UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES
-FROM -THE- LIBRARY- CF
-OTTOBREMER-
, rr.
PHONETICS
OF THE
BY
AWID JOHANNSON, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF GERMAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
IN THE VICTORIA UN1VERSITV OF MANCHESTER.
MANCHESTER.
PALMER, HOWE & CO.
LEIPZIG.
OTTO HARRASSOWITZ.
1906.
PHONETICS
OF THK
NEW HIGH GERMAN LANGUAGE
BY
ARWID JOHANNSON, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF GERMAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
IN THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
MANCHESTER.
PALMER, HOWE & CO.
LEIPZIG.
OTTO HARRASSOWITZ.
1906.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
BONN.
PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
BY CARL GEORGI.
flf
Preface.
m
To urge the value of Phonetics for the theoretical
and practical study of languages would be "to carry owls to
Athens". The Victoria University of Manchester took a step
in the right direction, when, with the view of testing the pro-
nunciation, it introduced an oral examination in modern lan-
guages for the Pass Degree; since the establishment of the
Honours School for modern languages theoretical questions
in Phonetics have always been asked in the oral examination;
and the regulations for the M.A. examination expressly re-
cognise Phonetics as a subject of examination, although they
adopt in order not to alarm nervous minds a some-
what "bashful" wording: "oral examination in the theory
and practice of pronunciation".
The nucleus of this book is formed by my notes for
lectures in Phonetics given by me in Uppsala 1889, 1891,
1893, but they have, of course, undergone great altera-
tions: whilst, on one hand, in some respects they have
been considerably expanded, and I have endeavoured to turn
to the best advantage the results of the researches of recent
years-, on the other hand, they have been abbreviated, as I
have eliminated all the discussions about the numerous pho-
netical points at issue, in order to give a more practical
character to the book, and not increase its volume unduly:
I hope, |ur|bev crfav will hold good also here. If therefore
the statements seem to wear quite an apodictic form, I do
not wish to imply by this that the given explanation or pro-
nunciation is the only admissible one, but I wish to say that it
is the right one or the preferable one according to my con-
viction, the reasons for which I cannot state in this little
book. My object is only to give the basis for phonetical in-
struction; the interpretation is left altogether to the teacher,
IV
as Phonetics is not a science which can or should be learned
in an autodidactical way.
The book is intended for a systematical study; an iso-
lated phonetical fact, picked out of the context by an unini-
tiated person, might be productive of mischief instead of profit.
I must therefore address a request to those who are not wil-
ling to work through the book systematically, to leave it
unopened.
For the composition of my Phonetics I have, of course,
consulted the standard works, mentioned on page IX, and other
minor writings, quoted by them. To all of them I recognise
willingly my debt; but more than to them, and more than I
can exactly estimate, I owe a debt of gratitude to my teacher,
Professor E. Sievers, with whom in private conversation I have
had the advantage of discussing so many phonetical questions
during my sojourn in Tubingen and Halle in former years.
As regards the Diagrams given on the six Plates,
Fig. II VI are reproductions slightly modified: I am indebted
to J. N. Czermak's Gesammelte Schriften, Bd. II (W. Engel-
mann, Leipzig 1879) for Fig. II and V, and to F. Techmer's
Naturwissenscbaftliche Analyse und Synthese (in Internationale
Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. I. J. A. Barth,
Leipzig 1884) for Fig. Ill, IV, and VI. The rest I have drawn
on the basis of my own observations. As in ascertaining the
position of the organs of speech I limited myself to the use
of a laryngoscope, mirrors, and straightened watch-springs, to
the ends of which I fastened pieces of cork of different sizes,
the Diagrams cannot claim to be exact in all details. 1
venture, however, to hope that they will nevertheless be able
to impart a fairly correct general impression.
Finally, it is a pleasant duty to me, to express my thanks
to Prof. W. C. Summers of Sheffield, who has had the kind-
ness to improve the English style of the book.
Horgr, Didsbury, 1904.
A. J.
Contents.
Principal books on Phonetics IX
Notes on Spelling 1 , Asterisks, and Types X
Corrigenda X
I. Introduction 17.
1. Definition of Phonetics 1
2. Speaking' and hearing 1 (understanding-) 1
3. Phonetics and the physiological, physical, and psycho-
logical factors 1
4. Letter and sound 2
5. Words and stress-groups . 2
6. New High German literary language 3
7. The best German 3
II. The Organs of Speech and their Functions 816.
8. Organs of speech; organic basis 5
9. The lungs; force of expiration 5
10. The larynx 5
11. Positions of the vocal chords 6
12. The pharynx; roof of the mouth 7
13. Functions of velum and uvula; the nasal cavity . . 8
14. The tongue 9
15. The lips 9
16. Voiced voiceless; oral nasal; consonant vowel 9
III. Con son autism 1755.
17. Consonantal symbols and key-words 11
18. Place and mode of interception 13
19. Laryngeal place of interception 14
20. Uvular place of interception 14
21. Mediopalatal place of interception 14
22. Prepalatal place of interception 15
23. Alveolar place of interception 17
24. Labiodental place of interception 17
25. Bilabial place of interception 17
26. The five modes of interception 18
27. Occlusive sounds in general 19
VI
Page
28. Laryngeal occlusive sound 19
29. Mediopalatal occlusive sounds 20
30. Alveolar occlusive sounds 22
31. Labiodental occlusive sound 22
32. Bilabial occlusive sounds 22
33. Fricatives in general; affricates 22
34. Laryngeal fricative; aspirates 22
35. Mediopalatal fricatives 23
36. Prepalatal fricatives 24
37. Alveolar fricatives 24
38. Labiodental fricatives 26
39. Bilabial fricative 26
40. Trills in general 26
41. Uvular trills 27
42. Lateral sounds in general 27
43. Alveolar-latei-al sounds 28
44. Nasals in general 28
45. Mediopalatal nasals 28
46. Alveolar nasals 29
47. Labiodental nasal 29
48. Bilabial nasals 29
49. Voiced and voiceless consonants in general .... 29
50. Voiced and voiceless occlusive sounds ...... 29
51. Voiced and voiceless fricatives 30
52. Voiced and voiceless trills, lateral and nasal sounds . 32
53. Fortes and lenes; double consonants 32
54. Quantity of consonants 34
55. Consonants used as vowels 35
IV. Vocalism 5674.
56. Vocalic symbols and key-words 36
57. Articulation of vowels in general 38
58. Voiced and voiceless vowels 38
59 Oral and nasal vowels 39
60. Articulations of the tongue in general 39
61. Horizontal articulations of the tongue. 40
62. Vertical articulations of the tongue 40
63. Tense and lax vowels 41
64. Relations between tense lax and long short vowels 41
65. The long e-sounds: e 1 and e 2 42
66. The short e-sounds: a 1 , 2 , and e 2 42
67. Articulations of the lips 43
68. Vowels with the function of consonants; diphthongs . 44
69. The four degrees of quantity of the vowels .... 45
70. Short v. '" . . . 45
71. Relation t een (norrnal-)long and over-long vowels 46
72. Occurrence of the (normal-)long and over-long vowels 47
73. The half-long vowels 49
74. Short and long vowels in the same word 49
VII
V. Synthesis g 75-88.
75. Synthesis in general ............. 51
76. Glides; simplification of articulation ....... 51
77. Transference of the place of explosion in occlusive
sounds .................. 51
78. Anticipation of articulation ; opening- of occlusive sounds
without explosion .............. 52
79. Assimilation ................. 52
80. Reduction of groups of consonants ........ 58
81. Definition of syllable; sonoric and dynamic syllables 54
82. Separation of syllables in uncompounded words . . 55
83. Syllabic limit in compounds .......... 56
VI. Accentuation 84-126.
84. Definition of accent .............. 58
85. Syllable-accent; stress-group-accent; sentence-accent.
Word-accent ................ 58
86. The grammatical, logical (or psychological), and phy-
siological factors in the word-accent and sentence-
accent .................. 59
87. Stress and pitch ............... 60
88. Occurrence of pitch .............. 60
89. Different degrees of word-stress ......... 61
90. Stresslessness ................ 61
91. Secondary stress ............... 62
92. Gradation of the secondary stress . . ...... 63
93. Transference of the secondary stress ....... 63
94. Principal stress in simple words ......... 63
95. Transference of the principal stress in simple words . 64
96. Principal stress on foreign suffixes of German words 65
97. Principal stress in compounds, in derivatives from
compounds, and in juxtapositions ....... 65
98. Principal stress on the first part in a nominal com-
pound, on the second part in a verbal compound . 66
99. Nomen+nomen ............... 66
100. Nomen+noun ................ 67
101. Nomen-fadjective .............. 68
102. Prefix -f- nomen in general. Supplanting of the no-
minal accentuation by the verbal ....... 70
103. Misz+nomen ................ 70
104. Ur-fnomen ................. 71
105. Erz+nomen ................ 71
106. Un+nomen ........ .. .. .^nr/.o .... 71
107. Verbal compounds in general . . . i, -i .-<-' ..... 73
108. Prefix-fverb ................ 73
109. Nomen-fverb ................ 74
110. Juxtapositions have sentence-stress ........ 74
VIII
Page
111. Bimembral juxtapositions have the principal stress on
the second part; verbal ones on the adverbial element 75
112. Verbal juxtapositions with the principal stress on the verb 75
113. Nominal juxtapositions with a secondary stress on the
last part 75
114. Juxtapositions with numerals as last part 76
115. Juxtapositions with pronouns as last part 77
116. Juxtapositions with indeclinabilia as last part ... 77
117. Foreign words with retracted accent 77
118. Foreign words with foreign accent kept 78
119. The principal ends of foreign words and their accen-
tuation 79
120. Accentuation of foreign words with German termi-
nations 84
121. Stress-groups and sentence-stress in general .... 85
122. Grammatical sentence- stress; notional and relational
words 80
123. Gradation of the grammatical sentence-stress in notional
words 87
124. Grammatical sentence-stress in notional woi-ds closely
connected with each other 87
125. Logical and psychological sentence-stresses .... 88
126. Physiological sentence-stress 88
Appendix: Materials for practical exercises 90
List of Diagrams.
Plate I. Fig. I. The organs of speech.
Fig. II. The cartilages of the larynx.
Fig. III. The cartilago thyreoidea.
Fig. IV. The left half of the cartilago cricoidea
Plate II. \ with the left cartilago arytaenoidea.
Fig. V. The real and spui'ious vocal chords.
Fig. VI. The forms of the glottis.
Fig. VII. The positions of the lips.
Fig. VIII. Uvular r.
PI 1 I J ^^' ^' Mediopalatal sounds.
Fig. X. Prepalatal fricatives.
Fig. XI. Alveolar sounds.
Fig. XII. Alveolar z and .
PHI IV J ^^' ^H- Alveolar z and .v.
Fig. XIV. Labiodental sounds.
Fig. XV. Bilabial sounds.
Fig. XVI. ft 1 .
Plale V Fi " XVIL 51
Fig. XVIII. a* and (?.
Fig. XIX. 9 1 .
( Fig. XX. I 1 .
Plate VI.| Fig. XXJ. e 1 .
1 Fijf. XXII. &.
IX
Principal Books on Phonetics.
General Phonetics.
Otto Jesperscu, Fonetik, en systematisk i'remstilling af
Iseren om sproglyd. Kebenhavn 18971899. (His Lehrbuch
derPhonetik is an abbreviated translation by H. David s en.
Leipzig und Berlin 1904.)
Phonetische Grnndfragen. Leipzig und Berlin 1904.
E. W. Scripture, The Elements of Experiment a I Phonetics.
New York and London 1902.
Eduard Sievers, Grundziige der Phone tik. 5. Auflage. Leip-
zig 1901.
Phonetik (in Paul's Grundrisz der Germanischen
Philologie. 2. Auflage. Band I. Straszburg 1901).
Johan Storm, Englische Philologie (Band I. 1: Phonetik und
Aussprache). 2. Auflage. Leipzig 1892.
Henry Sweet, A Primer of Phonetics. 2"d Edition. Oxford 1902.
F. Techmer, Naturwisseuschaftliche Analyse und Synthese
der horbaren Sprache (in: Internationale Zeitschrift
fur allgemeine Spvachw issenschaf t. Band I. Leipzig 1884).
M. Trautmanu, Die Sprachlaute im allgemeinen und die
Laute des Englischen, Franzosischen und Deutschen
im besondren. Leipzig 1884 1886 (out of print).
Kleine Lautlehre des Deutschen, Franzosischen
und Englischen. Bonn 1903.
Willielm Victor, Elernente der Phonetik des Deutschen,
Englischen und Franzosischen. 4. Auflage. Leipzig 1898.
German Phonetics.
Willielm Bra nil e, Uber die Einigung der deutschen Aus-
sprache. Halle 1905.
Otto Bremer, Deutsche Phonetik. Leipzig 1893.
George Hempl, German Orthography and Phonology. I.
Boston and London 1897 (important for the accentuation).
J. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik. 2. Auflage. Straszburg 1902
(important for the accentuation).
Theodor Siebs, Deutsche Biihnenaussprache. 2. Auflage. Ber-
lin 1901.
Willielm Victor, German Pronunciation: Practice and
Theory. 3rd Edition. Leipzig 1903.
Notes on Spelling, Asterisks, and Types.
All the German words are given in the official spelling of
1901, sanctioned by the governments of Germany, Austria, and
Switzerland (cf . K. Dudon. OrthographischesWorterverzeich-
uis der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig und Wien).
A word which is adduced as an individual or isolated example
for a statement is marked by an asterisk, whilst typical examples
remain unmarked; e. g. *flugs ( 29 Note 1) means that only in
this word g is to be pronounced as k: flu-ks; whilst elsewhere, in
combination with s, it has always the value of ch: Flugs, Trugs
etc. flu l lfs, ti-u^s etc.
German words are spaced; single letters are given in bold
types; but single sounds or phonetical symbols are printed in italics.
The keys to these are given in 17 and 56.
Corrigenda.
6 note : read Karlsruhe instead of M a n n h e i m.
Page 11: r. fs, ts i. o. st, st. 17, 5: r. 'Pnfrtty 1 . 17, 9:
r. ma*nne l f. 17, 21: r. tydWyWrn 1 . 17, 23: add Ab-
fall. 20 note 1: r. by almost all i. o. by all. 21
note 1: strike out Wagner, wd 2 gnr, Vogler ffrglr. 21
note 2: r. IftiWs. 29 note 2: r. we*ksl; pd-frs? 1 . 54: r.
n&fw^gPsgiPw. 54 note 2: r. mi-tha-lf (second word);
id-Jftsi-fi 1 (second word); M-l^ri-sm 1 ^ and hd-lj} r ri-sm l a^
?e-kslle' 2 nts and ?e-kslle-nts. 55: r. in sonantal or con-
sonantal function i. o. or i 2 . 56,8: r. sq-sa l ; j^q-zi-o 1 ^
56, 17: r. frff. 56, 20: r, Coeur i. o. Co. 58: r.
?o l Q*6 1 ', in the same line add g, after a voiceless; r. u i. o. u.
59: r. sd-rla 2 thd-n: p l ho*sti-li-&n. 65: r. ?a-the l ne l ;
?d 2 we 1 ', JWm-/e 1 i de 2 mb l n. 66: r. ?a'the l ne l . 69,4: r.k?ia*m.
70, 4: r. lo*rt> 70, 6: r. me*tkd*fr. 72, 3, a: r. n-rdi-s.
73: r. j) l rd l bi l rn: jfh6 l ra-l', sta l de-nt; tsi l rd-t;jti } li l ; :d*1zo l .
74: r. if it i. o. if is; r. fo l r. 79, 1 : r. IfhWnSffilf (se-
cond word). 83: r. ?l*nfrr6*89 l &nd ?i-nt)'-?e*s<-) 1 he^rPtfn;
ri*tr-fhu } m. Page 59: r. glflcklich. 95: r. lutherlsch
(second word). 106, II, 1: r. iinaufhaltsara. Page 80:
r. Photograph. 120, 1: r. arabisch. (Several misprints
appeared only in the final printing, owing to breaking off of
the accents and diacritics added to the types in casting.)
I. Introduction.
1. Phonetics is the science which deals with the pro-
duction and the nature of speech -sounds, their Definition
combination into groups (syllables, words, sen- of phonetics,
tences), and the general laws for their alterations.
2. If a thought or sensation is to be conveyed to an-
other person by means of speech, psychological, physiological,
and physical factors have to act. If we have a speaking and
thought or a sensation in our intellectoriuui and **$**
the intention to express it (psychological factor), standing).
by means of certain nerves, starting from the centre of speech
(in the cortex of the left cerebral hemisphere), certain organs
of speech are set in motion (physiological factor). These
organs of speech produce a vibration of the air, the waves
of sound (physical factor), which strike the ear (physical
factor), and which by means of certain organs and nerves
are conveyed to the acoustic centre of the brain (physiolo-
gical factor), and then in the intellectorium again transmuted
into a thought or a sensation (psychological factor), provided,
of course, that what is heard is understood.
3. For phonetics the most important is the physiological
factor, the articulation of the speech-sounds. In speaking the
physical (acoustic) factor is in the same relation
r J Phonetics
to that as effect to cause; and as we can infer and the
from the effect the effective factors, it will be cai.phys.cai,
, 111 an( i psycho-
necessary to pay attention to the tone too, although logical
this is always something secondary from a phone-
tical point of view. A knowledge of physics is not required
for practical phonetics; e. g. the acoustic analysis of a ch or
ii would hardly help a person who is not familiar with these
sounds to acquire the right pronunciation. The psychological
element can be neglected, if we deal with the formation of the
sounds, but it plays an important part in the synthesis, espe-
cially in the accentuation, cf. 86. 88. 106 note 1. 125.
4. A pbonetical analysis has always to start from the
spoken language, of which the writing gives only an extremely
Letter defective image, sufficient for one who knows the
nd ' language, but quite inadequate and misleading for
any one else, who would simply substitute the sounds familiar
to him. Writing is in the same relation to speech as a col-
ourless and shapeless pencil sketch of scenery would be to
the coloured and plastic original of nature.
Note. It' we neglect all the niceties, such as accent,
quantity, glides, etc., the shortcomings of writing chiefly
consist in the following facts: 1) the same letter is used
for several sounds : e.g. Me gen bfrjn, biegt bi l li l f, bo gen
bo l gn, bog bo l fi*, ging gi~w, Genie ze l ni l ; 2) several let-
ters indicate the same sound, e. g. viel fi l l } fiel f,i l 1, Phi-
losophic ^ 2 Zo 8 2o l /f; 3) several letters are used for a simple
sound, e. g. sell on so l n, Vieh fi l ; 4) sounds are not ex-
pressed in writing at all, e. g. Kind kkPnt', 5) letters are
written, where no sound is pronounced, e. g. nahe nd-,>\
ban den ba'ndn.
5. In the spoken language the object of investigation
is only the sentence, not the word, and still less the sound.
The sentence is to be divided into stress groups
ami stress or breath groups (Sprechtakte, Sprachtakte),
cf. 121; these into syllables, and these into
sounds (Laute). The spoken sentence der Hund vert'olgt
die geschlagene Katze consists from a phonetical point
of view of the following stress groups: der | Hund ver -
folgt die ge'schlagene i Kat/e; accordingly, in speaking,
a notional analysis of the sentence into words does not take
place. From a phonetical standpoint the grammatical con-
ception "word" is no real quantity, but only an abstraction;
of course, by this is not meant that words cannot sometimes
form stress groups, e. g. der Knabe wollte ! heute |
k om men. But phonetically we must not speak of words
or beginning or end of words (Anlaut and Auslaut), but of
stress groups or beginning or end of stress groups. If, how-
ever, in this book mention is made of words, and the de-
scription commences with the sounds, we must always remem-
ber that this is only a concession to practical convenience,
and by no means corresponds to a scientific description of
phonetics, which ought to begin with the sentence and gra-
dually descend to the simplest elements, the sounds.
6. A text-book of practical phonetics of New High Ger-
man has not to describe the sounds of German dialects or of
any particular dialect, but the sounds and phone- New High
tical phenomena of the standard New High Ger- men!!-"
man (N. H. G.) literary language (neuhoch- lan e ua e e
deutsche [nlid.J Schriftsprache), which, although consisting
of Middle German (M. G., mitteldeutsch, ind.) and Upper
German (U. G. oberdeutsch, obd.) elements, can nowhere
be fixed in a geographical sense, because N. H. G. means the
language, more or less free from dialectical peculiarities, of
the educated classes of Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the
Baltic provinces, whilst the countrypeople and the lower classes
of the population in the towns speak dialects peculiar to them.
Note. The German dialects are divided into Low Ger-
man (L. G., niederdeutsch, nd.), Middle German, and
Upper German; Middle and Upper German together are
also called High German (H. G., hochdeutsch, hd.). Low
German is spoken in the North German lowlands; Upper
German in the mountain districts of the South, namely Al-
sace, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Austria, and Switzerland.
Between the Low German and Upper German territories is
situated the Middle German district, i. e. the provinces on
both sides of the middle Rhine (roughly speaking from
Diisseldorf to Mannheim) and the Main, together with Thu-
ringia, Saxony, and Silesia.
7. In spite of the fact, that the literary language stands
above the dialects, it is more or less exposed to the influence of
the dialects in the different districts. Only on the The
stage do we find the tendency to throw off all that best G ^ rmAn
is dialectical and to aim at a language, uniform for the stages ot
all districts, as the wandering actors, originating from different
provinces, not only have to speak in the district now of this dia-
lect, now of that, but are also obliged to make themselves under-
stood even at the same place to a larger audience, which con-
sists of the representatives of the most different dialects. Prac-
tical phonetics have therefore to use as standard such a pro-
nunciation as has developed itself on the stage, and yet not that
pronunciation which is applied in the pathetic, highly classical
drama, but the pronunciation of the elegant drama (Konver-
sationsstuck) which for the representation of the circumstances
and conditions of the modern life of the educated classes
uses the unaffected language of conversation, free from dia-
lectical peculiarities. If we disregard all those phonetical
features which aim only at the effect to be produced in the
distance and at the ensemble, this pronunciation is essentially
identical with that of the educated classes of Berlin. As the
capital of the empire, as the centre of "Bearntendeutsch",
i. e. the style and pronunciation, used by German officials, who
like the actors, have often to change their domiciles, and as
one of the intellectual centres of Germany, this city exercises a
powerful influence on the culture of even reluctant districts, and,
although situated in a Low German territory, is not without
effect on the High German language. To the theatres of Berlin
it is to a certain extent due, that on all the leading stages
of Germany and Austria the principle was unanimously accepted
that the High German forms of the words of the N. H. G.
literary language should be pronounced with Low German
speech-sounds.
"Speaking generally, I would call him the best speaker
who most effectually baffles all efforts to discover from what
town or district he comes" (Victor).
Note. This definition must, of course, not be understood
to imply that we should attribute the best German to a
person who e. g. at one moment uses a Holstein pronuncia-
tion, at a second a Silesian, at a third a Bavarian, for in
such a case we miss the uniformity essential to the stan-
dard pronunciation.
