are 
 capable of being interested, and therefore benefited also, by something higher 
 in the scale oj poetical composition than those brief and somezvhat ptia-ile 
 fragments to which their kno%vledge was formerly restricted. An attempt 
 has been made to supply the want by forming a selection at oftce various 
 and unambitious ; healthy in tone, just in sentiment, elroating in thought, 
 and beautiful in expression. 
 
 Whitney. — Works by W. D. Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit, 
 and Instructor in Modern Languages in Yale College. 
 
 A GERMAN READER IN PROSE AND VERSE, with Notes 
 and Vocabulary. Crown 8vo. 7^. ()d. 
 
 A COMPENDIOUS GERMAN GRAMMAR. Crown 8vo. 5s. 
 Yonge (Charlotte M.)— the ABRIDGED BOOK OF 
 
 GOLDEN DEEDS. A Reading Book for Schools and General 
 Readers. By the Author of "The Lleir of Redclyffe." i8mo. 
 cloth. IS. 
 
 A record of some of the good and great deeds of all time, abridged from 
 ihe larger work of the same author in the Golden Treasury Series. 
 
66 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Freeman (Edward A.) — OLD -ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 By Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L., late Fellow of Trinity 
 College, Oxford. With Five Coloured Maps. Second Edition. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. half-bound. 6j. 
 
 The rapid sale of the first edition and the universal approval uiith which 
 it has been received, show that the author'' s convictiotis have been well 
 founded, that his mews have been widely accepted both by teachers and 
 learners, and that the work is eminently calculated to serve the purpose for 
 ■which it was intended. Although full of instruction and calculated highly 
 to interest and even fascinate childreii, it is a work which may be and has 
 been used with profit and pleasure by all. ^'■I have, I hope," the authof 
 says, ^^ shown that it is perfectly easy to teach childr n, from the very 
 firs:, to distinguish true history alike from legend and from wilful inven- 
 tion, and also to understand the nature of historical authorities and to weigh 
 one statement against another. I have throughout striven to connect the 
 history of England with the general history of civilized Europe, and 
 T have especially tried to make the book serve as an incentive to a 
 more accurate study of historical geography.'''' In the present edition the 
 whole has been carefully revised, and S7ich improvements as suggested 
 themselves have been introduced. ' * The book indeed is full of instruction 
 and interest to students of all ages, and he must be a well-inforfned man 
 indeed who will not rise from its perusal with clearer and more accurate 
 ideas of a too much neglected portion of English History. " — Spectator. 
 
 Historical Course for Schools.— Edited by Edward 
 A. Freeman, D. C. L., late Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. 
 
 The object of the present series is to put forth clear and correct views 
 of history in simple language, and in the smallest space and cheapest 
 form in which it could be done. It is meant in the first place for 
 Schools ; but it is often found that a book for schools proves useful 
 
HISTORY. . 67 
 
 for other readers as well, and it is hoped that this may be the case 
 with the little books the first instalment of which is now given to 
 the world. The General Sketch will be followed by a series of 
 special histories of particular countries, which will take for granted 
 lihe main principles laid down in the General Sketch. In every case 
 lt:he results of the latest historical research will be given in as simple 
 ti form as may be, and the several numbers of the series will all be 
 so far under the supervision of the Editor as to secure general ac- 
 curacy of statement and a general harmony of plan and sentiment ; 
 but each book will be the original work of its author, who will 
 be responsible for his own treatment of smaller details. The 
 Editor himself undertakes the histories of Rome and Switzerland, 
 while the others have been put into the hands of various competent 
 and skilful writers. 
 
 The first volume is meant to be introductory to the tvhole cotirse. It 
 is intended to give, as its name itnplies, a general sketch of the history of 
 the civilized world, that is, of Eiirope, and of the lands which have drawn 
 their civilization from Europe. Its object is to trace out the general rela- 
 tions of different periods and different countries to one another, without 
 going minutely into the affairs of any particular country. This is an 
 object of the first importance, for xvithout clear notions of general history, 
 the history of particular countries can never be rightly understood. The 
 narrative extends from the earliest movements of the Aryan peoples, down 
 to the latest events both on the Eastern and Western Continents. The 
 book consists of seventeen moderately sized chapters, each chapter bein^ 
 divided into a number of short numbered paragraphs, each with a title 
 -brefixed clearly indicative of the subject of the paragraph. ^^ It suppUes 
 the great zvant of a good foundation for historical teaching. The scheme 
 is an excellent one, and this instalment has been executed in a tvay that 
 promises much for the volumes that are yet to appear.''^ — Educationai- 
 
 TlMES. 
 
 /. GENERAL SKETCH OF EUROPEAN HISTORY. By 
 Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. Third Edition. i8mo. cloth. 
 3^. (id. 
 
 11. HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By Edith Thompson. i8mo. 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 ** Freedom from prejudice, simplicity of style, and accuracy of statement, 
 ■ are the characteristics of this little volume. It is a trustworthy text-book 
 
 E 2 
 
68 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 and likely to be generally serviceable in schools." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 * ' UpoTi the whole, this manual is the best sketch oj English history for the 
 use of young people we have yet met with^ — AtheN-^kum. 
 
