UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES GIFT OF MRS. HELEN H. HILL COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART EDITED BV JOHN C. VAN DYKE. L.H.D. HISTORY OF SCULPTURE ALLAN MARQ'JAND A. L. FROTHINGHAM, JR. 9 1 7 If COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART EDITED BY JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE HISTORY OF PAINTING By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and no Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.. Adjunct Professor of Architecture, Columbia College. New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibli- ographies, Glossary. Index of Architects, and a Genera) Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00. HISTORY OF SCULPTURE By ALLAN MARQUAND. Ph.D., L.H.D.. and ARTHVR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D., Professors of Archaeology and the History of Art in Princeton University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50- FAK.NKM. HI-.KA. NAI-I.KS. A TEXT-BOOK OF THE HISTORY OF SCULPTURE BY ALLAN MARQUAND, PH.D., L.H.I). PROFESSOR OF ARCHEOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF ART IN PRINCETON f.NIVF-KSITY AND ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, JR., PH.D. PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND ARCHEOLOGY IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY NEW YORK LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. LONDON AND BOMBAY 1905 COPYRIGHT, 1896, HV LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. All rights rcstrved FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER, 1896 REHRINTKD DKCKMBKR, 1898. (REVISED.) Kn'KiNTF.u AUGUST, 1901. (REVISED.) FEBRUARY, 1904 SEPTEMBER, 1905 Press of J. J. Little & Co. Astor Place, New York Art Library NE> bo PREFACE. THE object of this volume is to provide students in schools and colleges with a concise survey of the history of sculpture, \A ^ so that they may be able to comprehend intelligently the sculp- x ture of the past and the present in the countries with which ^ our own civilization has been and is most intimately connected. It has seemed unnecessary to treat of prehistoric sculpture in t general ; its connection with the flow of civilization is at present too remote and ill defined. Nor have we entered upon the history of Saracenic, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese sculp- v^ ture, although all of these have had some influence on Euro- ^ pean art. The various phases of Oriental art are, from an x historical standpoint, in great measure still a mystery to the Western world. This is equally true of the art of the semi- [ civilized nations whose influence once spread so widely upon ^ our own hemisphere. That portion of the general history of SVsculpture which comes within our survey is itself imperfectly known. In some countries it has been easy to trace the general development of the art; in others, the lack of systematic scientific study still hides from us most important treasures. The history of sculpture can be studied best with the assistance of casts and photographs. In the absence of the originals, these are preeminently the source upon which we must rely. As these are now within the grasp of every school Of *97J >3 VI* PREFACE. anntinu,-tl. Fourth-( 'entur}' and Hellenistic Sculpture i "4* CHAPTER XII. ITALIC AND KTRUSCAN SCULPTURE 113 CHAPTER XIII. ROMAN SCULPTURE 122 CHAPTER XIV. EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANMM s< I-U-TTRE .... 130 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER XV. PAGE MIDI.T.VAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY 143 CHAPTER XVI. MEDI.-EVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 153 CHAPTER XVII. MKDI.I.VAI. SCULPTURE IN GERMANY 164 CHAPTER XVIII. RENAI-^ANCK Srn.iTURE IN ITALY. The Early Renaissance (1400-1500) 176 CHAPTER XIX. RENAISSANCK SCULPTURE IN ITALY Continneii. The Early Renaissance (1400-1500) 183 CHAPTER XX. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Early Renaissance Continued .......... 197 CHAPTER XXI. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Developed Renaissance (1500-1600) and the Decadence (1600-1800) .... 206 CHAPTER XXII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 219 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIII. PAGE KlNAISSANCK SctM.PTI'KK IN C.KKMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, SPAIN, AND ENGLAND 230 CHAPTER XXIV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ITALY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, GERMANY, AND RUSSIA 240 CHAPTER XXV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 256 CHAPTER XXVI. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENCLAND 267 CHAPTER XXVII. MUDKKN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA 275 NOTE. Chapters i and 2, 8 to n,.and 18 to 27 are by Professor Marquand : chapters 3 to 7 and 12 to 17 are by Professor Frothingham. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Farnese Hera, Naples Frontispiece PAGE 1 The Sheik-el-Beled, or Mayor of the Village. Gizeh Museum . 3 2 Royal Scribe in the Louvre. Ancient Empire .... 5 3 Hyksos Chief from the Fayoum. Gizeh Museum ... 7 4 Ra-hotep and his Wife Nefert. Thirteenth Dynasty. Gizeh Museum .......... 9 5 Seti I. Worshipping. Eighteenth Dynasty. Abydos . . II 6 Rameses II. Nineteenth Dynasty. Ipsamboul . . .15 7 Ptolemy crowned by Upper and Lower Egypt. Edfou . . 17 8 Sarcophagus of Peti-IIar-si-ese as the Goddess Hathor. Ptole- maic period. Berlin Museum ...... 19 9 Statue of Gudea from Tello. Louvre, Paris .... 23 10 Head with Turban from Tello. Louvre 26 11 Impression from a Babylonian Cylinder. Berlin Museum . 20 12 Two Divinities escorting a King. Berlin Museum ... 32 i ;, A-^ur-nazir-pal and Attendant. British Museum 37 14 Relief from Khorsabad. Louvre 40 15 Capture of Lachish by Sennacherib. British Museum . . 43 id Assur-bani-pal stabbing a Lion. British Museum ... 46 17 Lion attacking a Bull. Apadana of Xerxes. Persepolis . . 49 1 8 Bull Head Capital. Palace of Artaxerxes at Susa. Louvre . 51 19 Hittite Relief at Carchemish-Jerablus 55 20 " " from Saktche-Gozii . . . . . .57 21 " " at Boghaz-Keui ....... 58 22 Phoenician Head from Athieno. Metropolitan Museum, New York 61 23 Cypriote Statue in the Assyrian style. Metropolitan Museum, New York .......... 63 24 Cypriote Statue in the Egyptian style. Metropolitan Museum, New York 65 25 Lion Gate at Mykenai ........ 69 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 26 Apollo of Tenea. Glyptothek, Munich 71 27 Bronze Head of an Athlete. Naples Museum .... 73 28 Head of Dionysos. Naples Museum 75 2<> I >oriphoros after Polykleitos. Naples Museum ... 77 30 Metope of the Parthenon. British Museum .... 83 31 Theseus, or Olympos, from Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon. Piritish Museum ......... 85 32 Nike from Western Pediment of the Parthenon. British Museum. 86 33 Restoration of the Nike of Paionios ...... 88 34 Poseidon, Apollo, and Demeter, from Eastern Frieze of the Par- thenon. Athens Museum ....... 90 35 Head of the Hermes by Praxiteles. Olympia .... 95 36 Faun after Praxiteles. Vatican, Rome ..... 97 \phrodite of Melos. Louvre ....... 99 38 Apoxyomenos after Lysippos. Vatican 101 39 The Farnese Bull. Naples Museum ..... 105 4" The Dying Haul. Capitol, Rome ...... 108 41 Athene (iroup from Altar at Pergamon. Berlin Museum . . in 42 Etruscan Sarcophagus. British Museum . . . . .114 43 Artemis from Lake Falterona. British Museum . . . 117 44 Etruscan Cinerary Urn. Volterra . . . . . I2> 45 Statue of Augustus. Vatican 123 itue of Juno. Baths of Diocletian, Rome . . . .125 47 Marciana, Sister of Trajan 127 48 Marcus Aurelius sacrificing before the Temple of Jupiter. Capi- tol, Rome . . . . . . . . . .128 4-; The (iood Shepherd. Lateran, Rome 131 i .trly Christian Sarcophagus. Lateran, Rome .... 133 51 Christian Sarcophagus in S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura. Rome . 135 52 Ivory Triptych of the Crucifixion 137 53 Bronze Statue of Heraclius. Barletta 139 54 Episcopal Chair of Maximianus. Ravenna . . . .141 55 The Nativity. Panel from Pulpit at Pisa. Nircola Pisano . 144 56 Charity and the Four Cardinal Virtues, by Giovanni 1'isano. nposanto, Pisa I4 y 57 Portion of Baptistery (late, by Andrea Pisano. Florence. . 141; 58 The Betrothal of the Virgin, by Orcagna. Or San Michele, Florence ......... 151 f Portal, si. Trophime, Aries . . . .154 60 Roof Sculptures. Notre Dame, Paris 157 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 6 1 Sculptured Figures, left portal of Cathedral at Rheims . . 160 62 Sculptures of South Door, Cathedral at Amiens . . . 162 63 Book Cover attributed to Tutilo. Monastery of St. Gall . . 165 64 Bronze Doors, Cathedral of Gnesen (Bode, Ges. d. D. Plastik, p. 31) 168 65 Statue of Sibyl, Cathedral of Bamberg (Bode, op. fit. p. 66) . 171 66 Figure from the left portal of the Cathedral of Strassburg . 174 '7 Mory of Abraham, by Ghiberti. Baptistery Gate, Florence . 177 68 Head of the St. George, by Donatello. Or San Michele, Florence 180 69 Equestrian Statue of Gattamelata, by Donatello. Padua . . i35 70 Lunette, by Luca della Robbia. Via dell' Agnolo, Florence . 188 71 Bust of Bishop Leonardo Salutati, by Mino da Fiesole. Fiesole Cathedral .......... 191 72 Pulpit by Benedetto da Majano. S. Croce, Florence . . 194 73 Bartolommeo Colleoni, by Verrocchio. Venice .... 195 74 Ilaria del Caretto, by Jacopo della Quercia, Lucca Cathedral . 198 75 Sculptures from the Certosa at Pavia ..... 200 76 Sculptured Base at S. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice . . . 202 77 Head of Statue of David, by Michelangelo. Museo Nazionale, Florence . . . . . . . . . .211 78 Tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici. Medici Chapel, S. Lorenzo, Florence .......... 213 79 Base of Statue of Perseus, by Benvenuto Cellini, Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence . . . . . . . . .215 So The Prophet Daniel, by Bernini. S. Maria del Popolo, Rome . 217 81 St. George and the Dragon, by Michel Colombe. Louvre . 220 -j Water Nymphs, by Goujon. Louvre ..... 223 83 Mourning Figure from the Tomb of Cardinal Mazarin, by Coy- sevox. Louvre ......... 225 84 Horses of the Sun. Hotel de Rohan. Paris .... 226 85 The Marechal de Saxe, by Pigalle. Louvre .... 227 86 Head of Voltaire, by Houdon. Louvre ..... 228 87 King Arthur, by Peter Vischer. Innsbruck .... 232 88 Death of the Virgin, by Riemenschneider. Wilrzburg Cathedral 234 89 Mask of a Dying Warrior, by Schliiter. Arsenal, Berlin . . 236 90 Carved-wood Altar-piece at Lombeek Notre Dame . . . 238 91 Cybele. Late Spanish Renaissance . . . . . .241 92 Perseus, by Canova. Vatican ....... 243 93 Giotto, by Dupre. Portico of the Uffizi, Florence . . . 245 94 Monument to Prof. Vacca Berlinghieri, by Thorwaldsen. Cam- posanto, Pisa ......... 247 XJV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 95 Ariadne, by Dannecker. Frankfort 249 96 The Two Princesses, by Schadow. Castle, Berlin . . .251 07 Monument of Frederick the Great, by Rauch. Berlin . . 252 98 Russian Standard Bearer, by l.ancere ..... 254 99 The Departure of the Volunteers of 1792, by Rude. Arc de Triumphr, I'.iris ........ 257 100 The Lion and the Snake, bronze by Barye. Tuileries, Paris . 259 101 The Florentine Singer, by Paul Dubois. Luxembourg, Paris 261 102 The Secret of the Tomb, by Saint Marceaux. Luxembourg, Paris 263 103 Pan and the Bears, by Fremiet. Luxembourg, Paris . . 204 104 John the Baptist, by Rodin. Luxembourg, Paris . . . 265 105 Pauline Bonaparte, by Thomas Campbell. Chatsworth, England 268 106 I <>rii Beaconsfield. Westminster Abbey, London . . . 270 107 Dancing, by On slow Ford ....... 272 108 Washington as Olympian Zeus, by Greenough. Washington. 276 109 The Greek Slave, by Powers, owned by Duke of Cleveland, England. Replica in Boston Museum .... 278 no Bronze Relief of President McCosh, by Augustus St. Gaudens. Princeton University Chapel ...... 280 ; 1 1 Death and the Sculptor, by D. C. French. From a cast in Chicago Art Institute ....... 282 112 Nathan Hale, by MacMonnies. City Hall Park, New York . 284 113 Ideal Head, by Herbert Adams. Possession of the Artist . 285 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. D'Agincourt, Histoire de r Art. American Journal of Archeology. L'Arte. Hurchardt, Der Cicerone. Clarac, Muse'e de Sculpture. Cicognara, Storia della Sculptura. Cavallucci, Manuale di Storia della Sculptura. Gazette des Beaux Arts. Gazette Arche"ologique. Iconographic Encyclopedia. Vol. III. Kiigler, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte. Kiihn, Allgemeine Kunstgeschichte . Liibke, History of Sculpture. Liibke u. Caspar, Denkmdler der Kunst. Monuments et Me'moires de r Acaddmie des Inscriptions. Mitchell, A History of Ancient Sculpture. Nagler, Allgemcincs Kunstlerlexicon. Paris, Manual of Ancient Sculpture. Radcliffe, Schools and Masters of Sculpture. Rayet, Monuments de r Art Antique. Reber, History of Ancient Art ; History of Mediaeval Art. Schnaase, Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste. Seemann, Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen. Springer, Kunstgeschichte. Von Sybel, Weltgeschichte der Knnst. Winckelmann, History of Ancient Art, SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES. See BOOKS RECOMMENDED at heads of chapters, to which add as follows : CHAPTER I. For text, consult Maspero, Struggle of the Nations; Passing of the Empire. VIII. Bernoulli, Griechische Monographic. P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of Hellas ; von Mach, Greek Sculpture. CATALOGUES OF MISHMS: Florence (Amelung). IX. Perrot and Chipiez, La Grhe Archaique, La Sculp- ture. X. Murray, Sculptures of the Parthenon. Mahler, Polyklet und seine Schule. XL Klein, Praxiteles; Praxitelische Studien. XIII. Cicorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssdule. Courbaud, Le bas-relief romain. Petersen und Domaszewski, Die Marcussaule zu Rom. Wirkhoff, Roman Art. XIV. Graeven, Fruhchristliche und mittclalterliche Elfen- beinwerke. Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church. Venturi, Storia deirarte italiana. Wiegand, Das altchristliche Hauptportal an der Kirche der hi. Sal'ina zn Ram. XV. Xiinmermunn, Oberitalischc Plastik tin fhihen und hohen Mittelalter, SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES. xvii CHAPTER XVI. Male, DA rt religieux du XI IP siecle en France. XVII. Hasak, Geschichte der deutschen Bildhauerkunst im XIII ten Jahrhundert. Miinzerberger und Beissel, Zur Kenntniss und IViir- digutig der mittclalterlichen A/tare Deutschlands. Bode, Florentine)- Bildhauer der Renaissance. XVIII. Cruttwell, Luca and Andrea delta Robbia. Makowsy, Vcrrocchio. XXI. Supino, L'arte di Benvenuto Cellini. XXII. Koechlin et Marquet de Vasselot, La Sculpture a Troyes et dans la Champagne mdridionalc an XV I? siecle. XXIII. Haendcke, Stndien zur Geschichte der spanischen Plastik. XXVII. Caffin, American Masters of Sculpture. Taft, The History of American Sculpture. ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE. EGYPT Administration of Gizeh Museum, Cairo. Sebah, Cairo. FRANCE Braun, Clement & C ie , Avenue de 1' Opera, Paris. Giraudon, 15 Rue Bonaparte, Paris. J. Levy& C' e (lantern slides), Boulevard de Sebastopol, Paris. Mieusement, 19 Rue de Passy, Paris. Neuerdein, 52 Avenue de Breteuil, Paris. Trocadero Museum, Paris. GERMANY Amsler & Ruthardt, 29 Behrenstr., Berlin. Berlin Photographic Co., Schlossfrei he-it, Berlin. Bruckmann, 21 Kaulbachstr., Munich. Franz Hanfstaengl, Maximilianstr , Munich. J. Lowy, i Weihburggasse, Vienna. Nohring, 67 Breitestr., Liibeck. Seemann, I.eipzig. GREECK Central Direktion des Archaeologischen Instituts, Cornel iusstr. II, Berlin. English Photograph Co., Athens. Rhoniaidi-s, Athens. Sebah, Constantinople. ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE. XIX Scull (mythological sculpture), Porter & Coates, Philadelphia, Pa. C. A. Young, Columbia College, New York. GREAT BRITAIN. .. .Autotype Co., 74 New Oxford St., Lon- don. Bedford, Lemere & Co., Strand, London. Berlin Photographic Co., New Bond St., London. Clark & Davies, Museum St., Lon- don. W. A. Mansell, Oxford St., London. Photograph Department of the S. Ken- sington Museum, London. Spooner, Strand, London. Stereoscopic and Photographic Co., London. G. W. Wilson & Co., Aberdeen, Scot- land. ITALY Alinari, 20 Via Tornabuoni, Florence. Anderson, 85 Piazza di Spagna, Rome. Brogi, i Via Tornabuoni, Florence. Lombardi, Siena. Montabone, 7 Piazza Durini, Milan. Moscioni, 10 Via Condotti, Rome. Naya, 75 Piazza. S. Marco, Venice. Noack, i Vico del Filo, Genoa. Poppi, 19 Via d' Azeglio, Bologna. Rossi, Milan. Sommer, Naples. xx ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. UNITED STATES. .. .Merlin Photographic Co., East 2^d St., New York. Braun, Clement & Co., 257 Fifth Ave., New York. C. H. Dunton, 136 Boylston St., Boston. Fr. Hanfstaengl, 114 Fifth Ave., New York. Hegger, 288 Fifth Ave., New York. T. H. McAllister (lantern slides), 49 Nassau St., New York. Soule Photo. Co., 338 Washington St., Boston. ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. Plaster casts may l>e obtained at the following addresses : ATHKNS P. Kawadias, Central Museum. BKKLIN Sekretar d. General Verwaltung, For- merei der Kciniglichen Museen. (General.) G. Eichler, 17 Jagerstrasse. (Tanugra figurines and general.) Gebriider Micheli, 76* Unter den Lin- den. (Modern.) BOSTON Museum of Fine Arts. P. P. Caproni, 12 Province Court. (Ancient and modern.) CAIRO Atelier de Moulage. Musee de Gizeh. (Egyptian.) Jean Jeladon. (Arabic.) ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. XXI CHRISTIANIA Guidotti Brothers, O'Rugh Museum. COLOGNE August Gerber. COPENHAGEN V. Steffensen, Royal Museum. DRESDEN Formerei des Kgl. Albertinums. (An- cient and modern.) FLORENCE Oronzio Lelli, 95 Corso de' Tintori. (Renaissance.) LONDON D. Brucciani, 40 Russell St., Covent Garden. (British Museum sculpture and general.) Arundel Society, 19 St. James St., S. W. (Ivories.) Elkington & Co., 22 Regent St. (Ivories and metals.) Aug. Ready, Great Russell St. (Ivories and gems.) South Kensington Museum. (Mediaeval, Renaissance.) MILAN Edouardo Pierotti, 3 Via Filangieri. (Renaissance.) MUNICH Joseph Kreittmayer, 12 Hildegard- strasse. (German Mediaeval and Renaissance.) G. Geiler, Formator an der Kgl. Akad. der Kiinste. (Ancient.) Conserva tori urn der Antikensammlungen der Kgl. technischen Hochschule. (Ancient.) xxit ADDRESSES EOR PLASTER CASTS. NAPLES The Director of the Museo Nazionale. (Ancient.) NEW YORK Metropolitan Museum, Central Park. NUREMBERG J. Rothermundt, Langegasse 30. (Ger- man Mediaeval and Renaissance.) PARIS Atelier de Moulage, Ecole des Beaux Arts, 14 Rue Bonaparte. (General sculpture.) Eug. Arrondelle, Chef du Moulage, Pavilion Daru, Musee du Louvre. (Sculptures of the Ixnivre and general .) J. Pouzadoux et Fils, 45 Rue Monsieur le Prince. (Sculptures at the Troca- de"ro.) ROME Michele Gherardi, 87 Via Sistina. Cesare Malpieri, 54 Via del Corso. (General.) VENICE Antonio di Paoli, S. Trovaso, Calle delle Cento Pietre 1202. VIENNA Formerei des K. K. Oesterr, Museum fiir Kunst und Industrie. (General.) CHAPTER I. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. For illustration, consult the plates in Prisse d'Avennes' Histpirfi de fdrt Mgyptien. Lepsius, Denkmiiler a us Aegypteruyjnggsfflulw&sGfamipcAYioTi, Monu- ments de rEgypte et de laNubie.s^l&uQlte, Album fflfyogity- phique du Muse'e de Boulaq. }*(&&&4tfyy*^ffyuMentr defl' Egitto e della Nubia. For text, consult Budge, The Mummy. Edwifds, Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt. Mariette, Monuments of Upper Egypt. Maspero, Egyptian Archceology ; Guide du Visiteur au Muse'e de Boulaq ; The Dawn of Civilization. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt. Soldi, La Sculpture Egyptienne. Wilkin- son, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. Ancient Egypt con- sisted of two principalities: the land of the south, or Upper Egypt, extending from the city of Elephantine, near the first cataract, to Memphis, not far from the modern Cairo; and the land of the north, or Lower Egypt, which stretched from Memphis, widening with the mouths of the Nile, and form- ing a delta at the Mediterranean. These two principalities represented the consolidation of smaller prehistoric states or nomes, and were themselves united as one nation under the Pharaohs. This country extended along the fertile banks of the winding Nile a distance of seven hundred and thirty-one miles, and it to-day averages in width about nine miles. The prehistoric tribes probably became united at a remote date before Menes, after whose reign it is customary to treat 2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. of Egyptian history as a series of successive dynasties. These dynasties are sometimes named from the city which served as the capital, and sometimes from the conquering nation which furnished the kings. Historians and Egyptologists differ widely in respect to the dates of the earlier dynasties, but the difference grows less with the later dynasties and disap- pears when the period of Greek rule is reached. The follow- ing table, based upon Manetho, is given by Mariette as an approximate guide : NUMBER OK DYNASTY. NAME OF DYNASTY. DURATION. DATE B C. fZZZ. ^E^ire. " id $' r( Em - Ancient E^ire * I . THINITK. MEMPHITE. ELEPHANTINE. MlMI'HITK. HBRACLBOPOUTB. THEBAN. I XOITE. HVKSOS, OK SHEPHERDS. j _ THEBAN. _ r- " TANITH. BUBASTITK. TANITE. SAITE. ETHIOPIAN. SAITE. I'l KSIAN. SAITE. MKNDESIAN. SEBKNNYTK. IAN. MACEDONIAN. GREEK. HUMAN. 253 years. 302 214 284 248 203 70 duys. 142 years. 109 185 2 f3 453 184 5" 241 17 i 178 130 170 8q 6 5 2 '38 121 7 21 1 27 275 4" 5004 475' 4449 4235 3951 373 . 3500 35< 3358. 3 2 49 3064 2851 2398 2214 1703 1462 1288 1 1 10 980 810 721 7'5 665 527 406 R< 34 332 35 3 II III... IV V. .. VI. .. VII . VIII. .. IX. .. X. .. "XI... XII. .. XIII . XIV. . XV. . XVI , XVII. . ' XVIII. .. XIX XX. . XXI. . XXII XXIII. . XXIV XXV... XXVI... XXVII XXVIII. . XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII XXXIII . XXXIV At the head of the social organism stood the king, or 1'lui- raoh, an absolute monarch, worshipped as a divinity after he UM-eiided the throne. He w.u supreme in ecclesiastical as well as civil matters. Below him were the several orders of EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. priests, the governors, scribes, and other civil functionaries, with the generals and officers of the army. These constituted a privileged, hereditary nobility, in whose hands was consid- erable power, and the ownership of the soil. Much that remains to us of the sculptures of the Ancient and Middle Empires is the result of the patronage of these classes. Architects and sculptors were highly esteemed, and the vari- ous artisans, musicians, and commercial traders had the same legal rights as the tillers of the soil. According to Herodotos, there were twenty thou- sand cities in Egypt, representing a total population of over five millions, and there was, therefore, a large mass of the population which could be turned to the construction of public works or to foreign con- quest. RELIGION. The relig- ion of the Egyptians was somewhat analogous to their political organization. Many traces of a prehistoric fetichism are found, in which different animals, such as the bull, the ibis, the crocodile, were the totems of different tribes. There was also a polytheism, in FIG. I. THE SHEIK-EL-BELED, OR MAYOR OF THE VILLAGE. GIZEH Ml'SEUM. 4 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. \vhirh divinities were grouped in triads or enneads, with one divinity as supreme and all powerful. Underlying this was a worship of the powers of nature, especially of the sun, moon, and stars, and a manifest tendency toward organization into a unified system of monotheism or pantheism. Intimately connected with their social and religious system was the idea of immortality. Each person in a measure reflected the constitution of the social fabric. His body was presided over by a ka, which, like a Pharaoh, ruled the body, and was in form its ethereal duplicate. The ka remained with the mummy in the tomb; it required nourishment, and it was provided with permanent bodily form in the shape of one or more statues of the deceased. The higher elements of per- sonality enjoyed greater freedom. The ba, or soul, wandered through the Valley of Shades; the khou, or intelligence, followed the gods, while the ab, or heart, the khaibit, or shadow, and the ren, or name, awaited the final reunion, when the individual secured his immortality and became a god. SUBJECTS. The sculpture of the Egyptians was largely con- nected with the temple and the tomb. *The temple was con- structed as if it were the tomb or eternal dwelling-place of a divinity whose statue was concealed within a succession of closed halls, opened to view only for a brief interval, when the sun or moon or particular star reached a point on the horizon from which their rays could shine directly upon the innermost shrine. These temple statues were consulted as oracles, but were seldom of imposing size. The art of the sculptor was also employed for wall-reliefs, capitals of columns, colossal figures guarding the pylons, and for long avenues of sphinxes. The scenes upon the temple walls illustrate frequently the piety of kings as well as their foreign conquests. The tombs called for the most extensive use of the sculp- tor's art. Here were placed portrait statues of the deceased. Of this nature were many of the statues of Pharaohs, public EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 5 functionaries, and scribes, and the groups representing a man and his wife. The walls of the earlier tombs resemble an illustrated book of the manners and customs of the people. Here are represented hunting, fishing, and agricultural scenes; artistic and mercantile pursuits, such as the making of statues, FIG. 2. ROYAL SCRIBE IN THE Lot or glass, or metal-ware, or the building of pyramids; women at their domestic duties, or wailing for the dead ; boys engaged in athletic games. Such reliefs indicate a confident belief in the future as an untroubled extension of the present life. At a later period, beginning with the tombs of the New Empire, the gods appear more prominently in scenes of judgment; 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. revealing a less certain attitude of mind concerning the hap- piness of the future state. The sculptor's art also lent a charm to the minor objects of domestic and daily use; to household furniture with its rich divans, to tables and chests, and to all forms of metal work and jewelry. Such objects as toilet boxes, mirrors, and spoons assumed forms derived from the floral, animal, or human world. Sacred plants, especially the lotus, were the naturalistic basis for a large and varied series of forms which influenced the decorative art of the entire ancient world. MATERIALS, METHODS, AND CONVENTIONS. In the Nile valley grew the sacred acacia and the sycamore, which furnished the sculptor material for statues and sarcophagi, for thrones and other objects of industrial art. The hillsides on both banks of the Nile, as far south as Edfou, furnished a coarse nummulitic limestone, and beyond Edfou were extensive quarries of sand- stone, both of which materials were employed for sculptural as well as for architectural purposes. Near the first cataract may be still seen the quarries of red granite utilized not only for obelisks, but also for colossal statues, sphinxes, and sarcoph- agi. Alabaster was quarried at the ancient Alabastron, near the modern village of Assiout. From the mountains of the Arabian desert and the Sinai tic peninsula came the basalt and diorite used by the early sculptors, the red porphyry prized by the Greeks and Romans, and copper. The Nile mud was moulded and baked, and even covered with colored glazes, from the earliest dynasties of Egyptian history. At the same early period we find the Egyptian sculptor handling with skill various imported materials, such as ebony, ivory, gold, silver, and iron. When the Egyptians wished to give permanence to their sculptures, as, for example, to the statues and sarcophagi of their Pharaohs, they utilized the hardest material, such as basalt, diorite, granite. These materials they handled with no less skill than they did wood and ivory and softer stones. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 7 The fine details were probably executed with instruments of flint. Other implements, made apparently of hardened bronze or iron, were the saw with jewelled teeth, tubular drills of vari- ous kinds, the pointer, and chisel. Statues of hard stone were carefully polished with crushed sandstone and emery; those of the softer materials were generally covered with stucco and FROM THE FAYOUM. GIZEH MUSEUM. painted, the coloring being applied in an arbitrary or conven- tional manner. The wall -sculptures are executed in different modes of relief : (1) Bas-relief, in which the figures project slightly in front of the background. (2) Sunken-relief, in which the background projects slightly in front of the figures, 8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (3) Outline-relief, in which only the outline of figures is chiselled. (4) High-relief, in which the figures project strongly from the background. Almost all the wall-sculptures of the Ancient Empire are in the form of bas-relief; sunken and outline relief are the most common methods during the New Empire/* High-relief is found occasionally in tombs of the Ancient Empire, other- wise it is almost exclusively confined to the New Empire and to such forms as Osiride and Hathoric piers and to wall stat ues. In its treatment of figures in the round, Egyptian sculp- ture is limited to a few forms. There is the standing figure, with left foot slightly in advance of the right, the head erect, and the eyes looking straight forward. Variants are formed by changing the pose of the arms. In the seated figures there is the same fixity of the head, body, and lower limbs. Beside these, the kneeling and squatting attitudes frequently occur, with little variation. Statues in the round usually represented the gods, Pharaohs, or civic officials, and were composed with special reference to the preservation of straight lines. The more important monuments were thus limited in type and pose, but a whole series of statues illustrating domestic sub- jects show freer modes of composition.* Little attention was given to grouping. It was usually a mere juxtaposition of two standing or two seated statues, or of one standing and one seated figure. A god and a man, or a husband and a wife, were placed side by side. In family groups the figure of a child was sometimes added. Statues of Isis suckling Horus formed the only prominent exception. Symbolism usually governed the representations of the gods. When portrayed as human beings they were distinguished by emblems, but they were more frequently represented as com- posite creatures with animal heads on human bodies. Thus, Horus has the head of a hawk ; Anubis, that of a jackal ; Khnum, a ram; Thoth, an ibis; Sebek, a crocodile; Isis, a EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. g cow; and Sekhet-Bast, a lion or cat. The same method of representation placed a human head upon an animal body and formed fantastic combinations of various creatures, birds, ani- mals, and men. As the statues represented the permanent body of the FIG. 4. RA-HOTE!' AND HIS WIFE NEFERT. THIRTEENTH IJVXASTV. GIZEH MUSEUM. deceased, so the relief-sculptures reproduced the scenes in which his ethereal body might continue to move. They were not intended as mere architectural decorations, but had pri- marily a recording or immortalizing purpose. They covered the outer and inner walls of temples, the galleries and walls of tombs, without much regard to aesthetic considerations or IO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. decorative effect. On the exterior walls of temples they were often irregularly disposed over the surface, but in interiors they were arranged in superposed, horizontal rows. They were not pictures, but picture-writing in relief, and were little more than enlarged hieroglyphs. Such being their character, there was little stimulus to the production of artistic compositions. * Relief-composition consisted merely in the arrangement of figures in horizontal lines so as to record an event or depict an action. The principal objects were distinguished from the rest by their size; thus, gods were larger than men, kings than their followers, and the dead than the living. Subordinate actions were juxtaposed in horizontal bands. In other respects there was little regard for unity of effect; and spaces seem to have been filled with figures and hieroglyphs on the principle that decoration abhors a vacuum. In com- position of this kind, constructed like sentences, there was little or no need of perspective. Scenes were not represented as they appeared within the field of vision, but their individ- ual components were all brought to the plane of representa- tion, and spread out like writing. A man with head in pro- file, but eye en face, with shoulders in full front, but trunk turned three-quarters and legs in profile, is not the picture of a man as he appears to the eye; but as a symbolic represen- tation of a man, it was perfectly clear and intelligible. In the same symbolic way a pond was indicated by a rectangle, the water in it by zigzag lines, while the trees around it pro- jected from the four sides of the rectangle. An army was portrayed with its remoter ranks brought into the plane of rep- resentation and supeq)osed in horizontal lines one above the other. Frequently a row of individuals projecting from the spectator was represented along a horizontal line, the nearer figures partly covering the remoter. In a few instances the effects of perspective were suggested, but being foreign to the purposes of Egyptian art they bore no fruit. :>tian reliefs \\civ covered with stucco and painted. The EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. II colors used were vivid in tone, few in number, and durable in quality. They were applied in uniform flat masses, juxta- Kl<;. 5. SKTI I. VVOKSHII'I'IMi. KK.IITKKNTH I1Y.N\STV. ABYDOS. posed in striking contrasts. Chiaroscuro and color-perspec- tive lay outside the Kiiyptian conception of painting. The painting of reliefs served to make the figures more distinct, 12 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. not more natural. Color was rarely used to suggest rotundity of form, and was applied ordinarily in a purely conventional manner. The faces of men were usually reddish brown, and those of women yellow ; but the gods might have faces of any color. Statues of wood or of soft stone were frequently in like manner covered with stucco and painted. * CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. CONTINUED. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books before mentioned ; also, see General Bibliography. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. In spite of wealth of materials and quantity of production, Egyptian sculpture changed so slowly that it is difficult to trace its history. From the very earliest dynasties we find a fully developed art. Sculptors handled readily the hardest stones and cast with much skill in bronze. There is no archaic period to show the struggle by which this mastery was reached. Egypt has not yet enlightened us as to a prehistoric art of her own, nor is it proved that some foreign nation provided her with an art already in its prime. What- ever its origin, the continuity of Egyptian art during the his- toric period is more marked than its changes. Nevertheless, the modification of Egyptian sculpture at different periods may be roughly distinguished. ANCIENT EMPIRE. The art of the Ancient Empire centred about Memphis, although the Delta, Abydos, the neighbor- hood of Thebes, and Elephantine furnish illustrations of some of its later phases. There are no temples remaining from this period; the sculptures come exclusively from tombs. In character these Memphite sculptures were strongly naturalistic when compared with the later products of Egyptian art. The portrait statues are varied and often striking in character, and the wall-pictures depict many scenes from daily life. Gen- eralized or typical forms are not wanting in the very earliest times, as witness the colossal sphinx at Gizeh and the statues of Chephren, builder of the second pyramid. The natural- 14 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. istic tendency led to a peculiar treatment of the eye, found in statues of this period, but discontinued in later times. The pupil was represented by a glistening silver nail set in the midst of rock crystal or enamel, while the dark eyelashes were made of bronze. This treatment was followed in the case of statues in limestone, wood, and bronze, but not in the statues made of basaltic rocks. The heads of these early statues seem to indicate a strongly marked Egyptian type, not unmixed in some cases with negroid and other foreign races. The wall- sculptures, and even the hieroglyphs executed in low-relief, were finely carved. The slender type of the human form was not wanting, but short, thickset, muscular bodies were more com- mon. From the fact that many middle-aged men and women were represented, it would seem as if childhood and old age were somehow looked upon as disappearing in the future life. The faces reflect the lives of a peaceful, happy people, to whom future life implied no great change in the mode of existence. MIDDLE EMPIRE. The period called the Middle Kmpire may be divided into the first Theban period, extending from the eleventh to the fifteenth dynasty, and the Hyksos period, from the fifteenth to the eighteenth dynasty. The centre of government had now shifted from Memphis to Thebes. The later period of Memphite rule and the first dynasty of the Middle Empire seem to have produced little sculpture of monumental value. But the strong reign of the Usertesens and the Amenemhats of the twelfth dynasty marks a revival of Egyptian art. The sculpture represented in general a contin- uance of the art of Memphis, but there were already some changes. A desire for colossal statues of Pharaohs began to be felt, and bodily forms were given with slenderer trunks and limbs. The wall -sculptures presented subjects similar to those of earlier days, but were less individual and natural ; and in many cases wall-paintings were substituted for reliefs. The temple statues from Karnak of the twelfth dynasty indicate that votive offerings of statuary were not uncommon, the fine statue EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 15 of Sebek-hotep III. of the thirteenth dynasty, in the Louvre, bearing witness to a new departure in the sculptor's art. This revival of art, which began in the twelfth and continued through the thirteenth dynasty, was checked in the fourteenth 16 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and fifteenth dynasties by the invasion of barbarous foreign rulers known as the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. The ethno- logical affinities of these Shepherd Kings is an unsettled prob- lem, the Shemitic influences which they introduced being offset by their apparently Turanian facial type. The sculp- tured sphinxes and statues were still executed by Egyptian sculptors, but in the gray or black granite of Hammanat or of the Sinai tic peninsula, instead of the red granite of Assouan. The Hyksos centres of activity were Tanis and Bubastis, their influence being less strongly felt in Upper Egypt. The most striking characteristic of their sculpture was the non-Egyptian cast of countenance, showing small eyes, high cheek bones, heavy masses of hair, an aquiline nose, a strong mouth with shaven upper lip, and short whiskers and beard. NEW EMPIRE. The second Theban or early portion of the New Empire included the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twen- tieth dynasties. Egypt now freed herself from Hyksos rule and extended her empire to Assyria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus in the east and north, and to Nubia and Abyssinia in the south. Numerous large temples were erected, especially dur- ing the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. These furnished a new stimulus to the sculptor's art. Colossal temples led nat- urally to colossal statuary. The seated statues of Amenophis III., at Thel>es, are fifty-two feet high, those of Rameses II., at Ipsamboul, are seventy feet high, while the standing Ram- eses at Tanis, according to Mr. Petrie, stood ninety feet high without its pedestal. The slender proportions of the human form which prevailed in the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties were continued and even advanced, especially in the bas-reliefs of the New Empire. The primitive simplicity of dress, char- acteristic of earlier days, was now replaced by greater rich- ness in personal adornment, and elaborate crowns and highly ornamented garments were not uncommon. Foreign fauna and flora, as well as foreign men and women, were represented more frequently and in far greater variety than in earlier days. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. Scenes of warfare and foreign conquest were portrayed, and images of the gods were now abundant. A single small tem- ple at Karnak contained five hundred and seventy-two statues of the goddess Sekhet-Bast, but at Tell-el-Amarna the heretic king Khou-en-Aten stimulated his sculptors to break with tra- ditional themes and to portray military reviews, chariot driv- ing, festivals, palaces, villas, and gardens. The school of sculptors now established made itself felt 1 8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. throughout the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. The fine heads of Queen Taia and Horemheb and the remarkable limestone reliefs at Seti's temple in Abydos may be traced to its influ- ence; so, also, the beautiful seated statue of Rameses II. in the Museum of Turin. Royal tombs of this period main- tained the traditional excellence of relief sculpture, but the demand for carved scenes upon the outer walls of temples was probably too great for the supply of sculptors. At all events, we find here poverty of invention in the subjects and haste in the execution. After the brilliant reign of Rameses II. Egypt lost much of her military spirit, the country was divided, and the decadence of art began. This was a gradual decline, with here and there an upward struggle, as shown, for instance, in the reliefs of the twentieth dynasty at Medinet-Alx)u. During the later portion of the New Empire, from the twenty-first to the thirty-second dynasty, the power of Egypt was broken. She yielded now to the Ethiopians, to the Assyri- ans, and once and again to the Persians. Her seat of empire shifted to Tanis, to Bubastis, to Mendes, to Sebennytos, and for a long time remained at Sais. This period is therefore characterized as the SAITE PERIOD. Under such shifting conditions it was hardly possible for art to flourish. Sometimes sculptors turned back to Ancient-Empire work for inspiration, and modelled forms which might readily be mistaken for the products of earlier days. Under Psammetichos I. of the twenty-sixth dynasty there was something of an artistic revival. He restored the temples and revived the demand for sculpture and painting. S( ulptors again attacked the hardest stones, as though they would prove to the world that their knowledge of technique had not suffered; but the green-basalt statues of Osiris and NVphthys and the Hathor-cow supporting a statuette of the deceased, in the museum at Gizeh, show that the sculptors of the reign of Psammetichos I. were possessed of an artistic sense which preferred effeminate and refined to sharp and vig- EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. orons forms. No change in the current of the Egyptian sculp- ture was produced by the Persian conquest. GR.ECO-ROMAN PERIOD. When Egypt became subject to Macedonian rule, her art did not wholly submit to foreign taste. Ptolemaic temples, though characterized by cer- tain changes, especially in the capitals of columns, were not constmcted in Hellenic style. Similarly, Ptolemaic statues are still Egyptian. The suc- cessors of Alexander became Pharaohs ; they did not convert the Egyptians into Greeks. But the presence of Greek cities in Egypt from the seventh cen- tury B.C. made it impossible that Greek and Egyptian types should remain for- ever separate. It was inevitable that in certain directions a Graeco-Egyptian style should arise ; and this was the case. In architecture even the Caesars con- tinued the restoration of temples in the Egyptian manner, but in sculpture they stimulated a mixed style in which the Egyptian is the retreating and the Greek and Roman the advancing ele- ment. Even Christian civilization, under Byzantine rule, failed to sub- ject Egyptian art. The final surrender was made in 638 A.D. to the Moham- medans. KIG. 8. SAKCOI'HAOrs OF PETI-HAR-SI-ESE AS THE GODDESS HATHOR. PTOLE- MAIC PERIOD. BERLIN. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Egyptian sculpture may be best studied in Egypt at the temples of Abydos, Thebes, Edfou, Esneh, Philae, and Ipsamboul ; at the tombs about Memphis, Beni- Hassan, and Thebes; and 20 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. especially at the Museum <>f Cii/ch. Important collections exist in the Vatican, Rome; the Musc<> Airhcolngico, Florence; the Museo Egi/io. Turin; the Royal Museum, Berlin; the Louvre, Paris; the British Mu- seum, London ; the Metropolitan Museum and the Historical Society, \( \\ York. Minor collections may be seen in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston ; the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia ; the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; and the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. CHAPTER III. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Babelon, Manual of Oriental Antiquities. De Sarzec and Heuzey, De'couvertes en Chalde'e. Heuzey, Un Palais Chaldeen. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaa and Susiana. Maspero, The Dawn of Civiliza- tion. Menant, Collection de Clercq, Catalogue des Cylindres Orientaux ; Recherches sur la Glyptique Orientate . Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldcea and Assyria. Rassam, Recent Discoveries of Ancient Babylonian Cities. Reber, Ueber altchaldaische Kunst (in Zeitschrift fur Assyria- logic^ 1886). Taylor, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XV. Ward, Seal Cylinders and Other Oriental Seals (Handbook 12, Metropolitan Museum, New York). PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. The earliest centre of civilization in Western Asia was in the lower part of the valley through which the Tigris and Euphrates take their course before emptying into the Persian Gulf. This civiliza- tion was that of Babylonia. Its early history is not nearly as well known as that of Egypt ; we cannot yet say which was the more ancient, though the probabilities seem to be in favor of an antiquity for the culture of western Asia equal to that of Egypt. The situation of Babylonia favored the growth and spread of its influence. The empire of Elam developed by its side along parallel lines ; Assyria was its heir as well as its rival. Their collective civilization, by conquest and influence, moulded the development of Persia, Syria, Phoenicia, Arme- nia, the Kingdoms of the Hittites, of Upper Mesopotamia, and southeastern Asia Minor. In Babylonia the population was of mixed race, partly 22 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Shemitic and partly non-Shemitic. The probability is that the Shemites acquired supremacy as early as about 4000 B.C., and maintained it with slight exceptions until the seventeenth century B.C., when the Kosseans, or Kassites, from the eastern mountains established a dynasty in Babylon. The earliest political condition shows us, not a united state, but a number of independent cities. These were divided into two groups, one at the south and one at the north. The principal southern cities were Kridu, the sacred city nearest to the sea; Ur, the largest in the group; Larsa, Erech, Lagash, Mar, and Nisin. To the northern group belong Nippur, Borsippa, Babel or Babylon, Kish, Kutha, Agadhe, and Sippara. Native traditions indicate the cities nearest to the Persian (iulf as the earliest to become civilized under the influence of Ea, the god of Eridu, the divinity of the sea and of wisdom, half-fish and half-man, who came up out of the waters of the gulf to teach mankind civilization. The two terms, Sumer and Akkad, served in Babylonian literature to designate the two main divisions of the race and land. Chaldaea was the most southern region, and its name came into prominence at about the time when the writers of the Old Testament came into contact with the civilization of Babylonia. The name is not applicable to the whole country, though in some books it is so used. Under the heading " Babylonia" we include the entire country. The parallel lines of the two rivers made possible a great system of irrigation by means of canals that added to the natural fertility of the soil and gave it an almost fabulous pro- ductivity. The chief energies of the Babylonian rulers were directed toward maintaining and perfecting this system, by public works that had no equal until Roman times. But two great curses often sapped agricultural prosperity ; the south and east winds that swept over the country, overwhelming it with sands from the desert, and the swarms of locusts that left not a blade standing in their path. Many are the exorcisms BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. of Babylonian magic against these, and Babylonian imagination could conjure up nothing more fearful in the world of evil spirits. HISTORY. We conjecture that before 4000 B.C. there was a period characterized by independent cities, which developed a more or less autonomous sys- tem of religious belief and social and political institutions. Apparently the first sovereign to found an empire was Sargon I., of Agadhe, who lived circa 3800 B.C. He was of S h e m i t i c race, and his reign was one of great military achievement and cul- tured advance. His conquests brought the coasts of P h oe n i c i a , Syria, and Palestine, and even Cyprus, under Baby- lonian influence. Shortly afterward t h e regime of independent cities appears to have returned until about 2900, when Ur became, under King Ur-bau, the capital of a dynasty that held sway over the greater part of Babylo- nia, and established for that city a preeminence 24 HISTORY <>1 M I I.PTURE. which it retained until about seven hundred years later, when Babylon took its place. Then came a period when the Elamites under Kudur-mabug invaded and conquered the country, making the kinglets of the Babylonian cities their viceroys. The Elamite was driven from the land shortly after 2200 B.C. by Hammurabi, who founded a dynasty at Babylon, and that city became, for the first time, and thenceforth remained. the political and religious capital of the country. This dy- nasty was the last before the decay of the country set in. When, about four centuries later, the Kossean mountaineers came down from the east and overturned the national rulers, the harmonious development of the state was imperilled, and shortly afterward the Assyrians, emboldened by this evident weakness, commenced the long struggle, first for indepen- dence and then for supremacy, which, after lasting with vary- ing fortunes for some eight centuries, ended in the complete subjugation of the southern empire to her more vigorous and compact northern rival. As a people the Babylonians typify the most refined ci\ ili/a- tion of Asia. They were apparently without rrudeness of any sort. At all times literature, art, and science, were held by them in the highest esteem. They were by nature imagina- tive, fanciful, symbolic in their thought, creators and losers of abstractions far more than the more matter-of-fact 1 v^yp- tians. Their civilization was determined by their religion, which was theocratic. All victories and all successes were attributed to the gods. Hence the temple was the great cen- tre of each Babylonian city. The priests were the most im- portant class of citizens, and the king was the high-priest even more than the political ruler. This is what made sepa- ratism so difficult to eradicate, for the religion and the state centred around the special patron deity in each city. RELIGION. There was no unity in religious belief during the early period of l!al>\ Ionian development. On the mie BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 25 hand, there was a belief in a world of spirits, in which the hosts of good and evil were opposed, and none of these spirits seemed to stand out separately from the mass. On the other hand, there was a more systematic and simple belief in three great gods : Anu the heaven-god, Bel the demiurge, and Ea the god of the sea and the under-world. Connected with them were minor deities that stand in a relation of dependence. Kach male deity had its female counterpart, usually a mere reflection. Midway between these two beliefs stood the ma- jority of early cults. The same gods were worshipped in different cities under different names and with varying attri- butes. With political centralization came also religious uni- fication. There were no longer as strict racial distinctions as at first ; a national pantheon was made necessary, and the principal deities, patrons of the various cities that formed the empire, were brought into a system with a planetary basis, made all the easier because the sun, the moon, and the stars had always been more or less the symbols of the principal deities. After the supreme trio of Anu, Bel, and Ea come Shamash the sun-god, Sin the moon-god, Ramman the god of the atmosphere, Marduk (Jupiter), Ishtar (Venus), Adar (Saturn), Nergal (Mars), Nabu (Mercury). This system passed over to the Assyrians, for whom these formed, with Asshur, the twelve great gods. The Babylonians lived in a constant superstitious terror. For them the air was peopled with innumerable armies of maleficent demons and beneficent spirits marshalled into many classes. Their art, literature, medical practice, astrology, magic, daily life, and thoughts were profoundly moulded by this belief and constant preoccupation. They recited incan- tations, offered sacrifices, hung up and buried statuettes and reliefs in order to conjure or combat the machinations of the evil spirits. The power of the 15aby Ionian fancy was never exercised in a more original manner than in the creation of sculptural 26 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. types embodying their conceptions of these spirits of differ- ent and opposite order. On the one hand were the noble monsters that defended the people, the city, and the king from evil, placed at the gates of cities, temples, royal palaces, and private houses. These were the lion-headed men, fish-men, griffins, winged lions, and man-headed winged bulls, creatures of calm power or repressed impetuosity, strongly built and made to seem most real, however hybrid they might be in form. On the other hand, and opposed to these, were the more lithe evil demons, ghoul-like, snarling and vicious, ready to spring and swoop, full of cunning perversity and malice. SUBJECTS. The Baby- lonian did not aim at the preservation of the body of the deceased, but burned it. Hence he lacked all the incen- tives that stimulated the early *Egyptian sculptor to reproduce realistically the external form of the deceased and to depict faithfully his different occupations and possessions. He turned therefore at once to religious, historic, and symbolic subjects. The monuments as yet discovered have been so few as to make any adequate classification or knowl- edge impossible. This is due, not to any lack of productivity for the excavations at Tello have shown that sculpture was popular from the earliest period but to the fact that no scien- tific excavations in Babylonia have been undertaken until the present decade. It was therefore not the tomb, but the temple and the pal- ace, that were the home of early sculpture. The form of the FIG. 10. HEAD WITH TURBAN FROM TELLO. LOUVRE. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 2? Babylonian temple was peculiarly suited to the natural con- formation of the land. It arose from a wide platform in the form of a great stepped pyramidal mound. In the courts around its base were minor sanctuaries, while the great god dwelt in the higher structure. The pyramidal form seems to have been determined by their idea of the form of the uni- verse. The sky was a great metal dome, resting on a circular base ; within it, at the bottom, rose the earth, washed by water that divided it from the base of the heavens, while at the east and west were the gates of the sun. The earth itself rose under this dome in the form of a stepped pyramid. In connection with the main temple and its satellites there usually arose a royal palace of considerable extent, with three divisions: (r) for the king and state ceremonies; (2) for the harem ; (3) for the dependencies. In them the mass of sculp- ture was placed. Under the thresholds were the " teraphim," or small images of metal or terracotta, to frighten away the evil spirits : at the gateways stood the protecting genii : in the courts were erected the triumphal and commemorative carved stelae and the royal statues : in the temple-cellas were the figures of the gods. Several classes of subjects can be distin- guished. First, the representations of the gods in relief and in the round, which were far more common in Babylonian than they were in the later Assyrian sculpture. There were many small figures of the gods in terracotta, buried in the ground, and others in bronze ending in spikes, stuck in the ground to ward off evil. The gods were also carved on reliefs used for wall decoration or cut on the faces of commemorative steles, and sometimes appeared in the form of statues which were placed in the inner sanctuaries. Miniature reproductions of the statues and reliefs of the gods can be studied in great numbers in the cut seals and cylinders. In a second series of subjects the gods were no longer alone, but were represented in relief, receiving the sacrifices, the 28 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. offerings, or merely the homage of their worshippers. Often each god was accompanied by his goddess, and the worship- pers were shown as being brought forward by the priest. Related to these scenes were a series of mythological or legendary subjects from the histories of gods and heroes. The greatest favorites among these last were the combat of Mero- dach with the powers of chaos, which ended in the creation of the world, the legends of Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus, and the adventures of Izdubar, or, as his name is now read, (lilgames, the prototype of Herakles and the beau-ideal of Babylonian heroism. At the very outset the Babylonian sculptor created also a purely historical class of compositions, in which the king was either represented at peace, surrounded by his court, or at war, fighting, overthrowing and executing his enemies, burying his dead, and offering thank-sacrifices to his gods. There are traces, also, of genre scenes showing the labors and amuse- ments of daily life, such as husbandry and music. And then came those fantastic creations of good and evil spirits which, in conception and technical conventions, stand quite apart. Of all these works of sculpture the statues of the divinities placed in the temples were the most sacred possessions of the city. They were the palladium, to be carefully hidden or carried away from the enemy. When taken they were prized by the captors as the greatest trophy of the victory. There are many cuneiform texts attesting this. The memory of such sculptures was handed down for centuries. An instance is the statue carried back from Susa to Nineveh by Assur-bani-pal, who notes that thirteen hundred years before it had been carried away from Assyria by the Elamite conquerors (circa 2200 ,:.(.'). TECHNICAL METHODS AND CONVENTIONS. Stone, terracotta, bron/e, and rare stones were employed by the earliest Babylo- nian artists with whom we are acquainted. In the absence of home quarries, the stone was brought not from the mountains BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 29 which, at a later period, provided the Assyrians with the soft and fine limestone and alabaster slal>s, hut it came l>y sea, apparently, from quarries in the land of " Magan." The favorite quality of stone employed for large statuary was a variety of diorite, almost as hard as granite or porphyry, and similar to that used by the Egyptian sculptors of the Ancient Empire. The mechanical difficulties of so obdurate a mate- rial prevented any such lavish display as was made by the Assyr- ian artists in decorating with rows of reliefs all their principal halls. Softer stones were employed for delicate work in relief in smaller sculptures, and in the time of Naramsin (circa FIG. II. IMPRESSION FROM A BABVLONIAN CYLINDER. BERLIN. 3750 B.C.) the material was worked with matchless fineness. In bronze-work future discoveries will doubtless show that hammered work preceded casting. At present, however, fig- ures of cast bronze are found among the earliest works in the reign of Ur-Nina of Lagash, probably before 4000 B.C. Hith- erto, no reliefs in bronze have come to light. It is to be sup- posed that ivory, so great a favorite with the Assyrians, was not neglected by Babylonian artists, but no works in this mate- rial have yet been found. The long, flat plain of the Tigris- Euphrates was not diversified by any forests that could afford a convenient supply of timber for purposes of sculpture, and probably for this reason wooden statues appear hardly to have 30 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. existed. It was natural that terracotta should be a favorite material for the sculptor, but it appears to have been used only for small figures, and not for work entirely in the round. The figurines were cast in a mould, and not executed or even fin- ished by hand. No trace of polychromy has been found, though there is every reason to suppose the Babylonians em- ployed it in connection with their reliefs. In the earliest monuments, like those of Ur-Ninaof Lagash, the workmanship is extremely crude, the relief low, the out- lines poor. At this early date the names of the persons were written on or beside the reliefs. The features, such as nose, eyes, and ears, were of immense size. As early, however, as the time of Sargon (3800 B.C.) the sculptors were in possession of all their technical skill, and the art then developed its perma- nent characteristics. The conventional attitude of the figures in relief was to show the head in profile, the shoulders partly or entirely in front view, and the lower limbs again in profile. The shoul- ders were not always as absolutely equilateral as in Egypt, nor were they as frankly profilized as in Assyria. Quite often a front view of the face was given. It is worthy of note that the full face of the national hero, Gilgames, was quite gener- ally given, perhaps so as to show more clearly his lion-like lineaments and mane-like hair. While the Assyrians seldom allowed themselves to represent the nude body, the Babylo- nians had no such scruple: Ishtar and Belit, Gilgames, and Heabani, the various good and evil spirits, were some of the types usually undraped. The bodies of the slain in battle were also shown undraped. The wonderful skill shown in anatom- ical drawing in some of the earlier gems proves that the Baby- lonians excelled all artists in this respect until suq>assed by the Greeks at the close of the sixth century B.C. In some of the Tello sculptures there is shown a talent for realistic por- traiture in face and body that was always foreign to Assyria. The drapery was given in a simple and interesting fashion. BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 3! The garment of the Babylonians was a woollen mantle with a shawl-like fringe called kaunakes, which was wound around the figure many times and draped over one shoulder, leaving the other shoulder and arm bare. It is this peculiarity which makes the robes of priests and divinities appear like pleated skirts. And this use of heavy woollen stuffs concealed the figure far more effectually than the gauze-like garments of the Egyptians, and probably accounts for a more rigid figure in Babylonian art than in Egyptian art. There is no attempt at perspective, or at representing figures on more than one plane. The reliefs are arranged in superposed bands, sometimes giving successive stages of one action. The Babylonians were decidedly more anthropomorphic than the Egyptians, both in their ideas and in their representations of the gods. One god was not distinguished from another by having the head of a hawk, a dog, a cat, or a jackal on a human body, but each god had his full complement of human form and was distinguished by some emblem carried in the hand (as was later the case in Greek art) or placed near the figure. The emblem of Shamash was the sun, of Sin the moon, of Ramman the thunderbolt, of Ishtar the star Venus, of Ea the serpent, of Ninip the bull. Where animals were used as symbols they were commonly placed under the feet of their deity and were often astronomically related to them. Some- times, especially in later Babylonian sculpture, the symbols were employed alone, without the divine figures, and were set up for worship or carved on boundary stones to terrify the evil-doer. There are, however, some traces of the existence of representations of the gods with heads and other parts of animals, as in Egypt, though such forms were not artistically welcomed. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Five periods may be distin- guished : (i) The PRIMITIVE PERIOD, lasting until shortly after 4000 B.C. 32 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (2) The ARCHAIC, extending from before the time of Sargon I. (3800 B.C.) to Ur-Gur of Ur (2900 B.C.). (3) The DEVELOPED, ending with the advent of the Kossean or Kassite dynasty in the seventeenth century. (4) The DECADENCE, ending with the completion of the Assyrian conquest in the ninth century. FIG. 12. TWO DIVINITIES ESCOKTINC, (5) The ARCHAISTIC REVIVAL, during the century covered by the period of the Neo-Babylonian empire founded by Nabo- polassar and Nebuchadnezzar and ended by the conquest of Cyrus. PRIMITIVE PERIOD. The earliest works yet known are in low relief and belong to a period apparently earlier than 4000 BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 33 i:.(., though how much earlier \ve cannot yet assert. The style is crude and heavy, with weak outlines and details marked always with scratched lines. Several works of this class have been found at Tello, the ancient Lagash. Of a style somewhat less crude are three naive plaques of King Ur-Nina of Lagash in which the details are no longer scratched but carved. ARCHAIC PERIOD. Toward 4000 B.C. a great advance appears to have been made, for the monuments inscribed with the names of Sargon I. (3800) and his son Naramsin prove that the Babylonian sculptors had attained to a high degree of artistic perfection. We may place at the beginning of this period the monuments of King Eannadu of Lagash, whose " Stele of the Vultures " is so dramatic and forceful in con- ception. Toward the close of this, the epic period, should be placed the monuments of Sargon and Naramsin, for they show, together with strength and simplicity, that union of deli- cacy and refined treatment of detail which became the char- acteristic of the succeeding period. DEVELOPED PERIOD. In the few pieces of this period that have been found there is an exquisite refinement that antici- pates the style of the eighteenth dynasty in Egypt and makes it possible to gain a clear idea of the details of costume and decoration. This was also the period of monumental sculpture in connection with a great development of temple and palace architecture. The large statues of Gudea found at Lagash have the merits and the defects of an art whose greatest suc- cesses were attained in gem-cutting ana minute stone and metal sculpture. This developed style was probably that cf the schools of Ur, Erech, and other cities during the reigns of the kings of Ur, Ur-gur and his son Dunghi (circa 2850), and also under the Babylonian dynasty of Hammurabi. It is nat- ural to suppose that it ceased with the advent of the Kossean invaders in the seventeenth century. At all events, we fin.l proof that shortly after their advent Babylonian sculpture 3 34 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. declined. It was during this developed period that we may place the bulk of Babylonian gem-cutting, though it did not surpass in perfection the developed gem-cutting of the Sargon period. DECADENCE. Sculpture between 1600 and 800 had lost in vitality and in strength. Apparently it was no longer much used in monumental works or works in the round, but mainly for miniature carvings in low relief. The sacred relief of the temple of the Sun-god at Sippara, the royal stele of King Marduk-iddin-akhi, and the numerous boundary stones and reliefs now in the British Museum, show great care in the workmanship, and an elaborate and faithful reproduction of detail. The difference between the Babylonian sculpture of the period of decadence and contemporary Assyrian sculpture can be appreciated by a comparison between any Assyrian relief of the time of Assur-nazir-pal and the interesting small slab from the temple of Shamash at Sippara. Both were executed in the first half of the ninth century. REVIVAL. The last period of Babylonian art is still as obscure in history as the earliest. From the numerous inscrip- tions we judge that the dominant idea of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar was a return to the traditions of early Baby- lonia, and this was broken, first by the Kosseans and then by the Assyrians. Everywhere their restoration of the temples erected by such early kings as Hammurabi (2200), Ur-gur (2900), and Naramsin (3750) is praised as being exactly in the style of the old work. The seals and cylinders show that the art was then, in a sense, archaistic, in the same way as the sculpture of Augustus was in one of its phases a revival of the archaic Greek style of the pre-Pheidian period. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The principal monuments thus far known are those unearthed at Tello, the ancient Lagash, by the French consul, M. de Sarzec. Almost all of these, including the statues of Gudea and the stele of the Vultures, were taken to the Museum of the Louvre (Paris): some pieces recently found have gone to Constantinople. The Museum of BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 35 Constantinople has a number of other Babylonian sculptures. The P.ritish Museum has a tine collection of small works illustrating the later period, principally boundary stones and slabs, carved with symbols of the gods and astronomical symbols, scenes of adoration, etc. The two most inter- esting pieces are the small sacred relief of the temple of Shamash at Sip- para and the royal stele of King Marduk-iddin-akhi. Some idea of Babylonian sculpture may be gathered from the collections of Babylonian carved gems. The most important of these are in (i) the Metropolitan Museum, New York ; (2) the British Museum ; (3) the col- lection of M. de Clercq, in Paris ; (4) the Museum of the Louvre, Paris ; (5) the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. CHAPTER IV. ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. For illustrations, consult Botta et Flandin, Monuments de Ninive. Layard, Monuments of Nine- veh. Pinches, The Gates of Balawat. Place, Ninive et V As- sy rie. The British Museum series of photographs of sculpture. For text : Babelon, Manual of Oriental Antiquities. Layard, Nineveh and its Remains. Merrill, VbEibliotheca Sacra, April, 1875. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldaa and Assyria. George Smith, Assyrian Discoveries. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS, HISTORY, RELIGION. Duri ng the second millennium H.C., a country had been developing on the north- ern boundary of Babylonia which, after being the dependent and then the rival, finally became the conqueror of the older empire. This was Assyria. The country was a narrow, insig- nificant strip of land, hardly sixty miles in width, between the Tigris and the mountains. Its inhabitants were a hardy and vigorous race who made up in unity what they lacked in num- bers. They were not of mixed race, like the Babylonians, but were pure Shemites. Not until the very close of their history do they show signs of being contaminated by the luxurious life of the Babylonians. In religion they worshipped Asshur as supreme god, and Ishtar was their goddess; but they followed the example of the Babylonians, and, besides their special patrons, adopted the official Babylonian mythology with its twelve great deities. In the seventeenth century B.C. the rulers of Assyria first took the title of kings ; and in the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries they were in frequent conflict with the Babylonian ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 37 kings. The period of conquest did not begin, however, until the time of Tiglath-pileser I. in the twelfth century, to be renewed on an even grander scale by Assur-nazir-pal in the ninth century, though between the times of these two great FIG. 13. ASSUK-IS ATTENDANT. BRIT1 monarchs the Assyrian empire had relost nearly all its accre- tions. From Assur-na/.ir-pal's reign until the fall of Assyria two and a half centuries later, there was an uninterrupted course of conquests. Armenia, the Hittites, Babylonia, Pal- 38 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. estine, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, and finally Elam became sub- jects of Nineveh. The Assyrian kings ruled from the Persian Gulf to Asia Minor. Nineveh became the commercial and artistic as well as the political capital of the entire East; until the unity, so burdensome to the subject races, was finally burst asunder by the Babylonians shortly before 600 B.C. The strength of the Assyrians lay in their wonderful polit- ical and social organization, which enabled them to establish securely their hold upon new conquests. We know far more of the Assyrian organization than of the Babylonian. The per- sonality of the king, by a gradual growth, came to overshadow the whole land. He, and not the priests, was the direct intermediary between the gods and the country. He was the favorite, the " firstling," the beloved, of the gods. His per- sonality was blazoned forth in a palace that was his very own, built for him, and made to glorify his reign. Its inscriptions and its sculptures were the official records of his deeds. Imprecations were called down upon any of his successors who either failed to keep his palace in repair or diverted any of its decoration from its purpose. No city in the Oriental world could compare with the Nine- veh of the Sargonid kings as a world metropolis, as a centre of art, industry, and commerce, as a place where works of art were brought from all countries, where colonies of foreign artists settled and worked, and where Assyrian art, with its clearly defined and impressive individuality, could exercise an influence that would be spread over the entire East and be car- ried by the Phoenicians as far as the Greek islands. The Assyrians were not by nature a literary or artistic peo- ple. They appropriated much from the older civilization of Babylonia, upon which they were at first largely dependent. The Assyrian kings established libraries like those which had existed since 4000 H.C. in the Babylonian cities, and caused the contents of tin- 15:ibylonian libraries to be copied for the use of the Assyrian people. Thus the northern race entered ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 39 into the inheritance of the southerners, and borrowed from their mythology, their literature, and their art. But, while this led at first to almost complete dependence, as soon as the latent qualities of the Assyrians were developed, toward the twelfth century, a civilization radically opposed in many ways to the Babylonian resulted. *This is shown very clearly in the polit- ical organization of Assyria. For as strongly as Babylonia stands for local government, just so strongly does Assyria rep- resent centralization. The difference between the two peoples is shown even more clearly in sculpture. SUBJECTS. The Assyrian royal palace, more than the temple, was the shrine of art. Every king wished to build at least one palace that should be a memorial of his reign and perpetuate his name forever. Of the three sections into which the royal palace was always divided state apartments, harem, and ser- vants' quarters the first was more or less thoroughly deco- rated with sculptures in relief throughout the main halls and corridors, and Place calculates that the reliefs in the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, if placed end to end, would cover a distance of about a mile and a half. In the temples were placed images of the gods. Judging from the bas-reliefs which represent soldiers carrying such images, they appear to have been less than life-size, usually from three to four feet high. Mythological subjects were but seldom represented, except in the seal cylinders. The scenes with which the discoveries of Layard and Place have made us familiar are almost entirely secular and genre subjects. They differ from the corresponding subjects in Egyptian art in not relating to the lives of private individuals, but to the life ot the king. His horses are represented led by grooms to water. His private parks are shown stocked with lions and gazelles. He is portrayed as reclining at a banquet, his table being sup- plied by a procession of viand-bearing attendants. He starts out to hunt the lion, the wild ass, or the gazelle, in his char- iot or on his horse, accompanied by soldiers, courtiers, and HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. huntsmen. Sometimes the hunt is open, and at other times great battues are organized and the game surrounded by serried lines of warriors into which the king breaks to bring the hunt to a close. Then he returns, his attendants bearing the game. The bodies are laid on the ground and offered to Asshur by the pouring out of a libation. If there is war and conquest, the - FIG. 14. RELIEF FROM KHORSABAD. LOUVRE. court sculptor, in true Oriental style, gives all the credit to the royal prowess. The king is the central figure in the march and in the stricken field. The camp is depicted, the groom- ing of horses, the cooking of rations, the establishment of tetes-dc-pont, the propitiatory offerings on the march, the set- ting up of commemorative stelae as the army passes along after victory. We see all the details of the attack on a walled city the archers firing from behind skin-covered shields, the sol- ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 41 diers pushing forward a battering-ram and pouring water upon its front to prevent it from being fired by the torches cast down by the besieged, and, in front of the gates, prisoners being impaled to strike terror, while others are led away. In the representations of battle-scenes many successive stages of the conflict are given, even portraying (as in the siege of Susa) the fate of the particular leaders. Then follow the submission of the vanquished, the presentation of tribute, the soldiers bring- ing in the heads of slain enemies to be counted. Thus the Assyrian sculptor excelled in telling a story, clearly and with no superfluous details. His work was naturalistic and somewhat narrow in its scope, but it was greatly varied in its detail. The power of observation was cultivated far more than with the Babylonians. And there was a sympathy with animal life that went far to redeem the hardness and rigidity of the style. The lions and lionesses, in repose and action, bounding to the attack or in their last agonies; the fleeing, prancing, kicking wild asses, the horses stretching themselves in fleet course, with quivering nostrils are given with wonder- ful naturalness and artistic sense : they are full of life and of true plastic simplicity. The reality is so great that one can scientifically identify many breeds of birds and animals from the sculptures. With plants, trees, and flowers the sculptor had far less success, as his material was less suited to their representation in the low relief which was his only method of modelling. MATERIALS, METHODS, AND CONVENTIONS. The Assyrians did not employ to any extent diorite or other hard stone for sculp- ture, as did the Babylonians. Such stones were suited more particularly to work in the round, for which the Assyrians did not care. At most they used such material for an occasional commemorative stele or obelisk. Bas-relief was their specialty, and they found excellent material in the alabaster and soft lime- stone quarried from the mountains on their borders. This use of soft material, so easily handled by the sculptor, was not 42 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. without influence both on the quality and quantity of the monu- ments produced. The Assyrian sculptor seemed to revel in the facility with which he could fashion the stone, indulging in the minutest detail work and exaggerating lines, muscular development, and expression. This artistic plasticity and freedom of hand, with which the Assyrian artist appears to have been far more liberally endowed than his Babylonian predecessor, is nowhere more clearly shown than in the terracottas. These were not cast in moulds as with the Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Greeks but executed with free hand in the lump of clay. At other times, when the clay was covered with a glaze, a mould was employed, but the style remained free and bold. Bronze figures were not, apparently, so common as with the Babylonians, but, on the other hand, the working of bronze in relief was carried to a perfection unknown to Babylonia. The hammer, chisel, and burin were used with wonderful skill in the production of bronze doors, plaques, dishes, vases, etc. The delicacy of touch and beauty of detail that distinguished Vsyrian artists were also shown in their ivory carvings. Amid Egyptian and Phrenician imported works, so numerous among the finds at Nineveh, the native Assyrian ivories stand out most markedly. They are in precisely the same style as the larger sculptures, but with freer modelling and greater refine- ment of type. The Babylonian custom of using seals and cylinders in all public documents was followed in Assyria, and the character- istics that we find in large sculpture are equally evident in these small works of the engravers. It is as easy to distin- guish Assyrian from Babylonian work in cut seals as in the larger monuments. We find in them the same sharp outlines, the same precise rendering of details and muscular exaggera- tion, the same symmetry of composition as contrasted with the less artistic grouping of the Babylonian artists. lieside the mass of work in low relief, some few statues in ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 43 the round have been preserved, and a number of statuettes, but they are in themselves proof of the inaptitude of the Assyrian artists to work in the round. It is true that many statues of the gods are mentioned in the texts as existing in the temples, and in the bas-reliefs we see Assyrian soldiers transporting such Klli. 15. CAPTURE OP LACHISH 11V SENN ACHEKIB. BKITISH MUSEUM. divine statues on their shoulders, but sculpture in the round was not the best or the most frequent expression of the Assyr- ian artist. The colossal figures of genii that guarded the city and palace gates were of a type midway between statuary and relief, and they were certainly the most original and impressive works of the school. 