II. The organs of speech and their functions.
8. The parts of the human body which are active in
speaking are: the lungs, the windpipe, the throat, organs
the cavity of the mouth with the tongue, the teeth Of ran?c :
and lips, and the cavity of the nose. basis -
The position in which these organs are in quiet and
regular breathing, wherewith no speaking can take place, is
called the position of indifference (Indifferenzlage). This
position can also be termed organic basis (Artikulationsbasis),
because it forms the natural foundation for the different arti-
culations of the apparatus of speech. With the German or-
ganic basis the tongue is not so much lowered, retracted,
and flattened as with the English organic basis; nor is in
the former case the tongue hollowed in front. Whilst with
the English the lips remain fairly inactive and are only
slightly rounded, the Germans have an inclination to round
them considerably and to pout them. On these fundamental
differences between the German and the English organic bases
chiefly depend the differences between the German and the
English sounds, especially vowels; cf. 23 note 2. 37 note 2.
40 note. 43 note. 63 note 2. 67 note.
9. The foundation of speech is the breath which is
expelled by the lungs and, through the windpipe (Luftrolire,
trachea), enters the throat. On the force or Lungs; force
intensity with which the lungs expel the breath of ex P iration -
depends in the syllable the stronger or weaker accentuation,
stress (cf. 87. 89), and in the single sound the difference
between fortis and lenis (cf. 53).
10. The breath can undergo the first interception and
therefore modification in the larynx (Kehlkopf). Larynx;
The foundation of it is formed by the cartilago Fig- I-v
cricoidea (Riugknorpel) which has the shape of a seal-ring
and rests on the trachea, with its wider part at the back. The
cart. eric, is the support of the cartilage thyreoidea (Adam's
apple, Schildknorpel) and is at the same time partly surroun-
ded by it. For the cart. thyr. consists of two plates, having the
form of shields, which join in front at about a right angle,
but at the back open wide, in order to be able to receive the
wider part of the cart. eric. Across the cavity, formed in
this way, are stretched two elastic cushions of muscles, the
vocal chords (chordae vocales, ligamenta glottidis vera,
Stiinmlippen, Kehlkopflippen; the usual expression Stimm-
bander gives an erroneous idea of them, as they are compar-
able not to a pair of membranes, but to a pair of cushions
suitable for compression). In front they are firmly inserted
in the angle of the cart, thyr., but at the back they
coalesce with two small cartilages, the cartilagines ary-
taenoideae (Gieszkannenknorpel, Stellknorpel). These
have the form of three-sided pyramids and rest on the
wide part of the cart, eric.; they can rotate on their
axes and be separated from each other, and are accor-
dingly able to give different positions to the vocal chords,
and with them, of course, also to the space between the vocal
chords, the glottis (glottis vera, Stimmritze). Above the
real vocal chords are the spurious ones or ventricular bauds
(liganienta glottidis spuria, falsche Stimmbauder, Taschen-
bander) which are not used in speaking and form only a
protection for the real vocal chords. Between the real and
the spurious vocal chords the larynx is widened into small
cavities, one on each side, the laryngeal ventricles (ventri-
culi Morgagni), in consequence of which the real vocal chords
find a free space for their vibrations and are kept lubricated
by the mucus, emptied from the laryngeal ventricles. Above
the cart. thyr. and behind the root of the tongue is a valve,
the epiglottis (Kehldeckel), which has no function in speak-
ing, but only serves to shut the larynx in swallowing.
11. The principal positions of the glottis are the fol-
lowing :
Position or 1) The glottis can be wide open and have an
^hordsf almond shaped form, as in breathing.
Fig. vi. 2) It can be less open and thereby form an iso-
sceles triangle with a vertex-angle of about 25, as in pronoun-
cing a voiceless (stimmlos) sound (cf. 16, 1. 49), e. g. *
in Engl. so or Germ. das.
3) The glottis, forming an isosceles triangle with a vertex-
angle of about 10, is narrowed to such a degree that the
expired air produces a rubbing noise at the edges of the vocal
chords, as with h (cf. 34).
4) The vocal chords can slightly touch each other, with-
out forming a complete closure, so that the breath can escape
only by making them vibrate ; thereby the glottis is with great
rapidity alternately opened by the pressure of the air and shut
again on account of the elasticity of the vocal chords; there
is thus produced a voiced (stimmhaft) sound (cf. 16, 1. 49),
e.g. z in Engl. zeal or in Germ. so. The tone which is the
result of the vibration of the vocal chords is called voice
(Stimmton).
5) The vocal chords can be firmly closed as in forming
the glottal stop ( 28). Herewith no production of a sound
takes place, until the glottis is violently forced open by the
breath.
6) The front part of the glottis (glottis vocalis) can
be closed, but the back part which is situated between the
cartilagines arytaenoideae (glottis respiratoria) can be open
and form an equilateral triangle, as in whispering voiced sounds.
(Whispered voiceless sounds are formed in the second position
of the glottis.)
Note. We can easily convince ourselves as to the pre-
sence of voice in a sound by the trembling of the cartilago
thyreoidea perceptible when we put a finger on it, or by the
humming and ringing, heard if we shut the entrances of the
ears. These two characteristics are not to be found in a
voiceless sound. To denote the absence of voice, we put
a dot below, e.g. s\ the presence of voice remains undenoted,
e. g. z.
12. Above the larynx is a cavity, called pharynx
(Rachenhohle), which on the other hand is in communication
with the oral cavity (Mundholile) and the nasal pharynx:
cavity (Nasenhohle). The roof of the mouth ^'o&JJ 1 *
consists of the following parts: upon the upper
teeth follow the alveoli which form a little fleshy convexity.
These pass into the concave osseous hard palate (palatnm
durum, barter Ganmen) which stretches backwards about as
wide as the row of the teeth. Then follows the soft palate
(palatnm molle, velum, weicher Gaumen, Gaumensegel)
which tapers in a pendulous extremity, the uvula (Zapfchen).
For phonetical purposes we divide the roof of the
mouth into:
1) a front section, the alveolar or supradental region;
2) an intermediate section, the prepalatal region, i. e.
the hard palate;
3) a back section, consisting of the mediopalatal or
front velar region (the front part of the velum), the post-
palatal or back velar region (the back part of the velum),
and the uvular region.
Note. The term "palatal" with the meaning of "prepal-
atal" ought to be avoided, as "palatal" can also be referred
to the soft palate, the velum. Also the term "alveoli"^
although in general use, is wrong, as it denotes the sockets
of the teeth in anatomical terminology, whilst the phone-
ticians use it for the convex rim above the upper front teeth
only; but the expression may be retained for want of any-
thing better.
13. 1) The velum with its appendix, the uvula, can be
pressed against the back wall of the pharynx, so that the
Functions of nasal cavity is shut and the air must escape through
a 1 ; the tne m outh only, as is the case with all the oral, i. e.
cavity. non USiBSi i f S ounds(e. g. cf . Fig. XI, XIV, XV, XVIII).
2) The velum and uvula can hang down loose between
the wall of the pharynx and the back of the tongue, so that
the breath escapes both through the mouth and through the
nose, as is the case in the position of indifference and in the
pronunciation of the French nasalised vowels, as bon bq 2 ,
chance sa~sd l , fin /"| 2 ; [provided that nowhere in the mouth
an occlusion (cf. 59) takes place (cf. Fig. I, XVIII;. If on
the contrary an occlusion in the mouth is formed, then, of
course, with this position of the velum, the breath must escape
through the nose only, as in the pronunciation of our usual
nasals, e. g. man, Menge me 2 nd l ; cf. 44 (Fig. XI, XIV,
XV)]. The nasal cavity itself is not capable of any modi-
fication.
Lastly, the uvula can be put into trilling motion by the
breath, and thereby is produced the burred r (cf. 26, 3. 40.
Fig. VIII).
14. The tongue is a compact mass of muscles which fills
up the whole bottom of the oral cavity. We can divide the tongue
into the front part, the middle part, the back part The tongue.
and the root; we have besides to distinguish between the edge
(Zungensaum) and the upper surface of the tongue (Zungen-
riicken). Articulations in which the front edge is active are
called coronal, e.g. in t, rf; those in which the side edges play
a part are called lateral, e. g. in Z; articulations which are
made by the upper surface of the tongue are termed dorsal,
e. g. in g, A*. At the root of the tongue, opposite the uvula,
is a slight hollow, foramen caecum (blindes Loch), which
serves as a drumskin for the trilling uvula in forming the
uvular r (cf. 41. Fig. I, VIII). The tongue is so amply
supplied with muscles that it is capable of the most manifold
and complicated movements, the details of which can best be
described in connection with the single sounds. The principal
movements of the tongue or of individual parts of it in diffe-
rent degrees and different combinations are: raising lowering;
pushing forward retracting; forming a cavity, as in s (Fig.
XIII) ; making the tip trill, as in the alveolar r (cf. 40).
15. The lips, as far as they are concerned in forming
a sound, can either be closed, as with m, or show openings
of different shapes: 1) in drawing back the cor- The 1J)1S .
ners of the mouth, the lips can form a slit, as Fi{?- VIL
with i in ihn; 2) the lips can show an oval rounding, as with
u in du; the lips, when rounded, can at the same time be pro-
jected or pouted, as is mostly the case with the German u;
3) the lips remain passive whilst they are opened by lowering
the lower jaw, as with a in aber. Between these three prin-
cipal forms we have still intermediate forms; the result of a
combination of the i and a positions is the e position of the
lips; the result of a combination of the u and a positions is
the o position.
16. In articulating any sound, vowel or consonant, we
have always to ask the following questions: 1) whe- voiced- voi-
ther the glottis is open or whether the vocal chords C nas S ai';con-~
touch each other and vibrate, i. e. whether we have s< voweL
10
to do with a voiceless or voiced sound (cf. 11, 2, 4); '2) whe-
ther the nasal cavity is closed by the velum (oral sounds) or
not (nasal sounds) (cf. 13); 3) whether the organs of the
mouth somewhere in the median line form an obstacle (occlusion,
narrowing, or trilling) to the breath, or whether the cavity
of the mouth in its whole length from the pharynx to the lips
is open in its median line; in the former case we have a
consonant, in the latter a vowel or sonant.
Note 1. This obstacle, characteristic of a consonant,
can be situated in the larynx itself under certain conditions;
in such a case the question under 1 is no longer to be taken
into account, as the sounds of this sort occurring in stan-
dard German are always voiceless (cf. 11, 3, 5. 28. 34).
Note 2. Sometimes a consonant can have the function
of a sonant or vowel, e. g. Handel, Han den pronounced
as hd' 2 ndl, he 2 ndn (compare Engl. idle, hidden, cf. 55);
and vice versa a vowel can be treated as a consonant, e. g.
Union, Familie, pronounced as ?ti l ni 2 o l n, fa-mi l li*a l , with
Engl. y, not with Germ, j or i (cf. Engl. familiar, union).
We indicate the vocalic function of a consonant by a small
circle under it, and the consonantal function of a vowel or
sonant by a semicircle.
III. Consonantism.
17. For the sake of convenience I anticipate the Table
of the 31 German Consonants together with the list of the
phonetical symbols and the key-words for the ^ymb n i8ami
different spellings; the explanations are given in key-words.
18-55.
Mode of interception
oral
nasal
occlusive fricative
1
trill
lateral
2
laryngeal
. i
li
O
uvular
r r
O
mediopalatal
<&#
9 ff
W Id
|
prepalatal
/II I
O
i-2
Q
B
alveolar
labiodental
bilabial
d t
If
*'*:**
b
^r
w n
m 2
tombmed consonants
aspirates: Teh, t
: . fe
aiiricates: st, jt7s
voiceless laryngeal occlusive: Unart ?ti?n?a'rt, un-
expressed in writing.
^2J h voiceless^ laryngeal f ricailve : Hund, Oheim; un-
expressed in~^ (n 6), th (n 14), tfh (n 28).
3^ r voiced uvular trill: rauh; Rheiu; irren; Ka-
tarrh (only Greek words).
r the same sound in souantal function: Bruder bri^dr.
12
4) r voiceless uvular trill; trau trv 2 o 2 , irrt ?i*rt.
iJ&j g voiced mediopalatal occlusive: Gram; Flagge
(only Low German words); Intrigue ?t*ntri l gd l (only French
words); Ghetto (only Italian words).
i^&f k voiceless mediopalatal occlusive: Kram; backe;
Quelle; flugs; Examen (x = fo?); sechs; flaggt (only
Low German words); Clique Wfikd 1 , Acquisition, Accu-
satiyjAkkusativ (only Romance words).
( Ifh voiceless mediopalatal aspirate: kund Tfhtc-nt; local
Charwoche TfhtfrwtfJfd 1 .
7) g voiced mediopalatal fricative: bogen.
ft* voiceless mediopalatal fricative: ach; Bacchus
(only Greek and Latin words); bog; *Brahma, *Schah
so?})* (only Persian and Indian words).
9) 73 voiced mediopalatal nasal: sang^a 2 /?; Ingo n^tdgb 1 ',
Magnet m*a*idne l t.
10) 73 voiceless mediopalatal nasal: sank za-idk.
, as in Hen,
Oheim ( ct> - n > 3 - 34 ' Fi - VI 3); and the
Lar n eai
place ot glottal stop or glottal check (Kehlkopfver-
interception. ,.. - _ _ .. ,
sehluszlaut) (ct. 11, o. 28. Fig. VI o), which
remains unmarked in writing, and for which we use the pho-
netical symbol ?: Abart ?d-p l ?a-rt.
20. II. The uvular place of interception. At this
the trilling uvula beats against the foramen caecum near the
root of the tongue and so the r (as in rauh,
Uvular place .
of inter- Khein) and > (as in traue) is formed, as it is
ception. . . _
pronounced in the larger North German towns
and also in the elegant dramas on the stage; Fig. VIII.
Note 1. For the pronunciation in a pathetic highly
classical drama is absolutely prescribed an ;, which is for-
med by the tip of the tongue at the alveoli, and which is
spoken besides by the couutrypeople of North Germany and
by all the South Germans and Austrians. The uvular r was
substituted for the alveolar in Germany only about 150 years
ago, but it is steadily gaining ground and is to be considered
the r of the educated classes of North Germany; on that
account I set it up as the standard German r, in accor-
dance with the principle, laid down in 7, without thereby
condemning the alveolar >.
Note 2. The English r has an alveolar articulation,
with the exception of the Northumbrian burred r, which is
uvular.
21. III. At the mediopalatal place of interception
the effective factors are on the one hand the front part of
the soft palate, on the other hand the back part
Mediopalatal .
place of of the tongue; the sounds ot this group have
accordingly a dorsal articulation (Fig. IX). They
15
are: y as in Gold, k as in kund, g as in Wagen icd*gn,
ft* as in wachen wd*fi 2 n, id as in sang za l n, n as in sank
za*nk.
Note 1. // written as y, occurs only after one of the
back vowels a, o, u, or an (u-o 2 ) if it is followed by an i
(as in Tragik trd*gi*k, log- is eh I6 l gi-s); or by an 3 l (an
unaecentuated e sound) as in Woge wo l g l , Auge ?v*Q*gd 1 ^
or by an r, 1, in. n, belonging to the stem of the word, if
they have arisen from an original ar, l, 9m, dn, e. g.
Wagner, wd 2 gnr, magrer mdgrr, Vogler 6 l glr, kugle
Jehu 1 gld l , Kugel TfliuQl, Wagen wd*gn, mager md*gr, klu-
gem kla l gm.
Note 2. ft 2 , written as ch, g and h, appears in German
words only after a, 0, u, an in the middle or at the end
of a word : s p r a c h sj) 1 !'d 2 /i 2 , 8 p r a c h e sjtni 2 /^ \ Loch
lo*/i 2 , Loche Io 2 /i 2 d l , Bnch &^\^ 2 , b uchen bu l fy 2 n, Rauch,
raucht, rauchen rv*o 2 ?i 2 n (but not in Frauchen/V 2 o 2 /^^
for the suffix -chen always contains .^ 1 ); the spelling g
for this sound appears only at the end of a word or a
syllable: Tag //m 8 /J 2 , Tags tlilPtfs (but Tage, Tages
T age n t/id- 2 ji s ?i l . The j sound also
appears if a preceding i is dropped, as in ew'ger ?e l wjr,
Kon'ge khd^nja 1 ewiger, Konige;
b) if it is preceded by r or 1 and followed by one of
the sounds mentioned under (a); e.g. Berge be 2 rjd l , borge
bo-rjd 1 , Borger bo*rjr, folge fo-lj9 l , folgen 6*1 jn, Bnr-
Note 2. /i l appears a) in the middle or at the end of
a word after the front vowels: spricb s])*ri*Ji l , spreche
sj) l re*/i l i) 1 , sprache sj^re-/} 1 ,) 1 , Spriiche s/j.m*// 1 ^ 1 , St ran-
cher stro-u^r, Locher lo^r, Echo ?e' 2 // 1 o 1 ; liig lii l /i l ,
liigt l& l /i l t, beug bo*u*/i l , beugt bo*ii*/i*t, Feigling
/y-e 2 // 1 /^"^? Ereiguis ?9 1 r?a 2 e 2 // 1 w 2 ?; also in the diminutive
sut'n'x -chcu, which was in man} 7 cases preceded by a front
vowel, Hiindchen hii^nt/^n, Franc hen /Vw-o-// 1 ^, Ma-
machen md-md^/fn (but rauchen riro^fi-n, *Aachen
?d*!i*y with # 2 );
b) in the middle and at the end of a word after r, 1,
11, e. g. manch(e) md-n/) 1 ^ 1 ), Kirche khi 2 r/) l 3 l , solch(e)
zo-J/i 1 (9 1 ), Mouarch(en) m&nd-r/ftn), Berg fte 2 / 1 // 1 , Borg
bo*rtl\ borgt boY/l't, folgt foHtft, Balg ba*lJi l , Burg
bu-rfl l ;
c) at the beginning of foreign words and Old German
proper nouns before front vowels: China lf-i l nif, Chemie
ff^mi 1 , Chirurg Ji l i l ru z rfi l , Cherson J^e^rso'^n, Childe-
rich J^mdd^rl^Jf-j Cherusker Ji l e 2 ni*skr.
Note 3. Tf and g before front vowels, as in kenne,
Kind, kiinde, geben, gibt, go'nneu, and id after front
vowels, as in sange, sing are in standard German, in spite
of the front vowels, not prepalatal, but mediopalatal, although
in these cases the articulation of k, g and 13 is removed
forward as far as the boundary of the hard palate.
Note 4. For the sounds of the prepalatal and the me-
diopalatal groups is often employed the name "guttural",
a term to be avoided as misleading, for these sounds are
formed in the palatal region of the mouth, by no means in
the "guttur" (= throat).
23. V. The alveolar or supradental place of inter-
ception is formed by the articulation of the front part of the
tongue towards the alveoli of the upper teeth.
The sounds of this class are partly coronal, partly place of
lateral, partly dorsal (Fig. XI XIII). Coronal are
d (as in drei), t (as in treu), n (as in neu), n (as in bunt
bu?nt); coronal-lateral are I (as in Land la Zr nf), I (as in alt
?a-lt); dorsal are z (as in Reise r^g^zd 1 ), s (as in was wa*s),
z (as in Journal zu 2 rndl), s (as in schon so l n).
Note 1. The term "dental" is too vague and not quite
applicable to the German sounds, as they are formed above
the teeth, which in this case do not play any part at all.
Note 2. The place of articulation of the English alveolar
sounds lies slightly higher than that of the German ones. The
English d, t and n have a dorsal, I a dorsal-lateral articulation.
24. VI. The labiodental place of interception is
produced by the underlip and the upper teeth (Fig. XIV).
This class is represented in German by: j> 2 (as
in Apfel ?a 2 2 /7), w (as in wahr wa?r), /"(as in place of
* v, ^2 i\ s / n e j 9 9 s>\ interception.
fahre fa^rd 1 ), m 2 (as in Danipt da^m^f).
Note 1. p and ra, which are usually formed at the
labiolabial place of interception, are, however, pronounced
as labiodentals before a following yf, m also before a follow-
ing labiodental $ 2 (as in Dampf da 2 m 2 ]) 2 , empfehlen
?d 1 m 2 j] 2 e l ln, Triumf tri 2 ii 2 m 2 f, Nymph e nu 2 m*fo l ) m 2 is
expressed in writing either by m, as in the examples above,
or by n, as in'fiinf fil-m?f, kiinftig JchuVfti 2 ^ 1 , sanft
za 2 m 2 ft, Senf ze 2 m 2 . bf in compounds represents^ 2 /"? as
in Abfall ?d*g 2 fci 2 l, Erbfeind ?e*r#*fi*e*nf.
Note 2. More exactly these sounds ought to be called
bilabiodental, for the upper lip also plays a slight part
in forming them, as it prevents the breath from escaping
between the upper teeth, which seldom stand so close to
each other that they could form an air-tight bar.
25. VII. At the bilabial or labiolabial place of
interception both lips are active (Fig. XV). Here we have
the sounds b (as in Bein), g l (as in Pein), 5 (as
in zwar tsf>a 2 r), m (as in mal ma 2 !), m 1 (as in place of
, , , interception.
sen ma I sm l a~l}.
Note L The bilabial 5 is written as w and u and occurs
18
only after t!ic sounds s, t, s, ts, k: schwand sba z nt (but
wand wa 2 nt), *Twing tbi 2 td, *Swine(miinde) sb^na 1 '
*Suewen sb^wn, zwar tsba*r (but war it'd*r), Qual kba*l
but Wahl wa-l), Quadrat kba-drd-t, *Biskuit bi-skbiH.
Note 2. b must not be identified with the English u,
written as w in war or as u in queen, which is a sound
formed by raising the back part of the tongue, whilst with
the German b the tongue remains absolutely passive.
26. The modes of interception can be divided into
five groups from the following points of view. If we form a
sound:
The five .
modes of 1) Provided the nasal cavity is closed, the
interception. . .
breath meets a complete occlusion in the mouth
(in one case in the throat itself); ultimately the occlusion is
more or less violently opened (occlusive sounds, Versehlusz-
lante).
2) Provided the nasal cavity is closed, in the median
line of the mouth (in one case in the throat itself) a very
narrow passage is formed by two organs opposite to each
other; the breath has to escape through this narrow passage
and, in doing so, produces a rubbing noise (fricative sounds,
Reibelaute).
3) If the nasal cavity is closed, the breath produces a
trilling of a part of the organs of the mouth in the median
line; thereby is produced alternately an occlusion and an open-
ing, and the breath escapes in quick succession in single
small puffs (trills, Zitterlaute).
4) Provided the nasal cavity is closed, in the median
line of the mouth the breath meets an occlusion, which will
not be opened, the breath having to escape through an open-
ing on one or on both sides of the mouth (lateral sounds,
Laterallaute).
5) Provided the nasal cavity is open, in the mouth the
breath meets a complete occlusion, which will not be opened,
the breath having to escape through the nasal cavity (naoal
sounds, Nasale;.