 ///. SCOTLAND. By Margaret Macarthur. 2j. 
 
 IV. ITALY. By the Rev. William Hunt, M.A. y. 
 
 The following will shortly be issued : — 
 
 FRANCE. By the Rev. J. R. Green, M.A. 
 GERMANY. By J. Sime, M.A. 
 
 Yonge (Charlotte M.)— a PARALLEL HISTORY OF 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND : consisting of Outlines and Dates. 
 By Charlotte M. Yonge, Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe," 
 ** Cameos of English History," &c. &c. Oblong 4to. y. 6a. 
 
 Uiis tabular history has been drawn up to supply a want felt by many 
 teachers of some means of making thei"^ pupils realize what events in the 
 two countries were conte^nporary. A skeleton narrative has been con- 
 structed of the chief traitsactiojts in either country, placing a column 
 between for what affected both alike, by which means it is hoped that young 
 people may be assisted in grasping the mutual relation of events. ' * We 
 can imagine feiv more really advantageous courses of historical study for 
 a young mind than going carefully and steadily through Miss Yonge^s 
 excellent little book.''' — Educational Times. 
 
 CAMEOS FROM ENGLISH HISTORY. From Rollo to Edward 
 II. By the Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe. " Extra fcap. 
 8vo. Second Edition, enlarged. 3^. dd. 
 
 The endeavour has not been to chronicle facts, but to put together a series 
 of pictures oJ persotis and events, so as to arrest the attention, and, give 
 some individuality and distinctness to the recollection, by gathering together 
 details at the most memorable moments. The " Cameos " are intended as 
 a book for young people just beyond the elementary histories of England, 
 and able to enter in some degree into the real spirit ^f events, and to be 
 struck with characters and scenes presented in some relief. " Instead oj 
 dry details," says the Nonconformist, "we have living pictures, faith- 
 ful, vivid, and striking." 
 
 A Second Series of CAMEOS FROM ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 The Wars in France. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xi. 415. 5^. 
 
HISTORY. 69 
 
 This nno volume, closing with the Treaty of Arras, is the history of the 
 struggles of Plantagenet and Valois. It refers, accordingly, to one of the 
 most stirring epochs in the mediceval era, including the battle of Poictiers, 
 the great Schism of the West, the Lollards, Agincourt and Joan of Arc, 
 The authoress reminds her readers that she aims merely at ^^ collecting from 
 the best atUhorities such details as may present scenes and personages to the 
 eye in some fulness ;^^ her Cameos are a ^^ collection of historical scenes 
 and portraits such as the young might fijid it difficult to form for themselves 
 without access to a very complete library. ^^ *' Though mainly intended,^' 
 says the John Bull, ^^ for young readers, they will, ifxve mistake not, be 
 found very acceptable to those of more mature years, and the life and 
 reality imparted to the dry bones of history cannot fail to be attractive to 
 readers of every age. " 
 
 EUROPEAN HISTORY. Narrated in a Series of Historical Selec- 
 
 tions from the Best Authorities. Edited and arranged by E. M. 
 
 Sewell and C. M. Yonge. First Series, 1003 — 11 54. Third 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6^. Second Series, 1088 — 1228. Crown 
 
 8vo. 6^. 
 
 When young children have acquired the outlines of History from abridg- 
 
 ments and catechisms, and it becomes desirable to give a more enlarged 
 
 view of the subject, in order to render it really useful and interesting, a 
 
 difficulty often arises as to the choice of books. Two courses are open, either 
 
 to take a general and consequently dry history of facts, such as RusseVs 
 
 Modern Europe, or to choose so?ne luork treating of a particular period or 
 
 subject, such as the works of Macaulay and Froude. The former course 
 
 usually renders history uninteresting ; the latter is unsatis/aciory because 
 
 it is not sufficiently comprehensive. To remedy this difficulty. Selections, 
 
 contimious and chronological, have, in the present volume, been taken from 
 
 the larger works of Freemajt, Milmaii, Palgrave, and others, which may 
 
 serve as distinct landmarks of historical reading. *' We know of scarcely 
 
 anything,^^ says the Guardian of this volume, ^^ which is so likely to rais 
 
 to a higher level the average standard of English educationJ^ 
 
70 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 DIVINITY. 
 
 *^* For other Works by these Authors, see Theological Catalogue. 
 
 Abbott (Rev. E. A.) — Works by the Rev. E. A. Abbott, 
 M.A., Head Master of the City of London School : — 
 
 BIBLE LESSONS. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 4J. 6^'. 
 
 This book is written in the form of dialogues carried en betiueen a 
 teacher and pupil, and its main object is to make the scholar think for 
 himself. The great bulk of the dialogues represents in the spirit, and 
 often in the words, the religious instruction which the author has been 
 in the habit of giving to the Fifth and Sixth Forms of the City of London 
 School. The author has endeavoured to make the dialogues thoroughly 
 unsectarian. ** Wise, suggestive, and really profound initiation into religious 
 thought. ^^ — Guardian. *^ I think nobody could read them without being 
 both the better for thejfi himself, and being also able to see how this difficult 
 duty of imparting a sot-ind religious education may be effected.''^ ^Frorn 
 Bishop of St. David's Speech at the Education Conference 
 AT Abergwilly. 
 