44 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. One must not overlook the fact that the Assyrians followed the common Asiatic custom of carving colossal reliefs on the surface of rocks along the course of their expeditions. These were monuments to commemorate treaties or victories, and representing the gods and the king. Such a monument is that at Bavian, of the time of Sennacherib, and another is at Mai- thai. Analogous works were executed by the Elamites and Hittites. As a rule, the sculptor showed remarkable ability in elimi- nating all superfluous elements from the compositions. The figures were always arranged on a single plane, except where two figures were shown standing side by side, one imme- diately behind the other. When an action was depicted which, like the drawing of a colossus on rollers, necessitated the deployment of several lines of men, the lines were placed one over the other in profile, their grouping being in plan. So, if it was desired to show soldiers mounting a hillside, they were carved in profile ascending along a section of the hill marked by a line drawn along its surface, upon which the soldiers stepped. The figure was represented quite perfectly in profile, and here we see marked superiority to the Babylonian school, but, on the other hand, we find no examples of the use of the full face, which was by no means unknown to the Babylonians. The sculptor employed but a single type of face that of the Shemitic Assyrians its only variant being a reproduction of the cognate Jewish type. The master sculptors appear to have executed models on a small scale both in terracotta and in stone, which were after- ward used by the workmen to whom the bulk of the execution was confided. The production of bas-reliefs was so immense, at the time of the construction of any royal palace, that some such method as this was required in order to insure uniformity of style and type in the different parts. Color was quite an important element in the effect. The hair, eyes, and drapery ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 45 were generally brightened with it, and it is probable that this peculiarity passed from the Assyrians to the (Ireeks, who suc- ceeded them in the perfect mastery of relief sculpture. The sculptors were, so to speak, a part of the organization of the state, and their work was an official act. They were not only employed in temples and palaces, but accompanied the army on its campaigns to carve memorials of its victories on the nearest cliff or to erect obelisk-like stelae carved with images of the king and the figures or symbols of the great gods, and sometimes, even, scenes from the campaign. HISTOBY. There is less variety of style in Assyrian than in Babylonian sculpture. There seems to have been but one school, one technique, one style. And yet it is possible to distinguish at least two periods of production; one from the beginning up to the reign of Sargon, the other from Sennach- erib to the fall of Nineveh. One of the earliest pieces of Assyrian sculpture is a nude female figure of a goddess in the British Museum, with an inscription of King Assur-bel-Kala, which reproduces so perfectly a well-known type on the Baby- lonian seal cylinders that it would lead one to conjecture that in the twelfth century, when Assyria was in the course of establishing an autonomous civilization, she had not yet broken loose from an imitation of Babylonian work. At the same time, the few remains of the reign of Tiglath-pileser I. prove that at this date (circa 1120) the Assyrian artists had formed their style. We know nothing of the development of Assyrian sculpture during the following centuries. The next monuments in date are those of the reign of Assur-nazir-pal (885-860) which constitute one of the greatest series known, and are the most impressive and grand of all the Assyrian work. The artists had reached their apogee in the reliefs from the royal palace at Kalah. The figures are large, and the story is told simply and clearly. There are no backgrounds of scenery, no elaborate attempts at establishing different planes in the same relief. The carved marble dado along the palace halls has but 46 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. a single row of figures. The relief is exceedingly low, but the muscularity and the features are strongly accentuated. The desire to tell the story clearly is so predominant as often to lead the sculptor to carve the historic inscriptions straight across the reliefs which illustrate them, much to the detriment of artistic effect. It was at this period that the colossal genii that flanked the palace gates, the lions, and the man-headed bulls were executed with greatest power. The same style was followed under Assur-nazir-pal's successors. There remain two remarkable monuments of the reign of his son Shalmaneser II., a basalt obelisk found at Nimroud and the bronze gates to FI<;. 16. ASSUK-BANl-PAI. STABBING A I. ION. BRITISH MI SKIM. a palace which he built at Balawat. The few sculptures from that date to the reign of Tiglath-pileser II. (745-727) con- tinue the traditions of the previous century. With Sargon (722-705) comes the decadence of the grand, epic style. The figures are less lifelike, the relief is higher, but character and sharpness are lost instead of gained by a softer gradation of the surfaces. The inscriptions no longer cross the reliefs, and occasionally an attempt is made to intro- duce picturesque accessories into the background. Sennach- erib, his immediate successor (705-681), inaugurated a new artistic ideal ; and the art of his time aims at being pictu- resque, varied, lifelike, and dramatic. We find scenery and ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 47 accessories, a multitude of small figures, a detailed representa- tion of incident. The stone dado is carved in several super- posed lines of relief, so that the processions of impressive large figures are lost. But the change of style seems unfortu- nate, and the effect is confused. The artists of a later king, Assur-bani-pal (668), the last great patron of art, showed better insight. They returned in part to the old simple style, with greater delicacy of treatment and higher finish. In composi- tions, such as battle-pieces, they retained the style of Sennach- erib, but succeeded better in being dramatic, and in portray- ing scenes full of a multitude of small figures without lapsing into confusion. Such are some of the hunting and garden scenes. On the other hand, in the battle-pieces, like that of the defeat of the Klamites at Susa, the artist has not succeeded wholly in avoiding the confused compositions characteristic of the reliefs of Sennacherib. EXTANT REMAINS. Rock-cut sculptures of Tiglath-pileser I., at Kwkhnr (N. of Diarbekr) ; of Sennacherib at Rarian (X.N.E. of Mosul); of Kssarhaddon and other kings near the Nahr-el-kelb in Phoenicia (near Beyrouth) ; of a Sargonid king at Malthai (X. of Mosul). The British Museum contains the results < if I. a yard's excavations, especially the numer- ous series of reliefs of Assur-nazir-pal and Assur-bani-pal, and less im- portant series of Tiglath-pileser III. and Sennacherib, the obelisks of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser II., and the latter's bronze gates. The Museum of the Louvre is especially rich in the series of Sargon reliefs found in this king's palace by Place. There are small collections of reliefs at the Vatican Museum, at the Historical Society in New York, at Amherst College, etc. The British Museum is especially rich in remains of industrial art of all kinds, while Assyrian seals and cylinders are numer- ous, not only there and at the Louvre, but also in the collections men- tioned on p. 35 as being rich in Babylonian carved gems. CHAPTER V. PERSIAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Coste et Flandin, Voyage in Perse. Dieulafoy, L'Art Antique de la Perse; L ' Acropole de Suse. Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de I'Orient. Noldeke, Per- sepolis, Die Achaemenischen und Sassanidischen Denkma'ler, with photographs by F. Stolze. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Persia. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. Texier, Description de T Arnienic. Je la Perse et de la Mhopotamie. THE ELAMITES. The Elamite kingdom, with its capital at Susa, rivalled in antiquity the civilization of Babylonia. In fact, for a certain period in the third millennium B.C., it held a large part of Babylonia under its dominion. We know from documentary evidence that the Elamites practised sculpture, but, as no excavations have been undertaken as yet that would disclose their monuments, we can judge of their style merely from a few rock-cut sculptures. The kingdom was destroyed, shortly before 650 B.C., by the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal, and the country afterwards became a province of the Persian empire, distinguishing itself in art from Persia proper by a stricter adherence to Assyrian and Babylonian traditions, as has been shown by the interesting discoveries made by M. Dieulafoy at Susa, where the use of enamelled bricks for relief sculpture prevailed over stone. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE AND ART. The Persian civilization arose, at the close of the sixth century, upon the ruins of the Babylonian and Assyrian powers, and it inherited their artistic style, which was at first the predominant element in the devel- PERSIAN SCULPTURE. 49 opment of the different brunches of urt throughout the empire. This element was, however, speedily tempered by the introduc- tion of two strong influences; that of Egypt after its conquest by Cambyses, and that of Greece after the Persian contact with the Greek cities of Asia Minor. In sculpture, however, the Assyro- Babylonian style was at first preserved in almost its original purity. Some subjects, such as the human-headed bulls and the king fighting monsters, )H,. 17. LION ATTACKING A BULL. APADANA OF XERXES. PERSEPOLIS. were treated so much in the same style that they appear to be almost copies. The main difference lay in the greater round- ness of Persian technique, in its loss of the force and directness of Assyrian art, in the lack of vitality and expression in the figures, and in the narrowness of the range of subjects all of which are qualities that might be expected in an art that was not original but derived. At the same time, there was often visible a trace of archaic Greek influence, especially in the treatment of drapery and in the decoration. As in Assyria, the relief was the favorite form of sculpture, and it was also 5'u:v wis the glorification of the FIG. 18. Bfl.I.-Ht SA. LOl'VKt. king in one great composition. In the rock-cut relief of the royal tombs the same subject was repeated in a simplified form. There was no variety, as in Assyrian art, either in subject or in treatment. As no distinct event, but only a symbolic rep- resentation, was given, the scene had an air of unreality. At the same time, it had distinct merits. For the first time Oriental sculpture attempted to give the soft texture of dra- 52 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. pery and imitated its natural folds, and here we trace dis tinctly the influence of archaic Ionic (ireek sculpture. There was also a distinct advance in the ability to bring sculpture into its proper relationship to architecture. Instead of scat- tering scenes broadcast over the surface, as in Egypt, in fine disregard of any distinctive grouping or subordination; instead of using sculpture as an art connected with architectural struct- ure, as in Assyria, the Persians showed some of the Greek con- ception of the harmonious relationship possible between the two arts. Thus, the processions carved on the sides of the staircases followed the natural architectural outlines, as was the case later with the stairway at Pergamon, and the faces of the limestone portals were used for reliefs, like the inner sides of the Roman triumphal arches. But this peculiar merit was shown especially in the use of sculpture for distinctly archi- tectural decoration. The colossal bull-capitals at Persepolis and Susa were masterpieces. The treatment of the bulls in these works was the greatest triumph of Persian sculpture, for naturalism, technique, and spirit. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Casts of a number of the sculptures of Per- sepolis have recently been made for the South Kensington (London) and Metropolitan (New York) Museums. Aside from the great capital from Susa, in the Louvre, there are no important pieces of Persian sculpture in Western museums. CHAPTER VI. HITTITE SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Barth, Reise von Trapezunt. De Cara, Gli Hethei-Pelasgi. Hirschfeld, Paphlagonische Eelsen- grdber ; Die Felsenreliefs in Kleinasien und das Volk der Hittiter. Humann und Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Sardinia, Judcea, Syria, and Asia Minor. Perrot et Guillaume, Ex- ploration Arche'ologigue de la Galatie et de la Bithynie. Puch- stein, Pseudohethitische Kunst. Ramsay, Articles in Journal of Hellenic Studies ; " Early Historical Relations of Phrygia and Cappadocia," in fournal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XV. Sayce, in publications of the Society of Biblical Archae- ology. Texier, Description de /' Asie Mineure. Ward and Frothingham, in American Journal of Archceology, 1888-89. Wright, The Empire of the Hittites. THE HITTITE KINGDOM. Under the general term of Hittite we group the sculptures produced in the north of Syria and in a large part of Asia Minor, especially in that part adjacent to the Assyrian frontier and in Cappadocia. The Hittites were for many centuries the dominant element in a group of tribes in this region, and formed a state that often withstood successfully such great powers as Egypt and Assyria. Their racial affinities and their language are still a mystery, and, until we can read their inscriptions, we can know but little of their history and culture. Carchemish on the Euphrates, Kadesh and Hamath on the Orontes, are the cities of which we read in Egyptian and Assyrian annals. Around them the wars were waged, and they are more familiar to us than the Hittite cities of Asia Minor. The centre from which the Hittites 54 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. started in their career of conquest was the northeast of Syria and Armenia, and they gradually subdued the populations of a large part of Asia Minor and the Rutennu tribes of central Syria, finally transmitting the culture of Babylonia to the yEgean and standing by the side of the Phoenicians in acting as a link between the East and the West. HISTORY AND STYLES. As far as we can judge, the period during which Hittite civilization and art flourished covers some seven or eight centuries, from the time when the Hittites became formidable to Kgypt under Seti I. (fifteenth century), until the year 717, when the last of the Hittite states, that of Carrhemish, was conquered by Sargon of Assyria. Perhaps the Hittite state of Pteria in Cappadocia was the last survivor of their power, not coming to an end until Croesus brought destruction upon their great fortified capital on the approach of Cyrus. The primitive source of much that was radical and important in early Hittite culture was Babylonia. When that great southern empire held sway as far as Syria and Armenia, it impregnated with its mythology, its legends, and its art the populations of the mountainous plateaux of Armenia ; and when the various tribes which we include under the name of Hittites started on their career of conquest they carried with them these ideas, profoundly modified by native traits, to the less civilized populations of Asia Minor and the ^Egean. Perhaps there is some tnith in the legends that Tiryns and Mykenai were founded by emigrant princes from Asia Minor. We may conjecture that the Hittites afterwards felt the influence of Kgypt, and we know that the cuneiform system of writing, as well as their own hieroglyphics, were known to them. At the close of their civilization Assyrian art asserted its supremacy over the Hittites even before their cities were brought under the dominion of the Assyrian kings. This is proved by the l.iti- (lerman excavations at Semljirli. Contemporary records would seem to prove that the Hittites IIITTITE SCULPTURE. 55 were very skilful in the use of metals for sculpture, and were renowned for the production of gold and silver vessels. But the only sculptures that have been preserved, beyond a certain number of carved gems, are the reliefs cut in the natural rock FIG. 19. HITlll'K KKI.IEF AT CAKCHEMISH-JERABLUS. or carved on slabs of stone and marble used for lining the walls of Hittite palaces. In style these sculptures form a class somewhat apart from the plastic development of Western Asia. While Babylonian, Asiatic, and Persian sculpture developed on the same general lines, each merely a different 56 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. phase of the same style, Hittite sculpture has very marked racial characteristics. This is especially the case with the monuments in Asia Minor, for those of Syria show strong traces of both Babylonian and Assyrian influence. As a class these sculptures certainly cannot be later than the close of the eighth century B.C. nor earlier than the thirteenth or fourteenth century B.C., and of these the Assyrian examples appear to be the latest in date. TYPES AND METHODS. There are certain characteristics that can be applied to the style as a whole. The figures are thick- set and usually with prominent noses and large eyes ; they wear shoes with turned-up points, and usually on their heads high conical caps or diadems, though in many cases the female fig- ures merely have their heads draped in a garment which descends over their shoulders. There is a lack of detail, of life, and of animation, and where, as in some cases, the artist has attempted to use detail he shows his lack of artistic abil- ity. In general the work is extremely mechanical, and quite lacking in any of the qualities of high art that characterize Assyrian work of the same period. Again, there are certain general followings of Assyria, such as in the arrangement of the palaces, in the use of colossal figures of genii at the entrances, in the lining of the lower part of the walls of the interiors with bas-reliefs. There was, however, a far more abundant use of sculpture carved in the natural rock in long processions of divinities, genii, priests, and male and female worshippers. Besides such processional series, we find two or three subjects in very frequent use, espe- cially in Hittite monuments of Syria. These are the hunting scenes copied from those of Assyria ; the scene with two female figures of religious import seated on either side of a sacri- ficial table ; and single figures of gods and goddesses and of priests and worshippers. AKT HISTORY. Hittite art was never wholly original : at the HUM time it was far more so than the art of the 1'hu-nicians, HITTITE SCULPTURE. 57 and showed an ability to assimilate foreign elements. It may even be possible that Assyria reversed matters by borrowing from it something in the arrangement of its palaces. The great similarity makes one original necessary, and this original in its general features was probably the Babylonian palace; though in the text of Sargon's inscription in which he describes the construction of his great palace, excavated by Place at Khorsabad, it is expressly stated that its entrance was con- structed on the plan of a Hittite palace. At Boghaz-Keui, evidently the capital of Pteria, there is a great sanctuary called lasili-Kaia, not far from the fortified FIG. 20. HI1 kKTCHE-G5zO. city, in the form of an open-air temple among the rocks. There is a long corridor-like space for the gathering of the people, connected by a narrow passage with a smaller adyton, to which the priests alone must have had entrance. The faces of the rocks in both open halls are used for sculptures in low relief. In the main hall are two parallel processions occupying the right and left walls and meeting on the short cross-wall at the end. On the left are forty-five figures, all of them men, while the twenty-two figures on the right side, with one exception, are all women. They represent the male and female deities of the Pterians, with their priests and worship- pers. Single figures of deities and priests are in the inner HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. sanctuary. The figures are in many cases more slender and graceful than any other works of Hittite art, and in some cases show imaginative and symbolic power. The mound of Sendjirli, recently excavated by the (ier- mans, is but one of over a hundred artificial circular mounds in Northern Syria, in each of which lies buried a town or city, with its double or triple circuit of fortified walls studded with towers and monumental gates, and with its walled citadel within which are the royal palaces. Three periods of Syrian or Hittite art and history have been here brought to light : (i) The early period before the ninth or eighth century, a time of independence in politics and in art, though even then we trace a correspondence to Assyrian work; (2) the period of the eighth and part of the ninth century, one of vassal- age to Assyria and imi- tation of Assyrian art by native artists ; (3) the seventh century, when the local kinglets were replaced by Assyrian governors and artists either trained in the Assyrian school or themselves . Syrians working in the city. The city of Sendjirli seems to have been destroyed, never to be rebuilt, as early as the sixth < entury. The snilptnres of the gates of both city and citadel belong to the first of these three periods. The citadel gate FIG. 31. H1TT1TK RELIEF AT BOCH AZ-KEUI. HITTITE SCULPTURE. 59 was decorated with a dado of sculptured slabs containing some forty figures, mostly belonging to one grand royal hunting scene, with lions, bulls, deer, hare, and other wild animals the continuity of the subject being broken merely by the figures of the protecting genii. The principal decoration of the city gates are pairs of colossal guardian lions, one of which was recarved in order to make it more Assyrian in style. There are many other examples of this style of sculpture in this region of Syria, especially at Carchemish, where the Assyrian influence exercised an especially refining influence upon the native style. More crude, and less dependent on Assyria, is a group of monuments from Marash and Rum Qalah. EXTANT EEMAINS. Only a few Hittite sculptures have been removed to \Yestern museums. A few pieces, especially from Carchemish and Biredjik, have gone to the British Museum. Others, beginning with the Marash lions, have gone to Constantinople. The most important ac- cession to the Berlin Museum has been that of the Sendjirli sculptures. The sites in Syria where the most interesting sculptures have been found are Marash. Hamath. Carchemish, Saktche-gozu, Rum Qalah, and, espe- cially, Sendjirli. In Cappadocia are the rock-cut sculptures of lasili-Kaia, the lions of Boghaz-Keui, and the reliefs and sphinxes of Euyuk. There are rock-sculptures with Hittite hieroglyphs, or in the Hittite style, scattered over a large part of Asia Minor, especially in the inland prov- inces : for example, in Phrygia at Giaour-Kalessi, in Lycaonia at Ibreez and Eflatoun-Bounar ; in Lydiaat Nymphi, or Karabel, and Mt. Sipylos. CHAPTER VII. PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. A. P. Di Cesnola, Cyprus Antiqui- ties ; Sa/aminia. L. P. Di Cesnola, A Descriptive Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities; Cyprus, its Cities, Tombs, and Temples. Colonna Ceccaldi, Monuments Antiques i/f Chypre, de Syrie et d' gypte. Heuzey, Catalogue des Figu- rines Antiques de Terre Cuite du Muse'e du Lour re. Holwerda, Die a/ten K \prier in Kiinst und Cultus. Metropolitan Museum Handbook No. 3, Sculptures of the Cesnola Collection. Ohne- falsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus. Reinach, Chronique The subjects of the pedimental sculp- tures were usually, but not always, associated with the divinity to whom the temple was dedicated. In the case of the Par- thenon the pedimental subjects were intimately connected with Athene, but in the Temple of Athene at /Kgina and of Zeus at Olympia the divinities stand unconcernedly, as if they were invisible spectators of the memorable contests of war and athletic prowess. In some cases the divinity of the temple was not even represented in the sculptures of the pediments. The subjects of the metopes and friezes were usually unrelated to the divinity of the temple. The discontinuous nature of the metopes made the labors of Herakles, contests of the gods and giants, or of Greeks and Amazons, favorite subjects, while ions, assemblies, or battle-scenes were better adapted for the continuous friezes. GREEK SCULPTURE. 73 In connection with the temples we find represented the whole range of Greek mythology. Here were the twelve Olympian divinities, Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaistos, Athene, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia; and the minor divinities, Dionysos, and his cycle of satyrs, seilenoi, nymphs, maenads, and centaurs; Eros, Psyche, and Ariadne ; the Muses, Graces, Seasons, and Fates ; Pluto and Persephone and Thanatos ; Helios and Nyx ; the Winds, Tritons, Nereids, River-gods, personifications of mountains and cities; and the heroes, Her- akles, Theseus, Achil- leus, Perseus, and the Dioskouroi. ^Besides religious sculpture, there is a class of Greek monu- ments of purely civic character. These are usually stelae recording treaties of alliance, honorary degrees, finan- cial records, and the 1 i k e 5* Upon these monuments the state, the senate, or the peo- ple are represented in mytho-poetic fashion ; thus Athens appears as Athene, the senate as a woman, the people as a man. Of civic character also are the official busts, placed on pillars or columns. Ti Another group of subjects was furnished by the great national games. This class of sculpture consisted of athletes of various kinds, chariot-racers, discus-throwers, runners, 27. BRONZE HEAL) OF AN ATHLETE. NAPLES 74 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. wrestlers, athletes scraping themselves or binding the Uenia around their brows, victors in musical contests, or in dramatic or comic poetry.* Such occasions furnished one of the early incentives to portraiture, a form of art practised occasionally in Greece from the archaic period onward, but more commonly after the time of Alexander. Historical sculpture as it had existed in Egypt and Assyria was almost unknown in Greece. Events of importance were commemorated by sculptural monuments, but in mytho- poetic, not prosaic fashion. The yEginetans commemorated the victory at Salamis by erecting a temple to Athene, and decorated its pedinunts by representations of the mythic com- bats of Greeks and Trojan<. The Messenians recorded their victory over the Akarnanians by erecting a lofty pier on which stood a beautiful figure of Nike. Even in the declining years of Greek history, we find at Pergamon the chief memorial of the conquest over the Galatians to have been a huge altar with an enormous frieze representing the Gigantomachia. At the same town, however, a more realistic record was made of the same victories by statues of dying Galatians and fallen Per- sians. When we turn from the public to the private life of the Greeks, we find the sculptor and his associates, the workers in bronze and precious metals, the wood-carvers, gem-cutters, and potters all contributing their share toward throwing into beautiful and permanent form the objects which adorned the home. Such were the tables, chairs, chests, vases, cups, lamps, mirrors, and mirror cases, which artistic workmen ornamented with mythological representations ; also the objects of personal adornment the coronals, necklaces, bracelets, and gems. A large class of objects of domestic character is to be found in the terracotta figurines. At an early date these may have been chiefly votive offerings, or, like the Egyptian oushabti, made expressly for the tomb ; but from the fourth century n.c. they seem certainly to have had a wider function, and to have GREEK SCULPTURE. 