Note. Although simultaneously with the trills and lateral
sounds a rubbing noise can occasionally appear - - viz., if
the opening is made so slight that the breath rubs against
its edges we are not justified in considering the trills and
iq
X t/
lateral sounds to be a subdivision of the fricative sounds,
for trills and lateral sounds are formed as a rule without any
noise, as pure "sonorous" sounds. The rubbing noise can
appear with them as a secondary moment, but it is not
essential for their constitution. On the other hand, if we
wish to keep the physiological production as principle of
classification for the consonants too, we must not call the
sounds of the 3, 4, 5 groups "liquid" or "sonorous" sounds,
i. e. sounds which are characterised like the vowels by a
pure, noiseless, musical tone (Klang), for the expressions
"liquid", "sonorous" refer only to their acoustic effect, not to
their physiological genesis; besides these sounds are not only
voiced: they occur also as voiceless, e.g. alt ?a'-Jt, meint
m ( ^e' 2 nt, Engl. felt e 2 lt, meant me-nt.
21. I. In the oral occlusive sounds (explodents,
explosive sounds, stops, Moinentanlaute, Explosivlaute,
Yerseliluszlaute) we have to distinguish between
Occlusive
three consecutive acts: 1) making the occlusion; sounds
. ,. . . . . , in general.
2) persisting in occlusion i. e. a longer or shorter
perfectly soundless and noiseless pause; 3) opening the occlusion
or explosion. It is in the nature of these sounds that they
last only a moment (hence Momentanlaute) and can not be
continued, as distinguished from the consonants of the four
other modes of interception. They can be lengthened only by
lengthening the soundless and noiseless pause.
28. The only occlusive sound which is formed in the
throat itself is the laryngeal occlusive sound (glottal stop,
glottal catch, check glottid, Kehlkopfver- Laryngeai
schluszlaut), cf. 11,5; in pronouncing this sound ^oSr
the glottis is firmly closed and is then forced open Fig. vis.
by the breath. The sound thus produced is a very weak
one, but can be perceived distinctly, if we whisper; in its ex-
treme form it is known as a cough. This sound is not ex-
pressed in writing, but as phonetical symbol we use ?. A word
beginning with a vowel, and a syllable beginning with an
accentuated vowel are preceded by this consonant: Abart
eine alte Uhr ?9 2 e 2 nd l ?d 2 lt9 1 ?u l r, ererbt
A few stressed monosyllabic words which end in
a short vowel, as the doubting ja ja 2 ? and the impatient na
na*? and da (for 2 ?, show this sound also after the vowel. In
20
the cross nein ?na 2 $ 2 n and na ?na 2 ? even the consonant n is
preceded by this sound.
Note 1. ? which corresponds to the Hebrew aleph, and
which appears in some languages, as in Danish and Lithuanian,
also in the middle of a syllable or a sound (cf. Dan. maler
md 2 ?l9 l r = (he) paints, but mdHd l r = painter), is missing
altogether in standard English; but it exists in Scotch,
Sheffield, and Lincoln pronunciation, and has existed in
Anglo-Saxon, as can be proved from the treatment of the
vowels at the beginning of a word in the Old Teutonic
poetry, where to all appearance any vowel can alliterate
with any other vowel, but in reality the alliteration is .formed
by the preceding glottal stop, e. g. Beowulf 33: isij ond
utfiis | aeftelinjes fa3r.
Note 2. 1) Dnaccentuated vowels in the middle of a
word or a stressgroup are not preceded by a glottal stop,
e. g. Ehe ?e 1 9 1 , sahen and saen ze^d^n, will ich wiHi*fi l ,
will es wi-ld l s, especially if an a 1 is dropped, as in wiird'
ich wu*rdi 2 Ji\ Freud' und Leid fr6*%*du*nt\U*$*t. 2) No
glottal stop is spoken in the following stressed adverbial
compounds with her-, hin-, vor-, dar-, war-, wor-, wie-
der, e. g. herein he l ra*e 2 n, hinaus hi*nv'o 2 s, voran
fo l rd 2 n } daran dd 2 rd 2 n, warum wa 2 ru 2 m, woran w6 l rd*n,
wiederum wl l drru*m\ nor in the following compounds and
pseudo- compounds: *einander ?d*$ 2 nd 2 ndr } *sel bander
ze 2 lbd 2 ndr, *allein ?dU 2 e 2 n, *wohlan wo l ld 2 n, *vollenden
fo 2 U 2 ndn, *erinnern idh'i-nrn, *erobern ?d*rdb)-n, *0b-
acht ?6 l bd 2 /i 2 t, *Hebamme he l ba*mz l , Einode ?9 2 e 2 no l d9 l .
3) In compounds borrowed from foreign languages, as
e. g. Inter esse ?i 2 ntrre 2 sd 1 , or other foreign words, as
Case pb^zd 1 , Theater fe l d*fr, Ocean ?d l tse*a?n, Ruine
ru l i l nd l , Michaelis mPh^ateHPs, usually no glottal stop is
spoken, although the following vowel is stressed.
29. With the mediopalatal occlusive sounds g and fc
the occlusion is formed by the front part of the soft palate
Mediopalatal anc ^ the back part of the body of the tongue;
occlusive n f C O1
sounds; Cr< 9 ^ L '
Fig. ix. Note 1. The letter g represents the occlusive
sound only 1) at the beginning of a word and at the beginning
of an accentuated syllable: gegangen g& 1 gd*idn, Religion
21
, regieren re 2 gi l rn, Agypten ?e 2 gu 2 j)*tn, Dra-
goner drd 2 g6 l nr, Agent ?d 2 ge 2 nf, Riga rfga 2 , Rigi
rt l gt*', 2) before consonants in Greek and Latin words, as
in Segment ze 2 gme 2 nt, Dogma d6 2 gmd 2 , Pilgrim
p l 7ii*lgrl*m f Kongress khd*idgr4*s', 3) in words with gg bor-
rowed from Low German, as Dogge d6 2 gd 1 , Flagge
fld 2 g r > 1 , Schmuggel smWgl, Roggen ro*gn\ 4) in foreign
words with gu, e.g. Guirlande gt l rld*nd& 9 , intriguieren
?i 2 ntri l gi l rn, Drogue dro 1 gd l .
In all the other cases the letter g denotes the prepalatal
and mediopalatal fricative sounds j or g or TI\ or # 2 ; cf.
21 note J, 2. 22 note 1, 2. 35. 36. 51, 1,2. Exceptions are
a) the group -gig, in which, if the i is dropped, the first g
is pronounced as g, the second asj, e. g. bog'ges bo l gjd l s,
/weitag'ges tsfjd*e 2 the 2 gjd l s (but bogiges bd 1 gi 2 jz l s ) zwei-
tagiges tsbd-e-the'\ji*jd l s}; b) g represents the voiceless oc-
elusive sound fc in*Augsburg p&o^'sbu-rfi 1 , *flugs yf/M 2 A-,s-
(but Flugs lu l ffs\ *bugsieren bu l %et l r%, *Grog gro 2 k,
*Grogs gro 2 ks, *Logbuch I6*lfbu l ]f', Tf is also represented
by gg at the end of a word or before a consonant, e. g.
flaggt fla*lft, Brigg 6n 2 ^, ef. 50.
Note 2. In certain cases A* is expressed in writing
by ch, namely a) in some foreign words such as *Cha-
rakter Ica*rd 2 tor, *Christ JfrPsf, *Christus
*Chronik JcrdWk, *Chrom lfrd l m, *Cholera
*Marchese md 2 rkhe l zd 1 ; b) in some German words as
*Charfreitag ?:MVyfr9 2 e 2 ^a 2 ^ 2 ,*Charwoche Tfhd*rtod*Ji*9 1 ,
*Chemnitz khe 2 mni 2 ts, *Chlodwig kld^dwi 2 ^ 1 , and espe-
cially in the group chs, if no vowel is dropped between
ch and s, e. g. We c h s e 1 ire^sl, c h s e ?dksd\ S a c h s e n
zd*ksn, Fuchs u-ks, sechs ze 2 ks, Da chs da' 2 ks (badger,
dachshund, but des Dachs da 2 /i 2 s of the roof), wachst
we 2 kst (you grow, but wachst^rt 2 .^ 2 ^ you are awake; for
the same reason *nachste ne 2 ^ 1 ^ 1 , *hochste ho^lfstd 1
with ft 1 *, Jf likewise in wachsam wd 2 /i 2 sam}.
The letter x always contains a fc; e. g. Ex am en
?e*ksd*mn, Alexander ?d 2 le-ksdndr, exact ?e 2 ksd 2 kt. At
the end of French words x is not pronounced, e. g. Bu-
reaux
22 -
30. With the alveolar occlusive sounds d and t the
Alveolar occlusion is made by the alveoli of the upper
B C oindJ; e teeth and the front ed & e of the tongue, cf. 23.
Fig. xi.
Corps Tfho l r.
33. II. The oral fricative sounds (open consonants,
spirants, Reibelaute) are produced, when two organs, oppo-
site to each other, do not make a complete occlu-
Fricatives
in general; sion, but only approach each other, so that the
affricates.
breath is pressed through a narrow passage and
thus produces a rubbing noise. The friction is here in the
same relation to the narrow passage, as with the occlusive
sounds the explosion to the occlusion. In common with the
sounds of the 3 rd , 4 th , and 5 th modes of interception, the
fricative sounds possess the property of being continuable at
will, as long as there is breath in the lungs ('hence Dauer-
lante). The combination of an occlusive sound with a horn-
organic fricative sound is called affricate. In modern Ger-
man there exist two affricates: %* and ts (mostly written z
and c; cf. 37 note 4); besides ts (cf. 37 note 6), which
occurs only in borrowed words.
34. The laryngeal fricative (glottal fricative, Haucli-
laut) h is formed in the throat itself by the approaching of
the vocal chords to each other in such a de-
& ree > that the breath rubs against their edges,
Fig. vi a without, however, making them vibrate; cf. 11,3.
It seems, however, a little questionable, whether by articulating
the German h the glottis is actually more narrowed than in
articulating any other voiceless consonant; an increased force
of expiration could in itself be sufficient to produce the
rubbing noise; cf. 11, 2. That in articulating an h the
force of expiration is actually increased, is shown by the
fact that the German h is only pronounced if the follow-
23
ing vowel has the stress, i. c. if a more intensive expirat-
ion takes place, if the vocal chords are struck by a more
energetic breath: halt en hd-lfn. anhalten ? a wM 2 /f, Oheim
?6 l h9*e*m, Rauheit r&*Q*p9*e*t, Hoheit h6 l fib*e*t (but rube
rw 1 *? 1 , sehe 2V, t'ahre d*r<> 1 , stehle fteHa 1 ). Under the
same condition also after p l , t, k an h is pronounced, no
matter whether it is written or not: kund khu*nt, loeal
I6 l klm-l, Eitelkeit ifr^tlkhd^H, Chemnitz l'he*mni*t*,
Tricot frigid 1 ; Teil th^e% Thema fM l mA 2 , Lot(h)ar
fo l th&r, Italien nWuMi^n, Ant ipathie rfntPjjWtht 1 , Ber-
t(h)a &e'V/M 2 , Bert(h)old W 2 r$<> 2 #; Pein tfhattfn. Papier
ft*(i'*p^hi l r. But before an unstressed vowel h is not sounded,
e. g. Walt(h)er wdHtr, Zither tsiHr.
An occlusive sound, followed by an h, is called aspi-
rate (A7>, th, j) l h), and must lie carefully distinguished from
a fricative (like #, . sjj l a 2 s, *speculieren sjj l e' 2 ku*li l rn, *S pie gel
sgWjl, *spazieren sj^a'^tsi^rn, *Spanien sj^d-ni^n,
*Spiritus sf> l i l ri*tu*s, *Spion sj)fyo l n, *8pediteur
*Spalier sp l d*li l r, *speziell sp l e*tsi*e*l, *Spektakel
sji) l e 2 kthd 2 kl, *Spezerei s}) 1 c jl ts9 1 r^ 2 e-, *Spinat sj) l i l na 2 t,
*8pirale $]>H*r&Hd l \ *8tandarte sfa 2 ndd''rtd l , *Strapaze
strd'^hd^tsd 1 , *Stuck(atur), sti( 2 k(a 2 thti } r), *8tudent s(u l -
de 2 nt, *studieren sta, l di l rn, *8tudium stii l di*u*m, *Stro-
])he strd l fo } , *8til sti l l, *8tation sta-tsi*o l n, *8tockholm
jito*kh6Hm. sch is pronounced like s also in Greek and Latin
words which have become quite German, as in *8chema
s&ma 2 , *8cholar so l lA 2 r.
s forms the second part of the affricate ts, which ap-
pears only in foreign words like *Cicerone tsi } tsd*ro l nd l ,
*G u 1 1 ap e r c h a gu 2 ta 2 j) } he-rtsd' 2 , *C z e c h e n tse*/i l n, *C h e c k
tse 2 k, and in some Slavic words, as Peitsche j) l hd 2 e 2 tsd l ,
Kutsche kpu^tsa 1 and their derivatives.
38. With the labiodental fricatives /' and
Labiodental
fricatives; w theiianow passage is formed between the under
Fig. XIV.
lip and the upper teeth; ct. 24.
Note. In *Bowle b6 l l l , borrowed from English, and
in Low German, originally Slavic names ending in ow the
w is not pronounced, as in Biihlow bu l lo l , Llit/ow 1u-tso l ,
Gutzkow gu^fsko 1 ; w T hilst in such names in ow which
are still Slavic w is pronounced as yf, as in Charkow
/I 2 d 2 rko 2 yf, R o m a n o w rd l md 2 no 2 f.
39. With regard to the bilabial fricative
Hilahial
fricative; 5 winch has its narrow passage between both
Fig XV '
lips, cf. 25 note 1, 2.
40. III. In forming the oral trills (rolled consonants,
Zitterlatite) the breath causes to trill some easily flexible
THUS l )art f tnc lllon th, such as e. g. the tip of the ton-
in general. ^ ue o| . |.|, e UV ula; this trilling organ touches
another part, opposite to it, and transfers the trilling to it
in much ihe same manner as the moving drum stick produces
a movement of the drum-skin. The tongue touches the alveoli
and makes them trill; the uvula acts upon the foramen
caecum. Accordingly, an occlusion takes place, and as on
27
account of its elasticity the trilling tip of the tongue or
the trilling uvula rebounds into its original position, the oc-
clusion is opened immediately afterwards. The peculiar, rolling
character of the trills is due to the fact that the breath is
periodically interrupted, and occlusion and opening alternate
with each other several times. Although in pronouncing an
r the same acts of occluding and opening are repeated several
times, the sound produces nevertheless an unbroken, unified
effect on account of the great rapidity with which the differ-
ent acts follow upon each other. At least two strokes of the
tongue or the uvula are required, in order to produce the im-
pression of a rolled r. As to the relation of the German
alveolar r to the uvular r cf. 20 note I.
Note. There are several differences between the English
and the German alveolar rs. In accordance with the Eng-
lish organic basis (cf. 8) the tongue is more retracted,
the front part of the tongue has a more bulky shape, and
in consequence of it the English r is not rolled, i. e. only
one stroke with the tongue takes place.
41. In pronouncing the uvular trills r and r the back
part of the tongue is raised, and in the median line of the ton-
gue there is formed a groove or furrow, in which Uvu ,. ir trjll ...
the uvula unhindered trills against the foramen fig. vm.
caecum. If on account of careless articulation the forming of
such a median furrow is omitted, a rubbing noise is pro-
duced and instead of an r an 7/ 2 or g sound appears.
Note 1. r is not pronounced at the end of French
words: e. g. Bankier bd 2 0ki*neral -
the back molar teeth, so that on each side of the mouth an
opening for the breath is formed (hence I is also called a
divided consonant); very common, however, are the uni-
lateral or asymmetric I sounds, in which an opening is
made only on one side of the mouth whilst the other side is
occluded by the tongue.
28
43. The German I and I are alveolar and
Alveolar-
lateral form their median occlusion exactly as the alveolar
sounds.
d or t.
Note. The English I, likewise alveolar, differs from the
German in the following- respects: 1) on account of a hollow-
ing in the forepart of the tongue, in accordance with the
English organic basis ( 8), it has a hollo wer sound; 2) it
has a dorsal articulation, and the back-part of the tongue
is raised, whilst the German Z is coronal and the bulk of
the tongue remains as far as possible passive.
44. V. The nasal consonants have a complete
occlusion in the mouth, but at the same time the velum
Nasals w 'th the uvu l a is lowered quite as it is in ordi-
in general, nary breathing without speaking. The mouth accor-
dingly forms a caeca! sack (cul-de-sac) and serves only as a
resonance-chamber for the breath, which has to escape through
the nose. The difference of .the nasal sounds is due to the
different shapes of this resonance-chamber, which are produced
by the different manners of occluding the mouth. The oral
occlusions for the nasal sounds are made in the same ways
and at the same places as for the corresponding oral occlus-
ive sounds.
45, Accordingly, for the mediopalatal nasals ra and
Mediopalatal ^ tne ora ^ occlusion is formed by the front part
nasals. O f ^j e so ft p a i a t e and the back part of the body
of the tongue.
Note. In writing we use for this sound a common n
only, if a Tf sound follows: sinke zi' 2 tdlcd l , sank zcPnk,
inquirieren li^dkbi^ri^rn, Konkurs Ifho^idklm^rs', and an
n also in foreign words and Old German names, if a g
follows, as in Evangelium ?ewa 2 wge l li 2 u' 2 m, Ungarn
?u 2 idga' 2 rn, Ganges Ga 2 ngd l s, Linguist U 2 idgwi" 2 st, fin-
gieren fi*wgi*rn, Ingo ?i 2 ngd l , Engadin ?e 2 idga 2 dt 1 n^ in
words borrowed from Latin g before n is pronounced as
n, as in Magnet ma*wne } t, Signal zi 2 tdna 2 l, Ignorant
?l^n6 1 rd*nf. In all the other cases 13 is expressed in writ-
ing by ng, e. g. singe z/^a 1 , sang za*td, Jung ju 2 n,
jtingst ju 2 tdst, Finger ft*wr (not like the Engl. finger
, so too in *Diphthonge di*tJid 2i }3d l .
29
46. With the alveolar nasals n and n the
f ' Alveolar
occlusion is formed by the front edge or the nasau:
Visf XI
tongue and the alveoli of the upper teeth.
47. With the labiodental nasal m 2 the upper teeth
and the underlip -form the oral occlusion; cf. Labiodental
24. Nyinphe, n&*m*9 l \ cf. Engl. nymph also Fig. xiV.
with m 2 .
48. With the fabiolabial nasals m and nas^Ya* 1
w 1 both lips form the occlusion; cf. 25. Fig. xv.
49. If the vocal chord^ touch each other and vibrate,
a voiced sound is produced ( 11, 4); if the glottis is open,
a voiceless one (11, 2), The voiced occlusive
Voiced and
sounds are q, a, b: the voiceless ?, K, L p 2 , p 1 . voiceless
m , , ,. . .. . . , consonants
The voiced fricatives are g, j, z, z, w, voiceless in general;
/?, h 2 , fi\ S, ? , f, 5. The trills, the lateral and
the nasal sounds (with exception of m 2 which is always voice-
less) can be both voiceless and voiced.
50. Voiced occlusive sounds become voiceless:
1) At the end of a word and at the end of the first part of
a compound: Brigg bri 2 k, Flaggschiff fld 2 lfsi 2 f^ voiced and
Magd ma'fft, Jagdanzug j#fffi#vtfiW, oc^f'S
Abend rot idbntrd^t, Abend essen ?d*bnte 2 sn', sounds.
Lob ?o 2 j> 1 , Schreibart fr9*g*p l ?a*Tt) leblos le^Ho 1 ?, abrupt
?d*j)*ru 2 ]!)' 1 f, *subaltern zu 2 j} 1 ?a 2 lfe 2 rn (but not in foreign words
as e. g. *sublim zu 2 bli l m, where the composition is not clearly
understood).
Note 1. If after gg, d or b the dropping of an & l is
indicated by an apostrophe, these sounds remain voiced
Flagg' fla 2 g, ich red' re*d, Knab' TcncPb. They remain
also voiced at the end of the first parts of the following
compounds: *Kno blanch kn6 2 blv 2 o 2 /i*, *0bacht ?d l bd*fi*t,
*Hebamme he^bd^md 1 , *sel bander ze 2 lbd 2 ndr, *Frie-
drich fri l dri 2 Ji l , *Ludwig lu*dwi*]i l } *Hedwig he l dwl 2 Ji l .
2) In the middle of words before suffixes beginning
with consonants and before voiceless consonants which do
not belong to a suffix, e. g. *flugs lu 2 ks, *Augsburg
?v 2 o 2 ~ksbu 2 rJi l , flaggst fla^st, flaggt fla?~kt, *bugsieren
bu l Ttsi l rn; abends ?d 2 bnts, tugendhaft t^gnthd 2 ^, Mad-
chen meHffn, Find ling fi l ntli 2 t9, kindlich TchPnflPJi 1 ;
Lobs lo^s-, lobt W l % l t, lobst Z^ 1 ^, 1 obi ich Id
30
K n a b c h e n kne 2 j) l Ji l n, A b t ?a 2 # l (, L a b s a 1 Id 2 j) 1 sti*l, L i e b 1 i u g
W-tfVPw.
Note '2. d and b remain voiced, if before r, 1, n, m,
belonging to the stem of the word an 9 1 is dropped: ecller
?e l dlr, andrer ?d 2 ndrr, Redner re l dnr, widmeu wPdmn',
iibles ?u l bld' [ s, it brig ?il l bri-/i l } ebnes ?ebna l s. In the
same way before the ending -nung: Ordnung ?6 2 rdnit 2 i<) )
Ebnung ?e l bnu 2 w. The use with the suffix -lein wavers:
Kindlein 'kln^ndl^e^n and Jfpi 2 nt1d s e 2 n, Knablein kne 2 b-
lartfn and fyn&^ffifpn. Before the suffixes -lich, -ling
the voiceless sounds always appear; cf. 82, 1. The voiced
sound appears besides in some isolated words: *adlich
(-adellich) p&dlPti 1 , *Geliibde g^lu^dd 1 , *Liebden Widn
Lastly, g in Greek and Latin words before suffixes be-
ginning with m is voiced: Dogma d6 2 gmd 2 , Fragment
fja?gme-nt.
51. Voiced fricative sounds become voiceless:
1) At the end of a word or at the end of the first part of a
voiced and compound: bog bo 1 ?^, Zug tsu 2 fi*, Zugt'uhrer
voiceless ^
fricatives. tsufi'fti l rr, Zugochse tsu 2 /i 2 ?o 2 ksj l : Weg w&Ji 1 ,
Z e u g fso 2 u-?i l ,Z e u g h a u s tso-u-ffh'Q-o-s, Z e u g a r t tso-u-Ji^a-rf,
Burg bu*rfi l , Burgaufgang bu-rJi v b-o-fga-i9\ Haus hv^o^s,
Hausvater hv-o-sfd-tr, H a u s a r / 1 hv'o 2 s?d-rtst ; a c t i v
?d 2 kti l f, b r a v brd-f, A d j e c t i f ?d 2 dje-l'ti '/", C h a r k o w
tf&rWt.