 THE GOOD VOICES ; A Child's Guide to the Bible. Crown 
 8vo. cloth extra, gilt edges. 5^-. 
 Mr. Abbott is alrmdy known as a most successful teacher of religious 
 truth ; it is believed that this little book will shoru that he can make Biblt 
 lessons attractive and edifying even to the youngest child. The book is 
 quite devoid op all conventionality and catechetical teaching, and only en' 
 deavours in simple language and easy style, by means of short stories and 
 illustrations from every quarter likely to interest a child, to imprint the 
 rudi7tiettts of religious knowledge, and inspire young ones with a desire to 
 love and trust God, and to do what is right. The author wishes to imbue 
 them with the feeling that at all times and in all circumstatices, whether in 
 town or country, at work or at play, they are living in the presence of a 
 heavenly Father, who is continually speaking to them with the Good Voices 
 of Nature and Revelation. The volume contains upnvards of 50 woodcuts. 
 
 PARABLES FOR CHILDREN. With Three Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo., gilt edges, y. 6d. 
 
DIVINITY, 71 
 
 ^''Contains a number of really delightfully written and yet shtiple 
 i>arables^ to be read out to little children as an introdtiction to Bible 
 reading. They are certainly admirably adapted for the purpose. The 
 style is colloquial and will be understood and appreciated by the youngest 
 child^ and the parables themselves are very interesting and well chosen.'''' — 
 Standard. 
 
 Arnold.— A BIBLE-READING FOR SCHOOLS. The 
 Great Prophecy of Israel's Restoration (Isaiah, Chapters 
 40 — 66). Arranged and Edited for Young Learners. By Mat- 
 thew Arnold, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Poetry in the 
 University of Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel. Third Edition. i8mo. 
 cloth. IS. 
 '•^ Schools for the people,'''' the power of letters — which embraces nothing 
 less than the whole history of the human spint — has hardly been brought 
 to bear at all. Mr. Ai'uold, in this little volume^ attempts to remedy this 
 defect, by doing for the Bible what has been so abundantly done for Greek 
 and Roman, as well as English authors, viz. — taking " sojue whole, of 
 admirable literaiy beauty in style and treatment, of jnanageable length, 
 within defined limits ; and presenting this to the learner in an intelligible 
 shape, adding such explanations and helps as may enable him to grasp 
 it as a connected and complete wo7'k.^^ Mr. Arnold thinks it clear that 
 nothing could more exactly suit the pU7pose than what the Old Testament 
 gives us in the last twenty-seven chapters of the Book of Isaiah, beginning 
 " Comfort ye,^' ^c. He has endeavoured to present a perfectly correct 
 text, maintaining at the same time the unparalleled balance and rhythm of 
 the Authorised Version. In an Introductory note. Air. Arnold briefly 
 sums up the events of Jeiv'ish history to the starti7ig-point of the chapters 
 chosen ; and, in the copious notes appended, every assistance is given to the 
 complete tmdej'standing of the text. There is nothing in the book to hinder 
 the adherent of any school of interpretation or of religious belief frotn 
 using it, and from putting it into the hands of children. The Preface 
 contains much that is interesting and valuable on the relation of " letters " 
 to education, of the principles that ought to guide the makers of a nnu 
 version of the Bible, and other important matters. Altogether, it is 
 believed the volu?ne will be found to form a text-book of the greatest valut 
 to schools of all classes. ^^ Mr. Arjiold has done the greatest possible service 
 to the public. We never read any translation of Isaiah which interfered 
 so little with the musical rhythm and associations of cur English Bible 
 translation, while doing so much to display the missing links in the co7t- 
 nection of the partsP — Spectator. 
 
72 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 Cheyne (T. K.)— the book of isaiah chrono- 
 
 LOGICALLY ARRANGED. An Amended Version, with 
 
 Historical and Critical Introductions and Explanatoiy Notes. By 
 
 T. K. Cheyne, M.A., Fellow of Ealliol College, Oxford. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 7j. dd. 
 
 The object of this edition is simply to restore the probable meaning of 
 
 Isaiah, so far as this can be expressed in modern English. The basis of 
 
 the version is the revised translation of i6i i, but no scruple has bten fell 
 
 in introducing alterations, wherever the true sense of the prophecies 
 
 appeared to require it. '*A piece of scholarly work, very carefully and 
 
 considerately done.'' — Westminster Review. 
 
 Golden Treasury Psalter.— students' Edition. Being an 
 
 Edition of "The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, by Four 
 
 Friends, " with briefer Notes. i8mo. t,s. 6d. 
 In making this abridgment of"" The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, ' 
 the editors have endeavoured to meet the requirefnents of readers of a 
 different class from those for whom the larger edition was intended. Some 
 who found the large book useful for private reading, have cashed for an 
 edition of a smaller size and at a lower price, for family nst, while at the 
 same time some Teachers in Public Schools have suggested that it woula be 
 convenie7it for them to have a simpler book, which they could put into the 
 hands of younger pupils. *^ It is a getn,'" says the Nonconformist. 
 