75 been made to give pleasure to the living. These figurines, whether in single figures or groups, are like character studies, furnishing valuable evidence of the life and costumes of the period. Subjects of mythological interest and figures of divinities are common, and occasionally copies or variants of famous statues are preserved in the terracottas. Grotesque , f Fill. 28. HEAD <)! PIONY; subjects also occur ; but a larger number are of figures of women, sometimes of extraordinary grace and beauty. ""The skill of the sculptor was employed also to beautify the memorials to the dead. In various quarters of the Greek world tombs in the form of temples or chapels, or rock-cut dwellings with sculptured facades, existed from the earliest times, but in Attica and in the Peloponnesos and in Northern 76 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Greece it was customary to mark the last resting-place of the departed with a stele or sculptured slab."f These stel?e were variously decorated ; some by an anthemion, others represented a doorway or aedicula, in which appears the figure of the departed. Sometimes the deceased was represented in his character as a warrior, a shepherd, a knight ; again, his rela- tives gather about him in a farewell scene or are gathered at a funeral banquet. The burial scene itself, or the funeral pro- cession, was less frequently represented. TECHNICAL METHODS. *The Greeks derived from the older civilizations considerable knowledge of the technique of sculp- ture, but physical, intellectual, and spiritual conditions gave their art a new direction. For stone sculpture they were practically limited to the calcareous rock and to marble. The rougher material (poros or tufa), though frequently used, was not conducive to the development of a fine art ; but, fortu- nately for sculpture, Greece was well provided with marble.* Athens had the quarries of Pentelikos and Hymettos at her very doors ; there were quarries also in Lakonia and Boiotia; western Asia Minor was rich in various kinds of marble, and the Italo-Greeks could draw upon what are now the quarries of Carrara. But the most brilliant and uniformly grained marble came from the Greek islands. Of these the marble of Paros was most esteemed, while that of Naxos, Thasos, and Andros was not much inferior. / All Greek sculpture until the time of Lysippos, or possibly a century later, was freehand carving. The instruments used were, a saw to prepare the rough block, sharp-pointed punches to give the first vague form, square and curved-edged and claw chisels to define the surfaces, and a drill for the deep cutting of the drapery. A rod was sometimes fastened upon the front, so that the sculptor might more easily preserve the balance of the two sides of his statue. The most famous sculptors did not hesitate to build up their statues from several pieces of marMe or to leave portions of the original mass as supports. GREEK SCULPTURE. 77 The final surface was rendered more life-like by being rubbed down with oil and molten wax, but the statue was not complete until it was colored and gilded. The rough poros statues were first covered with a thin layer of stucco, with which the color was mixed, or on which it was laid. For marble statuary this stucco covering was unneces- sary. In crude examples bril- liant color was applied gener- ally and in broad masses, but in the finer works color was more specifically applied for the emphasis of details.! Prax- iteles considered as his best works those for which he had the cooperation of the distin- guished painter Nikias. Gild- ing for marble statuary was ap- plied to details, as upon the wings of the Eros of Praxiteles or the hair of the Venus de' Medici. Other means were also employed to give color to sculpture, as, for example, the u$e of bronze for the weap- ons, etc. The freehand carv- ing of reliefs made that pro- cess the reverse of the modern method. The modern concep- tion of relief, based upon the building up of a clay model upon a flat surface, is that of projection from a background. The background is thought of as fixed, and the figured relief varies in projection. The ancient relief was, on the contrary, a carved drawing or FIG. 29. DORIPHOROS AFTER POLYKLBI- TOS. NAI'l.KS. 78 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. picture, the external surface of which is the fixed plane, from which in varying degrees the background is cut away. Reliefs, as well as statues, were not finished until polished and colored. *fln metal sculpture the Greeks were well versed from early times. Gold and silver and bronze were used for many pur- poses, where cheaper materials are now employed. Iron and steel played a smaller part, f The metals were given form by various processes. A common class of objects were the thin plates of gold, silver, or bronze applied as superficial decora- tion upon walls, furniture, robes, etc. These were pressed or hammered into ornamental shape either freehand by the repousst method, or more mechanically by the aid of pre- pared blocks of wood or stone. In early times even metal Mutues were constructed of thin wrought plates. Again, form was given to metal in the hard state by chiselling and engrav- ing. To this class belonged small wrought objects, also engraved mirrors and cistae, seals, dies for coins, and inlaid metal-work. The implements used for such purposes were chisels, gouges, burins, files, drills, and polishers. The Greeks were acquainted with various methods of casting 'metals. They used stone and metal moulds for casting in solid form ; and lime, sand, wax, and clay for various meth- ods of hollow casting. As in marble sculpture, they built up bronze statues from a number of parts and welded them together. They understood the gilding of bronze, and the production of bronzes of various shades of color. Thus ath- letes were of a brownish bronze, and sea figures sometimes of a more silvery hue. Additional polychromatic effect was pro- duced by the inlaying of metals and the use of artificial eyes. But Plutarch's statement that Silanion's bronze statue of the dying lokaste had pale cheeks, produced by the admixture of silver, and Pliny's that the statue of the raging Athamas by Aristonidas had red cheeks, produced by the admixture of iron with the bronze, were probably not based upon personal obser- GREEK SCULPTURE. 79 vation. Tt is now definitely known that the Greeks sometimes coated their bronzes with an artificial patina. < Wood-carving, an art which the (ireeks attributed to their mythical Daidalos, was long held in high esteem. Even in the most flourishing period, the crude ancient wooden images of the gods were honored with special reverence. The methods of carving in wood were also, in a measure, transferred to the earliest attempts in stone. There were many woods in Greece which lent themselves to statuary, such as the cedar, cypress, beech, oak, laurel, myrtle, pear, and olive. These woods were carved in the green condition, were painted, and some- times covered with thin plates of metal. "^ The latter practice probably led to the production of chryselephantine sculpture, of which the most famous examples were the Zeus Olympics and the Athene Parthenos of Pheidias, and the Hera of Poly- kleitos. These statues were hollow, with an inner framework of iron upon which was an outer shell of wood. On this shell were laid thin plates of ivory and of gold, to represent, respec- tively, the nude and draped portions of the statue. By some process, unknown to us, the ivory was probably softened and the separate sections juxtaposed with a skilful concealing of the joints. The ivory was then carefully polished and probably colored. *As a material for sculpture, terracotta was used as early as wood. Images of the gods and architectural decoration in terracotta were in common use before stone and marble and metal were employed for these purposes. The larger images were sometimes built up in separate parts, but more commonly the clay was modelled around an inner -core of wood which acted as a support. The smaller images, or figurines, were sometimes solid and modelled freehand, but usually were cast in moulds."* They were, in the latter case, hollow, and ordinarily had a quadrangular opening in the back, which per- mitted a more uniform contraction when baking. The figu- rines of finer quality were carefully retouched before they were 80 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. baked. Special parts, such as the b;ises, hats, fans, were modelled separately and subsequently affixed. After the baking, color was applied. Sometimes only details were marked by color, but more frequently the original material was entirely concealed. A groundwork of white was first laid over the figure, and upon this the colors and gilding were applied. {Thus, in all forms of sculpture stone, metal, wood, and terra- cotta the finished work was polychromatic. f CHAPTER IX. GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The works on Greek sculpture before mentioned ; also, consult : Articles, Arbores Sacra, Batylia, and Argoi Lithoi in Daremberg and Saglio's Diction- naire. Athenian female figures, Jahrbuch, II., p. 216; Musses cT Athenes; Gazette Anhe'ol., 1888, p. 84. Athenian poros sculp- tures, Mitth. Athcn., XL, p. 61 ; XIV., p. 67; XV., p. 84. Beule, Histoire dc fa Sculpture avant Phidias. Bnmn, Griechische Kunstgcsekichte /., Die Anfdnge und die altcste decorative Knnst. Con/.e, /Mr Geschichte der Anfdnge griechischen Knnst. Delos sculptures, Bull, de Con: Hell., III., p. 393 ; IV., p. 29. Delphi sculptures, Gaz. des Beaux Arts, XII., p. 441 ; XIII., p. 207 and p. 321. Furtwangler, Die Bronzefnnde ans Olympia and Die Bronzen, forming Vol. IV. of the official publication on Olympia. Helbig, Das homerische Epos aus den Denk- malern crliiittert. Homolle, De Antiijuissimis Diana Simula- cris Deliacis. I^ange, Die Composition der Aegineten. Milch- hoefer, Die Anfdnge der Knnst in Griechenland, Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive Greece. Schliemann, J/ios, Trqfa, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Tiryns. Schuchhardt, Schlie- mann' s ftxtarations. PREHISTOKIC SCULPTURE IN GREECE. The objects found in the earliest cities at Hissarlik, in the northern end of the acropolis at Tiryns, in the pre-Phcenician tombs of Cyprus in several of the Greek islands, and in the twelfth-dynasty city of Kahun in Egypt point to a prehistoric civilization in Greek lands antedating in its origin that at Mykenai by perhaps a thousand years. The fact that five successive cities lie buried at Hissarlik below the level of the city of the Mykenaean type- is indicative of the probable long duration of this primitive 6 82 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. civilization. We find that stone implements then predomi- nated, though the use of all the metals, even iron, was not absolutely unknown. Pottery was usually handmade, unpainted, and adorned by scratched designs of the simplest character, such as points, zigzags, and straight lines. Even at this early period, however, there was produced occasionally the rosette and a rude scroll-work suggestive of an imperfect acquaintance with Egyptian art. Among the statuettes, crude as was the modelling, the most common form was that of a nude female, in type not unlike the Babylonian goddess. MYKEN.EAN SCULPTURE. The crude prehistoric art was fol- lowed by an art represented in the rich finds made at Myke- nai. Mykenaean art extended over a period of several centu- ries (roughly, from 1500-1000 H.C.), and was widely distributed over the ancient world. Its centre was in Argolis, at Myke- nai and at Tiryns. But remains of a similar type have been found in Lakonia, at Amyklai and at Vapheio ; in Attika, at Athens, Spata, and Menidi ; in Boiotia, at Orchomenos ; in the Troad, at Hissarlik; in Karia and Phrygia; in Egypt; in Crete and others of the Greek islands ; and in Italy, espe- cially in Sicily. It was a powerful type of art, which in- trenched itself behind strong walls, in well-built palaces and finely decorated tombs. Mykenaean sculpture was not wholly unrelated to that of the preceding type, but was much further developed, and entered into rivalry with the art of Egypt and Assyria. If the prehistoric period be broadly characterized as the stone age of Greek art, the Mykenaean may be called its age of bronze. Metals were now extensively used, and handled with great skill. Gold and silver were fashioned into diadems, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, ornamental plaques, and masks to cover the faces of the dead. Bronze was exten- sively used for architectural decoration, as well as for imple- ments of warfare or of peace. The high degree of advance- ment in metal-work of this period may be illustrated by the two gold cups from Vapheio, and by the inlaid bronze pon- GREEK SCULPTURE. 83 iards from Mykenai. On one of the Yapheio cups are repre- sented wild bulls untamed, in the other the same animals subjugated by man. Taken together, the subjects of these cups reveal a principle of contrast destined to play a long role in / FIG. 30. MKTOI'K (IK THK 1'AK'l IIKNON. KKITISH MTSKl'.M. Greek art. The careful modelling of the forms of the bulls exhibits a naturalistic spirit and a power of observation supe- rior to that displayed by the Assyrian sculptors. The bronze poniards were evidently inspired by Egyptian example, with 84 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. figured designs beautifully inlaid but the forms and adapta- tion of the subjects to the space are Mykenncan and not Ori- ental . Decorative sculpture in stone, as it appeared on the col- umns of the tomb of Atreus or the alabaster frieze from Tiryns or the ceiling of the tomb at Orchomenos, was a trans- lation into stone of ornamental forms more commonly beaten from metal ; but the lions in high-relief over the gates of Mykenai exhibit a remarkable freedom of treatment which presupposes some experience in sculpture in the round. Mykenaean gems, to which- class belong the so-called " island stones," reveal an attempt to adapt the composition to the space and a full possession of the technical ability of model- ling upon a minute scale. These gems betray the prevalence of an animal worship in which the worshippers are clad in artificial skins of animals, such as the lion, bull, horse, ass, stag, goat, or hog. Recently Mykenaean inscriptions have been discovered in Crete, showing the use of a pre-Phoenician hieroglyphic and syllabic type of written language. To whatever department of art we turn, we find that the Greeks of this period absorbed many of the ideas, forms, and methods of Egyptian and Babylonian art, not in servile imi- tation, but reconstructing and adapting them to new purposes. THE DARK AGES OF GREEK SCULPTURE. The disappearance of Mykenaean art appears to have been due to the inroads of Hel- lenic tribes from Thessaly, especially the Dorians and lonians. The process by which new forms were finally established was a gradual one. In some quarters Mykenaean types continued to be reproduced as late as the sixth century B.C. : in other quar- ters there appear to have been transitional stages, more or less clearly marked, in which changes occurred and yet the conti- nuity of artistic forms was in large measure preserved. These tagi-s are best followed in the pottery, which enables us to distinguish n geometric style, in which many Mykenaean motives were reproduced in rectilinear or more rigid form. Then fol- GREEK SCULPTURE. 85 lowed the so-called Oriental style. Mykenaian motives were assigned an inferior position, and greater prominence was given to rows of animals disposed in parallel or concentric bands. Oriental motives, such as inlanders, rosettes, lotus flowers, and various forms of volutes, filled the interspaces. The designs upon metal-work were of a similar character. It was, however, during this period thrt Greek mythology FIG. 31. THKSHl s, UK ol.Y.MI'US, FROM EASTERN PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON. BRITISH Ml'SKUM. was being formulated and Greek poetry was popularizing many legends suitable for representation in sculpture and the arts of design. If we compare the shield of Achilles, as described by Homer (ninth century), with the shield of Herakles, described by Hesiod (seventh century), we see that the former contained generic subjects the earth, the seasons, a city in time of peace in contrast with a city in time of war, choral dances, and the ocean : whereas the design of the later shield was not 86 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. only more complex, having a large number of subjects, but more specifically Hellenic, being adorned with scenes taken from the new mythology. The early bronze shields found in Crete, and the incised patera from Cyprus and Southern Italy, illustrate well the decorative sculpture of this period. Its cul- mination was exempli- fied by the famous chest of Kypselos, seen by Pausanias in the Heraion at Olym- pia, and now assigned to the early years of the sixth century. Mere space-filling ornamen- tation had disappeared, and figured design of a mythological character was firmly established. The old scheme of parallel bands was pre- served, and the design appears to have been arranged partly upon the Doric metopal and partly upon the Ionic frieze principles. Sculpture in the round made slower progress. This was due to various causes. An imageless worship at first prevailed, and it was by very slow stages that, from rude or geometrically shaped blocks of wood or stone, images of the gods in human sli;i|i- at length arose. The wooden xoana, with bodies like tree-trunks or square piers, retarded rather than advanced the progress of sculpture. Nor did the Greeks entertain the FIG. 32.- MKK 1-KiiM \VKVfKKN PARTHENON. BRITISH M GREEK SCULPTURE. 8? Egyptian conception of immortality which would lead them to make statues for the dead. Technical difficulties also stood in their way. The art of stone-carving came slowly, and only after considerable progress had been made in softer materials, such as wood and clay. The first stimulus to stone and marble sculpture would seem to have been given by the practice of making votive offerings. Thus, in the seventh century, Nicandra of Naxos dedicated an image, prob- ably of herself, to the goddess Artemis of Delos ; and, in the same century, Iphikartides, also a Naxian, made and dedi- cated an image of himself to Apollo. These two types the draped female and the nude male constituted a generic form for statues of gods, heroes, and commonplace individ- uals. In these statues there was no apparent relationship to the sculpture of the Mykenaean period, but they none the less revealed similar influences from Oriental and especially from Egyptian sources. Both types show a rapid development in the following, or archaic stage of Greek sculpture. ARCHAIC IONIC AND DORIC SCULPTURE. By the sixth century the progress and individuality of Hellenism made themselves felt. Temples of stone or marble were erected on the coast lines of Asia Minor, in Greece proper, in Magna Gnecia, and Sicily. Under Oriental, especially Egyptian, tutelage, types of architecture were formed, easily distinguished as Doric and loaic. The .-Eolians seem to have been possessed of less artis- tic individuality, and produced no distinctive types either in architecture or sculpture. Sculpture in this century began to lose its Oriental cast and become a national art. Artists were no\v neld in high esteem, and literary traditions concerning their works, as well as a considerable quantity of the monu- ments themselves, are preserved to us. The art of working in stone and marble was rapidly mastered, and bronze-casting reached a high stage of development. The migrator)- nature of the early Hellenic sculptors makes it difficult in all cases to distinguish Ionic from Doric work- 88 HISTORY OF SCULI'TURK. manship. Nevertheless, the two classes may be broadly char- acterized. The lonians were the earliest in the field. They learned from Egypt the lesson of bronze-casting, and carried it even to Dorian settlements. Thev also were the first to FIG. 33. RESTORATION OF THE NIKE OK PAIONIOS. ascertain the value of marble and to practise the art of mar- ble sculpture. Their work shows a preference for round forms and sk-ndtT proportions; for light draperies falling in deli- iscus-thrower, and in reliefs like that of the Apobates mount- ing to his chariot. It is in the standing male figures that Doric influence- is most evident. Antenor's (fl. 510-480 B.C.) ,'amous group of the Tyrannicides sec-ins to have combined Doric strength and proportions with the Ionic mode of com- GREEK SCULPTURE. 93 position. The stele of Aristion (circa 520 n.c.), by Aristokles, shows the same fusion of influences. J EXTANT MONUMENTS. Archaic Greek sculpture may be best studied from the originals in the museums of Athens, Naples, Munich, Berlin, Paris, and London ; and from the collection of casts in Berlin, Dresden, Boston, and New York. CHAPTER X. GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED. DEVELOPED IONIC AND DORIC SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the general histories of Greek sculpture, consult : Baumeister, Denkmalerdesklassischcn Altertums : Articles, Olympia, Parthenon, Pheidias, Polykleitos. Collignon, Pheidias. Conze, Die attischen Grabreliefs. Flasch, Der Parthenon-fries. Furtwangler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculp- ture. Hamdy-Bey et Theo. Reinach, Une Nhropole Royale a Sidon. Kekule, Die Reliefs an der Balustrade der Athena Nike. Lessing, Laokoon. Michaelis, Der Parthenon. Petersen, Die Knnst des Pheidias. Treu, Die Bildwerke in Stein und Thou, forming Vol. III. of the official publication on Olympia. Waldstein, Essays on the Art of Pheidias. THE IONIAN SCHOOL. Qn the early part of the fifth century the technique of marble sculpture had been so far mastered as to permit much freer expression of individual character and sentiment. The difference in temperament between the Ionian and Doric rac^ was now more fully marked. This difference would have been even greater, but for the uniting influence of c'ie wars against the Persians and the concentration of artistic interests in Athens. The Ionian schools suffered the severer shock from Persian devastation, while the remoter Dorians rose to their greatest strength. Even the Athenian sculptors sought instruction in Doric schools. Apart from the influence exerted by Pheidias, the two sculp- tors who did most to preserve Ionic traditions in this fifth cen- tury were Kalamis and Kresilas. Kalamis (fl. 460-445 H.C.), possibly of Samian origin, was the earlier and more thoroughly GREEK SCULPTURE. 95 Ionian sculptor. He worked with equal ease in bron/.e, mar- ble, or gold and ivory, and was a popular sculptor of divini- ties. The Apollo Alexikakos, which he made for Athens, and his Hermes Kriophoros at Tanagra appear to have been dis- tinguished for gracefulness. Lucian praises the bashful demeanor, the unconscious and modest smile, and the well- ordered and becoming drapery of his Sosandra. Thus, in the hands of Kalamis, the Ionian draped female statue reached the stage when expressive feeling was as much the sculptor's aim as bodily form. Kresilas (circa 480-410 H.C.), though of Cretan origin and a worker in bronze, is to be classed with the Ionian sculptors, since he also valued the expression of sentiment above that of bodily strength. This would seem to be evident from his suc- cess in representing a Wounded Man, and an Amazon made for the temple at Ephesos. His portraits, as exemplified in the bust of Perikles, were also of a character to please the most refined Attic tasteA s- THE DORIC SCHOOL. ( Doric sculpture in the fifth century is best represented by the works of Pythagoras of Rhegion (fl. 484-460 B.C.) and of Polykleitos of Argos (fl. 450-420 B.C.). The activity of Pythagoras lay in the first half of this century and that of Polykleitos chiefly in the second. Both were emi- nent as sculptors of athletes. The nude male type reached, in their hands, a high degree of development. Pythagoras was a Samian by birth, but his work was essentially Doric. He is FIG. 35. HEAD OF THE HERMES BY PRAX- ITELES. OLVMIMA. 96 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. said by Pliny to have been eminent for the expression of mus- cles and veins, and for improved methods of representing the hair. Diogenes Laertius quotes him as especially successful in the proportions and rhythmical character of his work. The latter quality apparently meant the flowing lines which were now introduced, in opposition to the stiff parallelism of archaic statuary. Wrestlers, boxers, runners, pancratiasts, were accu- rately distinguished ; bodily pose as well as muscular develop- ment was expressed with almost perfect freedom. There was doubtless a touch of Ionic gracefulness in the Doric statues of Pythagoras. In the mean time the old school of bronze-workers at Argos continued to be a centre of academic training. Myron from Northern Greece and Pheidias from Athens attended the school of Ageladas at Argos. But the old traditions were more thoroughly represented in the work of the native sculptor, 1'olykleitos. His statue, called the Doryphoros, of a victo- rious athlete holding a spear over his shoulder, is typical of the highest development of purely Doric sculpture in one of the oldest schools. Strong muscular form, without exaggera- tion, was here brought to such a stage of perfection as to fur- nish a canon, or norm, of proportions suitable for all similar works. Polykleitos is said by Galen to have reduced to writ- ing a canon of the ideal relations of finger to finger, of the fingers to the hand, of the hand to the wrist, of the wrist to the elbow, of the elbow to the arm, and so on throughout the whole body. There is some reason to believe that a scale of proportions, somewhat different in character, was employed also in early Doric and Attic sculpture, but no school is likely to have had as rigid followers of mathematical formulas as the school of Argos. The Diadumenos, or athlete binding the fillet on his head, was probably made by Polykleitos at a later period of his career, as in the copies remaining to us the atti- tude is less rigid, the forms rounder, and the hair is treated in a more plastic fashion. Other athletic statues by Polykleitos, GREEK SCULPTURE. 97 if we may judge from the bases inscribed with his name at Olympia, did not vary greatly in type. Of statues of the gods he seems to have made few; but one, the ivory and gold statue of Hera for the temple at Argos, became the standard for subsequent representations of that goddess. Several of the decorative sculptures of that temple, perhaps by the scholars of Polykleitos, have been recently recovered by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. TEMPLE SCULPTURES AT 8LYMPIA. The metopes and pedi mental sculptures of the Zeus temple at Olympia illus- trate the fusion of the Doric and Ionic spirit which espe- cially characterized the Attic school. Doric forms and costumes occur in conjunction with Ionic methods of com- position. The metopes, repre- senting the twelve labors of Herakles, show considerable ingenuity in the variation of the lines of composition. These are in most cases sim- ple and rigid, and symmetri- cal enough to be classed as Doric ; but occasionally, as in the metope representing Her- akles and the Stymphalian birds, the Ionic pictorial frie/.e- method was adopted. The pediments illustrate still better the fusion of Doric and Ionic elements. In the eastern pedi- 7 FIG. 36. FAUN AFTER I'RAXITELES. VATICAN. 