Note 1. If after g, j. z, z, w the dropping of an d 1 is
marked by an apostrophe, the voiced sound remains: there-
fore Aug' ?v-Q*g, leg' le\j, Reis' ra 2 e 2 z, Courag' ~ku l ra*z,
Low' /o'to.
2) Voiced fricatives become voiceless in the middle of
a word before suffixes beginning with a consonant and
before voiceless consonants which do not belong to suffixes:
des Plugs fluffs, fragte frAtft* 1 , fraglich frtffflP/l 1 ,
tragbar trd s ^bd a r } Magd, Jagd, Siiiaragd ma/ft, ja 2 ffi,
sm l a?rd' z Ji 2 t (and here this pronunciation is transferred also
to the plural Magde, Jagden, Smaragde wzc 2 ^ 1 ^ 1 , jd*Ji*fy,
sm l a 2 rd 2 Ii 2 td l ); biegt bPtft, lugst lu\/i l st, Wegs wefts,
folgt fo 2 Wt, birgt bi*rfl l t, Feigling fa>*e*h l lto> E r '
eignis ?9 l r;&t /i fl 1 yi*f, regsara re l ?i l sd*m, Vogte fo^fa 1 ;
1 ^ 1 , Roslein rfrsld^n, Bosheit bo l sh9Yt, Klaus-
31
ner %lti*Q*8nr } Knospe #wd 2 #V, Maske rwrf^-y 1 ; Ltfwchen
loffin, Levkoje le'fktfj^.
Note 2. The voiced fricatives remain, if before r, 1,
ii, m belonging to the stem of the word an y 1 is dropped:
magrer ma^it-r, kuglicht khu l gli 2 /i } t; segnen ze. l jnn,
angle ?6 i u i j(\) l } bettlagerig beetle 2 jri-Ji l \ weisre wv*g*zn> 1 ,
gewesnen g9 } iceznn, bravre brd-icr l , naivre naH l wr^ 1 .
(Before the suffixes -lie h, -lein, and ling and the endings
-ner and -ler we have the voiceless fricatives: Wagner
tcd*]i-nr, Liigner lu l /i l nr, Klausner Tfl&Q^snr, Vogler
fo l /i*lr.') s and w also retain their voice, if in the suffix -ig
the i disappears: eis'ge py'V^'y 1 , ew'ge ?e 1 icjd' 2 ', for j
and g in this case cf. 29 note 1.
3) The letter s denotes the voiced alveolar fricative z:
a) at the beginning of a word before vowels, e. g. so zo\
Salz za?Us; also in foreign words borrowed from Greek and
Latin, e.g. Sonant zo l nd-nt, Sophist zb l fi*st; and in a few
Romance words *Salat za*la ? t, ^Saioon i&zu", *Salon za-lq-
*Service ze^rwi^s. *8erviette ze*rwi 2 e 2 td l , *Solo
'
*Sance
e 2 td l , *Solo zo l l6 l .
ET* n
FSouper zu l j> } he 1 .]
mance lanuaes the
In the other words borrowed from the Romance languages
voiceless s is retained, ye. g. Sergeant se*rzd~nt, Souve/aVn
jA'tMV^' /<**>, 5^ ,lvAfM J^l^^f, $ : ps sufa*
b) in the middle ''of a w r ord before 'vowels, if a vowel
or r, 1, n, m precedes, as e. g. lese Ie l z9 1 , Perse r j)*he*rzt',
Person p l e^rz6 2 n^ Wesen we 2 zn, Verse fe-rz9 l , Fclsen
f'eHzn, Universitat ?i/t?ni i we' t rzi*th$*fa heilsam h9*e 2 lzd 2 m,
liansa hd*nza*, emsig ^e^mzi^/i 1 , Version we*rz$*6 l n,
Konvulsion lfht)*nu)uHzj?6 l n, Raison re*z*o-.
Apart from the cases mentioned under 1 and 2, s ex-
presses the voiceless sound: a) if a consonant, except r, 1,
n, in, precedes: Erbse ?e 2 rjjsa l , Lotse ffltsa 1 , wechseln
ice%sln, Absicht tdtys&ffi, seltsam ze*ltsa 2 m, folgsam
f'oHJ^sa^m^ sittsam zi 2 tsd 2 m, Psalm j) l sa-lm, psychisch
7> 1 ,^ 1 // 1 z 2 5; b) at the beginning of a foreign word before a
consonant: Scene stse 1 n9 l , Sklave sTeld*io9 l , Smaragd
^w l a-rd 2 fi i t, Swine sbi l nd l .
4) Apart from the cases mentioned under 1 and 2, the
letter v indicates the voiceless labiodental fricative in all
the genuine German words: viel fi l l, Frevel fr&ff, Venn
32
fe*n, Vlame Ie*m& 1 , Verden fe l rdn, Vischer fi*sr, Voss
fo*s, Hannover hd?no l fr (but also wich w), (Wilhelms-)
haven hd*n; and in the following foreign words: *Vers
fe*rs, *Veiichen /9 2 e 2 /#%, *Vogt f5 l ?i*t, *Vettel feHl,
*Larve Id 2 rfo l , *Pulver p l ~huHfr (mostly too so in *N er-
ven nePrfn, but *nervos ne?rwl l s).
On the other hand the voiced fricative w is represented
by v in all the other borrowed words, e. g. vulgar wuHgS 2 r,
privat i^ri^waH, Sklave skld*w9 l , Vocal wd*Tfha?l, Salve
zd z lw9 l ] and in a few German names, as *Vandalen wc^nddHn,
*Sievers zi l wrs, *Trave trd'-u'<)\ *Kleve kle^wd 1 .
5) The bilabial fricative 5 does not occur as a voiced
sound in German, but is always voiceless, as it is found only
after voiceless consonants, cf. 25 note 1.
52. The trills, lateral and nasal sounds (with exception
of m 2 ) are voiced, but:
v 1) if at the beginning of a syllable they are
voiceless preceded by one or several voiceless consonants,
trills, lateral J
and nasai they become voiceless, or at least half voiceless,
so that the sound begins as a voiceless one, and
ends as a voiced: t rag en trd 2 gn, Schreck sre z k, schmettre
sm l &H'r^ ', klang I$la?i9, Sklave sTtld^u'd 1 , schlau slv 2 o 2 ,
lachle U 2 Ji l ld l ; Knecht 7c?ie 2 /i l t, schnitt sni 2 t, gebackne
g& 1 bd 2 knd l ; Schmied smHH, Smaragd m'aVd 8 ^ 2 ^ Tmesis
tm l e l zi*s, at me ?d 2 tm l d l . Cf. Engl. pride, slow with
bride, glow;
2) if at the end of a syllable they are followed by one
or several voiceless consonants (except h), they become voice-
less, or at least half voiceless, so that the sound begins as a
voiced one and ends as voiceless: Orte ?6*rta l , wird wi 2 rt,
warfen wd 2 rf'n, wirft wi-rt, -Herzen he*rtsn', kalte
TchdHtd 1 . halb ha 2 ^ 1 , Schultz suits', trank frank, trinkst
fri 2 idksf; bunte bu 2 nfd l } Land Ia 2 nt, ganz ga 2 nts, Men-
schen me*nsn; dampfen dd^mtjffn, fiinf u-m-, sanfte
zd 2 m 2 td 1 ', Amt ?a 2 m l f, fremd re*m l t, Lumpen Iu 2 m l j) l n.
Cf. Engl. sent, felt, lamp with send, field, lamb.
Before h the voiced quality is retained: m an n haft
md 2 nhd 2 ff, wahrhaft wd*rha~ft.
Fortes and 53. Sounds, which are pronounced with com-
lenes; double . . . . .
consonants, paratively less torce of expiration, i. e. with lower
33
voice, are called lenes; sounds pronounced with comparatively
greater force of expiration, i. e. louder, are called fortes. In
German all the voiced consonants are lenes, on the other
band the voiceless occlusive and fricative sounds (with the
exception only of the bilabial voiceless 5) are fortes; for the
breath of expiration can of course produce a more energetic
effect with the glottis open than with the glottis closed,
where a part of the force is used to make the vocal chords
vibrate. Only the bilabial 5, the trills, lateral and nasal sounds,
which are originally voiced, but lose their voice under the
conditions mentioned above ( 51, 5. 52), keep their original
quality as lenes, although they have become voiceless.
The ratio of force between lenis and fords is only a
relative one: e. g. if a voiced consonant occasionally, for in-
stance, when the speaker is excited, is pronounced with a
greater expiration than usually, a voiceless consonant of the
same syllable will be produced with a still greater force of
expiration; accordingly with equal force of speaking the gra-
dation between lenis and fortis is always maintained.
This can especially be observed with words, such as
Flagge yf/rf'gra 1 , Roggen rd*gn, back(e) bd*jp(9 1 '), Rocken
ro 2 ?z; Widder wi*dr, Padde % l hd*d9*, Ritter ri 2 t); Ratte
rd*t& lm , Krabbe krd 2 bd l , Robbe r6 s b& 1 , Knappe knd 2 %*9 1 ,
Rapp(e) rd 2 /? 1 ^ 1 ); Schiffe sT/fc 1 ); pass(e) $ l hd 2 s(d l ); koin-
m(e) Tfho*m(d 1 }, Mann(e) md 2 ^ 1 ); all(e) ;d*la 1 -, irr(e) ?i*rd l .
The double consonants in modern German do not express at
all a reiterated articulation of the same sound or the length
of the sound, but only the force of expiration. E. g. dd in
Padde g l hd*da l and tt in Ratte rdHd 1 , which represent
only the single sounds d and t, are produced with greater
force of expiration than d in Rade rd*dd l and t in rate
rdHd 1 ] i. e. dd has the function of a fortis in comparison
with the lenis d, and tt is a still stronger fortis in comparison
with the fortis t. In the same way ff in Schiffe si 2 fo l or
schafft (procures) sa 2 t is a stronger fortis than the usual
fortis f in schiefe Wfo 1 or Schaft (handle) ia*ft. In
Manne md 2 n9 l im is fortis, but in mahne md*nd l the single
n is lenis; 11 is fortis e. g. in schallt sa?]t (it sounds), but
1 is lenis in schalt 8a*\t (scolded).
Note. In South German dialects the gradation of ex-
piration has a much greater importance than in North
3
- 34
Germany; for, whilst here b, g, z, etc. are distinguished from
g, If, s, etc. both by the voice and the weaker expiration,
South Germany, which possesses only voiceless occlusive and
fricative sounds, distinguishes the corresponding sounds only
by a gradation of expiration: j) l d*$*n with p l (or jo 1 /*) fortis
means pain, with j) 1 lenis leg; rd-e-sn with s fortis to tear,
with s lenis to travel; j) l d l 1c]d a e~tn with fortis and t lenis
is to dress, with k lenis and t fortis to accompany.
54. Although the German consonants have not all the
same quantity and individually have not the same quantity
in all positions, we can practically neglect the differences and
Quantity can generally qualify all the German consonants,
of consonants. koth j enes an( j fortes, as short in contradistinction
to the English consonants (cf. especially the n in English man
mce 2 n and German man ma 2 n). Unquestionably long consonants
occur only in compounds, if the first part ends and the second
part begins with the same consonant; e.g. Nottauf e
but Notausgang no l t?v 2 o 2 sga 2 /d, Packkorb
but Packort ]> l hd-'k?d*rt ) Halbpreusze hd*lp l rd s %*sd l but
Halbreusze hdHj^rd 2 ^ 2 . 1 , Tauffeier tfiv-o z ~fo 2 e*d l r but Bau-
feier b&Q^fo^gWr, Schnelllaufer sne 2 lb-ii*fr but Schnee-
laufer 8n&ld*&?fr. So also if two words are contracted under
one principal stress, e.g. Not tun no^th&n but so tun zd l thu l n,
Larm machen le^rmd-lfn but leer machen le l rma*Ji*n.
An occlusive sound is lengthened by lengthening the soundless
pause between the making and the opening of the occlusion; all
the other sounds are lengthened by continuing the expiration,
whilst the organs of speech remain in the position required for
the respective consonant. But in no case is the lengthening of
a consonant produced by performing the same articulation
twice, in Nottaufe for instance is only one t, not two.
Note 1. Besides this purely phonetical lengthening con-
sonants are sometimes lengthened for metrical or rhetorical
reasons (e. g. ich frage nicht, wann [ec 2 fi] er es getan
hat, sondern was [wa 2 s\ er getan hat; Vater! in a
very emphatic exclamation sounds A*tf)} individually, con-
sonants are lengthened by persons who drawl their words.
Note 2. We can sometimes observe the tendency to
shorten a long consonant, especially in words frequently
used, e. g. Mittag miHhfffif instead of mi*tM-/i 2 , d ass el be
d&*sP1b9 l instead of dd*se*lto l , Wollust woHtfst instead of
35
w6 2 lii 2 st- Very common is the shortening of a long con-
sonant, if it is preceded or followed by another consonant:
achtzig ?d*Ji s txi*/i l instead of saPJffsPJi 1 , hast du Jufafu 1 in-
stead of hd*8f$ ,Bankkasse bd*i9%hti i 89 l instead of bd^jphd*.
S9 l , Halbprisma hd 2 Ij) l rl 2 sm l a- instead of Jid 2 li) l ri*sm l d* }
Exzellenz ?e*ks9 l le s nfs instead of ?&*%59 l l4*nf8', Selbst-
zucht ze*Ij)stsu*/i s t is very often pronounced quite likeSclbst-
sucht ze 2 lj)stsu*Ji 2 t(\)y assimilation arisen out of z&Ifistzifilft).
55. Certain consonants can assume the function of
vowels ; if namely a syllable contains r, /, n, m, and no other
sounds which are more sonorous than one of these consonants
four, r, I, n, m become the sonants or vowels U8ed as vowels -
of the syllable (silbebildend, stlbisch, Sonanten), and this
function is indicated by a little circle under them; cf. Haydn
/id*g*dn, Ischl n*sl. They are all sonorous sounds, qualified
by a pure musical tone without any noise. In the German
unaccentuated syllables er, el, en, em the d 1 is usually not
pronounced and the following- consonant becomes thereby a
sonant or vowel: B ruder bru l dr, Vater d*tr, Lager ld~gr,
steinern std 2 e 2 nrn; Handel hd*ndl, eitel ?d 2 & 2 tl, Kugel
Ifh&gl, lacheln 1e*Ji l ln', Hand en fie s ndn, wachend wd*fi*nt\
stillem stiHm, A tern ?d 2 tm (cf. Engl. idle, hidden, better
and better, rhythm). 80 also in unstressed syllables, other
than final : B u c h e 1 c h e n Mi l Ji l lJi l n, s c h n e i d e n d e n snd *e 2 dndn,
geschnittenen gd l sni 2 tnn, usually qd l sni 2 tnnn. But the
prefixes ver-, er-, zer-, ent-, em- are seldom pronounced as
fr, r, tsr, lit, m 2 , mostly as fo 1 )', ?d l r, ts9 l r, Pd 1 ?^, ?^ 1 w 2 ,
e. g. vergangen, fo*rgd 2 tan, entgangen ?d l ntgd 2 idn, em-
pfangen ?d-m-j)-d?i3n. In the same way, en, em. er, el,
preceded by a vowel or i 2 , are pronounced as & l n, ohn, 9 1 /-, dU,
not as n, m, r, /; e. g. saen ze 2 d l n, sahen ze 2 d l n, Feuer
6 9 u*9*r, hoher hd l a l r, hohem ho^^m, Biihel btl 1 9 l l f Italien
?tthd 2 U' 2 d 1 n, Spanier sj)d' i ni 2 9 1 r.
Note. Occasionally a voiceless consonant can also under-
take the function of a sonant; this is sometimes the case
with es, which in familiar speech is often pronounced as
s, instead of the more careful ?d l s, e. g. ist's ?i*sts, es
(s) kam ein Hund gelaufen, es (s) hat geregnet.
Compare in Engl. Jones's dz6 2 u 2 nss. Souautal s and
occur also in the interjections st, jt, p 1 ^, ft*.
IT. Yocalism.
Vocalic
symbols and
key-words.
56. Table of the 18 genuine German
and the 4 French Towels together with the
list of the phonetical symbols and the key-words for the
different spellings; for the explanations see 57 69.
Combined vowels or diphthongs: a 2
i 2 The same sound with the function of a consonant:
Familie f&mVl%W\ cf. 68.
14) e 1 mid front tense long: gebe; stehle; See;
Baukier bd 2 idki 2 e l , Soire sb*a 2 re l (only in French words).
15) e 2 mid front lax long: gabe; stable; Affaire
?a*fe 2 ra l , Dessert de 2 se 2 r, Essay ?e 2 se 2 (only in French words).
16) e 2 mid front lax short: Stelle, Stalle.
e 2 the same sound as consonant in the diphthong 9 2 e 2
(cf. n 11).
17) e 2 mid front lax long nasalized: B as sin 6 2 s| 2 , Re-
frain re 2 /Vf 2 , bien bi<> 2 , Teint thj 2 (only in French words).
18) u 1 mid front tense round long: Gemiiter; Hiihner;
*Duisburg (only Low German words); My the (only Greek
words); Brunette, Revue (only French words).
19) ii 2 mid front lax round short: Mutter; System
(only Greek words); Lustre (only French words).
w 2 the same sound as consonant, forming the second
component of the diphthongs u 2 u 2 (cf . n 2) and o 2 u 2 (cf. n 4).
20) o l low front tense round long: Ofen; holinisch;
Goethe; Epopoe (only Greek words); Redacteur, Coeur
(only French words).
.'?41 949
38
21) o 2 low front lax round short: offnen.
22) 2 low front lax round long nasalized: Parfum
J )1 2 r/t> 2 , Verdun we' 2 rdq 2 (only French words).
57. If we examine the formation of the vowels, we
must not start from the acoustic effect, the musical tone or
Articulation note, but we have to examine them, like the con-
of vowels
in general. SOllRlltS, from a physiological point of VJ6W, 1. 6.
we have to start from the position of the organs of speech ; cf .
16. For, although in the formation of vowels the cavity
of the mouth is open in its whole length, from the pharynx
to the lips, and accordingly no interception of the breath
(either by complete occlusion or by forming a narrow passage)
takes place, and the channel of the mouth serves only as a
resonance-chamber for the voice (or the voiceless breath, cf.
58 note) produced by the vocal chords, we have neverthe-
less here too to speak of places of articulation (but not of
places or modes of interception), as this resonance-chamber
presents different shapes on account of the different positions
of the tongue and the lips.
If we wish to classify the vowels from a physiological
point of view, the following 4 factors are simultaneously to
be taken into account:
1) the position of the vocal chords (voiced and voiceless
vowels; cf. 11, 2, 4. 58); 2) the position of the velum and
the uvula (oral and nasalized vowels cf. 13. 59) ; 3) the
formation of the tongue; cf. 14. 60 63; 4) the formation
of the lips; cf. 15. 67.
The first and second factors are identical for consonants
and vowels; but the formations of the tongue and of the lips
are, with few exceptions, characteristic of the vowels alone.
The articulation of the tongue forms the constituent element
of a vowel, the articulation of the lips is only modifying.
58. Vowels are pronounced, as their name indicates,
with sounding vocal chords; and that they are the most
voiced sonorous of all sounds is due to the fact that
and voiceless . i t . t * * ij
vowels. the unchecked voice is considerably strengthened
by the open resonance-chamber, the mouth.
Note. But we can produce any vowel with an open ( 11, 2)
[or half-open; 11, 6] glottis, consequently as a voiceless
[or half-voiced, whispered voiced] one. The acoustic effect is
39
that of an h, which, according to the position of the tongue
and the lips required for the respective vowel, is to be de-
termined as h a , h*, h u etc., i. e. h pronounced from the
basis, from the i basis etc.; or, as we mark a consonantal
vowel by a semicircle and voicelessriess by a dot, as #, i, u etc.
These voiceless vowels appear very scantily in German,
but they must be assumed by those who do not admit
that the German h has the character of a consonant (cf.
34). A voiceless g, can appear in the interjection aha =
phonetically ?d 2 # 2 2 : i. e. throughout the whole word the
unchanged position of tongue and lips is retained, but at the
beginning of the word and at the end the vocal chords are clo-
sed, in the middle opened; likewise in Sahara 2 2 # 2 2 ra 2 ; a
voiceless o in oho ?i
of the tongue, upper teeth and the highest point or the articula-
ting part of the tongue (see the table 56 and Fig. XVI
XXII):
1) the tongue is retracted, and the back part of it is
moved towards the soft palate (back vowels);
2) the tongue has an intermediate position, and the
middle part of it is opposite the boundary region of the hard
and the soft palates (intermediate or mixed vowels);
3) the tongue is pushed forwards, and the front part of
it is moved towards the hard palate (front vowels);
Note 1. The expression "horizontal" is to be under-
stood loosely, not literally, for the channel of the mouth is
no cavity with a completely horizontal position, but represents
a slightly bent tube.
Note 2. The expression "mixed", which is better avoided,
is due to the false conception, that in forming vowels of this
group the front and the back parts of the tongue partici-
pate simultaneously.
62. II. In the vertical positions of the tongue the
distance between the highest point of the articulating part of
vertical the tongue and the nearest opposite part of the
articulations of . f.
the tongue, palate can be measured, and, according to the
greater or less degree to which the tongue is lowered, we
divide the vowels into 1) high, 2) mid, and 3) low vowels;
cf. the table 56 and Fig. XVI -XXII.
Note 1. The expression "vertical" is not to be taken
in the strict sense of the word. If we quite roughly
represent the three different degrees by a sector of 4 con-
centric circles; we might say that the tongue descends in
a centripetal direction: accordingly, with the back vowels
from above-back towards below-front; with the front vowels
from above-front towards below-back; only with the inter-
mediate vowels can we speak with any strictness of a vertical
descent.
Note 2. Standard English does not use the low back
41
lax # 2 which occurs in Cockney English father in-
stead of the mid back lax a 2 in Engl. father. In German
a 2 appears only as the first component of the diphthong
*> 2 j? 2 , as in Ha us, but it is an independent vowel in some
dialects, e. g. Bavarian- Austrian Vater fv*tr.
63. III. The articulating part of the tongue can either
1) show a greater convexity which can be noticed in the
muscles by a feeling of tenseness, and which, of Tense and
course, diminishes the distance between the articula- lax vowel8
ting part of the tongue and the palate. Such vowels, denoted
by the exponent 1, are called closed, narrow or tense (ge-
schlossene, enge, gespannte). They are: u 1 , a 1 ; 1 ; f 1 , e 1 ,
u 1 , o 1 .