 Hardwick.— A HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 Middle Age. From Gregory the Great to the Excommunication 
 
 of Luther. Edited by William Stubbs, M.A., Regius Professor 
 
 of Modern History in the University of Oxford. With Four Maps 
 
 constructed for this work by A. Keith Johnston. Third Edition. 
 
 Crown 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 Although the ground-plan of this treatise coincides in tnany points with 
 
 that of the colossal work of Schrbckh, yet in arranging the materials a 
 
 very different course has f-equently been pursued. With regard to his 
 
 opinions the late author avowed distinctly that he construed history with 
 
 the specific prepossessions of an Englishman and a member of the 
 
 English Church. The reader is constantly 7'eferred to the authorities, 
 
 both original and critical, on which the statements are founded. For this 
 
 idition Professor Stubbs has carejully revised both text and notes, making 
 
 such corrections of facts, dates, and the like as the results of recent 
 
 research warrant. The doctrinal, historical, and generally speculative 
 
 virws of the late author have been preserved intact. '' As a m anual for 
 
DIVINITY, 73 
 
 H ard wick — continued. 
 
 the student of ecclesiastical histojy itt the Middle Ages^ we know no 
 English work which can be compared to Mr. Hardwick^s book,'* — 
 Guardian. 
 
 A HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH DURING THE 
 
 REFORMATION. By Archdeacon Hard wick. Third 
 
 Edition. Edited by Professor Stubbs. Crown 8vo. lo^. 6d. 
 
 This volume is intended as a sequel and companion to the ^^ History op 
 
 the Christian Church during the Middle Age." The author's earnest 
 
 wish has been to give the reader a trustworthy version of those stirring 
 
 incidents zuhich 7nark the Reforination period, withotit reVmquishing his 
 
 former claitn to characterise peculiar systems, persons, and events according 
 
 to the shades and colours they assume, when contemplated from an English 
 
 point of view and by a jnember of the Church of England, 
 
 Maclear.— Works by the Rev. G. F. MACLEAR, D.D., Head 
 Master of King's College School. 
 
 A CLASS-BOOK OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. Seventh 
 Edition, with Four Maps. i8mo. cloth, /[s. 6d. 
 This volume forms a Class-book of Old Testament History from the 
 earliest times to those of Ezra and Nehemiah. In its preparation the 
 most recent authorities have been consulted, and wherever it has appeared 
 useful. Notes have been subjoitied illustrative of the Text, and, for the sake 
 of more advanced students, references added to larger works. The hidex 
 has been so arranged as to form a concise dictionary of the persons and 
 places vte7itioned in the course of the narrative ; while the Maps, which have 
 been prepared with considerable care of Stanford's Geographical Establish- 
 ment, will, it is hoped, materially add to the value and usefulness of the 
 Book. ^' A careful and elaborate though brief coinpendium of all that 
 moda-n research has done for the illustyation of the Old Testafuent. We 
 know of no work which contains so niuch important information in so 
 small a compass.' — British Quarterly Review^. 
 
 A CLASS-BOOK OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY, including 
 
 the Connexion of the Old and New Testament. With Four Maps. 
 
 Fourth Edition. i8mo. cloth. 5^. (>d. 
 
 A sequel to the aicthor's Class-hook of Old Testament History, continuing 
 
 the narrative from the point at which it there ends, and carrying it on to 
 
 the close of St. Paul's second imprisonment at Rome. In its preparation. 
 
74 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Maclear — cojitinued, 
 
 as in that of the former volume, the most recent and trustworthy authorities 
 have been consulted, notes subjoined, and references to larger works added. 
 It is thus hoped that it may prove at once an useful class-book and a 
 convenient companion to the study of the Greek Testament. "A singularly 
 clear and orderly arrangement of the Sacred Story. His work is solidly 
 and completely done. " — Athen^UM. 
 
 A SHILLING BOOK OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY, 
 for National and Elementary Schools. "With Map. l8mo. 
 cloth. New Edition. 
 A SHILLING BOOK OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY, 
 for National and Elementary Schools. With Map. iSmo. 
 cloth. New Edition. 
 These works have been carefully abridged from the author's larger 
 manuals. 
 
 CLASS-BOOK OF THE CATECHISM OF THE CHURCH OF 
 ENGLAND. Second Edition. i8mo. cloth. 2j. dd. 
 This may be regarded as a sequel to the Class-books of Old and New 
 Testament History. Like them, it is furnished with notes and references 
 to larger works, and it is hoped that it may be found, especially in the 
 higher Jorms of our Public Schools, to supply a suitable manual of 
 instruction in the chief doctrines of the English Church, attd a useful 
 help in the preparation of candidates for Confirmation. * ' // is indeed 
 the work of a scholar and divine, and as such, though extremely simple, 
 it is also extremely instructive. There are few clergymen who would not 
 find it useful in preparing candidates for Confirmation ; and there are 
 not a few who would find it useful to themselves as welW — Literary 
 Churchman. 
 