98 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. ment, the chariot rare 1>etween Oinomaos and IVlops is Doric in composition. The figures are independent of each other, and the two sides of the pediment balance as rigidly as at yEgina. But the barks of the figures are not finished, and their slight thickness betrays the influence of Ionic methods. The western pediment, representing the contest of Lapiths and Centaurs at the marriage feast of Peirithoos, is Ionic in com- position as well as treatment. It involves organic groups, and may be described as a frieze composition applied to the triangular gable. The sculptor or sculptors of these pedi- ments were probably of Peloponnesian origin and trained in the Attic school. MYRON. V The transformation of the Doric by the Athenian spirit is well illustrated by the works of Myron (circa 492-430 i'..<'.), a native of Boiotia, trained at Argos, who afterward became an Athenian. In his hands strength and energy and bodily form ceased to be ends in themselves; and were no longer subject to schematic regulation. Myron's aim was essentially naturalistic. He represented the Discus-thrower and the Runner in their most characteristic attitudes. His Cow was considered so life-like as almost to be mistaken for realu^j His Athene and Marsyas formed a group impressive, first of all, for its meaning. We no longer think of the nude male and the draped female, nor of Doric and Ionic qualities. ^4iis work was broadly Greek, transcending local schooJ^C Myron's style was more varied and original than that of Polykleitos, and his spirit less academic and traditional. He opened the way for the grand style of Pheidias. The influence of Myron may be recognized in the sculptures of the so-called Theseion. The pediments contained compositions arranged on different principles : the eastern pediment followed the Peloponnesian manner and had a middle figure; in the western pediment this figure was replaced by a group. Of the metopes, eighteen were sculptured with scenes from the struggles of Herakles and of Theseus ; the remaining fifty were probably decorated with paint- GREEK SCULPTURE. 99 ings of similar groups. Whether an attempt was made to unify the compositions on the long sides of the temple, it is now impossible to determine. The style of the sculptured metopes reveals the varied action char- acteristic of Myron, is more refined than that of the metopes of the Zeus temple at Olympia, and is equal to that of the older metopes of the Parthenon. The frieze shows the same character- istics, and foreshadows the principles of composition which are brought to such perfection in the Parthenon frieze. PHEIDIAS AND HIS SCHOOL. After Myron, it is more difficult to trace the distinctions between 1 )oric and Ionic sculptures. The Attic style, having united the best elements from both sources, superseded all others. This was due not so much to the political eminence of Athens as to the superiority of her artists. The greatest of these was Pheidias (cin'a 488-432 B.C.). His ca- reer reached its highest develop- ment under the protection of Perikles, from the year 449 B.C. until his death in 432 B.C. ; but many important works were exe- . cuted during the rule of Kimon. If we may accept the testimony of Pliny, Pheidias began his career as a painter, but soon turned his attention to F1G - ST.- IOO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. sculpture, at first undrr Hrgias of Athens, then undci i.-idas of AIL;-)-. Sculptural rather than j)ictorial con- siderations determined the character of his work. His early training enabled him to attain success in chryselephantine work and in bronze. To the former class belong an Athene at Pellene, an Aphrodite Ourania for a small temple in Elis, and his later and more celebrated Zeus at Olympia and Athene Parthenos at Athens. Of his bronze works his Athene Proma- chos and the Lemnian Athene, the former famous for its size and the latter for its beauty, were probably both executed under the rule of Kimon. His marble works belong chiefly to his later period. Of these may be mentioned the Amazon for the temple of Artemis at Ephesos, an Aphrodite, and the decorative sculptures of the Parthenon for Athens. It is difficult to bring the work of Pheidias into comparison with what had gone before, so marked is the advance in concep- tion, in treatment, and in artistic power. He seems to have torn the veil from Olympos and revealed to us the gods in all their grandeur. His Zeus exercised a lasting influence upon the ancient world, as did also his Athene Parthenos. The majesty, dignity, and elevated beauty of his conceptions gave to his work an ideal, poetic character, even in the few instances in which he dealt with purely athletic subjects. His Pelopon- nesian training gave him a thorough knowledge of proportions and l)odily form. But his treatment was more thoroughly plastic, and made its appeal by the total mass rather than by its details. His figures were naturalistic, not mere anatomical studies; and his drapery was no longer stiff and conventional. but fell in natural folds and revealed rather than obscured the form beneath. In the metopes, the frieze, and pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon \ve can best study Pheidias's ability in plastic com- position. The decoration with sculpture in high-relief of ninety-two metopes, thirty-two on each of the longer and fourteen on each of the shorter sides f the building, presented GREEK SCULPTURE. 101 a problem as yet untried. And yet, as well as may be judged from their present condition, he succeeded in giving on each side of the temple a united effect with varied individual parts. The frieze was even more effective as a triumph in the art of composition. It was a narrow band, about four feet high and five hundred and twenty-three feet in length, encircling the tem- ple cella at a height of thirty-nine feet from the stylobate. The Panathe- naic procession here repre- sented begins on the western end of the temple, and, with its various elements horse- men, chariots, musicians, and participants in the sac- rifices proceeds along the northern and southern sides, until at the eastern end is represented the head of the procession| the waiting magistrates, the priest and priestess of Athene in the presence of the gods. On each side the frieze pre- sents a composition com- pletewithin itself,COmpOSed KIG - SS.-APOXYOMENOS AFTER LVSIPI-OS. - . VATICAN. or minor unities and form- ing a part of the greater whole. Through it all there is a flow of movement, resembling the crescendo and diminuendo in music, terminating with a final chord. A similar independence and artistic power was displayed in 102 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. the two pediments. On the western pediment were repre- sented Athene and Poseidon, with other local divinities and heroes closely associated with the Acropolis; on the eastern pediment the birth of Athene was shown as a fact of cosmic importance, in the presence of Olympian and other divinities. The lines of the pediments were not allowed to obstruct the freedom of the composition, and sufficient symmetry and bal- ance were preserved without the effect of parallelism. In some cases, heads of figures projected above the gable lines of the tympanon ; in others, the imagination was called upon to complete a group below the line of the pediment ; in the centre of the composition was placed a group, not a single figure, as at ^Egina and Olympia. Pheidias thus rose above the limitations of archaic composition, and produced a freer method for all classes of decorative sculptures. THE FOLLOWERS OF PHEIDIAS. The grand style of Pheidias was carried on by his pupils and associates, Alkamenes, Agora- kritos, Kolotes, and others, whose works now escape identifica- tion. In the sculptures of the Erechtheion the Pheidian style survived, especially in the majestic figures of the Porch of the Maidens. A number of funerary reliefs also preserve the style of Pheidias, and closely connected in style with the Erech- theion sculptures is the external frieze of the little temple of Athene Nike on the Acropolis at Athens. The eastern portion of the frieze, with its assembly of the gods, contained more than one motive derived from Pheidias. In the scenes of com- bat represented on the other sides we find a mannerism which soon degenerated into lifelessness. Of a different character are the balustrade reliefs, with graceful figures of Nike ; these already foreshadow the spirit of fourth-century sculpture. Not far removed in style from the Nike temple frieze is the figure of Nike made by Paionios for the Messenians and erected at Olympia. In style this figure represents the transition from Pheidias to Skopas. The same transitional character may be observed in the frieze of the Temple of Apollo, near Phigaleia. GREEK SCULPTURE. 103 This frieze repeats the hackneyed contests of Greeks and Centaurs and of Greeks and Amazons, and exhibits groups juxtaposed without organic relation. The mannerism of the Nike temple frieze was here carried by provincial sculptors to an extreme. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Developed Greek sculpture may be best studied in the museums of Athens, Olympia, Constantinople, Naples, Rome, Berlin, Paris, and London, and through the collections of casts in the Berlin. Dresden, Boston, and New York museums. CHAPTER XI. GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED. FOURTH-CENTURY AND HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE. |-5i >. IKS RKCOMMKNDKD. The works on Greek sculpture before mentioned. Also : Baumeister, Denknuilei; articles Mausoleum, Per^ainon, Praxiteles, Skopas. Brunn, Ueber die kunstgeschichtliche Stellung der pergamenischen Gigantomachic, Comparetti e De Petra, La Villa Ercolanesc. Hauser, Die iieuattischen Reliefs. Schreiber, Hellenistische ReKefbUder. Ur- lichs, Skopas' Leben n ml U'erke. FOURTH-CENTURY SCULPTURE. Perikles's dream of a polit- ical Greece under Athenian rule could not be realized. Polit- ical supremacy, after the Peloponnesian war (431-405 IM .) went to Sparta, then to Thebes, and finally to Macedon ; but Athens still remained the centre of literary and artistic accomplishment. The fourth century witnessed the decline of state power and the rise of that of the individual ; the weakening of supernatural conceptions in religion and a strengthening of naturalistic beliefs; and, finally, a general development in the direction of cosmopolitanism. The most distinguished sculptors of this century were Skopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippos, whose styles may be taken roughly as representative of the early, middle, and late por- tions of the century. SKOPAS (fi. 360 B.C.) in his early works resembled Paionios and the sculptor of the Nike temple frie/e, who represented BO riituaU-d movement. He decorated both pediments of the temple of Athena Alea, at Tegea (395 IM .), with excited com- GREEK SCULPTURE. 105 positions, one being the hunt of the Kalydonian boar, the other the combat between Telephos and Achilles. The heads of heroes, which have been recovered in the excavations at this temple, show that this quality extended to facial expression as FIG. 39. THE FARNESE BULL. NAPLES. well as to bodily form. A stronger example of the same ten- dency is to be looked for in his Bacchante, where he is said to have breathed divine frenzy into the marble. Something of the violence of the Bacchante is preserved to us in the Amazon 106 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. frieze from the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos (350 B.C.), upon which Skopas was employed. According to Pliny, Skopas , wrought the sculptures on the eastern side of this mausoleum, Bryaxis (fl. 350-312 B.C.) on the north, Timotheos on the south, and Leochares (circa 372-324 B.C.) on the west. It is interest- ing to find that the sculptures excavated on Jhe eastern side of the mausoleum are of finer quality than the others. The com- position is at once simpler and more expressive : the figures are fewer in number, but massed against each other with great effectiveness. There is also in the figures attributed to Skopas a vigorous, living quality, and a preponderance of nude forms. In other portions of the frieze we find juxtaposed groups and mannered drapery hardly superior in style to the frieze from the Apollo Temple, near Phigaleia. The difference in date between the Tegean sculptures and those of the Mausoleum indicate a long period of activity for Skopas, which may be divided into a Peloponnesian period, in which he seems to have perpetuated the traditions of Polykleitos ; an Athenian period, in which were developed refinements of his style ; and an Asia Minor period, in which, as in the productions of a virtuoso, there is already evident something of a struggle for effect. PRAXITELES (fl. 350 i:.c.) is the central figure in dreek sculpture of the fourth century. Somewhat younger than Skopas, he represented more fully the ideals of graceful, domestic beauty, which had replaced the more heroic concep- tions of the preceding century. While Skopas perpetuated the traditions of action and movement, Praxiteles was the sculptor of rest. He was varied in conception, inventive of new forms, accomplished in technique. Nearly fifty of his works are mentioned by ancient authors. These involve a number of groups of two or three divinities, many single fig- ures ot" divinities, and a few of human subjects. Though not exclusively occupied with marble, lu- was, like Skopas. emi iH-iitly a marble sculptor. I>rli<;itr modulations of surface (iRKKK SCUU'TUKK. IO/ and a massive treatment of form replaced the sharper contrasts necessitated by the use of bronze. His preference for nude and youthful forms suggests the probability that his early works fol- lowed the line of Polykleitan traditions. But he freed the standing figure from the somewhat constrained attitude of the Poryphoros, and gave it an easy, graceful pose, often placing it against a tree-trurjc in such a manner as to give to the chief line of the body a rhythmical curve. The proportions of the figure became in his hands more refined and slender, and an oval replaced the square face ' of Polykleitos. His figure of Hermes carrying the youthful Dionysos, found at Olympia in 1877, enables us to judge of his style by means of an undoubted original. In this group we see a graceful but dignified com- position, marvellous technical excellence, and a masterful expression of individual character. The Hermes was probably not a very early nor yet a late work, but one which represented the sculptor in his prime. The reliefs from the base of his group of divinities at Mantineia, made probably from his designs, may be taken as representing his earlier style. They resemble the work of Kephisodotos and of Silanion. The divinities represented in the works of Praxiteles are chiefly those of the second order. Praxiteles may be said to have established the type for Kros and the Satyr, conceiving them anew in forms of youth and beauty. He also gave new beauty to Aphrodite in his statues of that goddess (undraped) at Knidos and (draped) at Kos. The weakness of the art of Praxiteles lay in its tendency to exaggerate the quality of refinement and grace. In the Sauroktonos and similar statues Apollo lost his manly quality and appeared as a boyish, effemi- nate divinity. LYSIPPOS (fl. 330 B.C.) was the most prolific sculptor of the fourth century. His aim appears to have been to produce an effect. This he accomplished sometimes by emphatic si/e, as in the colossal statues of Xeus and of Herakles fur Tarentuin, and the diminutive statue of Herakles Kpitrape/.ios : some- io8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. times by individual characterization, as in the striking por- traits he made of Alexander and his generals. Again, he appears to have resorted to picturesque modes of composition, as in the battle-group of Alexander at Granikos or in the hunt- ing scene set up at Delphi. A native of Sikyon, he repre- sented the fourth -century bloom of Peloponnesian sculpture. His departure from the Polykleitan canon, which he is said to have taken as his guide, is strongly marked ; his statue, the Apoxyomenos, or athlete scraping himself, embodied a new FIG. 40. THE DYING GAUL. CAPITOL, ROME. scheme of proportions. Other sculptors Praxiteles, Silanion, and Euphranor had contributed to the formation of slenderer proportions ; but Lysippos pushed this tendency further, and made a small round head and long limbs emphatic elements of style. Thus Lysippos represented the ebbing glory of fourth- century sculpture. DOMESTIC AND CIVIC SCULPTURE. The fourth century ex- tended the field of sculpture to the civic and domestic spheres of life. Kvidence of this is found in the frieze of the cho- ragic monument of l.ysik rates (335 it.c.), with its legendary, lyric theme of Tyrrhenian robbers cast into the sea; also in GREEK SCULPTURE. 109 the statues of philosophers and poets which decorated the theatres and public places. The tombstones of Athens, with their scenes of every-day life or of tender farewells, also experienced a rapid development in this century; as well as the terracotta figurines of domestic subjects, whether made in Tanagra, Asia Minor, or Sicily. The influence of the best Athenian sculpture was felt over a wide region. From Southern Italy have been recovered the Siris bronzes, showing extraor- dinarily skilful workmanship. From Melos came a majestic head of Asklepios, and that archetype of graceful beauty, the Aphrodite of Melos, which some recent writers would have us assign to the second_century B.C. _Jrom Knidos came a Deme- ter of dignified beauty and pathos ; from Ephesos a sculptured column-drum, recording the sad story of Alkestis. Far-away Armenia has given us a fourth-century bronze head, which pre- serves the qualities for which the Aphrodites of Praxiteles were celebrated. And, finally, Sidon has yielded magnificent sar- cophagi with sculptured reliefs of the best fourth-century type. Four of these, in the Constantinople Museum, are of special interest. The oldest sarcophagus is in style somewhat sug- gestive of the pediments of Olympia, and may perhaps be referred to the late fifth century. The so-called Lykian Sar- cophagus is finer than anything Lykia had produced. Its very spirited composition has analogies with the Theseion frieze and other Athenian sculptures. The figures on the Sarcophagus of the Mourners resemble the Muses on the base of the group of statues by Praxiteles at Mantineia. The reliefs on the I^arge Sarcophagus represent a lion-hunt, and one of Alexan- der's battles, possibly that of Issos. The fine proportions, delicate moulding, vigorous reliefs, and original coloring of this sarcophagus make it one of the most important monu- ments in the history of Greek sculpture. It was at first de- scribed as the sarcophagus of Alexander, but is now with greater probability thought to be the sarcophagus of I,aome- don, satrap of Babylonia, Syria, and Phoenicia. HO HISTORY i IK SCULPTURE. HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE i.^-i t ^ M.C.). The death of \lc\andcr in 323 r..i . left the (I reeks in possession of the civi- li/.ed world, without the centrali/ed power to maintain a king- dom of such wide extent. It was inevitable that separate kingdoms should be founded, as by the Ptolemies in Egypt. the AttaliiUe at Pergamon, the Seleukidse in Syria and Meso- potamia. It was inevitable, also, that (ireek art should become modified in different localities by contact with the older civi- lizations. The monuments of this locality, viewed as a whole, should fall into large classes, such as Grseco- Egyptian, (iraro- Asiatic, and (ineco- Persian. GRECO-EGYPTIAN art is characterized by the intermingling of Egyptian and (ireek motives, as also by the development of the pictorial form of relief. Jupiter Ammon, the (ireek Isis, the Hermaphrodite, the personification of the Nile, the Negro, the more frequent use of the Sphinx, may l>e traced to this source. Relief sculpture, as used in Alexandria, and which found its way to Pompeii and Herculaneum, now made use of landscajn- backgrounds and other picturesque details which were foreign to earlier and more exclusively (ireek methods. GEJECO-ASIATIC art, as represented at Pergamon, Rhodes, and Tralles, showed a change in spirit rather than in form. A new vigor, excited possibly by conflict with the Gauls and a prefer- ence for showy, striking themes, characterized the art of this locality. The sculptures from Pergamon bear witness that (ireek artists still retained the highest technical excellence. These sculptures fall into two classes: (i) Those referable to the time of Attalos I. (241-197 B.C.) and (2) those of Eume- nes II. (197-159 B.C.). To the former class belong a >eries of statues representing fallen (iauls, Persians, Amazons, and (iiants, probably copies of a bronze group sent by Attalos to Athens. A marble original, the famous Dying (iaul, formerly known as the Dying (iladiator, i.; a fine example of this class. The sculptures of Kumenes are represented by extensive remains <;KKKK SCULPTURE. in of t\vo frie/.es from the great altar of /.CMS at lYrgamon. Tin- larger frieze portrayed the ('igantomarhy, and the smaller tin- history of Telephos, the legendary founder of Pergamon. These friezes exhibit advanced anatomical knowledge, origi- nality and variety in design, and extremely vigorous action. Several famous statues of this period the Apollo Belvidere, the Diana of Versailles, the torso of the Belvidere, and the Lao- coon show such strong analogies to certain groups in these friezes as to enable us to associate them in the same general HG. 41. ATHKNK GKOUI 1 FROM Al-TAR AT PERGAMON. BEKI.1N. class. The names of several sculptors who worked at Per- gamon are known. They are Isigonos, Pyromachos, Strato- nikos, Antiochos, Praxiteles, Xenokrates, Athenaios, and Epigonos. The group of the I^aocoon, a typical example of emotional sculpture, was executed by three Rhodian sculptors, Agesan- dros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros. It can be assigned to the same general class as the Pergamene sculptures, and does not differ from them sufficiently to be made the basis for a distinct Rhodian school. 112 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Somewhat further removed in type is the group known as the Farnese Bull, by Apollonios and Tauriskos of Tralles. Here an elaborate story is told in a complex group. A dramatic moment is selected in which Zethos and Amphion are about to fasten to a wild bull Queen Dirke, the oppressor of their mother Antiope. The group was probably designed for an open park, and was intended to be seen from all points of view. This involved principles of composition for which Greek sculpture had furnished few examples. But, aside from this, the group is overcrowded with incident and displays pictorial methods in sculpture. Emotional, dramatic sculpture, a straining for effect, seemed to be demanded by the spirit of the times. GRJECO-PEBSIAN sculpture may be looked for where Tersian influences had previously prevailed. We recognize this mixed art in many of the objects from the Cimmerian Bosphoros and from Northern Russia. In the relief sculptures of Hel- lenistic temples or tomb trades in Asia Minor we frequently see Persian motives, such as the Lion attacknig_the Bull, the Chimaera with sharply curved wings, the Horned Lion. In Delos we find columns with bull-headed capitals; and in the Propylaia, at Eleusis, reliefs and goat-headed capitals which may be described as Graeco-Persian. In Antioch in Syria has been discovered a beautiful sarcophagus, with reliefs of Gnern- Persian lions attacking bulls. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Originals by Skopas are in Athens and the British Museum ; the Hermes of Praxiteles is at Olympia, the Aphrodite of Melos in the Louvre ; the Sidon sarcophagi are in Constantinople, the Pt-rjjamene sculptures at Herlin. Hellenistic sculpture abounds in the museums of Italy. CHAPTER XII. ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Anna/I, Bullettino e Monumenti dcir Istitnto di Correspondema Archcologica. Brann and Korte, / Rilicri dellc Urnc Ktrusche. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, Falchi^, }'ctulonia. Inghirami, Monumenti Etruschi. Martha, L 1 Art Etrusyuc. Micali, Monumenti per sennre alia Storia deg& Antichi Popoli Italiani ; Monumenti Inediti. Milani, / Frontoni di un Tempio Toscanico. Monumenti Antichi (Acad. Lincei). Museo Greg&riaitO. Museo Italia no di Antichita C/assica, 1884. Notizie degli Scavi di Antickita. Zannoni, Scavi delfa ANCIENT ITALY AND ITS SCULPTURE. The history of Italy until two centuries after the foundation of Rome still remains extremely obscure. The peoples that inhabited it, the time of their advent into the peninsula, the circumstances of their pro- gress and decline, their relation to each other, are all largely a matter of conjecture, based either upon literature, tradition, or archaeological evidence. We can hardly state more than that there were from the earliest times two currents of emigration, one by land from the north and the other by sea from the south ; that the land invaders were probably the more numerous and certainly the least civilized; that the Oriental and Greek civilizing influences came in periodic waves, through immigra- tion and commerce, and powerfully affected the less civilized races. There is but little unity in the pre-Roman sculpture of Italy, in its styles, its subjects, its methods, or its growth. The char- acter of the monuments first brought to the notice of the inhab- 8 114 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. itants by means of commerce was not calculated to develop the sentiment for monumental sculpture, or to relate the art integrally to the life of the people. Nor was there any plastic- sense among the Italic tribes, the Etruscans, or the native tribes of Hellenic origin. Sculpture, when developed, was essentially utilitarian and had little aesthetic mission. It was employed to decorate objects of use and ornament, and when it was brought, at a late date, to the service of mythology, that ETRUSCAN SARCOPHAGUS. BRITISH mythology was but a transcript of those scenes from Greek myths that seemed to the Ktruscans suitable to illustrate the life, death, and future of their dead. MATERIAL AND METHOD. Bronze, terracotta, stone, marble, and silver were used by the Italic and Ktruscan sculptors. In bronze work the earliest reproductions are in repousst relief, of which good examples are the situlae or buckets, especially interesting for the development of sculpture in the region north ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE. 115 of the Po during the fifth and fourth centuries, and, in a more advanced style, in the third century. The similarity of the Tuscan work to the Greek is sometimes so great as to make it almost impossible to distinguish them apart. Terracotta was, however, the favorite material for sculpture throughout Central and Southern Italy from the sixth to the third centuries, and nowhere can the sculpturesque possibilities of this material be seen so well exhibited as in the history of sculpture in these early Italian schools. It was used instead of stone or marble during nearly the entire period for the temple sculptures. The gables and friezes were of terracotta slabs, in high or low relief, fastened to the wooden framework. Similar reliefs were used on a smaller scale in the decoration of tombs. The acroteria and antefixes were usually figures, busts, or heads, in relief, of terracotta, and were used on a large scale throughout the south of Italy. Stone was used at first mainly in connection with funerary sculptures. At least as early as 600 B.C. reclining stone statues on funeral beds were executed for the domical tomb of Yetulonia. Soon afterward carved stone stelae were erected to mark the site of the graves through a great part of Etruria. Not until late in the fifth century does the use of large carved stone or terracotta sarcophagi come in, and then only for a limited time and in a restricted region. In the following cen- tury, when Etruscan art had taken so overwhelming a Greek character, it became the fashion (cremation being the favorite rite) to preserve the ashes of the deceased in small oblong mar- ble urns with covers. The faces of the effigies were covered with reliefs of funerary significance, and the cover was sur- mounted by the figure of the deceased individual and his wife. The great mass of late Etruscan sculptures belongs to this class of monuments, which exercised considerable influence upon the formation of Roman sculpture, and then, in its turn, was reacted upon by the Roman school. HISTORY. An examination of the Peninsula as a whole shows I 16 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. that the earliest monuments of sculpture date no further hack than the eighth century H.I-., and that they are to be found mainly in maritime Tuscan Ktruria. The entire region north of the Po was unproductive until the fifth century, when it began to produce certain funerary and industrial objects in a barbarous style that can be divided into two schools : the Euganean, with its centre at Este, which was thoroughly inde- pendent, and the Villanova style, with its centre at Bologna, which was a crude branch of Etruscan art. These two schools remained almost unchanged until the time of Roman domina- tion. South of the Po we find that the present province of Tuscany, with part of Umbria and the Roman section of Etru- ria, furnished the great bulk of sculpture during the entire pre-Roman period. The Roman province proper, with the cities of the Sabines, Marsi, Volsci, and Hernici, have thus far furnished hardly a single monument. Farther south the art was essentially Greek, except at Capua, which appears to have been a meeting-place for early Etruscan and archaic Greek art. ORIENTAL OK AECHAIC GREEK. Confining ourselves, there- fore, to Etruria proper, where alone we have a continuous series of monuments interesting in the history of art, we find that the first period that of the eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries is essentially Oriental or Archaic Greek. At that time Etruria was still dependent for its objects of luxury and art upon the Eastern market and upon the Phy Marcellus in 212 p.. r. until the reigns of Nrio Mild even Hadrian, when there was collected in Koine a majority of all the great works produced by five centuries of Greek art throughout the Hellenic world in Europe and Asia. All the art treasures amassed by such rulers as Philip, Pyrrhos, and Perseus, all the monuments of Capua, Tarentum, Corinth, and the principal Greek sanctuaries and cities of the main- land and Asia Minor, were collected in the capital of the Empire. And yet they excited at most an intellectual curiosity and enjoy- ment, but did not stimulate emulation. After the supply of originals was exhausted, recourse was had to numerous copies of famous works. The desire to collect and hoard was appar- ently insatiable among the wealthy Romans, and if this led to carelessness of execution and true artistic value, it has been of use to science, because the types of valuable originals irrepa- rably lost have thus been preserved in copies. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. Although Hellenic influence can be traced quite early in Rome, the Etniscan style seems to have preponderated until the close of the third century B.C. After that, though the city was rapidly filled with Greek works, it is difficult to find traces of a school of Roman sculpture until just before the time of Augustus. During the emperor's reign a spirit pervaded sculpture different from anything before or after, and approaching more closely to the Gieek standpoint. This idealism of the Augustan sculptures is well exemplified by the beautiful reliefs of the Am /hds .-lit^ns/ir, the famous Altar of Peace erected in 12 B.C. on the return of Augustus and the pacification of the Empire. The largest of the two series of reliefs that decorated the wall sur- rounding the altar contained two sacrificial processions moving forward with slow dignity and comprising many members of the imperial family, the college of priests, attendants, and \ictims. The heads of the imperial personages are so ideal- i/ed as to make identification almost impossible in most cases, quite in contrast to the novel realism of Roman portraiture. ROMAN SCULPTURE. 127 Although eminently graceful, the figures lack the force given to later sculptures by a higher relief, greater vigor of movement, and an individual character. Augustus \v.is noted for his lo\e of simplicity in art, and for a strong predilection for the archaic masters of Greek sculp- t ti r e . He not only brought to Rome many masterpieces of p r e - Pheidian sculpture, such as works by Bupalos, Kndoios, Hegias, and Myron, but he encour- aged the imitation of the style by contemporary Greek artists of the " archaistic " school, such as Pasiteles and Arkesilaos. As soon, however, as the influence of Augustus was removed, the Roman school showed a tendency to follow the picturesque, comic, and grotesque style of the genre school of Alexan- dria, as well as the dra- mat i c style of A s i a Minor. At this time the respect with which works of Greek art had usually been treated seems to have largely disappeared. Nero and Caligula were more de- stroyers than patrons of sculpture, and surpassed in their vandalism the earlier exploits of Verres, stigmatized by Cicero. The development of relief sculpture on sarcophagi, which FIG. 47. MARCIANA, SISTER OF TRAJAN. 128 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. in the time of Augustus was rescued from the mechanical level of the Etruscans and raised to the sphere of an art, continued on a grand scale. Many of the sarcophagi of the first two centuries of the Empire, such as those of the Licinii, are superb works. Portraiture also, reached, during these two cen- turies, its greatest per- fection before dying out under Caracal la. The Greeks never did any work in this do- main as great as was then done by the ar- tists of Rome. The artists of the Ptole- mies alone, had fore- shadowed this applica- tion of psychological intuition to sculpture, and the Herculaneum bronzes show, as mere art, an even higher power than the best Roman work. But R o m a n portrai ture was a whole art-world in itself. Roman relief sculpture during the first century of our era developed away from the idealism of Augustus, and produced a series of important decorative works on a large scale, such as the arches of Titus and Trajan, the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, which are of extreme interest to the student of history. The finest of these monumental sculptures are those of the reign of Trajan, especially his arch at Beneven- tum, which shows a distinct advance on the reliefs of Titus, themselves more life-like and effective than the low reliefs of FIG. 48. MARCUS AIKKI.H'S SACRIFICING BEFORE THE TKMI'I.K OF JUPITER. CAPITOL, ROME. ROMAN SCULPTURE. 129 Augustus. The pictorial element predominates, the figures are in different planes; there is more movement, animation, effectiveness. The figures themselves are heavier, the draper- ies more rich. Almost as fine, from the purely artistic stand- point, are the reliefs of the column of Trajan, which possess an equal value as giving a picture of the Roman army in all the vicissitudes of a campaign camping, marching, and fighting. At the same time, pure Greek idealism and the reproduction of Greek divine types of the best period are a feature of such works as Trajan's Beneventum arch. Single figures among Trajan's sculptures, like those of the barbarian prisoners, show that in larger works Roman sculpture had gained rather than lost in power and dramatic intensity. Aside from a cold and artificial revival in the time of Ha- drian, when, by the choice of rich materials and the use of high finish, the artists sought to make up for their loss of mastery, there is almost an uninterrupted decadence, at first slow, under the Antonines, who sought to arrest the decay, but becoming quite rapid in the third century, until, in the time of Max- entius and Constantine, there were no sculptors capable even of making fair copies. During this century there was a return to the mechanical multiplication of carved sarcophagi, as in earlier Etruscan days. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Besides the important standing monu- ments in Rome, Beneventum (arch), the Rhenish province, the south of France, Roumania (Adam-Klissi), and Africa, works of Roman sculpture are present in large numbers in almost every museum : in Rome, in the Vatican, Lateran, Albani, Torlonia, Capitoline. and Baths of Diocletian Museums ; in Naples, in the Museo Nazionale. The British Museum, the Louvre, and the Berlin Museum are especially rich among the collec- tions outside of Italy. In these and other more local collections we can study the variations of Roman art that arose in Gaul, along the Rhine, in lv.;ypt, in Northern Africa, and among the Phoenicians. CHAPTER XIV. EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Bayet, DArt Byzantin ; Re- cherches pour sennr d, r Histoirc de la Peinture et de la Sculpture Chr/tiennes en Orient. Bitllettino di Archeologia Cristiana. De Rossi, Roma Sotterninea. Diehl, Raretine. Ficker, Die alt- christliche Bildwerke im christlichen Museum des Laterans. Gar- rucci, Storia del? Arte Cristiana (2 volumes on sarcophagi, ivory carvings, etc.). Grimoard de Saint Laurent, Guide de r Art Chretien. Kraus, Real-Encyclopaedie der christlichen Altcrthiitner ; Geschichte der christlichen Kunst. \^ Blant, Les Sano^/uj^es Chretiens de la Gaule ; Les Sarcophages Chretiens Antiques de la I'ille d' Aries. Martigny, Dictionnaire des An- tiquite's Chre"tiennes. Perate, L> Archeologie Chre'tienne. Rente de fArt Chretien. Romische Quartalschrift der christlichen Alter- thumer. Schultze, Archaeologie der christlichen Kunst. Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. Venturi, Storia deir Arte Italiana. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. The most characteristic fact about the development of art from the rise of Christianity to the Renaissance in the fifteenth century was the supremacy of architecture. The aesthetic qualities involved in love of beauty, orderly symmetry, and artistic form, in poetic concep- tions and exuberance of imagination, all have their outlet in architecture. In painting, not external beauty but internal significance, was required. Sculpture, on the other hand, was not used either as a medium for teaching, as painting was, or, like architecture, as an aesthetic vehicle. It therefore played a very secondary part, and not until the close of the twelfth century did it begin to resume its old part as an important fac tor in the development of art. The Gothic cathedral paved the way for the Renaissance. i:\RLV CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 131 The vicissitudes of sculpture during the fourteen centuries before the Renaissance may be described under three heads : I. KAKI.Y CHRISTIAN third to sixth centuries.} II. BYZANTINE sixth and seventh centuries. III. MEDIAEVAL eighth to fifteenth centuries. Early Christian sculpture began at the time when the technique of the art was on the high road to decay. The first two centuries of the Christian era were barren of any Christian monuments. In the third century a few works show that technical decadence was not yet complete, but, this being the period of greatest persecution, no development was possible. No workshops for the free treatment of themes of Christian sculpture could be established when it was a capital offence to be known as a Christian. Many examples of carved sarcophagi found in the catacombs of Rome show that the Christians did not hesitate to order and purchase, for their more illus- trious deceased, sarcophagi carved by pagan workmen in pagan workshops, whenever the orna- mentation or the figures did not convey a pagan religious signifi- cance, or when such subjects had been adopted, as in the case of the group of Cupid and Psyche, into the cycle of Christian subjects and were thus common to both. Only with the reign of Constantine, early in the fourth century, FIG. 49. THE GOOD SHEPHERD. LATERAN, KOME. 132 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. did sculpture of a strictly Christian character make a forward movement, and that at a time when the art had reached the lowest technical decadence. The multiplication of works which ensued is, therefore, interesting mainly from the point of view of iconography ; that is, the development of Christian ideas and subjects in art. Sculpture at this time brings us face to face with the ideas of early Christians about death and future life, and shows us the form of their faith as sharply and as clearly as do the works of the Church Fathers. And it does this in a way to bring us closer, perhaps, to the inner heart of the people. The early Christians followed the ex- ample of the Etruscans and Romans in covering their sar- cophagi with subjects that had no special connection with the particular deceased, but were related to conceptions of death and the future life. The subjects selected were often taken from the primitive liturgy that was recited at the bedside of the dying, and, as in the words of the litany the soul about to take its flight calls upon Christ to deliver it from eternal death as in the times of the past He delivered the three children from the fiery furnace, Daniel from the lions, and brought the Hebrews across the Red Sea, so sculptors represented these prayers upon the sarcophagi by carving the very scenes from the Old Testament. Non-religious sculpture for some time varied but little in its technique and themes from that of the pagan period. Art continued its earlier traditions, and the Byzantine emperors followed in the footsteps of the emperors at Rome. Tri- umphal arches and columns and statues were decorated and erected in a style that shows a continuous decadence. Such were the arch of Constantine at Rome and the columns of Theodosius and Arcadius at Constantinople. Numerous statues of emperors and empresses, and of families of great person- ages, continued to be executed with diminishing frequency and skill. Great use was made for decorative purposes of earlier works. Even in imperial images painting gradually superseded EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 133 sculpture, so that, finally, in the seventh or eighth century, sculpture had ceased entirely to be employed for these pur- poses. During this period, marble came to be used less and less as the favorite material, while metal increased its vogue. The last of the fine imperial statues appears to have been the great equestrian bronze figure of Justinian, which he erected after his victory over the Persians in 543. After his reign, other statues were erected of Justin the second, Mauritius, Justinian the second, Phokas, Philippicus, and, even at the clse of the Iconoclastic period, of the Empress Irene and Fir,. 50. EARLY CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS. LATERAN, ROME. her son. All these have perished, and Italy appears to possess the only remaining example of these late imperial statues. It is a standing figure of bronze, thought to represent Heraclius, the conqueror of the Persians. It was washed ashore on the shipwrecked vessel that was probably bearing the statue from Constantinople to be set up in Rome or Ravenna. MATERIALS AND SOURCES. Great varieties of materials were employed. Marble served mainly for the sepulchral monu- ments and for the carved sarcophagi in the catacombs, and in the cemeteries above ground. In a few cases marble was also used for statues, as in the statue of St. Hippolytus, and a number of statuettes of the Good Shepherd. Marble reliefs 134 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. were also used to decorate the church pulpits, as in the am- bones of Ravenna and Salonica. Internally, stucco work was employed very successfully to decorate walls or ceilings. Examples of this rare kind of work are in the vault of a chapel in the catacomb of Calixtus at Rome, dating from the third century ; on the walls of the baptistery at Ravenna, and forming the dado of the inner walls of the cathedral at Ra- venna, of the fifth century. However, as the divorce between architecture and sculpture had been pronounced at the very beginning of Christian art, it is natural that the sculptors should turn themselves more and more to the employment of metals, especially gold, silver, and bronze. There was also some religious sentiment that led to the preference of precious material in the making of the figures that formed the object of religious cult. This tendency, which became more pro- nounced in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, is the main reason for the destruction of the majority of the works of this period and for our consequent imperfect acquaintanc e with its sculptural development. The decoration was usually centred around the high altar and the confessional beneath it. Here were often figures or reliefs of Christ and the apostles, and scenes from the life of Christ and from the Old Testa- ment. The objects used in the services, and which were kept in the treasury of each church, although belonging to the cate- gory of smaller sculpture, become more and more our main reliance for tracing the history of the art. Such are the pyxes, the diptychs, and the book covers of carved ivory, the patens, the ampul las, and other vases of gold and silver, the eucha- ristic doves, altar fronts, and altar canopies. SUBJECTS. Symbolism played such an important part in the art, as well as in the literature, of the early Christian period that it is not surprising to find that it permeates sculpture so thoroughly. Inanimate- symbols were employed, such as the vine, the Constantinian monogram, the Alpha and Omega as symbols of Christ, the palm emblematic of martyrdom, the KAKI.V CHRISTIAN AM) llY/ANTINK S( 'U I .I'TU KK. 135 ship of the church, and the four rivers of the four Gospels. Other symbols were animate ; for example, the dove as a sym- bol of the soul, the sheep or lambs representing the disciples, the peacock as a symbol of immortality. Figured composi- tions also had usually a symbolic meaning. Sometimes they were borrowed directly from pagan art, even in detail. Such was the case with Cupid and Psyche, and Orpheus. Sometimes there was only an external and fortuitous resemblance, as in the case of the similarity of the Good Shepherd to the Hermes FIG. 51. CHRISTIAN SARCOl-HAGUS IN S. LORENZO FUOR1 LE MURA. bearing the Ram. Very often subjects were taken from the Old Testament, which was always close to the hearts of the early Christians, and in this case those were selected that were either closely connected in the Christian mind with providen- tial care and the future life, or were types that could be used as symbolic or allegorical of the new dispensation. Examples of the first category are those illustrating the liturgy for the dying already referred to, such as Daniel with the lions ; ex- amples of the second are Moses striking the rock, the tempta- tion by the serpent, and the translation of Klijah. More popular than all, ho\\v\rr, uviv instances of miracles in the 136 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. life of Christ. Finally, there were scenes from daily life, portraits, and decorative designs similar to those of pagan art. The latest sarcophagi, with their scenes of Christ triumphant and as teacher, are intimately connected with the contemporary monumental decoration of the basilicas of the fourth century, especially with the wall-mosaics. MONUMENTS AND HISTOBY. The sarcophagi, which form the great bulk of the monuments upon which these scenes were carved, were of a size suited to contain one or two bodies, and were carved usually on all four sides. On a small number there was a single continuous relief covering the entire front, espe- cially in the subject of the Crossing of the Red Sea. The reliefs were usually arranged in one or two stories, each consisting of a number of compositions. Very often these compositions were separated by columns bearing an architrave, a gable, an arch, or a shell-like top, but even more often the subjects were placed side by side without any separation. At times, only a few separate figures were carved, in the centre and at the angles, the rest of the surface being strigillated. The covers of the sarcophagi were also often carved, both at the corners and along the edges, with a narrow band of reliefs. In the centre of the front there was frequently a circle or a shell, and within it portrait busts of the deceased. The positions were usually quite simple, the figures were few and arranged upon a single plane. They were carved in high-relief, and have little or no background or decorative setting. In this characteristic, in which they present so strong a contrast with the picturesque compositions of Roman historic sculpture, they show a return to Greek simplicity. The most interesting collections of sarcophagi are in the Lateran Museum at Rome and in the museum at Aries. The most noted single sarcophagus is that of the prefect of Rome, Junius Bassus. This sarcophagus, which dates from the year 359, is a good instance of the more elaborately carved works, and an enumeration of its subjects will give a good idea EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 137 of the usual grouping of subjects in early Christian sculpture. Beginning from the left-hand side of the upper zone we have : (i) The Sacrifice of Isaac; (2) the Denial of Peter; (3) Christ enthroned teaching; (4) the Arrest of Christ; and (5) Pilate washing his Hands. On the lower zone we have : (6) Job on the Dung-hill ; (7) the Temptation of Adam and Eve; (8) Christ entering Jerusalem; (9) Daniel between the Lions; and (10) the Arrest of Peter. It is very seldom that an entire sar- FIG. 52. IVORY TRIPTYCH OF THE CRUCIFIXION. cophagus is devoted to a single subject. This is done only in such cases as the History of Jonah, the Crossing of the Red Sea by the Israelites, and the subject of Christ and the Apostles or Christ teaching. Only a few of the sarcophagi carved with figures date from the third century; the great majority belong to the fourth and early fifth centuries. Rome appears to have been the centre of early Christian sculpture in the reigns of Constant! ne and his successor dur- ing the fourth century. This was quite natural, for the greater 138 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. part of the important works of art executed throughout the empire were by order of the emperors. The political centrali- zation which was the keynote of Roman polity extended to the fine arts, which were practised by large guilds whose members had but little independence. Hence there was great uniformity of style. The south of France, especially the city of Aries, appears to have followed very closely in the footsteps of the Roman school, with some interesting variations, and, as a source of information, it is of great value in point of numbers and interest. When, in the fifth century, the imperial capital was transferred to Ravenna, that city became the successor of Rome in sculpture as well as in other branches of the fine arts, changing the Roman style for one with stronger Oriental elements. This school flourished until the close of the early Christian period ; but, coming as it did at a time when marble sculpture was declining in favor, its productions were less numerous and less representative of the art of the age. There are a number of monuments of sculpture dating from the fifth century which form a connecting link between the early Christian and Byzantine styles. Chief among these are an ivory lipsanoteca now at the Museum of Brescia, and the carved wooden door of S. Sabina in Rome. These two monuments are superior to the bulk of earlier sculpture, in having more grace and more perfect technique, a greater refinement of type, and a more spiritual conception of the subjects of Christian art. They represent the first wave of Creek influence in Italy. The gate of S. Sabina probably dates from the time of Pope Celestin I. (424). It originally included twenty-eight panels in relief twelve large and six- teen small ones arranged in rows of four. In this work the artist sought to establish, as was so often done in the sculptures of the sarcophagi, an analogy between Old and New Testament subjects. Ten panels have disappeared. Among those that remain, three large compositions belong to the Life of Moses, one to the History of Daniel, and one to that of Elijah. In EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 139 the series from the New Testament the most important are those from the Passion of Christ, for they are among the earliest attempts to represent this part of the life of Christ, which was repugnant to _ the early artists. In fact, on this door there is probably the earliest known representation of the Crucifixion. In the largest of these compo- sitions we find a wealth and picturesqueness of detail, a skill in the juxtaposition of epi- sodes, and a freedom of handling far surpassing the work of the sarcoph- agi. The last and most poetic of the composi- tions represents the youthful Christ between A and fl in a laurel circle, holding an open scroll with the letters of his symbolic name, IX9T2. This work stands for the symbolism of Byzantine art in con- trast with the purely historical tendencies of the Roman school. It is imaginative and dramatic. At the same time, it stands half- way between monumental sculpture and the smaller works in ivory and the miniatures which form the bulk of the remaining figured monuments of succeeding centuries. 140 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. The ivory box at Brescia is earlier than the door of S. Sabina, and although it contains five subjects from the cycle of the Passion, it stops short of the last painful episodes which appear on the door. Contemporary with the developed style of the sarcophagi, it has a poetry, delicacy, and dramatic power far superior, and yet it shows that Italian art had not yet felt the influence of Constantinople. This is but one of a number of works which show that we must regard the majority of carved sarcophagi as the work of artisans, for the sculptors who produced the great majority of ivory carvings of the same period have a style that is far more correct, more artistic, and representative of the highest development of the period. BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. The earliest monuments of Byzan- tine sculpture are those in which we notice that the Chris- tian art of the East had begun to throw off some of its Roman characteristics and to show itself a descendant of Greek art. This style announces itself early in the fifth century in such works as the ivory reliefs of Galla Placjdia and Valentinian, and it ceases with the reign of Justinian, in the middle of the sixth century, which marks the beginning of a rapid decay. The works of this period in the Orient show a decided superior- ity over contemporaneous sculpture in the West. There was greater refinement, elevation of type, purity of form, and per- fertion of technique. In consequence of the loss of the greater part of the works then produced, largely through their destruction by the Iconoclasts, we are obliged to judge of their style from portable works of sculpture carried by commerce or conquest to the West and thus preserved. The most im- portant of these are the carved ivories both secular and religious, ecclesiastical diptychs, book-covers, and church vessels. The new style of decorative sculpture which arose at this time and spread from the East through the greater part of Italy is well illustrated in the capitals and carved screens at Kau-nna, Constantinople, and Venice. The downfall of sculpture was facilitated in the East by the EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 14! persecution of the Iconoclasts, while in the West it had already fallen into decay in consequence of the invasion of the Bar- barians and the complete break in artistic tradition which they caused. The history of Byzantine sculpture is almost a blank to us during the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries. Shortly before the year 900, the great artistic revival under the Macedonian dynasty enabled sculpture to come to feeble life once more. It never was, however, a favor- ite branch of art in the Christian East. The Oriental love of color was so strong that it alone was selected as a H^l'jfil H^H fr medium both for fig- ured and ornamental decoration. The Iconoclastic move- ment, although de- feated, had left a deep i^ mark, and it was di- re c t e d even more against sculpture than against painting', be- cause sculpture was more closely connected with pagan worship, and could more clearly produce the illusion of life the bete noire of the Icono- clasts. The new school of Byxantine sculpture may be studied in works extending for alxnit three centuries, ending with the capture of Constantinople in 1204. Its remaining works are more numerous in Italy than in the East itself. Venice, Sicily, and Southern Italy enable us to follow its different phases with considerable accuracy. I !