Or 2) the articulating part of the tongue can be more
flattened: the muscles are in a state of relative relaxation,
and the distance between the palate and the articulating part
of the tongue is, of course, greater. The vowels of this
group, denoted by the exponent 2, are termed open, wide
or lax (olfene, weite, ungespannte). They are: u 2 , 6~, o 2 ,
2 , -', q 2 , v 2 ] 9 2 ; I 2 , e*, e 2 , e 2 , il 2 , d' 2 , 2 .
Note 1. The difference is best expressed by the terms
"tense" and "lax"; for the expression "closed", "narrow"
and "open", "wide" are open to objections, as they only refer
to the distance between the tongue and the palate, and a
vowel with a greater distance from the palate, e. g. e 1 ,
would be called "narrow" or "closed", whilst a vowel with
a less distance, e. g. i 2 , is "wide" or "open".
Note 2. In consequence of the flattened state of the
tongue with the English organic basis (cf. 8) the corres-
ponding English tense vowels are missing: a 1 , it 1 , and d 1 ab-
solutely, w 1 , o 1 , i 1 , e 1 only in the standard English (South
Engl.): North English and especially Scottish have main-
tained these 4 old vowels: too thfi 1 , so so 1 , sea si 1 , say se l \
(compare the Germ, tu thu 1 , so zd 1 , si eh zf 1 , See ze 1 .}
South English has substituted for them diphthongs, consisting
of lax vowels: thu 2 u 2 , so 2 u 2 , si*i 2 , se 2 i 2 .
64. With the exception of 9 1 which is always short, and
of a 2 and e 2 which are short or long, in the Ger- Relations be-
man (i. e. oral) vowels with the difference be- uTlndTonV
tween tense and lax is also connected a difference short vowel3 -
42
of quantity, so that the tense vowels are always long, and
the lax rowels always short. It therefore seems to be most
convenient to discuss the appearance of the individual tense
and lax vowels in connection with their quantity in 69 74.
Here it is, however, necessary to demarcate the provinces of
the different e sounds: e 1 , e 2 : d 1 , d 2 , e 2 .
The French (i. e. nasal) rowels, appearing in borrowed
words, are pronounced in German always long and lax, so
that we have in this case also a long- o 2 and J> 2 , whilst the
same sounds without nasalisation are transmuted into 6 1 and
5 1 in French words, adopted by X. H. G., e. g. Redacteur
r^da^ktho 1 !', Corps kh l o l r, in contradistinction to the pronun-
ciation in French with o 2 and o 2 .
65. The mid front tense long e 1 (Fig. XXI) is ex-
pressed in writing by e, ee, eh ; in French words also by e and
e 1 and e 2 . er: gebe gfe^&a 1 , Erde ?e l rd9 l , Schwert sbe l rt,
Peter % l M l tr, Colleg ko 2 lt l Ji\ Poet p l o l e l t, Facsimile
fa*l<:si l miHe l , Athene ?a 2 the 1 n^ 1 , ade ?a 2 de l , Ave ?d*we l ,
Dresden dre l stn\ Heer fie l r, Idee ?i l de 1 , Kaffee khd*fe l ;
stehle ste l ld l , Ehre ?e l rd 1 ; Cafe fca 2 / 1 ! 1 -, Souper zfi^M*.
The mid front lax long e 2 is written by a, ah; ae
(in words conveyed into German through Latin); ai, ay and
e (in French words): gabe ge 2 bd l , saen ze*d l n, Stadte
ste*td l , Madchen meHff-n, nachst ne*Jst, Diat di l e*t,
Damon de 2 md l n, Kapitan Tfhd^^H^h^n] stiihle ste^h 1 ,
Ahre .'g 2 ^ 1 ; Athenaeum ?a 2 t& l ne 2 u 2 m; Affaire pa 2 /^ 2 ^ 1 ;
Essay ?e 2 se 2 ', Dessert de 2 se' 2 r.
l , 5- and e 2 . 66. The mid intermediate lax short 5 2
(the same sound as in Engl. together; appears only as first
component of the diphthong d 2 e~: Seite, Saite zj*e*td 1 ', cf.
56, 11.
The mid intermediate tense short d l (Fig. XIX) is
in German words to be found only in unstressed syllables,
especially prefixes and endings (with exception of -er 7 -el,
-en, -em, cf. 55), e. g. bestehn 'b-a 1 ste 1 n, verstehn
f.9*rste l n, entstehn ?d l -nUte l n, em p fan gen ?d l m?])*fd*mi,
Gebet gs^e^t, gebe g^bd 1 , gebet ge l b^t, Buches bu l fi 2 9 l s,
schlechteste sle*Ji*fa l sfa l , Wiistenei tou l std l nd 2 e 2 , Missetat
mi 2 s^thA 2 t, lobes am I6 l b^zd 2 m. Under the same conditions
this sound appears in foreign words, e. g. Promenade
43
Infante rie n z nf,a?nt3 l ri l , Route r&fd 1 ,
Bronze brd*sd l . Exceptions are a few French words, as
*Service ze 2 rwi l s, *0melette ?6 l md l le?t, especially proper
nouns in which the ending- e is not pronounced, e.g. Racine,
and Greek and Latin words which have e l at the end, as
Athene ?d 2 the 1 ne 1 , promiscue j} l r6 l mi 2 sTfu 2 e l .
Note. If er ?e l r, es ?e*s, der de 1 )', des de 2 s, dem
de l ni, den de } n, and ein ?<) 2 $*n become enclitic or proclitic,
they mostly receive the sound a 1 , e. g. es (pa 1 ?) war eininal
(9 l nm l dH) eiu (a 1 ?*) Konig.
In all the other cases appears the mid front lax short
e 2 , which has in German words always a stress (principal or
secundary accent) and is written by e and a; e. g. Stelle
and Stalle steHd 1 , Ferse (heel) and Farse (heifer) fe 2 rzd l ,
Vers fe 2 rs, Elend ?e 1 le 2 nf, faulenzen fi*Q*U*nfs% } Her-
berg-e he 2 rbe 2 rJ9 l , Hotel hb l teH, Chef 8e*f.
Unaccentuated e 2 occurs only in some foreign words
borrowed from Romance languages, asRessource re*sii*rsd l ,
Decret de 2 kre l t, and in foreign words, ending in es: e. g.
Achilles ?d 2 /i 2 i 2 le' 2 s, Johannes J6 l hd 2 ne 2 s.
67. The most essential formations of which the lips
are capable are already mentioned in 15. Theoretically
any articulation of the tongue could be combined Articulations
with any articulation of the lips; this, however, of the hps -
is not in point of fact the case. In general we can say : the
higher the position of the tongue, the more marked the arti-
culation of the lips, i. e. the more intense the rounding or the
narrower the slit.
Vowels which are pronounced with rounded lips are
called round, rounded or labialised (gernndet, labialisiert).
The i-slit of the lips, combined with the high front po-
sition of the tongue, appears in i 1 , i 2 .
e-slit of the lips, combined with the mid front po-
sition of the tongue, appears in e 1 , e 2 , e 2 , e 2 .
u-roimding of the lips, combined with the high back
position of the tongue, appears in u 1 , u 2 .
it-rounding of the lips, combined with the mid front
position of the tongue, appears in fi l , u 2 .
o-roimding of the lips, combined with the mid back
position of the tongue, appears in o 1 , o 2 , o 2 .
44
The o-rounding of the lips, combined with the low front
position of the tongue, appears in o 1 , o 2 , t o 2 .
passive opening of the lips, combined with the mid
back position of the tongue, appears in a 2 , a-, q 2 .
passive opening of the lips, combined with the low
back position of the tongue, appears in u 2 .
passive opening of the lips, combined with the mid
intermediate position of the tongue, appears in a 1 , a 2 .
Note. As to the articulation of the tongue, the rounded
front vowels are practically identical with the corresponding
unrounded front vowels: therefore mid front rounded ii l in
fuhle has the same position of the tongue as mid front e l
in fehle; mid front rounded u 2 in Fa lie the same as mid
front e 2 in F a 1 1 e. We have no corresponding unrounded
sounds for the low front rounded o 1 and o 2 in German;
but they exist in English, which on the other hand, in
consequence of its disinclination to activity of the lips
(cf. 8), does not any longer possess rounded front vow-
els. English a? 1 in care, pronounced with rounded lips,
would result in German 5 1 , as in Chore kho l rd l ; and
English ce- in man, pronounced with rounded lips, would
result in German o 2 , as in Mouch moduli 1 .
68. Vowels with the function of a consonant, i. e. not
forming a syllable, appear in N. H. G. only in diphthongs. By
vowels with a diphthong we mean a monosyllabic combination
of b consonant8 , f two single vowels which are pronounced with
diphthongs. t ] ie same breath of expiration. In such a com-
bination one vowel has the function of a sonant, the other
the function of a consonant.
Diphthongs, like the real German ones, in which the
sonant precedes and the consonant follows are called falling.
There are 4 falling diphthongs in N.H. G.: aV (as in Eis),
v*o 2 (as in Hans), o*u 2 (as in heute, *Loisach, *Boi),
u 2 u 2 (as in *Luitpold, *hui, *pfui); and in these e 2 , o 2 ,
w 2 form, as indicated by the semicircle, the consonants.
Diphthongs in which the consonant precedes and the
sonant follows are called rising. They appear in N. H. G.
only in words borrowed from Romance languages, and the
consonant is here invariably i 2 (not j\ cf. 36 note). E. g.
Familie famt l U*9 l , Union ?u 1 ni i 6 l n, adieu ?# 8 rfj 8 $ l , Ban-
45
kier ba*ia]fi*& 1 , Indien ?i 2 ndi 2 d 1 n, Spanier ^)) 1 d s ni z 9 1 r f Stu-
diuni gtu 2 di 2 u*m, Hygiene hfi l gi*e l m 1 -, i* especially appears
after the at'fricata fs, as in Nation na 2 fsi*6 l n t Patient
j) l dfs^e 2 nt, Latium M 2 tsi 2 u 2 m, inartialisch md*Tt*i*A*H*f t
Akazie ?rt 2 A'M 2 ^'V.
Note. That at and au do not contain an 2 can be
proved by the fact, that they can not be heard at the same
distance as a 8 , which as the most sonorous vowel is heard
furthest. In general the consonants of the English falling
diphthongs differ from the German ones by a somewhat
higher position of the tongue; cf . :
Germ. 9 2 # 2 in Eis with Engl. a 2 i 2 in ice.
Germ. V 2 in Haus with American-Engl. a\i 2 in house.
Germ. o 2 # 2 in Boi with Engl. oH* in boy.
69. The quantity of a vowel depends on the duration
of time which is required to produce the vowel; as the dura-
tion of time varies according to velocity of speech, The
the quantity of the vowels varies also, so that a s. rees of quan-
\. . . ' , tity of vowels.
vowel, usually short, becomes long in slow speak-
ing, and a vowel, usually long, becomes over-long. The terms
"short" and "long" have accordingly not an absolute value,
but only a relative one, and the ratio of the duration of the
individual sounds is not essentially disturbed by a change of
velocity of speech.
For practical purposes it will be sufficient to distinguish
four degrees of quantity: 1) short (unmarked) Kamm 1cha 2 m',
2) half-long (--) Berta U' 2 rtM z ; 3) (normal-)long (-) ka-
men M 2 ww; 4) over-long (-) kam khti 2 m.
10. Short vowels occur in the following cases : short vowels
1) In syllables with a weak or no stress (prefixes, suf-
fixes, or middle syllables), containing z 2 , e 2 , a 1 ; or r, /, n, m. E. g.
i 2 : Nachtigall, Gottin, Wildnis, Logik, Grammatik,
Rhetorik, Lyrik, Tragik; e 2 : Dekret, Ressource; a 1 :
empor, schlechteste, Bosewicht; r: Bruder; /: Han-
del, handelte hd z ndlfa l ; n: liebeuden li l bndn; m:
sch lech tern. So also w 2 and o 2 in the foreign terminations
-us, -um, -os, -on; e.g. Circus, Metrum, Carlos, Logos,
Kolon, London.
2) a 2 with a secondary stress in the suffix -sam, as
hellsam, and in *Heimat and *M6nat. 2 is often short
in da, na, ja, ha, when they express resentment.
46
3) The components of the diphthongs ; cf. 68.
4) Vowels are short before more than one spoken
(not written) consonant; exceptions to this general rule are
given in 72, 3. E. g. Schlacht, Spatz, ward, Jagd,
hart, barsch (rude), Men sch, fertig, Herz, Lord lo*rt,
"Wind, wird, irdisch, Brust, Furt, flugs flunks, Post, pol-
nisch, riisten, rustig, gebiirtig; also in compounds, e.g.
Lor beer, Walnusz, Singriin.
5) Before a fortis, expressed by a double consonant:
e.g. Hiitte M*t*\ Ecke ?e 2 fc l , hoffe Wfo 1 , all ?a ? L
6) Before a spoken (not written) single consonant:
a) in different words, e.g. lira, zura, zur, Luther lu*tr,
ob, von. Jot, bin, mit, in, an, weg; cf. 72,2. Also
in foreign words, as Kapitel, Artikel, April, Chef, Billet
bfilie-t, Rum, Gala, Metapher me 2 td-r, Grammatik gra 2 -
md*ti*b, Kap, Klub liu^) 1 .
b) Before s (written ss, sz) in Flusz, Fliisse, flosz,
flosse, Gusz, gosz, Genosse, Genusz, genosz, Ver-
drusz, Kusz, kusse, Schiissel, Schlusz, Schlosz,
Schlussel, Schusz, schosz, Schosz (1. branch; 2. taxes),
Trosz, Nusz, miissen, musz; (but Mus mu l s pap), Eiissel,
Ambosz, nasz, Fasz, Hasz, blasz, lassen, essen, fres-
sen, messen, isz, t'risz, misz and the derivatives of
these words.
c) Before * (written sch) in rasch, Asche, waschen
(but wusch wfi l s}, Wasche, Esche, dreschen, droscb,
clrosche, loschen, lisch, Boschung, Froscli, Busch,
B u s c h e, T i s c h, m i s c h e n, D u s c h e , M u s c h e 1 and
-derived forms.
d) Before fy l and If (written ch) in Geruch, Bruch
(fraction), Wucher, Sicbel, frech, Pech, nach, wacb,
Dach, lachen, Fach, Facher, Bach, Rache, racben,
Koch, kochen, Koche, Kiiche, kroch, roch, kroche,
roche, stecben, stich, gestocheu (but stach sta-ff],
sprechen, sprich, gesprocben, Sprucb (but spracb
Sfi^rcPfi* and Sprache sj) l rd~/i 2 9 l ) and derived forms.
e) Before n (written ng) always, e.g. sang, fing, ge-
fangen, gesungen, Finger fi 2 tsr.
71. The (normal-) long and over-long vowels can be trea-
ted together, as any (normal-) long vowel in pausa, i. e. at
47
the end of a stress-group, becomes over-long; Relation >e-
... .... , tween (normal-)
this takes place especially in a stressed monosyl- ion? and <>ver-
labic word or in the stressed last syllable of a
polysyllabic word. E. g. drei Mark | boten (fro 1 //?) sie or
drei Mark | but (bo l t} er; but was er | hot, (bo l t) \ war
drei | Mark or drei Mark, | die er | bot (bo } f).
The same rule can also be applied to a diphthong
which, although consisting of two short components, forms a
unity and is equal to a long vowel, so that e.g. v*o~ in der |
blaue (Wtf-oV) | Himmel is (normal-) long, whilst n*o- in
der | Himmel ist | blau (blv-o-) has a longer duration and
is over-long.
The German spelling does not mark the length in a
uniform way. The length is 1) unmarked, as in waren
(were), her (hither;, Stil (style); 2) expressed by doubling
the vowel, as in Waaren (wares), Heer (army); 3) expressed
by an additional h, as in wahren (to defend), hehr (sub-
lime); 4) expressed by the addition of an e, as in Stiel
(handle), Soest (zo l st); 5) expressed by eh, as in stiehl
(imperative! stehlen). In all these cases the pronunciation
of the respective words is identical: ivd-rn, h& l r, sti l L
The spellings 2 5 are indubitable criteria of the length,
with exception of a few cases with ie\ cf. 74.
72. The (normal-)long and over-long vowels are to
be found 1) in syllables with the principal accent; 2) in
syllables with the secondary accent only, if occurrence
the principal one does not immediately pre- fon^and^TeV
cede or follow (in which case the half length long vowels
appears; cf. 73). E. g. wunderbar icu*ndrbfi'-r, w under-
bare wu?ndfbd?rd l (but lesbar(e) le l sba-r(d 1 ))^ Heiligtum
U 2 e-U-Ji l thu l m, Heiligtiimer h^li^tM^ir (but I rr turn
X ^ /_
?i*ffhti l m, Irrtiimer ?i-rthii l mr}\ urgemiitlich ?ii l rg9 l mu l t-
li*Jl l (but urplotzlich i&r])Ho-tsli-]f}\ Corridor !$Ti6*rPdb*r
(but Doctor ddtyfhd 1 ?).
The (normal-) long and over-long vowels appear in the
following cases:
1) In words and syllables ending in a vowel, e. g.
wo, zu, See, aha, ade ?d 2 de, Logis lo l zt l , Revue re*wti l }
siien and sahen ze-^n, Seeen and sehen zeWn, holier
hdWr Maria ma*ri l a?.
48
2) In words and syllables ending in a single spoken
consonant, no matter how many are written; exceptions to
this general rule are to be found in 70,6. E.g. mir, wem,
rot, Flng, Pflug, pflugen, bat(en), Weg(e), Talfes).
Berlin be 2 rli i n, beredt bd^ret, wusch wu l s, wiische wu l d l ,
So also in foreign words, e. g. nervos(e), Naturen, Poet
j} l o l e l tj Redacteur(e), Kapitan(e), Grauit, Profit, Titel,
the words in -tlf as Musi k, Mathematik, Lecture, Mythe,
Lyrik luWl?, Spasz, Paket % l a 2 Me l t, Peter gih&tr,
Scene stse l n9 l , Trompete, das Colleg Tfo' 2 le l ]i l (the lec-
ture), der College fco^e^V (the colleague), the words in
-io l n, as Union i&ni&n, Nation na 2 tsio l n.
The long vowels before s (written sz, ss) in the fol-
lowing German words deserve a special mention: asz, asze,
frasz, frasze, Gefrasz, sasz, sasze, masz, Masz, ge-
masz, Strasze, Schosz (lap), blosz, stoszen, Stosz,
grosz, Grosze, Fusz, Fiisze, Busze, biiszen, Musze,
mftszig, susz and derived forms (cf. 70, 6, b); and the
long vowels before Ji l and Tf (written ch) in the words:
Schmach, brach, brache, stach, stache, sprach,
sprache, Sprache, Gesprach, hoch, Buche, Buch,
Bncher, Tuch, Fluch, fluchen, suchen, Kuchen, Bruch
(fen) and derived forms (cf. 70, 6, d).
3) Vowels followed by more than one consonant are
nevertheless long in the following cases (cf. 70, 4):
a) Before rd, rt, rts (written rz), rs, rs (written rsch),
r?i l (written rch) in Herde, Beschwerde, Verden, Erde
(but irdisch ?i 2 rdis), the forms of werden containing an
e (but the vowels in wird, wirst, ward, wurde, gewordeu
are short), Gebarde, Behorde, Herd, Pferd; Schwert,
wert, Art, zart, Bart, Geburt; Harz; erst, Borse;
B a rsch (perch); Marchen; and derived forms.
b) Before st (and zd, written sd) in Trost, trosten,
Kloster, Ostern, Ostreich, Ost(en) (but also with o 2 ),Wust,
wiist, Wuste, Schuster, Husten, duster, Estland;
Dresden (mostly dr&stn, seldom dre l zdn}', and derived forms.
c) Before ts and ts (written ts, z, tz, tsch) in stets,
Lotse, Ratsel, Hospiz, Schwyz, Gratz, Koniggratz,
hatscheln.
d) In some isolated words, as Papst, Probst, Vogt,
49
Magd. Madchen, Krebs, Obst :d l p l st, Mond mo l nt, MOD-
tag, Adler, Wuchs, wuchs w<s, wuchse, atmen,
nachst we-'^W, hochst hfrlfst, nebst, Kebse, Obrigkeit,
Obrist; Hedwig and Ludwig are pronounced with a long or
short vowel. Most of these words have lost a vowel between the
consonants, e. g. Magd - 0. H. G. magad, hochst *- 0. H. G.
hohisto, a process still quite clear in such words as edler,
Gegner, ttbrig, atmen and the verbal forms, as lebst,
lebt, where the corresi)onding forms with the vowel between
the consonants still exist, as edel, gegen, fiber, A tern,
lebest, lebet, etc.
73. Long and over-long vowels immediately before
or after the principal accent are pronounced half-long;
the tense long vowels keep their quality and do The haif-iong
not become lax. vowels -
Examples, a) Before the principal accent: lebend le l -
bnt lebendig letyflnd&Ji 1 , Probe p l r6 l bd l probieren
% l rd l bi l rn, Chor^o 1 *' Choral kh&rcffl, Datum dd 2 tu 2 m
datieren da?tM l rn, Studium st&diWm Student stu 1 -
de 2 nt, da da 2 dam it da?mi 2 t, zu tsu 1 zugleich tsu 1 -
gU^fl 1 , wahr wa?r wahrhaftig w&rhdPffitJi 1 , vor fd l r
vorbei yfoV&^e 2 , wo hi w5 l l w oh Ian ico l ld~n, Siid zu l t
S u d w e s t zu l twe' 2 st, J a h r ja 2 r J a h r h u n d e r t ja 2 rhu 2 ndrt,
viel fi l l vielleicht fiHPe^t.
b) After the principal accent: lesbar l^sba'^r, Irrtum
tfrtpfrm, Heirat h*e a ra*t, Zierat fsPr&t, Berta 6e' 8 r#M 2 ,
NX N
Jena j^na 2 , Uhu tu^hu 1 , Hindu hi^ndu 1 , Juli jii l lt l , Ltit-
/,ow lilHsQ 1 , so 2d l - - also ?d' 2 lzo l , See ze l - - Nordsee
n6 2 rtze l , zehn tse l n fiinf zehn u' 2 m*tse l n, Teil th^H
Urteil ?iPrthd 2 e 2 l, Schonheit s^n/ia-e^t, ]\Iaria md-r^a 2 ,
Doc tor en d6 2 Tfthd l rn Doctor dokth6 l r.
c) Sometimes a double change takes place owing to shif-
ting of the accent; e.g. Drama drd' 2 ma 2 dramatisch
dt'd 2 m('tti 2 s, Juno j&no 1 junonisch ju 1 no 1 ni 2 s, Caesar
tse 2 za 2 )- Caesaren tse 2 zd 2 rn, Idee ?t l de 1 ideal
t^deWl, Kleinod kll>' 2 e 2 noH Kleinodien M^/nVdi^n.