 A FIRST CLASS-BOOK OF THE CATECHISM OF THE 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND, with Scripture Proofs, for Junior 
 Classes and Schools. i8mo. dd. New Edition. 
 THE ORDER OF CONFIRMATION. A Sequel to the Class 
 Book of the Catechism. For the use of Candidates for Confirma- 
 tion. With Prayers and Collects. i8mo. 3^/. New Edition. 
 
 Maurice. — THE LORD'S PRAYER, THE CREED, AND 
 THE COMMANDMENTS. A Manual for Parents and School- 
 masters. To which is added the Order of the Scriptures. By the 
 Rev. F. Denison Maurice, M.A. Professor of Moral Philosophy 
 in the University of Cambridge. i8mo. cloth limp. \s. 
 
DIVINITY. 75 
 
 Procter.— A HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON 
 PRAYER, with a Rationale of its Offices. By Francis Procter, 
 M.A. Tenth Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8yo. 
 lOJ'. 6d. 
 
 In the course of the last txventy years the whole question of Liturgical 
 knowledge has been reopened with great learning and accurate research ; 
 and it is mainly with the view of epito?nizing extensive publications, and 
 correcting the errors and miscoticeptions tvhich had obtaitied currency, 
 that the present volume has been put together. * * We adniire the author'' s 
 diligence, and bear willing testimony to the extent and accuracy of his 
 reading. The origin of evoy part of the Prayer Book has been diligently 
 investigated, and there are few questions of facts connected zvith it which 
 are not either sufficiently explained, or so referred to that persons inta'ested 
 may work out the truth for themselves. ''' — Athen^um. 
 
 Procter and Maclear.— an elementary intro- 
 duction TO the book of common prayer. 
 
 Re-arranged and supplemented by an Explanation of the Morning 
 and Evening Prayer and the Litany. By the Rev. F. Procter 
 and the Rev. G. F. Maclear. Fourth Edition. i8mo. is. 6d. 
 
 As in the other Class-books of the series. Notes have also been subjoined, 
 and references given to larger works, and it is hoped that the volume will 
 be found adapted for use iti the higher forms of our Public Schools, and a 
 suitable manual for those preparing for the Oxford and Cambridge local 
 examinations. This New Edition has been cotisiderably altered, and 
 several important additions have been made. Besides a re-arrangei7ient 
 of- the work generally, the Historical Portion has been supplemented by an 
 Explanation of the Morning and Evening Prayer and of the Litany. 
 
 Psalms of David Chronologically Arranged. By 
 
 Four Friends. An Amended Version, with Historical 
 Introduction and Explanatory Notes. Second and Cheaper 
 Edition, with Additions and Corrections. Crown 8vo. %s. 6d. 
 
 To restore the Psalter as jar as possible to the order in which the Psalms 
 were written, — to give the division oj each Psalm into strophes, of each 
 strophe into the lines which composed it, — to amend the errors of translation, 
 is the object of the present Edition. Professor Ewaldfs works, especially 
 that on the Psalms, have been extensively consulted. This book has been 
 used with satisfaction by masters for private work in higher classes in 
 
76 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 schools. The Spectator 'calls this *^ one of the most instructive and 
 valuable books that has been published for many years.** 
 
 Ramsay.— THE CATECHISER'S MANUAL; or, the Church 
 
 Catechism Illustrated and Explained, for the use of Clergymen, 
 
 Schoolmasters, and Teachers. By the Rev. Arthur Ramsay, 
 
 M.A. Second Edition. i8mo. \s. 6d. 
 
 A clear explanation of the Catechism, by way of Questiofi and Answer. 
 
 ** This is by far the best Manual on the Catechism we have met with.** 
 
 —English Journal of Education. 
 
 Simpson.— AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. By William Simpson, M.A. 
 Fifth Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 3^. 6d. 
 A compendious summary of Church History. 
 
 Swainson.— A HANDBOOK to BUTLER'S ANALOGY. By 
 C. A. S\vainson,D.D., Canon of Chichester. Crown 8vo. is.dd. 
 
 This manual is designed to serve as a handbook or road-book to the 
 Student in reading the A nalogy, to give the Student a sketch or outline map 
 of the coujitry on which he is entering, and to toint out to him matters oj 
 interest as he passes along. 
 
 Trench. — SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. By 
 R. Chevenix Trench, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. New 
 Edition, enlarged. 8vo. cloth. \2.s. 
 
 The study of synonyms in any language is valuable as a discipline 
 for training the mind to close and accurate habits of thought : more 
 especially is this the case in Greek — ** « language spoken by a people of the 
 /inest and subtlest intellect ; who sazu distinctions where others saw none, 
 who divided out to different words what others often were content to huddle 
 confusedly under a common term. This work is recognised as a valuable 
 cotnpanion to every student of the New Testarnent in the original. This, 
 the Seventh Edition, has been carefully revised, and a considerable number 
 of nezv syno7tyms added. Appended is an Index to the Synonytns, and an 
 Index to many other words alluded to or explained throughout the work. 
 **IIeis," the Athen^um says, "a guide in this department of know- 
 ledge to %uhom his readers may intrust themselves with confidence. His 
 sober judgment and sound sense are barriers against the misleading 
 influence op arbitrary hypotheses.** 
 
DIVINITY. 77 
 
 WeStCOtt.— Works by BROOKE FOSS WESTCOTT, B.D., 
 Canon of Peterborough. 
 