74. In certain words the short vowel becomes long, if
an additional syllable follows: *Zug tsu^ff Zuges tsug9 l s,
4
50
Ziige ts&jd 1 , *Scbub su*j) 1 Schubes sti^
\-oweis in the *Lob Jo*]) 1 Lobes l6 l b9 l 8.*STO\) tiro*]) 1 grobe
same word. ' ' " '
grro 1 ?>3 1 ,*Grab gra-p l Grabes gra-b# l s, Graber
grFbr, *Trab frV ~ Trabes tm 2 bd l s, *Bad />o 2 / Ba-
de s M 2 dd l s, *R a d raH R a d e s ra*dd*s, *G 1 a s gla-s -
Glases gld^zd 1 ^, *Schlag- sla^Jf Schlag-es sla?^s,
*S c h m i e d smiH 8 c b m i e d e s smPch 1 ?, *S t a d t sta' 2 t -
Stadte $&t9', ob po 2 ;; 1 is only in *0bacht ?o } ba-/ii long.
Notewortby is Charakter 'kcPrcP'ktr, but Charaktere Mi a-:
ra*ktpe 1 r f '> 1 . Of verbal forms may be mentioned *hat, *bast,
*g-ebabt, *hatte, but babe, and kriegen kri^jn, which in
all forms is pronounced with f l , if it is = "to wage war"; but
if is means "to get", then the forms *kriegst, *kriegt, *ge-
kriegt and the whole imperfect kriegte are pronounced
with i 2 , kri-?i l st etc.
Some monosyllabic words with a long vowel appear with
a short one in certain compounds: ur- ?fi 1 r *Urteil ?n-r-
th^d\ vor for *Vorteil fd*rthb*$*l, *vorwarts f6*nce-rts;
zu tsu\ - - *zur tsn*r, */um tsu z m\ hoch Jto 1 /^ -- *Hoch-
zeit hd*fi*ts9*e*f } *Hoffahrt M*fi*rt (Ji 2 f assimilated to /');
d e r Wai waH (whalej *Wa 1 f i s c h wd-Ifi^s, *Wa 1 r o s z
wcfflro^s', vier fi ] r *vierzehn fi-rtsv z n, *vierzig i 2 rtsi*Ji l ,
*Viertel firtl, *viert ei len fi*Ttffi8*l'&\ so a l so j en ^ je l nv*
*jenseits je*nza 2 e 2 ts; and with different spelling: die Wahl
icaH (battle field) *Walhalla waWid-la*, *Walkitren
kJiu l rn; wohl ^co 1 / - *Wollust wo'W^st', H e e r li
*Herzog lie 2 rts6 l Ji 2 , *Herberge Jie^rbefrj* 1 .
V. Synthesis.
75. Although in the preceding paragraphs we had to
examine the sounds in their isolation, and often with regard
to only one of their qualities, we had nevertheless synthesis
also sometimes to pay attention to their surroun-
dings and to anticipate some facts, which really belong to
the province of synthesis (Combinationslehre), which has
to deal with the concurrence of all the properties of the sounds
and their mutual relations.
76. After a sound has been formed, the organs of speech
do not return to the organic basis in order to articulate the
following sound, but the transition from one sound
Glides;
to another takes place in the shortest way, and simplification
. I* . of articulation.
if, in doing so, the breath or expiration continues,
sounds of transition are formed, which are called glides (Gleit-
laute), in contradistinction to the sounds with fixed positions
(Stellungslaute). E.g. in the word La uf Z 2 o 2 /' the organs
of speech, after having produced I, do not return to the or-
ganic basis in order to form # 2 , and after having pronounced
w 2 , they do not return to the organic basis in order to form
o 2 , etc., but pass directly from the I position to the a po-
sition, from the # 2 position to the o 2 position, and from this
to the /' position. The glides which are formed in the tran-
sition from I to w 2 , from 2 to o 2 , from o 2 to /', need not be
expressed in writing, as they result automatically.
A consequence of the tendency to perform the move-
ments of articulation in the shortest way and in the shortest
time, is the tendency to perform only once those movements
which are common to the neighbouring sounds. The principal
cases which result from this are the following:
77. When a d or t is followed by an /, e.g. in edle,
52
Atlas, in the explosion of d or t the occlusion, which is for-
med by the alveoli and the tongue, is not opened in order
Transference to form a new occlusion for I exactly at the same
of the place
of explosion place, but the explosion of d or t takes place
in occlusive . * .
sounds. through forming lateral openings, necessary for
the articulation of I. (Lateral explosion instead of the
median one.)
In a similar manner in the groups bm, g l m l , e. g. in
Obmann, and in the groups dn, tn, e.g. in Edna, Atna,
the usual explosion of the bilabial and alveolar occlusive sounds
does not take place, to be immediately followed by the same
occlusion for m and n, but the explosion of the oral occlusive
sounds is carried out through the nose, after the nasal cavity
has been opened by lowering the velum with the uvula, as
is necessary for producing m and n. (Nasal explosion in-
stead of the oral one).
78. Whilst a sound is being articulated, organs of
speech not active in forming this sound can simultaneously
Anticipation take the position for the formation of the follow-
ing sound. Whilst e. g. m in Mund, Mond,
Mann, Miinze etc. is being articulated, the ton-
expiosion. g ue ^ p er f ec t]y disengaged, can already take the
position for u 2 , o 2 , 2 , # 2 etc., by which, of course, the oral
cavity, the resonance chamber of m, and therefore also its-
tone is modified.
Such an anticipation takes place, if two occlusive sounds
follow upon each other, as in lobte Zo 1 /? 1 ^ 1 , altklug, alt-
preuszisch, Akte. Here the occlusion of the second con-
sonant is made before the occlusion of the first is opened,
The consequence is that in lobte, altklug, where the place of
occlusion of the second consonant is situated behind that of
the first consonant (the alveolar t behind the bilabial j) 1 , and
the mediopalatal Tc behind the alveolar tf), the explosion of j) 1
(in lobte) and of t (in altklug) is hardly audible; but,
when, as in altpreuszisch, Akte, the place of occlusion
of the second consonant is situated before that of the first
consonant, the explosion of the first occlusive sound (t in alt-
preuszisch, in Akte) is completely suppressed.
79. Assimilation too is a result of the tendency to
carry out movements of articulation, if possible, only once.
SOl
1) If by anticipation movements of articulation Assimilation.
are transferred to the preceding sound, we have regressive
assimilation. So, for instance, in biegt bt l /i l t, Abt ?a*p l t,
alt ?a 2 1t the voicelessness of the t is transferred to the pre-
ceding voiced Q, b, l\ cf. 50, 2. 51, 2. 52, 2. (To make a
voiceless consonant voiced by assimilation is repugnant to
German.)
It is the effect of regressive assimilation, that before the
labiodental /' an bilabial m l or p l becomes labiodental too, as
in Dampf da*m*p% Abfall ?d*])*fa*l, or that Aussch-us/
?0 2 o 2 sM 2 s, Kunststiick khu 2 ns(t)sfu*k become ?v 2 o-$u*s,
khu 2 nstu*k (cf. 54. 80).
2) If the movements of articulation of one sound are
maintained and extended to the following one, we have pro-
gressive assimilation. Here belong such cases, as /war
tsba*r, klang Ma 2 id, Schmerz sm l e*rts, sittsam zPtsa-m
etc., in which the voicelessness of ts, A 1 , s, t make the follow-
ing voiced consonants 5, I, m, z (cf. heilsam hd 2 e*lzd*m)
voiceless too; cf. 51, 3, 5. 52, 1
Owing to the tendency to save movements of articulation
we have prcpalatal fricatives after the front vowels, but me-
diopalatal fricatives after the back vowels, for in the former
ha'stu 1 , hat der Mann
hd?tdr md 2 n -* hd*ttr md^n -* hdHr md 2 n, a Is sie ?d*Is
zi l -> idHssi l -> ?d s lsi 1 . But if the second word is stressed,
the assimilation is avoided: ha?st du 1 , ?a*ls zf l .
80. Due to the principle of saving the articulation as
much as possible, is also the treatment of double consonants,
if they meet in the two parts of a compound or
Reduction
in two words, which are spoken with one accent. of groups
- - of consonants.
as in Nottaufe n6 l tta?*Q*fo l or hast du hd y sfu l .
Here we have according to 54 not two individual f's, but
only one long t.
Note. It may be mentioned, that in the colloquial speech
- 54
of the educated classes reductions occur which the literary-
language still refuses to recognise; e. g. the dropping of t
in und between two numerals (dreiundfitnfzig d)'d 2 e 2 ?u 2 n
fiPmPftaPfi 1 ), or i n t ne unstressed 1st (das ist gut dd 2 s
i 2 s gti l t) or the dropping of d in the unstressed dem (dm)
or den (dn): auf dem Tisch ?i> 2 o 2 fm thi 2 s, wir gehu in
den Garten wt l r ge l n i 2 nn gd 2 rtn.
81. We mean by syllable a group of sounds (or a
single sound) which is separated from the preceding and the
following group of sounds (or single sound) either
of syllable; 1) by the relatively least sonority (sonoric syl-
sonoric and - ,
dynamic lable, Scnallsilbe) ; or 2) by the relatively weak-
syllables. ... ,\ 11-11 -n ." A .
est expiration (dynamic syllable, Expirations-
silbe, Drucksilbe) ; or 3) by both simultaneously.
1) The sonority is given once for all by the character
of the sound. The most sonorous sounds are the vowels, at
the head of which is a, as it is pronounced with the widest
opening of the mouth (uau can be pronounced monosyllabic
as u 2 a 2 u 2 , but both a's in aua can never become consonants):
then follows r, then I, then the nasals, then the voiced frica-
tives, then the voiced occlusive sounds, then the voiceless
fricatives, and lastly the voiceless occlusive sounds. The least
sonority is therefore to be found with aua in u 2 , with renne
in n, with Wan del in d, with Apfel in f, spoken: ?a 2 u 2 a 2 ,
rend 1 , wd*ndl } ?d?}ffl. Karl kha 2 rl and Halm liaHm show that
r has more sonority than I, and I more sonority than the
nasal, for a word Kalr or Ha ml would be pronounced with
two syllables TfhdHr, lia?ml.
Accordingly the border-line of sonority, marked by un-
der the symbol, lies always in the sound itself; in the occlusive
sounds it is formed by the occlusion itself, the soundless pause.
2) The greatest reduction of the force, with which the
breath required for speaking is expelled by the lungs, the
relatively weakest expiration (the conditions of which are by
no means perfectly elucidated yet) is not fixed by the character
of a certain sound, but can appear at liberty before, after, or
within the sound; for instance, the border of pressure or ex-
piration, marked by -, lies before the consonant in wo line
wo l -n9\ after it in Wohnhaus wd l n-hv*o*s, within the con-
sonant in hatte hd 2 t^, which is really an example for
55
0) where border-line of sonority and border-line of ex-
piration coincide.
82. The division of syllables in a spoken German word
is by no means identical with the more or less arbitrary habit
of spelling, e. g. the separation Ian -(lend accord- separation
ing to the German orthography is quite as wrong i n un*/ompoun-
as the separation land-ing according to the Eng- (led w " rds
lish orthography; in both cases the border-line of the syllables
is in d.
We can establish the following rules for the division of
syllables in nncompounded German words:
1) In one occlnsive sound, or a group of consonants
containing one occlnsive consonant, the border-line of the
syllables lies always in the occlusive sound itself quite natu-
rally, as during the occlusion the sonority and the expira-
tion are both zero. An occlusive sound therefore belongs to
both syllables, separated by the border-line of sonority and
the border-line of expiration. E. g. habe M 2 ^ 1 , hatte MHd 1
(one f; cf. 53), kampfe A7je 2 w 2 _#Y f)1 > Candle wd^ndld 1 ,
wachsen wd*ksn, Her/en he^rtsn, Hexe he-ks^, Met rum
me 1 ft' u- m, Liebling Ji^Ml^d, Labsal la*j) l sa'l, Madchen
me'-t/i l n, Biindnis bffinfnPs, Freundschaf t fj'<> 2 ijntsa 2 t,
friedlich yf/'JW 2 // 1 ? duldsam du*ltsa*m. For words the
suffixes of which begin with an occlusive sound or an h
see 83.
Note. Strictly speaking, on account of the soundless
pause we should expect in any occlusive sound, and so
even in j) 1 of Fein or in t of Hut, a syllabic boundary:
j) l h f )' 2 e :! n, Mi l t, so that in j) 1 the making of the occlusion,
and in t the opening of the occlusion would form a syl-
lable. That we do not regard Pein and Hut as dis-
syllabic is clue to the fact that the making of the occlusion
of j) 1 is not preceded, and the opening of the occlusion of
t is not followed, by a sonant.
'2) With two occlusive sounds, or a group of conso-
nants containing two occlusive sounds the boundary of
sonority and expiration lies between them, because in accor-
dance with 78 the explosion of the first occlusive sound is
56
reduced to a minimum or quite suppressed; e. g. backte
b&kj-t* 1 , lobte Zd^W^S wOlbte woH^^t^.
3) With one consonant which is not an occlusive
one the syllabic limit (border-line of sonority) lies within it, if
a short vowel precedes; but if a long one precedes, the syllabic
limit (border-line of expiration) lies before the consonant. E. g.
falle ffild 1 , but fahle fd*-l9 l \ essen ?e*sn, but aszen
.'# 2 'sw; K a in me khd^md 1 , but kamen khd 2 -mn', waschen
wd'^sn, but w u s c h e n wu^-sn ; s p r e c h e sp l re*li l d l , but
Sprache s]) l rd 2 -7i 2 d l ; schaffen sd*n, but schufen su l -fn\
Finger fi z nr\ Frage frd*-g9 l ; Frauchen frn*o*-li l n; rau-
chen r 2 2 -# 2 w.
4) With two consonants neither of which is an occlu-
siye sound, the syllabic limit (border-line of expiration) lies
between them; e. g. Perle ]) l he 2 r-h l , arme ?d*r-m9 1 , helfe
heH-fo 1 , Berge be 2 r-jd l , lachle l&Jf-ld 1 , Burschen bu^r-sn,
Mannschaft md*n-sd?ft, Vdglein fd l Ji l -ld*e*n, Mannheit
md*n-hd 2 e*t, bo shaft b6 l s-liti*ft. In three non-occlusive
sounds the syllabic limit (border-line of sonority) lies in the least
sonorous sound: Wormser wo*rmzr, Kiirschuer JfM*rsnr.
83. In compounds the syllabic limit (border-line of expira-
tion) lies between the two parts of them; e. g. Haus-hund, Ge-
syiiabic limit birge, Sieg-fried, Brauti-gam, ver-achten,
in compounds. un . artig> In the game way in f ore ign words,
when the speaker has a clear notion of the individual parts
of the compound: an-organisch, Anti christ. But in most
cases the speaker is not thinking or is not conscious of the
etymological components, and the foreign word is treated
according to the rules valid for the simple words; e.g. Sub-
ordination sit i ]p 1 d*rdi 9 n&*tsi*& l n instead of zu*j) l -?d*rd.,
Interesse ?i*nf9 l r6 9 89 1 instead of ?l*nt9 l r"?6*s& 1 , Monarch
mo^d^rJi 1 , Energie ?e 2 ne*rgi l , Abort ?a*b6~rt instead of
?d*p l -?o*rt (miscarriage; but the German A b or t is ?d-j) l -?o 2 rt
W/C.).
Also certain German compounds are treated as simple
words, viz. compounds, which originally began their second
parts with the glottal stop, but have now given it up and
begin them with a vowel; they are mentioned in 28 note 2;
e. g. Obacht ?d l bd*ffi, herein hj l r 2 e 2 n, erinnern ?9 l
57 -
\o\\cndGu fo-le^ndn. So is also treated *Friedrich fj'i l dri'*/i l ,
*K n o b 1 a u c h %n6*bli>*Q*}i*, *H a n d s c li u h htfntiu * (but ~B u n d -
s c h u h bii'~nt-sti l ) and otber quite familiar compounds in
which the speaker does not think of their individual com-
ponents. Especially may be mentioned compounds with a
long consonant, discussed in 54, where the syllabic limit
must necessarily fall within the consonant Nottaufe nd l Thv*o*f\> 1
Schnelllaufer 8ne*lb *u 2 /V
Note. In the same way are also treated two independent
words, if they form one stress-group and the first word ends
with the same consonant with which the second begins:
hast du hd*stu l ] kann nicht Tfhd*ni*Ji l t; lauf fliuk
liPQ^flfinlj:; nimm [ alle | Kraft zu | sammen krd-ftsu 1 .
(But in two stress-groups: laut | tone der | Sang Iv^o-t
tho l nd.} With regard to the division of the syllables, enclitic
words beginning with a vowel are treated analogously; e. g.
will ich wi*U*!f, hat er M-t^r.
On the other hand in certain simple words the division
of syllables takes place in accordance with the rule for the
compounds: viz. in derivatives with heavy suffixes beginning
with an occlusive sound or an h (-bar, -haft, -haftig, -licit,
-keit, -turn, -bold). These suffixes were originally independ-
ent words, and formations with them really compounds. E. g.
fruchtbar fj'u 2 li 2 t-ba*r orig. fruit-bearing, lesbar U l s-ba z r;
krankhaft l'rd*ij)k-ha?ft orig. with illness affected, leih-
haftig l9*8*i) l -?uPfti 3 !i l ; Gottheit go^t-h^eH orig. a god's
rank, quality, Ewigkeit ?e l wi*?i l kh9 2 e 2 f; Rittertum riHr-
th l um orig. a knight's rank or condition, Reich turn r^e-Ji l -
thii l m, Wachstum wd 2 ks-th^ l m; Raufbold ri^o-f-boHt.
VI. Accentuation.
84. With the transition from one syllable to another
is usually also combined a change af accent. By accent we
Definition mean the degree of force or of pitch with which
one or several groups of sounds are pronounced.
As every syllable is pronounced with a certain force and a
certain pitch, strictly speaking, every syllable has an accent,
but in practice (and so in this book too) we ascribe an accent
to those syllables only, which are distinguished from other
syllables by a special force or special interval of tone.
85. From a strictly phonetical point of view we ought
to distinguish between :
syllable- 1) Syllable-accent which governs the gra-
dation of force and pitch of the individual sounds
vvithiu a syllable; e. g. in all ?a-l a 2 , as the
more sonorous sound, is pronounced with greater
force than Z; in the inquiring so? zd 1 z is spoken with a deeper
note than o 1 .
2) Stress-group-accent which rules the gradation of
force and pitch of the individual syllables within a stress-group ;
e. g. in er kornmt'l morgen ?a 1 fJ;Ad 2 m 1 # | m6 2 rjn both o-'s
are pronounced with a greater force and with a higher note
than 3 1 in the first stress-group and n in the second.
3) Sentence-accent which governs the gradation of force
and pitch of the individual stress-groups within a sentence;
e. g. if by the sentence kommt er | morgen V we ask
about the time of his arrival, not about the fact of his
coming, we pronounce the whole stress-group morgen with a
greater force and a higher note than the stress-group kommt er.
For practical purposes, however, it is more convenient
to set aside this classification, and to distinguish only between
59
word-accent and sentence-accent; although the words, as
shown in 5, by no means coincide with the stress-groups,
nevertheless the division of a sentence into stress-groups mainly
depends on the fixed accentuation of the words.
86. The distribution of both the word-accent and the
sentence-accent is due to three (or four) factors:
1) Owing to the rules of grammar cer- The grammatical,
tain parts (syllables, words) require a stronger ^ca^,' and ^yaiolo-
ov n \vpnker aropnt gical factors in ^
l a \\ttlKCl y the verbal. er j ns tead of ur- etc.) and the verbal accentua-
tion has been introduced. This is the case with the compounds
containing the prefixes be-, ge-, cnt- (emp-), er-, ver-, zer-;
e. g. Beginn, Bestand (but Beistand), Betrag (but Bei-
trag), Gebot, Entsatz, Empfang, Erlasz, Verdacht r
Zerfall. (Nouns which are positively or analogically derived
from verbal compounds, like Beginner, Er las sung, must not
be taken into account here.)
The influence of the verb is also to be seen in the
accentuation of participles and infinitives containing in their
first part a prefix, for both are nominal, not verbal formations,
as they are declined, not conjugated. There are only very
few participles combined with a prefix which have retained
the nominal accentuation : *untertan (but iintergeben; both
= subject, dependent). A few others in 106, 14, 112;
cf. also 103. 107, 3. 109.
For other reasons some isolated adjectives have trans-
ferred their principal accent to the second part: *absonder-
lich, *vortrefflich, *hinla'nglich, *au sflihrlich, *aus-
gezeichnet (excellent, but ausgezeichnet = marked out),
*auszerordentlich (= extraordinary, uncommon; butauszer-
ordentli'cher Professor = Reader). ' Absichtlich, gegen-
wa'rtig etc. are not compounds, but derivatives; cf. 95.
103. The nominal compounds with misz-have observed
the rule, e. g. Miszbrauch, Miszgunst, Miszmut, Misz-
Misz+ bildu'ng etc.; Miszh and lung is a derivative from
nomen. m i sz handle. The part, and infin. follow the accen-
tuation of the verb: miszbrauchen, miszbraucht etc.;
words, like miszgelaunt, miszgeartet, miszgeachtet,
miszgestaltet are, however, not to be regarded as participles
of ruiszlaune (which does not exist), miszarte, misz-
tichte, miszgestalte, but are combinations of misz- and
independent words, like i'ibel-gelaunt, i'ibel-geartet, wohl-
gestaltet, hoch-geachtet.
104. The nouns compounded with ur- and tlieir deriva-
tives have the principal stress upon ur-; e. g. 'Urteil, 'Ur-
sprung, 'Ursache, 'Urkunde; *ursachlich, *urkundlich.
Likewise the adjective *urbar. For the deriva- ur+nomen.
tive *ursprl\nglich cf. 95.
All the other adjectives with ur- show precisely the same
accentuation and peculiarities as the adjectives with an inten-
sifying first part, like blutarm: uralt or liralt, urdeutsch
or urdeutsch; but der uralte Baum or der uralte Baum.
Cf. 101,4.
105. The foreign prefix erz- (from the Greek arc hi-)
has the secondary stress in compounds with an offensive mean-
ing: 'Erzschurke, 'Erzbetriiger, erzgrob, Erz+nomen.
erzfaul etc. The words can also be pronounced with a level
stress, as the secondary stress is here very strong, and the
adjectives are treated quite as blutarm, cf. 101,4.
In compounds with good meanings and especially in titles
erz- has the principal stress: 'Erzengel, 'Erzbischof, 'Erz-
herzog etc. In 'Erzgebirge ist Erz a noun (= ore).
106. I. The prefix un- has the principal stress:
1) If the second part is a noun: 'Unmensch, 'Untiefe;
TJnnatur, 'Ungefahr (chance), 'Ungeheuer (monster) etc.
2) If the second part is an adjective or un+nomen.
adverb not derived from a verb: linger n, undeutsch,
iintreu, unma'szig, unfreundlich, unvorteilha'ft, un-
versta'ndlich, linsichtba'r (invisible, from Sic hi) etc.