 A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
 CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT DURING THE 
 FIRST FOUR CENTURIES. Third Edition, revised. Crown 
 8vo. loj. (id. 
 
 The author has endeavoured to connect the history of the New Testament 
 Canon with the growth and consolidation of the Churchy and to point out 
 the relation existing between the amount of evidence for the authenticity of 
 its component parts, and the whole mass of Christian literattire. Such a 
 method of inquiry will convey both the truest notion of the connection of the 
 written Word with the living Body of Christ, and the surest conviction of 
 its divine authority. Of this work the SATURDAY Review writes : " Theo- 
 logical students, and not they only, but the general public, owe a deep debt 
 of gratitude to Mr. Westcott for bringing this subject fairly before them 
 
 in this candid and comprehensive essay As a theological work it is 
 
 at once perfectly fair and impartial, and imbued with a thoroiighly 
 religious spirit; and as a manual it exhibits, in a lucid form and in a 
 narrow compass, the results of extensive research and accurate thought. 
 We cordially recommend it." 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 The author's chief object in this work is to show that there is a true 
 ■ mean bettveen the idea of a formal harmonization of the Gospels and the 
 
 • abandonment of their absolute truth. The treatise consists of eiqht 
 ^chapters: — /. The Preparation for the Gospel. II. The Jetvish Doctrine 
 
 of the Messiah. III. The Origin of the Gospels. IV. The Charac- 
 
 • teristics of the Gospels. V. The Gospel of St. John. VL &^ VII. The 
 Differences in detail and of arrangement in the Synoptic Evangelists. 
 VIII. The Difficulties of the Gospels. '''■ To a learning and accuracy 
 
 'tvhich commands respect and confidence, he unites what are not always to 
 be found in union with these qualities, the no less valuable faculties of lucid 
 arrangement and graceful and facile expression.''^ — London Quarterly 
 Review. 
 
 A GENERAL TIEW OF TFIE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH 
 BIBLE. Crown 8vo. \os. 6d. Second Edition. 
 
78 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 We St colt — conitmied. 
 
 ** The first trustdoorthy account we have had of that unique and mar- 
 vellous vionument of the piety of our ancestors^ — DAILY News. 
 
 " A brief scholarly, and, to a great extent, an original contribution to 
 theological literature. He is the first to offer any consideiahle contribu- 
 tions to what he calls their internal history, which deals ivith their relation 
 to other texts, with their filiation one on another, and with the p-inciples by 
 which they have been successively modified.'''' — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 THE BIBLE IN THE CHURCH. A Popular Account of the 
 Collection and Reception of the Holy Scriptures in the Cliristian 
 Churches. New Edition. i8mo. cloth. 4^. dd. 
 The present book is an attempt to answer a request, which has been made 
 from time to time, to place in a simple form, for the use of general reader Sy 
 the substance of the author'' s ''' History of the Canon of the New Testament.''* 
 An elaborate and comprehensive Introduction is follorued by chapters on 
 the Bible of the Apostolic Age ; on the Growth of the New Testament ; the 
 Apostolic Fathers ; the Age of the Apologists ; the First Christian Bible; 
 the Bible Proscribed and Restored ; the Age of Jerome and Augustine ; 
 the Bible of the Middle Ages in the West and in the East, and in the 
 Sixteenth Century. Two Appendices on the History of the Old Testament 
 Canon before the Christian Era, and on the Contents of the most ancient 
 MSS. of the Christian Bible, complete the volume. ^^ IVeivould recommend 
 every one ivho loves and studies the Bible to read and ponder this exquisite 
 little booh. Mr. Westcott's account of the * Canon ' is true history in its 
 highest sense.'" — LITERARY Churchman. 
 
 THE GOSPEL OF THE RESURRECTION. Thoughts on its 
 
 Relation to Reason and History. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 
 
 4^. 6d. 
 
 This Essay is an endeavour to consider sofne of the elementary truths 
 
 of Christianity as a miraculous Bevelation, from the side of History and 
 
 Reason. If the arguments which are here adduced are valid, they will go 
 
 far to prove that the Resurrection, with all that it includes, is the key to 
 
 the history of man, and the complement of reason. 
 
 Wilson.— THE BIBLE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the more Correct 
 Understanding of the English translation of the Old Testament, 
 by reference to the Original Hebrew. By William Wilson, 
 D.D., Canon of Winchester, late Fellow of Queen's College, 
 Oxford. Second Edition, carefully Revised. 4to. cloth. 25J. 
 
DIVINITY. 79 
 
 This work is the result of almost incredible labour bestowed on dt during 
 many years. Its object is to enable the readers of the Old Testament 
 Scriptures to penetrate into the real meaning of the sacred writei's. All the 
 English words used in the Authorized Version are alphabetically arranged, 
 and beneath thejfi are given the Hebre^v equivalents, with a careful expla- 
 nation of the peculiar signification and construction of each term. The 
 knowledge the Hebrei.u language is not absolutely necessary to the prof t- 
 able use of the tvork. Devout and accurate students of the Bible, entirely 
 unacqtcainted zvith Hebrew, may derive great advantage from frequent 
 reference to it. It is especially adapted for the use of the clergy. ' ' For all 
 earnest students of the Old Testament Scriptures it is a most valuable 
 Manual. Its arrangement is so simple that those who possess only their 
 mother -tongue, if they> zuill take a little pains, may employ it with great 
 profit.'" — Nonconformist. • 
 
 Yonge (Charlotte M.)— SCRIPTURE READINGS FOR 
 SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. By Charlotte M. Yonge, 
 Author of «'The Heir of Redclyfife." Globe 8vo. \s. ed. 
 With Comments. Second 'Edition, 3J. 6d. 
 
 A Second Series. From Joshua to Solomon. Extra fcap, 
 i^. 6d. With Comments, 3J. 6d. 
 
 Actual need has led the author to endeavour to prepare a reading book con- 
 venient for study with children, containing the very words of the Bible, with 
 only a ferju expedient omissions, and arranged i7t Lessons of such length as by 
 experience she has found to suit zvith children's ordinary power of accurate 
 attentive interest. The verse form has been retained, because of its con- 
 'venience for children reading in class, and as more resembling their Bibles ; 
 but the poetical portions have been given in their lines. When Psalms or 
 portions from the Prophets illustrate or fall in 7vith the narrative they are 
 given in their chronological sequence. The Scripture portion, with a very 
 feiv notes explanatory of 7nere words, is botind tip apart, to be used by 
 -children, while the same is also supplied with a brief comment, the purpose 
 of which is either to assist the teacher irt explaining the lesson, or to be 
 tisedby more advanced young people to whom it may not be possible to give 
 access to the authorities whence it has been taken. Professor Huxley, at a 
 meeting of the London School Board, particularly mentioned the selection 
 made by Miss Yonge as an example of how selections might be made from 
 the Bible for School Reading. iV^fTlMts, March 30, 187 1. 
 
Catalogue of Works on Education, Physical 
 and Mental, General and Special. 
 
 Arnold.— A FRENCH ETON : OR, MIDDLE - CLASS 
 EDUCATION AND THE STATE. Fcap. 8vo. cloth. 2s. 6d. 
 
 This interesting little volume is the result of a visit to France in 1859 
 by Mr. Arnold, authorized by the Royal Cotnmissioners, who were then 
 inquirijig into the state of popular education in England, to seek, in their 
 name, information respecting the French Primary Schools. ^^ A very 
 intei-esting dissertation on the system of secondary instruction in France, 
 and on the advisability of copying the system in England." — Saturday 
 Review. 
 
 HIGHER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES OF GERMANY. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Jex-Blake.— A VISIT TO SOME AMERICAN SCHOOLS 
 AND COLLEGES. By Sophia Jex-Blake. Crown 8vo. 
 cloth. 6s. 
 
 ^' In the following pages I have endeavoured to give a simple and 
 accurate account of what I saw during a series of visits to some of the 
 Schools and Colleges in the United States. . . . I wish simply to give other 
 teachers an opportunity of seeing through my eyes what they cannot 
 perhaps see for themselves, and to this end I have recorded just such parti- 
 culars as I should myself care to know." — Author's Preface. '■''Miss 
 Blake gives a living picture of the Schools and Colleges themselves in which 
 that education is carried on.''— Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 Maclaren.— TRAINING, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 By Archibald Maclaren, the Gymnasium, Oxford. 8vo. 
 Handsomely bound in cloth, 'js. 6d. 
 
 The ordinary agents of health are Exercise, Diet, Sleep, Air, Bathing, 
 and Clothing. In this work the author examines each <^ these agents 
 
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL, ETC. 81 
 
 in detail, and from hvo different points of view. First, as to the manner 
 in which it is, or should be, administered under ordinary circtimstances : 
 and secondly, in ivhat manner and to what extent this mode of adminis- 
 tration is, 07 should' be, altered for purposes of training ; the object oj 
 ^'training," according to the author, being '•'^ to put the body, with extreme 
 and exceptional care, under the influence of all the agents which promote 
 its health and strength, in order to enable it to meet extreme and excep- 
 tional deinands upon its energies.". Appended are vatious diagrams and 
 tables relating to boat-racing, and tables connected with diet and training. 
 '* The philosophy of human health has seldom received so apt an exposi- 
 tion." — Globe, '■^ After all the nonsense that has been written about 
 training, it is a comfort to get hold of a thoroughly sensible book at last. " 
 —John Bull. 
 
 Quain (Richard, F.R.S.) — ON SOME DEFECTS IN 
 GENERAL EDUCATION. By RicHxVRd Quain, F.R.S. 
 Crown 8vo. 3^. dd. 
 