Exceptions: *unendlich, *ungemein, *unwillk1ir-
lich, *iinmrttelbar, *imverztiglich, *uneinge-
denk, *ungefa'hr (approximately), *ungeheuer, *uu-
nienschlich (enormous).
3) If the second part is an adjective derived from a
verb with the suffix -lich or -sam and has an active mean-
ing: unziemlich, iinerf renlich, unwirksam, unfolg-
sa v m etc.
Exceptions: *unsterblich, *unaufho'rlich.
72
4) If the second part is a present participle: un-
wissend, linbefriedigend, ungeniTgend etc.
II. The prefix un- has the secondary stress:
1) If the second part is an adjective derived from a
verb with the suffix -lich, -bar, -ig, -sam, -haft and has
a passive meaning: unberechenbar, unlesbar, unnah-
bar, unsichtbar (from sichten to sift), unsagbar, un-
sa'glich, unverzeihlich, unentgeltlich, unza'hlig, un-
tadlig, unzweifelhaft, unauf haltsam; and with an active
meaning *uni'e hlbar.
Exceptions, as un b r a u c h b a' r, u n d e u 1 1 i c h, un if b 1 i c h .
unkenntlich, unbandig (but as adverb in colloquial
speech u nba'n dig = excessively, awfully) are treated
after I 3. Besides, it must be noted that the com-
pounds of this group show a general tendency to shift
their accents, when an ending is added, e. g. ein lin-
lesba'res Buch.
2) If the second part contains a passive participle:
unbekleidet, ungelogen, unbei'riedigt, uneutwegt, un-
versehens etc.
Here we have many exceptions. In general, these
participles too show the tendency to place the chief stress on
un-, if an ending is added, e.g. unbefriedigter Ehrgei/.
In many cases the second part is no longer felt as a
participle, but as an adjective, as e.g. unbesonnen, un-
beliebt, unbekannt, unbelesen, unentschlossen, un-
gelegen, because besonnen means prudent, beliebt popular,
bekannt well known, belesen well read, learned, ent-
schlossen resolute, gel eg en convenient; other cases are un-
beholfen, unbeschadet
In general, we can say, if a participle is detached from
the living verbal forms, either by its form or by a peculiar
development of its meaning, it is regarded as a mere adjective
and has therefore the principal stress on un-;
e. g. ungeachtet (not respected), but ungeachtet (not-
withstanding) ;
iingestaltet (not shaped), but ungestalt fill shaped);
ungehalten (not held), but ungehalten (indignant);
ungezwungen (not forced), but unge/wiingen (un-
affected);
73
ungeraten (unguessed), but ungeraten ( degenerated);
ungebfldet (not formed), but ungebildet (uneducated);
iingereimt (unrhymed), but ungereimt (absurd).
Note. Spoken in excitement, un- can assume the prin-
cipal stress in any case, e. g. unverzeihlich.
107. The verbal compounds are throughout faithful to
the old law and show the principal stress on the second part:
Miszgunst - iniszgo'nne, 'Dnterhalt - unterhalte,
Widerspruch -- widerspreche, Durchstlch ^JoJj,^ 111 "
durchsteche, 'fjberschlag - ti'ber- in general,
sch 1 age etc. This rule is violated only in appearance, for
we have to discard:
1) All the verbs derived from nominal compounds, like
urteile (from TJrteil), antworte (from 'Antwort), wall-
fahrte (from Wallfahrt), frilhstiicke (from Frilhstu'ck),
weissage (from the 0. H. G. simple word wfzza go prophet).
Some of them betray themselves as derivatives at once by
their weak conjugation, e. g. heirate, ratschlage, rade-
breche, handhabe (imperf. handhabte).
2) All the juxtapositions, which are distinguished from
the verbal compounds by the fact that in certain forms the
first part is separated from the verb, e. g. teilnehmen,
stattflnden, achtgeben, totschlagen, wahrsagen, and
all the sham compounds with prepositions, or rather adverbs.
That aussprechen, ansagen, vorfiVhren etc. are written
as single words is quite conventional and of recent origin,
for both parts are perfectly independent words and show the
sentence-stress, not the word-stress; and aussprechen, ich
spreche aus is entirely equivalent to a verb with any ad-
verb, e. g. schnell sprechen, ich spreche schnell.
3) All the compounds the second part of which is a
participle, e. g. f ruchtbringend, wonnetriinken, for -a
participle is a nominal, not a verbal form; but nearly all the
participles with a prefix have been attracted by the verbs and
show their accentuation, cf. 102.
108. The compounds with be-, ge-, ent- (emp-), er-,
ver-, zer- have always the principal stress on the verbal ele-
ment, without even any apparent exception, e. g. be- Preflx+verb
gehn, vergehn, ergehn, zergehn, entgehn etc.
The principal stress rests also on the second part in the com-
pounds with (lurch- (durcbreisen to traverse), fiber- (tt'ber-
setzen to translate), um- (umstellen to surround), hinter-
(hintertreiben to thwart), miter- (unterzeichn en to sign;,
wider- (widerlegen to confute), spelt with ie only in wieder-
holen (to repeat) and in wie der h erst ell eu (to restitute).
(Durchreisen to pass through, iibersetzen to ferry,
umstellen to transpose, hintertreiben to drive behind,
unterzeichnen to draw under, wiederlegen to lay again
are no compounds, but juxtapositions, which mostly retain the
original concrete meaning; cf. 107, 2.)
The compounds with misz observe the rule in general,
e. g. miszhandeln, miszachten, miszarten, raiszraten;
but misztun and misz wo 11 en are probably analogical for-
mations after the juxtapositions wohltun, wohlwollen. The
principial stress lies on misz- in those verbs which are al-
ready compounded with an inseparable prefix; e. g. rnisz-
behagen, miszgef alien (better is miszfallen), misz-
verstehen, miszgeba'ren. For the participles miszgeach-
tet and miszgeartet, by the side of the more usual misz-
achtet and miszartet, cf. 103.
109. Nomina as first parts of verbal compounds do not
very often appear ; the principal stress is generally on the verb,
Xomen+ &S i VOllb I'lngCD , V(M If fil leil (to fulfill), Voll-
irb< flihren, vollenden, vollziehn, vollstrecken,
willfahren; vollkommen and willkommen are old par-
ticiples and can also assume the nominal accentuation: voll-
kommen, willkommen (cf. 101,2). (VollfiTllen to fill
full, voll schreiben and other words with the principal
stress on voll are juxtapositions.)
Liistwandeln, fro block en (a popular etymology,
possibly a derivative from a compound noun v r o 1 e i c h ,
song of rejoicing), lobsingen, lobpreisen have mostly the
verbal accentuation; but liebkosen and lieba'ugeln prefer
the principal stress on the first part.
110. Whilst in most compounds the first part originally
represents the pure stem without any termination, and the
compounds go back to old times or are at least
Juxtapositions r .
have sentence- toimed after old models, the comparatively young
juxtapositions or conglomerations (Zusaminen-
ruckungen) consist of the inflected words of a sentence and
retain the sentence-stress, as they have arisen from syntac-
tical phrases. E. g. Vergiszme'innlcht has about the same
accentuation as verlasz in Teh nlcht, Le be wo hi as
schlkfe wohl, Hanswurst as Hans Sachs, 'Aller-
seelentag as aller Freuden 'Ende, ausfahren as schnell
fahren, der Hohepriester as der grosze Ko'nig, 'Ein-
malcins as drei mal flint', G6ttseibeiims (Old Nick) as
bleibe bei uns, v6rderhand as vor der Tlir.
111. Bimembral juxtapositions have, as a rule, the
principal stress on the second part; but in verbal bimembral
juxtapositions the principal stress rests on the ad- Bimembra i
verbial element, which usually forms the first part juxtapositions
nave the prm-
of the juxtaposition. E. g. Langeweile, Gott- c 'pai stress on
J the second
lob, Vaterunser, Hdhenzollern (dat. plur.). part; verbal
, ones on the ad-
Vierteljahr, Jahrhundert and Janrtausend verbial eie-
(Jahr is here the old nom. plur. or perhaps a
mutilated partitive gen. plur.), Siebenbi'irgen, anderthalb,
allerorten, abhanden, beiseite, /ufrieden, vorhanden,
stromab, bergan, allerliebst, fifrwahr, zugiite, 1ns-
gemein, linksum, vielleicht, /una'chst, obgleich, trotz-
dem, alsdann, wohlan, hinauf etc.
'Abfahren (like rasch fahren), stattfinden (like
gleich finden), and so in a huge number of examples.
Verbal juxtapositions with the adverbial element in the second
place are rare: Lebewohl, Lebehoch (cf. lebe gliicklich).
112. There are a few verbal juxtapositions, which have
the principal stress on the verb and therefore deviate from
the accentuation of the sentence: *Taugenichts Verbal - uxta .
(good-for-nothing, accentuated as sentence tauge positions with
vo r the principal
nichts), *Tunichtgut (never-do-well, as sentence stress on the
til nfcht gut), *Stelldichein (appointment, as
sentence stell dich ein), *Riihrmichnichtan (touch-me-not r
as sentence riUir mich nicht an), *Luginsland (watch tower r
as sentence liig ins Land), *Springinsfeld (harum scarum),
*Saufaus (drunkard), *Pack an (bobby; large dog), *Leberecht
113. Of juxtapositions containing a nomen as second
part there exist a number which have the principal stress on
the first, and the secondary stress on the second Nominal juxta-
j. . ., .. ,,. ,.. .. positious with
part: ending in -seit, -seits (einerseits, jen- a secondary
seit(s), diesseit(s), abseits); in -teils (eines- 8tr \lll part. e
76
teils, meistenteils, but also meistenteils, nieiuesteils);
in -halb (deshalb, auszerhalb); in -zeit (derzeit, jeder-
zeit or jederzeit); in -hand (rechterhand, allerhaud or
allerhandj; in -mal, -mals, -maleu (dreimal, jedesraal,
ehemals, nachmals, dermalen); in -rticks (hinterrtVcks).
The juxtapositions ending- in -halben, -halber, -halb,
-willen, -weise, -dings, -art, -inaszen, -gestalt, -wegen
have the principal stress on the first part, if this is emphatic
or contains a noun: e.g. beispielsweise, ordnungshalber,
meinetwegen (in the contrast to deinetwegen), deshalb,
derart, dermaszen, dergestalt. But the principal stress
rests on the second part, if an adjective or unemphatic pro-
noun precedes: e. g. gleicherweise, einigermaszen, aller-
dings, meiuetwegen, meinethalben, deshalb, weshalb
tc. For juxtapositions containing the petrified foreign noun
-lei cf. 96.
ID general we can say that the principal stress is especi-
ally prone to rest on the first part, if the word is spok-
en with emphasis; e. g. e in ma I (forming the contrast to
mehrereiual) but einmal, as in es war einrnal (?f) 1 nmd'~Ji
ein Konig; allerhand emphatic, but allerhand unemphatic.
In addition to these categories we have some isolated
nominal juxtapositions with the principal stress on the first
part *vorlieb, *fiirlieb (but also fu'rlieb), *Herrgott,
*viertel, (<- vierte Teil), *Mitternacht (- M. H. G. ze
mitter nahtj, *Weihnachten (<- M. H. G. ze wthen n a li-
te n), *Mittag (- mitte Tag), Halbmond, Halbjahr, Halb-
bruder.
114. Juxtapositions containing a numeral as last part
have the principal stress on it; e. g. Jahrtausend, Jahr-
hundert, Jahrzehnt, selbzwo'lft. selbander,
Juxtapositions , , , . . ,
with numerals dreiachtel, vieruncl dreiszig, siebentausend,
as last part. , ' , . .
dreihundertfu nfundsechzig. But there is a
tendency to retract the principal stress, if they are used as
attributives, e. g. vierunddreiszig Mark, siebentausend
Mann, dreihundertf ihifundsechzig Tage.
Note. The numbers from dreizehn to neunzehn and
the tens, such as zwanzig, dreiszig, vierzig etc. are
real old nominal compounds and have therefore always their
princi]>al stress on the first part; as the latter numbers are
77
not any longer felt as compounds, they have lost their
secondary stress.
115. Pronouns, as last parts of juxtapositions, have
either the principal stress, as einander, dors el be, der-
selbige, or the secondary stress, as derjenige, Juxtai)08ition8
iedermann, jemand, niemknd, jedweder (or with pronouns
J . . as last part.
jedweder). Pronomina governed by a preposition
have the principal stress, e. g. unterdes, IT her dies, tr6tz-
dem, durche'inander, Indem, although occasionally in strong
emphasis the principal stress can be retracted.
116. The overwhelming majority of juxtapositions which
contain an indeclinable word as second part have throughout
the principal accent on it. E. g. bergab, vorbei, juxtapositions
zweifelsohne, beinahe, demnach, bisher, n l&iia n a s e huit
s6fort, alsbald, obschon, gegeiil'iber, bin-
aus, gleichwohl etc.
Exceptions are: *ebenso, *also, *allzu, *iims6,
*desto, *gleichskm, *dennoch, *t'tirbasz, *llbermorgen,
*vorgestern, and the juxtapositions with sonst and anders
as first parts, e. g. sons two, anders wo.
The juxtapositions with bin as last part vary (e. g.
fernerhin, letzthln or fernerhin, letzthin).
Juxtapositions the first part of which contains da, hier,
wo or a pronoun retract the principal stress, if they are
emphatic (as is occasionally the case also with other juxta-
positions, e. g. beinahe instead of the ordinary beinahe):
damit (with that), dahin (to that place), hiermit, wovon,
demnach etc. are the forms used in strong emphasis for the
ordinary damit (with it, in order to), dahin (thither), hier-
mit, wovon, demnach etc.
117. Loan-words or foreign words (Lehnworter,
Fremdworter) either adapt themselves to the German accen-
tuation or keep the foreign accent.
. Foreign words
In accordance with German usage, i. e. on with retracted
HCCCllt
the first syllable, are accentuated those foreign
words whicb found reception already in the 0. H. G. period
and are quite germanised as to their form (loan-words); e.g.
Miinster (monasterium), Mlinze (inoneta), Keller (cellarium),
Kircbe (kyriake), predigen (praedicare), 'Abenteuer (ad-
ventura). .
In the real foreign words, which have maintained
their original form more faithfully, it is comparatively seldom
that a retraction of the principal accent takes place; so e. g.
grammatical terms, such as 'Adjectiv, Substantiv, Nomi-
nativ, Singular, Plural, Passiv, Pliisquamperfectum,
'Imperfekt etc. (but always Fu turn in); Februar, Januar,
'Orient, 'Occident.
Some vary: 'Objekt and Objekt, Siibjekt and Sub-
jekt (always Subjekt, if it is scamp); 'Infanterie,
'Artillerie, Cavallerle besides 'Infanterie etc. Palast
(sometimes Palast); Panic r (banniere; but more germanised
Banner, Low Latin banerium).
In foreign proper nouns the accent is often retracted:
Moritz (Mauritius), Nikolaus, Konstantin, 'August ( =
Augustus; but August = name of the month).
118. The overwhelming bulk of foreign words which
found reception in the language mostly only in N. H. G. times
in general keep the accent which they possessed
Foreign words . .
with foreign m that language from which the German language
accent kept. .
has borrowed them not that accent which they
had in the language to which they originally belonged; there-
fore e. g. Paradigma, 'Alexander, not Paradeigma,
Alexandros, as Greek words have been introduced into
German chiefly through the instrumentality of Latin.
Latin words have been borrowed by the German lan-
guage either directly, therefore e. g. genial ge l ni 2 AH (genia-
lis), Statue sta?tu l e l (statua), Logik I6 l gi 2 k (latinised logica,
Greek logike); or through the instrumentality of the newer
Romance languages, especially French, therefore e. g. Genie
ze l ni l (genie), Statue std^tMl 1 (statue), Musik m^zi 1 ^ (mu-
sique - Latin miisica *- Greek mousike).
The compound foreign words too keep their foreign
accent, e. g. Subscription, Chronometer, 'Architekt,
permanent, Parabel.
Comparatively few foreign compounds exist in which an
ordinary speaker is conscious of their individual elements, and
which in consequence are treated like the German nominal
compounds. (Verbal compounds are out of the question, as
practically all the foreign verbs end in -feren.) E. g. Pre-
mierleutna) nt, C6ntreadmir&l, Conrecto r, 'Archi-
79
diakonus (cf. German Gegenko'nig, MitschU'ler etc.); in
the same way the compounds with the privative in- (im-, il-),
such as indirect, impersonal, ille'getim (cf. Germ, lin-
ger n, tinges fetzlich etc.); on the other hand intact, as an
adjective tact does not exist and an ordinary speaker has no
consciousness of the fact that the word is a compound.
119. The following list for the accentuation of the
most common foreign words differs in some respects from
that given by Hempl. Following his example, I The principal
have arranged the ends - - not the terminations ^nisL^th'fir
or suffixes - - of the words in their alphabetical accentuation,
order, without regard to their etymology the only con-
venient form, in view of the extremely various formations of
the foreign words, belonging, as they do, to the most different
languages.
-ade -d 2 dd l : Ballade, Chokolade.
-age -d*zd l \ Passage, Drainage.
-ai -d 2 e 2 : Lakai.
-aise -e*zd l : Anglaise, Marseillaise.
al aH\ Local, Moral, General, vertical, fatal, cen-
tral, final, feudal.
-a*l\ *Plural.
-dH\ *Karneval, *P6rtugal.
-ale -&Hd l : Spirale, Sandale, Finale, Unciale.
-all -dH: Metall, Kristall; but *Marschall and *Sene-
schall are German words.
-alle -d-ld 1 : Koralle.
-am -d''m: Balsam, Bisam.
-an -'%: human, Organ, Meran, Titan, spontan.
-a 2 n: *'0cean, *Pavian, *Satan, *Sultan, *Divan,
*Charlatan, *Christian.
iin -e' 2 n: Kapita'n.
-ance -q?s\ Alliance, Distance.
-ande -d*ndd l : Guirlande.
-ane -d i n& 1 : Chikaue, Karawane, Membrane.
-iine -e*n 1 : Fonta'ne, Doma'ne.
-aner -d*nr: Spartaner,PrimaneiVIndianer,Lutheraner.
-aim -d*n: Tyrann.
-ant -d*nf: elegant, Diamant, Elefant, vakant, pra-
. gnant, amiisant.
80
-ci-nt: *C6nsonant, *Leutnant, *Demant.
-a 2 : Restaurant, Elegant.
-anz -d?nts: Substanz, Instanz, Vakanz, 'Arroganz.
-d 2 nts: *Firlefanz, *P6panz.
-anze -d 2 nfsd l : Romanze.
aph -a 2 /": Phothograph.
a 2 /": *Seraph.
-ar -a s r: Barbar, Husar, Altar, Vikar.
-a*r: *Januar, *Febrnar, *Singular.
d*r: *Nektar, *Kaviar, *'Altar (and Altar).
-ar -e 2 r: popula'r, vulga'r, Milita'r.
-ard -d*rt: Leopard, Savoyard, Hazard.
-d*rf- *Bastard, *Billiard.
-arde -d^rdd 1 : Mansarde.
-as, -asz a 2 s: 'Atlas, Kompasz, Kiirasz.
-asse -d-s9 l : Grimasse, Terrasse.
-ast -d 2 st: Kontrast, Palast, Pbantast.
-a^st: *Damast; *B all ast is a Low German com-
pound.
-at -d 2 t: ' Aristokrat, Pirat, Salat, Senat, Legat,
Diplomat, accurat.
-d-t: *Vivat, *Pereat, Euphrat.
- 2 : Etat.
-at -e 2 t: 'Unive'rsita't, Dia't.
-ate -d 2 td l : 'Asiate, Kroate.
-att -d~ 2 t: Rabatt.
-atte -d 2 fd l : Krawatte, Rabatte.
-aze -d^tsd 1 : Strapaze.
-ee -e 1 : Idee, Komitee, Livree, Armee, Alice.
-ei -a*e 2 : Partei.
-ek -e4: Bibliothek.
-eke -e l lc9 l : 'Apotbeke.
-ekt -e*%f: Insekt, Dialekt, perfekt (adj.).
-e*kt: *Perfekt (noun), *'0bjekt, *Siibjekt (but
also Perfekt, Objekt, Subjekt, especially
if the latter means ragamuffin).
-el -/: Artikel, Kapitel, Matrikel, Perpendikel.
-eH\ Hotel.
-e l l: Juwel, parallel, fidel, Kamel.
-ell -Pl\ Duell, Kastcll, Flancll, origincll, ideell.
81 -
-elle ~4*l9 l : Kapolle, Novelle.
-em -e l m: Problem, Extrem, System.
& 2 m: *Requiem.
-end -*nf: Dividend.
-$?nt\ *Minuend, *Subtrahend.
-ende -Pnda 1 : Legende, Dividende.
-ene -e^nj 1 : Hellene, Sirene.
-ent -Pnt: Student, Accent, Intelligent, Talent,
Prasent, Agent, Patent.
-Pnt: *'0rient, *'0ccident, ^Continent, *insolent.
-enz -*nts: Different, Senten/, Florenz; but *K6b-
lenz.
-er -e l : Soupcr, Diner.
-ern -6*rn: mddern (fashionable; modern mo l drn is
"to decay."), extern, Intern, subaltern.
-erne -^Vwa 1 : Zisterne.
-ese -e l z9 l : Chinese, Askese
-eser -e l zr: Malteser.
-esse -4*sd l : Adresse, 'Interesse.
-est -e 2 st: Protest, Attest.
-esz -e*s: Excesz, Abscesz.
-et (-ett) -e l t'. Prophet, 'Alphabet, Poet, Magnet, dis-
k r e t.
-e l t: obsolet.
-eH: Billet, Duett, Budget (bu*dze 2 f), vlolett,
Ballett, Bouquet, Bankett, Kadet, Ba-
j o n e 1 1.
-e 1 : Couplet, Filet,
-ete -e l td l : Pastete, Rakete.
-ette -6*t l : Toilette, Kokette, Rosette.
-eur -d l r: Gouverneur, Liqueur.
ez -e l ts\ Diiodez, Trapez.
-form -fd*rm: unif6rm, 'Uniform, Chloroform.
-gramm -grd^m: Programm, Monogramm, Kllogramm
(also *Kilogramm).
id -t l t: perfid, splendid, Rhomboid (rd-mbo y i l t),
Celluloid.
-ie -* 2 9 1 ' words borrowed directly from Latin: e. g. Folie,
Bestie, Grazie, Familie, Emilie; in the
same way in plural: Studien, Ferien, Ge-
6
82
nien, Miner alien. Greek words, borrowed
through the medium of Latin, e. g. Arterie,
Historic, Xenie, Komo'die, Trago'die (hut
also *K6modie and *Tragodie with t 1 }.
-t l : words borrowed from French or directly from
Greek, e. g. Courtoisie, Genie, Partie, Co-
pie, Philosophic, 'Akademie, Monarchic.