 Hazing been :,^ar?ed by the College of Surgeons with the delivery of the 
 Hunlerian Ornuo?.: M 1869, the author has availed himself of the occa-r 
 sion to bring unacr notice some defects in the general education of the 
 country, which, in his opinion, affect iftjuriously all classes of the people, 
 and not least the members of his oiun profession. The earlier pages of the 
 address contain a short notice of the genius and labours of John Hunter, 
 but the subject of Education will be found to occupy the larger part. "An 
 inter'esting addition to educational lito'ature." — Guardian. 
 
 Selkirk.— GUIDE TO THE CRICKET-GROUND. By G. IL 
 
 Selkirk. With Woodcuts. Extra fcap. Svo. 33-. 6d. 
 
 The introductory chapter of this little work contains a history of the 
 N'ational Game, and is folloxved by a chapter giving Definitions of Terms. 
 Then follow ainple directions to young cricketers as to the proper style in 
 which to play, information being given on roery detail connected with the 
 ^me. The book contaijis a number of zisefid illustrations, including a 
 specimen scoring-sheet. * * We can heartily recommend to all cricketers, cdd 
 end young, this excellent Guide to the Cricket-ground." — Sportinc^ 
 LiFK. F 
 
82 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. 
 
 Thring.—EDUCATION AND SCHOOL. By the Rev. Edward 
 Thrtng, M.A., Head Master- of Uppingham School. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth, ^s. 6d. 
 
 ** An invaluable book on a subject of the highest importance^ — 
 English Independent. 
 
 Todhunter.— THE CONFLICT OF STUDIES, and other 
 Essays on Subjects connected with Education. By Isaac Tod- 
 hunter, M.A. F.R.S., late Fellow and Principal Mathematical 
 Lecturer of St. John's College, Cambridge. 8vo. \os. 6d. 
 
 Contents : — The Conflict of Studies — Competitive Examinations — 
 Private Study of Mathematics — Academical Reform — Elementary Geo- 
 metry — The Mathematical Tripos. 
 
 Vandervell and Witham. — a SYSTEM OF FIGURE- 
 
 SKATING : Being the Theory and Practice of the Art as de- 
 veloped in England, with a Glance at its Origin and History. By 
 H. E. Vandervell and T. M. Witham-, Members of the London 
 Skating Club. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6j. 
 
 *' The authors are evidently well qualified for the task they have under- 
 taken ; and although they have selected a title for their work which might 
 possibly deter a diffident learner from looking into its pages, they have 
 nevei-theless begun at the beginning, and without assuming any kno^vledge 
 on the part of the reader, they have clearly pointed out, by a series of in- 
 structive diagrams, the footprints of the skater, as developed in lines and 
 figures, from the lowest to the highest stage of difficulties." — The Field. 
 ** The volume may be accepted as a manual for the use of all skaters." — 
 Bell's Life. 
 
 Wolseley (Col. Sir Garnet, C.B.) — THE SOLDIER'S 
 
 POCKET BOOK. By Colonel Sir Garnet Wolseley, C.B. 
 New Edition, enlarged. 4J. dd. 
 
 This book is indispensable to ever}' soldier, whether of the Re^ilar Army 
 or of the Volunteers, who seeks to be an intelligent defender of his country. 
 .Full instructions are given on the widest an^. minutest matters, and the 
 
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL, ETC, 83 
 
 book is written in a clear , lively style, that at once arrests attention and 
 tonveys the desired knowledge. The New Edition contains all the most 
 recent Regnlations for the Army and Volunteers ; also, for the first time, 
 the Uses and Management of Railways in the operations of War are fully 
 discussed. The Times says, '''' Everybody feels that it is just what he 
 wanted ;" the Daily Telegraph, " Every soldier who wishes to under- 
 stand his profession ought to have it f and the Volunteer Service 
 (jrAZETTE strongly recommends Volunteers to peruse it diligently. 
 
 YoumanS. — modern culture : its True Aims and Require- 
 ments. A Series of Addresses and Arguments on the Claims of 
 Scientific Education. Edited by Edward L. Youmans, M.D. 
 Crown 8vo. 8^. td. 
 
 Contents. — Professor Tyndall ^* On the Study of Physics ;'' Dr. 
 Dauheny ** On the Study of Chemistry ;" Professor Henfrey *' On the 
 Study of Botany f^ Professor Huxley *' On the Study of Zoology ;" Dr. 
 J. Paget " On the Study of Physiology ;" Dr. Whewell " On the Educa- 
 tional History of Science f^ Dr. Faraday ^^ On the Education of the 
 yudgtfient f^ Dr. Hodgson " On the Study of Economic Science ;" Mr. 
 Herbert Spencer *'• On Political Educatio7t ;^^ Professor Masson '* On 
 College Education and Self Education f Dr. Youmans " On the Scientific 
 Study of Human Nature.''^ An Appendix contains extracts from dis- 
 tinguished authors, and from the Scientific Evidence given before the Public 
 Schools Commission. 
 
 r< CLAV. Kt'NS, AVr> TAYTOk. Pf=:iNTKKS. 
 
u^