-ier -V: Papier/Offizier, Barbier, Panier, Kavalier.
i 2 e l : *Portier, *Bankier, *Rentier, *Chevalier,
*'Atelier, *Collier, *Metier.
-i 2 d l r: chiefly in names of nations, e.g. 'Indier, Bel-
gier; *Magier.
iere -i^rd 1 : Barri^re, Portiere, Premiere.
-ieren -i l rn: stiidieren, stolzieren.
-iese -i l zd l : Portugiese.
-iser -i l zr: Walliser.
-ik -i 2 7c: *L6gik, *K6mik, *Grammatik, *Chronik,
*Metrik, *Poetik, *Rhetorik, *Arsenik,
*Technik, *Phonetik, *Mcchanik, *Taktik.
-t l Jc: ^Arithmetik, *Mathematik, *Kubik, *Fa-
brik, *Katholik, *Kritik, *Physik, *Musik,
*M6saik,*P61itik,*Republik,*Rubrik,*antik.
ike -PJfd 1 : An tike.
-il -t l l: Civil, Exil, Reptil.
4H\ *April.
-ille -Pl9 l : Flottille.
-im -i 2 m: Pilgrim, interim.
-i l m: *intim, *sublim.
in -t l n: Medizin, Disciplin, Delphin, Kamin, Ruin,
Chinin; Berlin, Stettin and other names, ori-
ginally Slavic, and by analogy also some German
names, e. g. Bo'cklin (-U l n = diminutive suffix
-lein).
i l n\ *Tamburin, *R6smarln.
-i 2 w: *Harlekin; Slavic names, e. g. Piischkln.
-| 2 : Bassin, Cousin.
-ine -i l nd* : Maschine, Cousine, Rosine, Ruine, Vio-
line.
-ino -i l no l : Kasino.
83
-^no 1 : *D6min6.
ion -i*6 l n: Nation, Religion, Pension.
ip -I 1 /?: Prin zip.
ire -t*r9 l : Satfre.
is -I 1 .?: *Paris, *TUrkis.
-i*s: Adonis, gratis, Basis, Anschovis.
-z 1 : *Logis U l zV.
ise -i l zd l \ Devise, Accise.
ismus -i*smu*s: Mechanismus, 'Egoisinus.
-isse -i*sd l : Coulisse, Narzisse, Pramisse.
-ist -i*st: Drogist, 'Idealist, Flo'tist, Batist.
-ister -i*s{r: Register, Minister.
-it -i l t: 'Appetit, Profit, Jesuit, Bandit, 'Israelit.
-IH: *Deficit:
-i*f: *Sanskrit, *Prosit.
-ite -iHd 1 : Visite, 'Aphrodite.
-itz -iHs: *M6ritz.
iv -I 1 /": Motiv, exclusiv, naiv, Archiv.
-i 1 /": in grammatical terms, e. g. Nominativ, Re-
lativ, transitiv.
-i l : activ, passiv.
ive -ihcd 1 : Detective, Defensive.
iz -t^tr- Justiz, Hospiz, Notiz, Miliz, Benefiz.
ize -i l ts9 l : Novize.
-ment -me' 2 nt: Moment, Regiment, 'Element, Firma-
ment, Fundament.
-mq 2 : *Comment, *Reglement, *Departement.
-meter -me l tr: Thermometer, Kilometer.
-me l ti: *Diameter, *Hexameter, *Pentameter,
*Trimeter.
og -oVj 2 : Dialog, Katalog.
-oge -6 l gd l : Philologe, Synagoge.
-oir -o 2 ^ 2 r: Trottoir, Boudoir, Reservoir,
-ol -6H: Symbol, frivol, Tirol, Pistol, Idol.
-dH: *'Alkohol (also ?dHko l ho 2 l).
ole -6 l l& 2 : Pistole.
-om -o l m\ Atom, Diplom, Idiom, Phantom.
-on -o l n\ Spion, Person, Baron, Patron.
-d 1 ^: *Babylon.
-6 l n: *Da'mon.
84
-o 2 w: Greek words, e. g. Lexik6n, Epitheton.
-o 2 n: Kolon, London.
-o 2 : only French words, e.g. Balkon, Salon, Can-
ton, Waggon, Bataill6n.
-o 2 : *C6till6n, *Pavillon.
one -d l n9 l : Kanone, Patrone, 'Amazone.
-or -o a r: Latin words: Professor, Pastor, Conditor,
Phosphor, Senior (ze l ni*6 l r).
-6 l r\ in certain Latin words by the influence of mod-
ern Romance languages: *Humor, *Rum6r,
*Major, *Tenor, *Kontor, *Motor, *Tresor;
the Greek *Meteor.
-6 l v: *K6rridor.
OS -6 l s: virtues, famos, kurios.
-o 2 s: Greek words, e. g. Epos, Pathos.
-6s -S l s: nervo's, religio's.
ose -6 1 Z9 1 : Franzose, Matrose, Virtuose.
ot -o*t: Despot, Idiot, Zelot, devot.
-o 1 : *Tricot, *Paletot.
-ott -6 2 t: bankrott, bigott, Kompott, Schafott.
otte -6*td l : Marotte, Cocotte.
-ult -um\ Tumult.
-ninpli - 2 m 2 yf: Triumph.
-un -&n\ Kattun, immun, Neptun, Tribiin.
3 2 : *Verdun we*rdp^.
-und -ti*nt: Vagabund.
-une -u l n9 l : Commune, Harpune.
-ur -fi l r: Natur, Kultur, Frisur, Pandur, obscur.
tt l r: *Augiir, *Purpur.
us -u l s: *confiis, *abstrus.
-ifis: minus, 'Usus.
-u 2 s: Habitus, Fidibus.
ut -u l t: absoliit, 'Institut, Rekriit, Disput, Tribut.
-ii*t: *Liliput.
yl -U l l: Asyl.
yll(e) -uH(^: Beryll, Idyll(e), Sibylle.
yr -&r (or U^r): Satyr (or Satyr).
120. If to a foreign word a German termination is ad-
ded, as a rule the accentuation of the foreign word is main-
85
taincd. E.g. Pers6n perso'nlich, Perso"n-
" , -. , Accentuation
hchkeit; Prinzesz Prinzessin; Kanmchen of foreign
(cunfculus), Radieschen (French radis); Medizin German termi
- Mediziner; Paris Pariser, London -
Londoner, Ath6n Ath6ner.
The principal exceptions are:
1) Adjectives derived from foreign words and ending in
-isch have the principal stress on the syllable which immed-
iately precedes -isch (i.e. the same accentuation as the Latin
adjectives in -icus): therefore not only medizfnisch (Mecli-
zin), semitisch (Semite), but also musikalisch (Musik),
algebraisch ('Algebra), charakteristisch (Charakter),
plat6nisch (Plato), a'th6risch ('At her), arabisch ('Ara-
ber, Arabien), balsamisch (Balsam), klimatisch (Klima),
nnm6risch (Numerus), satauisch (Satan), katholisch
(Katholik); for lutherisch (Luther) see 95.
2) A retraction of the principal accent is caused in some
foreign words by the addition of -er: Physiker, Kritiker,
Musiker, Politiker (Physik, Kritik, Musik, Politik),
Chemiker (Chemie); likewise in the names of nations with
short penult: 'Italer (Italien), 'Araber (Arabien).
3) Foreign words which have a secondary stress on
-or, -on, -ant receive the principal one, if a syllable is ad-
ded; accordingly they undergo a shifting of stress, similar to
that found in Latin; e. g. Doctor do 2 ktho l r -- Doctor en
V v
dd^tho l rn, Dii'mon de 2 mo l n Da'moncn de 2 mo l nn, Con-
sonant -- Consonanteu.
121. The stress-groups, of which a sentence is made up
(cf. 5), show a certain rhythm, even in prose. In accordance
with the system of accentuation prevailing in stress-groups
the Teutonic languages, - - viz. the use of the ^r^"^^."
strongest stress on the root-syllable ( 94) we can neral -
perceive preeminently a falling rhythm in German; preceding
unstressed syllables only seldom involve a rising rhythm, but
are treated rather as anacrusis (Auftact); accordingly we
usually say: die Kirche | wurde vom | Blitze ge|troffen
51 4 2 3
and not: die Kirch |e wurd e vom Blitz|e getrofjfeu.
The stress-groups are graduated according to their force; the
86
added figures indicate the force of the sentence-stresses, 1 the
strongest, 5 the weakest.
A stress-group is reckoned from one stressed syllable to
the other; but the distribution of the stresses themselves in a
sentence is determined by grammatical, logical (or psycholo-
gical) and physiological factors; cf. 85, 3. 86 and the dif-
ferent forms of stress-groups in das ist ein Schlosz 125.
It is not easy to indicate with absolute certainty in each
case, to which of these three (or four) factors every sentence-
stress is due, as they do not exclude each other, but rather
cooperate. If we treat these three (or four), factors indivi-
dually in the following paragraphs, we shall be paying atten-
tion for the time being to one only of the qualities of the
sentence-stress and setting aside the two (or three) others.
122. In unemotional speech where no special circum-
stances are assumed, i. e. in sentences the accentuation of which
Grammatical is not influenced by special logical or psycho-
sentence- logical reasons, in general the following rules for
stress; notional
and relational the accentuation of the individual parts of speech
words.
can be given:
As in a single word, so also in a whole sentence, the
material element is more important than the formal one, and
therefore the former has a stronger stress than the latter.
Accordingly the notional words (Begriff'sworter), i. e. nouns,
adjectives, verbs, and adjective-adverbs, have a stronger stress
than the relational words (Beziehungsworter), i. e. auxi-
liary verbs, articles, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and
adverbial particles. As the notional words are more variable
than the relational words, which are repeated far oftener than
the former, the rule can also be expressed thus: a variable word
has a stronger stress than a stable one. Accordingly: the
auxiliary verb has a weaker stress than the verb (ich werde
lesen; ich habe gelesen); the article. is subordinated to the
noun (der Knabe); the pronoun to the verb (ich lose).
The preposition, standing before or after, has a weaker stress
than the word governed by it (mit Wdffen; die Nacht
durch; durch diesen).
There are, however, two strange exceptions: 1) the pre-
position has the stronger stress, if it is followed by a personal
pronoun (mit uns; von ihm; ohne euch; bei ihr); 2) the
87
preposition (or rather adverbial particle) has the principal
stress in a verbal juxtaposition and therefore also, if it is
separated from the verb (mitbrlngen, ie.h bringe in it); cf.
123, 3.
A relational word is very often stressless as enclitic or
proclitic (k 6m nit sie kh6' 2 m l tsi 1 ', sie kommt zt l 1c/w'''m } t;
schwarz oder weisz sbd 2 rts() l dr\wd*$ 2 s; Hans und Hof
123. The notional words show different degrees of sen-
tence-stress amongst themselves ; e. g. :
1) In general a noun has a stronger stress
than an adjective, and an adjective a stronger one
than an adverb: ein zVemlich groszer Mann; tional words.
but very often this proportion is disturbed by the logical or
psychological stress.
2) A verb has usually a weaker stress than its predi-
cative nomen or its object; er macht ihn gesund; er macht
eine Ti'ir; sie wa'hlten den Fi'irsten zum Ko'nig.
3) A verb has a weaker stress than the adverbial deter-
minatives of place, time, and manner: er lebt einsam; er
fahrt in die Stadt; er kommt heute; er reitet ge-
schwind.
124. Two notional words (chiefly nouns) so closely
connected with each other that they denote only one idea
have stresses of different strength, and mostly the Grammatical
stronger one is on the second word. The same
tendency to increase the force of the stress at
the end showed itself in the juxtapositions; each other -
cf. 111. 116.
The following cases may be especially mentioned:
1) Parallel expressions connected by a relational word:
Tod und Teufel, Haus und Hof, Schritt vor Schritt,
jung und alt, etc.
2) Appositions, titles, surnames: Mutter 'Erde, Vater
Rhein, ein Glas Wasser, ein Pfiind Tabak, Kaiser
Friedrich, Herr Doctor, Doctor Mi'iller, Jacob
Grimm, etc.
3) Nouns and pronouns with a prepositional attribute:
der Knabe mit dem Hiiude, der Ritter mit dem Lo'wen,
der auf dem Dache, die am Fenster, etc. Especially so
88 -
the attributive expressions of place: die Schlacht bei Ltitzen,
der Konig von Sehweden.
4) If a word is combined with a partitive or possessive
genitive, the second element has the stronger stress; e.g. ich
habe das Buch des Lehrers or des Lehrers Buch ge-
lesen. But an explanatory genitive, as it denotes the real
idea, attracts the stronger stress in either case, e. g. das
Laster des Trunkes or des Trunkes Laster (= der
Trunk) ist veriichtlich.
125. The logical and psychological sentence-stresses are
of a rhetorical character and are not attached to a certain
Logical and P ai 't of speech. In the sentence das ist ein
p8 Sfe al Schlosz each of the four words can have the
stresses. principal stress: das ist ein | Schlosz, das ist |
ein Schlosz, das ist ein Schlosz, das ist ein | Schlosz,
according to the individual idea to be expressed by the sen-
tence; for, by a stronger stress is distinguished anything that
in view of the thought (logically) or in view of the feeling
(psychologically) appears to be important to the speaker (sub-
jectively), or is intended to appear important to the ad-
dressed person (objectively). Or, in other words, we can say
that those words have weaker or no stress which could eas-
ily be supplied, if they were suppressed, as often happens in
a telegram; e. g. (der) Vater (ist) gestern gestorben, fiber-
morgen (findet die) Beerdigung (statt).
As in a single word the natural accentuation can be
deranged by the logical or psychological accent (cf. 86), so
in a sentence too; e. g. we say Jacob Grimm instead of
Jacob Grimm (cf. 124, 2), if he is to be contrasted with
Wilhe'lm Grimm.
There are a few words which are especially prone to
attract the principal sentence-stress: gewisz, sic her, jed en-
falls, vielleicht, schwerlich, kaum, allein, ausschliesz-
lich, besonders, vor allem, am meisten, vorzttglich
and similar expressions; the adverbs ending in -weise (gliick-
licherweise, vorzugsweise etc.); demonstrative and inter-
rogative pronouns (wer hat es getan?, dieser hat es ge-
sagtj; and all the negatives.
126. With regard to the physiological word-stress re-
ference has frequently been made to the tendency to alternate
89
between a stronger and weaker stress within a
word (cf. 86. 93. 95. 100, 3, 4, 7). The same
trend is to be found within a sentence. So e. g.
an enclitic or proclitic (cf. 122) can receive a secondary
stress, if a stressless syllable immediately precedes or follows;
e. g. sie kommt, but sie bekommt; sdgst du, but sag-
test du; schwarz oder weisx, but schw^rze 6der
weisze; Haus und H6f, but erwerben ifnd besitzen.
On the other hand, the principal stress can be reduced
to a secondary one, also for physiological reasons; for a suc-
cession of equally strong stresses would require several strong
impulses of expiration, which would follow immediately upon
each other, without the air of the preceding ones being quite
consumed; so the gymnasts' device frisch, frei, froh, fromm
becomes frisch, frei, froh, fromm; kein Mensch war
gekommen is often pronounced kein Mensch war ge-
kommen, although a strong logical emphasis lies upon kein.
- 90
Appendix.
Materials for practical exercises.
I. Coiisonantisni.
Dampf, sanf.t; Portion, Actie, Aristokratie ; Barbier, Ban-
kier, Spanier; zwar, wahr, Welle, Schwelle, Quelle, Kelle;
Scene, Skizze; Schach, Schah, chemisch, hamisch; konneu,
gonnen; Volke, folge; Clique, Biskuit, Guirlande; Chirurgie,
5 Ghirurg; Auge, Aug', Augsburg, Flagge, flaggst, lagst; Genie,
Genius, genial, Ingenieur; Katalog(e), Logik, Philologie; trageud,
Agent; sauge, sauge, Lage, Loge, Liige; regieren, Regie,
Regent, aufregend; Colleg, College; Doge, Dogge; wachen,
wagen, wacht, wagt, Wagner; liegen, liegt, lagen, lag; Mon-
10 arch, barg, Echo, Egoismus; Dachs, wachst, wachst, nachst,
sachsisch; Frauchen, rauchen, Chemnitz, Charfreitag, Check,
Chef; Czar, Czeche; Bronze, Gaze, Grazie, Zeus; Station,
Hospital, Spital; Asse, Ase, Asche, Courage; Service, Ser-
geant; Ignorant, Ungarn, Finger, Fink, i'ing; Liitzow, Charkow;
15 brav(e), Nerve, nervos, Pulver, Sklave, Wilhelmshaven, Frevel,
Vers, Verdict; Bund, bunt; Kalb, Kalber; Knabchen, Knablein;
Magd, Magde, Madchen; schallen, schallt, schalt, bald; heilsam,
seltsam; lang, Klange; Marz, Schmerz, mehr; driiben, triibcn;
Diener, Diner, Dessert, Corps; Mexico, exakt, Xerxes; Cham-
20 pagner, Compagnie, Compagnon; Detail, Bataille; Throu,
Tapferkeit, Rauheit, Papier, Local, Tier, Stier, Zier, Ahorn; un-
achtsam, beobachten; saen, sahen; beenden, vollenden, Ocean;
wate, Watte, Wade, Kladde; Bahnkasse, Bankkasse; Selbst-
sucht, Selbstzucht; fort, Fort; Ganges.
II. Vocalism.
Elendsten; Elemente; lebender, lebendiger, Indier; ent-
gegenrennen; Patient, redend; Ferse, Farse, wehren, wahren;
sehen, Seeen, saheu, Scharen, scheren; Alliance, Bronze, Athene;
91
gebet, Gebet, gabet; Charakter, Charaktere, charakteristisch ;
Kaffee, Cafe; beredt; Idee, ideell; fehle, Falle, ftible, Fulle; 5
heute, Haute; Bayer, Affaire; Refrain, Waise, Weise; Pension,
Pensum; Metrum, Parfum; Finanz, Chance; Bastion, Balcon;
pfui, Zuidersee, Dnisburg; Voigtland, Loisach; Yssel, Radet/.ky,
Schwyz, psychisch; Maestricht, Athenaeum; Revue, Kotzebue;
Boeotien, Soest, Boer; Curator, Curatoren; musz, Musze; 10
kriegte; vierhundertvierzehn; vielleicht; Jena, jene, jenseits;
Urteil, Ursaclie; Stadt, Stadte; Profit, Deficit; Wiiste, wiiszte;
Brucb; waschen, wusch; Mond; nachste; vorbei; Hoch/eit,
Hochsommer; Studium, Student; Drama, drainatiscb ; Osten,
Ostern, Ostreich; messen, Masz; schosz, Scbosz; barscb, Barsch; is
irdisch, Erde.
III. Accentuation.
Tadelte, tadle; Hobeit, Ameise; Otto; Erzgauner, Erz-
berzog; nngeheuer, Ungeheuer; unzablig, unboflich, undeutlicb,
undeutbar, unbeschadet, ungebalten; schwarzrotgold, blaugrau,
hellgrau; uralt(e), urplotzlicb, urbar; stocksteif(e), steinreicb(e);
altengliscb ; allmacbtig-, allseitig; Orlamunde; Bornbolm; Slid- 5
deutschland, Stidengland; Karfreitag, Karwoche; Oberstleut-
nant, Oberleutnant; Walkiire; auszerordentlicb ; wahrbaftig,
wabrbaft; unterrichten, unterscheiden ; frohlocken, willfabren,
ratschlagen; Miszgunst, miszgo'nnen, Miszbandlung, miszver-
stehn; Satan, Organ, Grobian; Glasur, Purpur; Hornist, Hor- 10
nisse; Subjekt; August; Moral, Metall, Marscball, fatal : Husar,
Altar ; Artikel, Flanell, parallel ; Accent, Continent, Student ; Stu-
die, Genie, Partie, Copie, Grazie: Paris, Tiirkis, gratis; Motiv,
activ, naiv; Spion, Damon, Kolon, Salon; Renntier, Rentier;
Prinzesz; Musik, Logik, Technik, Kritik, Metrik, Musiker; Tenor, is
Pastor, Major; elegant, Cousonant(en); Arabien, Araber, ara-
biscb; Katbolik, katboliscb; Abscheu, abscheulicb; lutherisch;
lebendige; Urteil, Vorurteil; clamit, fiirlieb, fiirbasz; Halbjahr,
Jabrzebnt; beispielsweise, gliicklicberweise; Elsasz-Lotbringen;
Hansuarr, Herrgott; einerlei; Gottseibeiuns, Springinsfeld, Stell- 20
dicbein; modern; Legende; Ostelbier; Vorderband, vorderband.
Plate I.
Cdrt.arytaenoidea,
Cart, cricoidea
Epiglottis
0s liyoideiim,
Ligamentum, glottidis spurium
Cart, thyreoidea
Chorda, vooalis
Cart, cricoidea
Fig. I.
The organs of speech (about natural size).
Plate II.
Chorda vncalis
-Cart, thyreoidffi
- Cart, arytaenoidca
Cart, cricoidea
Fig. H.
The cartilages of the larynx, seen from the left side. Pig m
The cartilago thyreoidea from the back.
Cart, arytaenoidea
Cart, cricoidea
Pig. IV.
The left half of the cartilago cricoidea with
the left cartilago arytaenoidea, seen from the front.
V.
Section showing the front half of the la-
rynx, seen from the back ; a, a) ventricular
bands ; b, b) vocal chords . between these
two pairs are the laryngeal ventricles,
between b and b is the glottis vera; c)
trachea ; d) epiglottis ; e, e) cart, cricoidea;
f, f) cart, thyreoidea.
Fig. VI.
The forms of the glottis and the different positions of the cartilagines
arytaenoideae : 1) breathing; 2) voiceless sound; 3) h; 4) voiced sound;
f>) glottal stop; 6) whispering.
u
Fig. VII.
The positions of the lips.
Plate III.
Fig. VIII.
The uvular trill r.
Fig. IX.
The mediopalatal occlusive sounds
g, k the dotted line at the top of the
tongue indicates the articulation of
the mediopalatal fricativesgr and.^ 2 .
Fig. X.
The prepalatal fricatives j
Fig. XI.
The alveolar d, t, and I ; the dotted
lines indicate the articulation of
the alveolar nasal n.
Plate IV.
Fig. XII.
The alveolar z and
Fig. xm.
The alveolar z and &.
Fig, XIV.
The labiodental # 8 ; the dotted line
at the lower lip indicates the arti-
culation of w and f; the dotted
lines at the uvula indicate the ar-
ticulation of m*.
Fig. XV.
The bilabial b and #'; the dotted
line at the lower lip indicates the
articulation of B; the dotted lines
at the uvula indicate the articu-
lation of the bilabial m and m\
Plate V.
Pig. XVI. u\
Fig. XVH. 6\
Pig. XVHI. a*.
The dotted lines indicate the arti-
culation of the nasalized *.
Pig. XIX. 9 \
Plate VI.
Pig. XX.
Pig. XXI. '.
Pig. xxn. 5 1 .
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