>,. 54. EPISCOPAL CHAIR OK MAXIMIANUS. RAVENNA. 142 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The finest collection of sarcophagi is that of the Lateran Museum, Rome. Next in importance are the groups of sar- cophagi at Aries and Ravenna. Numbers are scattered through the south of France, Rhenish Germany, Spain, and throughout Italy. Early ivories of importance are found in the Louvre, British Museum, Berlin Museum, the Vatican, St. Petersburg. The Museum of Constantinople contains a few interesting fragments of early Byzantine stone sculpture, and some still remain in the churches of that city. The reliefs with which the exterior of S. Marco, Venice, is studded are the best examples of later Byzantine sculpture. The ivory carvings are scattered in many museums. Of especial interest, however, are the collections at St. Petersburg and Florence. CHAPTER XV. MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the general histories, con- sult : Bode, Beschreibung der Bilihverke der christlichen Epoche im Museum zu Berlin ; Die italienische Plastik. Meyer, Lom- liardische Denkma'ler. Perkins, Historical Handbook of Italian Sculpture ; Italian Sculpture ; Tuscan Sculptors. Schmarsow, .V. Martin ron Lucca und die Anfangc der toskanischt-n Skulptitr im Mittelalter. Schult/, Die Kunst des Mittmbardy and in Tuscany in the middle of the thirteenth century, when Niccola Pisano founded his school, is well exemplified by the pulpit in the church of San Giovanni at Pistoja. It is signed by a F/mibard, Guido da MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. Como, and dated 1250. The general scheme of composition is the same as that used by the later Pisan school, but the figures are still heavy and lifeless. Niccola Pisano had already begun his work at that time. His early style, as exem- plified in the Cathedral of Lucca, culminated in his great pulpit in the baptistery at Pisa in 1260. The nov- elty of his genius consisted in the invention not of new subjects, but of powerful in- dividual types of humanity, and he was thoroughly suc- cessful only in his heads and in some of his nude figures. For while his drapery was fine in i t s e 1 f , his draped figures were usually far too heavy. His art was purely humanistic, and not religious, and as the time had not yet come for divorcing art from religion Niccola failed to impose his style upon the school. In fact, the Roman types which he created are found in their original form only on the Pisan pulpit. In later works, like the pulpit at Siena, in which he was assisted by his school, we find a return to a more relig- ious style. Niccola was Succeeded in the leadership KIG - 56.-CHAR,TV AND -I-HB KUUK CAKUI- NAL VIRTUES (BY GIOVANNI of the school by his SOn CAMPOSANTO, PISA. 148 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Giovanni Pisano (1250 ?-i32o?), and by this time the school had acquired supremacy throughout Tuscany. As soon as Gio- vanni was released from his father's superintendence, he showed himself to be animated by the facile, dramatic, and natural- istic element of the Gothic movement. He seems to have felt the influence both of the Rhenish school (Strassburg) and the school of northern France (Amiens). His work was hardly equal to the best productions of either of these schools. In Giovanni's earlier work, after his father's death, he was still dignified, calm, and broad. In this style are the Virgin and Child of the Cathedral of Florence and the tomb of Benedict XI. at Perugia. He became possessed more and more, how- ever, by over-dramatic tendencies, and this extravagant manner of his is admirably illustrated in the pulpit at Pistoja. Gothic sculpture in both France and Italy is essentially allegorical and syml>olic, wherever it does not attempt purely historical compositions. Giovanni seems to have been the first to intro- duce this element very strikingly into Italian sculpture, anil he introduced it permanently. His greatest successor, Andrea Pisano (1273 ?-i3i9), developed and perfected this element in the school, and was a master of broader conceptions, more perfect technique, and more creative imagination than Gio- vanni. He did for sculpture in this respect what Giotto did at the same time for painting. Under his leadership between 1310 and 1335 the Gothic school of sculpture readied its highest point of perfection in Italy. Its two greatest works in Tuscany are the four piers of the faade of the Cathedral of Orvieto and the series of reliefs on Giotto's Campanile in Florence, both of which are important, not only for the beauty of their execution but as the greatest cycles of connected subjects which the school produced. Andrea's best work, and the most exquisite single production of the school, is his bronze door for the baptistery at Florence, which served as a model to Ghiberti for his first door nearly a hundred years afterwards. The mantle of Andrea Pisano fell upon the shoulders of Andrea MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 149 Orcagna (i329?-i368), a universal genius architect, sculp- tor, and painter and one of the strongest artists that Italy produced. Unfortunately, he appears to have devoted only a small part of his artistic energy to sculpture. His masterpiece is the shrine in Or San Michele at Florence. THE REVIVAL ELSEWHERE. In the mean time other schools had been founded outside of Pisa and Florence under the auspices of these schools. Agostino di Giovanni and Agnolo FIG. 57. PORTION OP BAPTISTERY GATE (.BY ANDREA P1SANO). FLORENCE. di Ventura (1330) were leaders at Siena. The style was carried to Milan by Giovanni di Balduccio (1300-1347) of Pisa, a pupil of Andrea, who established the Lombard branch. Tino di Camaino (1315-1336) of Siena carried it to Naples. At the same time, there still remained some local schools which were more or less outside of this Pisan and Florentine in- fluence. The most important of these appears to have been in Lombardy, with its centre at Verona. This school extended during the fourteenth century to many cities even outside of 150 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Lombardy, especially to Padua and Venice. Its development can best be studied, in Verona itself, in the monuments of the princes of the Seal iger family. The most notable family of ar- tists of this school is that of the Campionesi. It showed great originality in the development of different types of sepulchral monuments, many of them on a scale of great magnificence. The Campion! family worked at Bergamo, Pavia, Milan, and Monza. An independent branch of this school was established in Venice, shortly after the middle of the fourteenth century, under the leadership of theMassegne family ( Jacobello and Pietro Polo). The great mass of works produced by the different sections of this Ix>mbard school is comjxDsed of sepulchral monuments with reclining figures and overhanging canopies placed against church walls. They hardly vary in type throughout the entire territory permeated by this style. THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL produced during the fourteenth century a great number of sepulchral monuments of a different style, but very few of them rise to any degree of merit, notwith- standing their ever-increasing size, elaboration, and multitude of figures. The Roman school came to an end shortly after 1300, in consequence of the removal of the Papacy to Avignon and the consequent decadence of the city. But during the sixty or seventy years before this time it had taken an important share in the early revival. The artists that stand out with especial prominence are two of the same name and family, Vassalletto I. and II. (fl. 1220-1276), and Giovanni Cosmati (fl. 1290-1304). This Roman school created the type of sepulchral monuments which was adopted by the Pisan artists. The best early ex- ample is the tomb of Pope Hadrian V. at Viterbo, in which we see that combination of sculpture with architecture and brilliant mosaic ornamentation which was the specialty of the I Roman school. Giovanni Cosmati was its last prominent rep- resentative, and he consummated the interweaving of Gothic forms into the earlier Roman style, which up to the middle of the thirteenth century had been purely classic. MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 151 MATERIALS. Marble and stone were the favorite materials of the Italian sculptor. Italy had not yet regained with any degree of perfection the knowledge of metal-casting which had been lost during the dark centuries that had gone before. The earliest works in metal are either made up of small hammered plates fastened with nails to a background, as in the earliest FIG. 58. THE BETROTHAL OF THE VIRGIN C BY ORCAGNA). OR SAN MICHELE, FLORENCE. Greek work, or consist of inlays upon metals copied from Byzantine originals. Reliefs in bronze were the first attempts at casting. The chief worker in bronze at the close of the twelfth century was Bonannus of Pisa, but Andrea Pisano (fl. I 33~ I 35) carried the work of relief -casting to great per- fection. In the casting of figures in the round, success was 152 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. not attained until the Renaissance. Nor did Italian sculptors develop sculpture in gold and silver to as high a degree of per- fection as did the artists of the north of Kurope. Not until the middle of the fourteenth century do we find a general production of works in enamelled gold and silver gilt; and in this work the Florentine and Sienese schools appear to have had the monopoly. Ivory was used especially at Venice, but to a very small degree as compared with the schools of northern Europe. Stone and marble were used not only as in the north of Kurope, when the sculpture was an integral part of the construction, but also in those free objects of church decoration for which metal was the favorite material, i.e., baptismal fonts. SUBJECTS. Until the advent of the allegorical school, shortly before 1300, Italian sculpture showed itself singularly unimaginative. It confined itself to historical and legendary subjects of the traditional, time-honored scenes of the Old and New Testaments, and to the legends of local scenes. This naturalistic and purely psychological character of Italian sculp- ture is quite in harmony with the national character and with the subsequent development of the sister art of painting. The fourteenth century, with its predominant mystical, alle- gorical, and often pessimistic tendency, is an abnormal period in Italian history. In its sculpture at this time Italy was more in touch with the development of the rest of Kurope than at any other period, and parallels to the greater part of the allegorical subjects employed in her schools can be found plentifully in the French cathedrals. It is probable that we have here one of the centres of that strong philosophic, mystical, and literary influence exerted by the French, through the University of Paris, upon the principal Italian thinkers and leaders of the Gothic period. CHAPTER XVI. MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOMMKXDKD. Adams, Recueil lie Sculptures Go- thiques. Baudot, La Sculpture Francaise an Moyen-age ft it la Renaissance. Emeric- David, Histoirc t/c la Sculpture Fran false. Frothingham, Jr., " The Revival of Sculpture in Europe in the Thirteenth Century," in Am. Jour, of Arch., 1885. Gonse, I.' Art . Gothiqitc ; La Sculpture Franfaisc. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire Raisonne ivm> able to achieve the coordination of an Into turc and sculpture so well as the more southern MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 157 schools. The sculpture is in no way organic. There is a tendency to violent action only less extravagant than that in the Burgundian school ; while in other figures there is a nearer approach to beauty, without any attempt at realism. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE. The last born of these schools, that of the Ile-de- France, carried out from the begin- ning the most perfect alliance of the two arts of architecture and sculpture. Many of the figures on the old portals of FIG. 60. ROOF SCULPTURES. NOTRE Chartres, I>e Mans, Bourges, St. Denis, St. Ix>up, etc., seem almost integral parts of the architecture, so well do the long and immovable figures, with their narrow parallel folds of drapery, harmonize with the general lines. The great advance made by this school is in the use of statues of considerable size in the lower part of all the recesses of the main portals, transferring to this part the centre of sculptural interest. It was inevitable that by this sul>ordination sculpture should lose in part its freedom of form and that the interest of the details I 58 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. should be sacrificed to the general effect. But it was fortunate, for the sake of the completeness of Gothic art, that the new style of architecture arose in the very province where sculpture was best prepared to become its intelligent handmaid and fellow-laborer, and to carry out in plastic form the encyclo- paedic conception of the builders of the great cathedrals. By a gradual change during the second half of the twelfth cen- tury, the severe stiffness of the early sculpture of the Ile-de- France was lost, a greater suppleness and freedom of action were introduced ; and about 1210 to 1220 sculpture had become technically able in this school to express the great variety of artistic subjects that were given to it to execute in connection with the new buildings then being erected over the whole of northern France. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Among the earliest examples of the new Gothic style are the portal of the Cathedral of Laon, and the western portals of Notre Dame in Paris, finished about 1225. The next half-century saw the execution of a great mass of statuary and reliefs for the new cathedrals, and one stands amazed at the unexampled number and variety. Each cathe- dral had several thousand figures, as instanced in such structures as Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, and Notre Dame in Paris. In these works the irregular and unsystematic selection of subjects, which prevailed during the Romanesque period had given place to an elaborate system and classification under the influence of the literary leaders of the scholastic period. In the study of this maze of sculptures the best key is that most universal of mediaeval encyclopaedias, the Speculum Universal, written by Vincent of Beauvais, the tutor of the children of St. Louis of France. The aim of the sculptors was to represent the creation, character, and history of the world, religious, sym- bolic, ethical, and historical, in a series of epics in stone. As in Byzantine painting, so in Gothic sculpture, every subject had its position in the cathedral, and was a distinct link in a long chain of kindred themes, to displace which would be to MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 159 rob them of the greater part of their significance. The period of activity and perfection lasted from about 1225 to the close of the century. It is not easy to characterize the style, on account of the multitude and the multiplicity of work, and the almost complete absence of artists' names around which to group any distinct class of works. There is, in a certain sense, a resemblance to the developed Greek art of the second half of the fifth century B.C. in these sculptures, and yet there is evidently no imitation of Greek models. It is also evident that both the human body and drapery were closely studied from models ; that, in fact, the Gothic figure was usually con- ceived by the sculptor at first without drapery. At the same time, it seems that, while a few artists went to nature and to models, they nevertheless sought to establish, as the Greeks did, canons of form. These canons were geometrical, and were so elaborated as to cover every usual attitude of the human body. By following these formulas fixed by the mas- ters, even ordinary artists could obtain the same grace and poise of figure. An illustration of this fact is afforded by the drawings in the sketch-book of one of these artists Villard de Honnecourt. It was in the study of drapery that the greatest success was obtained, a success almost vying with that of the Greek masters. The sculpture of the late thirteenth and of the fourteenth century loses some of the dignity and repose of the earlier work. It is more humorous and more dramatic, and in seek- ing after effectiveness it often falls into artificiality. It is apt to charm by its quaint brightness, or by a touch of satire, and its figures, with their alluring smile, flexible grace, and high finish, evidently aim at the more seductive and realistic qual- ities of art. In fact, modern writers have seen in this later development of Gothic sculpture in the north of France a renaissance of psychological sculpture which anticipates in many ways the Italian Renaissance of the fifteenth century. At the close of this period the centre of artistic action shifts from i6o HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. the province of Paris northeastward to Flanders and Northern Burgundy. In the .cathedrals of the thirteenth century the sculpture was concentrated upon the exterior, and centred in and about the portals. The main portal on the western fa?ade consisted, as a rule, of three great pointed arches. The side portals in the north and south transepts were sometimes single, some- times double; and besides these there were at times secondary doorways, always ornamented with sculpture. At first the Hli. 6l. SCULPTURED FIGURES, LEFT I'ORTAL OF CATHKM;.\I. AT KMKIMS. recesses of the portals were opened up in the thickness of the facade walls (Notre Dame, Paris), but soon they were made to project more or less, as at Amiens and Rheims ; sometimes they projected so far as to form closed porches, as at Chartres. In all cases large-sized statues were placed in single rows in the recesses, their heads reaching to the spring of the arch. To each figure there corresponded an archivolt above, in which the place of the primitive moulding was taken by a line of figures in high-relief, such as choirs of angels and series of the MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. l6l prophets and the apostles The tympanum which they encircled was filled with a large composition, and below it one of smaller size filled the lintel. Beside and between the portals there were inserted into the walls, especially so far as to form a dado around the base line, series of small symbolic composi- tions in low-relief. In the cathedrals of developed style a gable usually surmounted each arch of the portals, and within each one was a composition in relief or in the round. Above the main portal on the western front was usually a gallery filled with statues of the kings of France. Many disjointed compositions and single figures were scattered over other parts of the exterior. VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS divided his encyclopaedia, or Uni- versal Mirror, into four sections Nature, Science, Ethics, and History. The order of his encyclopaedia is best followed in the Cathedral of Chartres, and here we have a good illustration of the artistic rendering of scholastic ideas. His first Mirror is Nature, illustrated in the northern porch by thirty-six re- liefs and seventy-five statues, beginning with the creation of the heavens and the earth, and closing with the expulsion of Adam an 1 Kve from Paradise. The second Mirror shows the first step in the redemption of man in the natural order by labor. It is developed at Chartres in a series of one hundred and three figures on the north porch. Here are illustrated the labors of the country in their different seasons, the mechan- ical arts of the towns, and the liberal or intellectual arts. The third Mirror shows how man takes a still higher step in his regeneration in the spheres of morality and religion. This moral mirror is illustrated by one hundred and forty statues at Chartres, symbolizing four orders of virtues, the personal, the domestic, or family, virtues, the political or social, and the religious, to each one of which the contrary vice is opposed. Kadi one is typified by a figure and a symbolical composition. Finally, the fourth Mirror expresses the history of the world from the first scenes in the Old Testament to the Last Judg- 162 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. ment, and aims at typifying the most important incidents in the career of mankind. It is natural that a much larger num- ber of compositions and statues should be devoted to this part of the subject than to any other. The whole mirror, even in this partial reproduction at Chartres, is represented by nearly two thousand figures. Treated in this fashion, sculpture was made to represent, almost as completely as literary productions, FIG. 62. SCULPTURES OF SOUTH DOOR, CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS. the complex thought and knowledge of the period, and its study could not but be of extreme value. MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUE. Metal work never attained in Northern France to the popularity that it had in Germany and Flanders. There is no great French Gothic school of gold and silver work, like the Rhenish school. Monumental cast- ing in bronze reached, it is tnie, perfection, especially in sepulchral work such as the slab of l.ishop Kvrard de Fouil- MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 163 Joy, the founder of the Cathedral of Amiens. The Gothic artists were essentially stone-cutters, like the Greeks. They conceived their works in connection with the monument for which they were designed. If they carved them in their ateliers, they did so with strict regard for the exact position which the work was to occupy when in place, and modified the proportions of the figures accordingly to suit the perspec- tive. But often the reliefs must have been carved on the spot. We must conceive of the clergy as exercising general super- vision over the selection and arrangement of the compositions, and we must imagine one artist having, as Pheidias did in the Parthenon, a general supervision of the whole work. In the thirteenth century, when so many architects were sculptors, it is probable that in many cases this man was the architect himself. There is little to say of technical matters. The apprentice- ship in this was served during the Romanesque period, and the Gothic sculptor had, from the very beginning, the same mas- tery over the technical part of his art as the Greeks in the fifth century. Like the Greeks they were fond of polychromy, and a complete recognition of the pervasiveness and impor- tance of this characteristic of Gothic sculpture is almost as new in art criticism as is the same recognition for early Greek sculpture. The restored statues inside the Ste. Chapelle in Paris, and a few statues over high altars, give some idea of the richness and strength of the coloring employed. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Mediaeval French sculpture may be best studied in the cathedrals and churches throughout France. For compara- tive purposes, the collection of casts of monumental sculptures at the Trocadero and of smaller originals at the Cluny Museum, Paris, are invaluable. CHAPTER XVII. MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the general histories, con- sult : Bode, Gcschithtc t/cr ilfiitschcii Plastik. Forster, Die dfutscht' Kunst in }\'ort I/IK/ BilKTAI. OK THF. CATHEDRAL OF STKASSUURG. MEDI/EVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. 175 favorite material. The masterpieces of the new school are altar-pieces, often of most elaborate composition, with a ten- dency to exaggerated dramatic effects in the expression and attitudes, to overloaded details in the backgrounds and the accessories, to a loss of purity of outline in mass and detail. Individual artists now came to the front and established schools. The change from the Gothic to the naturalistic style took place about the middle of the fifteenth century. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The best examples of the ivory sculptures of the Carlovingian period can be studied in the following museums : Louvre, Cluny, and Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris ; British Museum and South Kensington, London ; and in the Berlin Museum. Monumental sculp- ture is to be studied in the churches. Besides the churches, however, there are a few museums of great value for monumental sculpture, especially the national museums of Munich and Nuremberg. CHAPTER XVIII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-! 500. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Bode, Die italienische Plastik ; Italienische Bildhauer der Renaissance ; Denkmdler der Sculp- tur der Renaissance in Toskana. Bode und Tschudi, Be- schreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen Epoche in Konigl. Museum zu Berlin. Burchardt (Bode's Edition), Der Cicerone. Burchardt, The Renaissance in Italy. Cavallucci et Molinier, Les Delia Robbia. Dohme, Kunst und Kiinstler Italiens. Mar- quand, " A Search for Delia Robbia Monuments in Italy," in Scribner's Mag., Dec., 1893. Miintz, Histoire de F Art pendant la Renaissance : Italic ; La Renaissance en Italic et en France ; Les Pre"curseurs de la Renaissance. Paravicini , Le Arte del Di- segno in Italia. Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors ; Italian Sculptors ; Historical Handbook of Italian Sculpture ; Ghiberti et son cole. Reymond, La Sculpture Florentine ; Les Delia Robbia. Robinson, Catalogue of Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages and Period of the Revival of Art in the S. Kensington Museum. Schmarsow, Donatello. Semper, Donatella, seine Zeit und Schule ; Donatello' s Leben und \Verke. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy : The Fine Arts. Tschudi , Donatello e la Critica Moderna. Vasari (Milanesi's Edition), Le Vite //> l<].\cel- lenti Pittori, Scultori ed Architettori. Yriarte, Matteo Civitali. Jahrbuch der Konigl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS. The transition from feudalism to monarchy, which occurred in Spain, France, Germany, and England, had no precise parallel in Italy. Feu- dalism was a northern, not a southern, institution, and was foreign to the Italian spirit. A variety of political conditions existed in Italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 177 There were the Duchies of Savoy and of Milan, the Republics of Genoa, Venice, Florence, and Siena; a large portion of Central Italy was comprised in the States of the Church ; and the whole of Southern Italy and Sicily belonged to the King- dom of Naples. Nevertheless, a tendency toward monarchy FIG. 67. STORY OF ABRAHAM (BY GHIBERTl). BAPTISTERY GATE, FLORENCE. prevailed. Petty provinces were subjected by the stronger, and families and individuals acquired power superior to that of the commune. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the patron- age of the arts came largely from families like the Visconti and Sforza at Milan, the Gonzaga family at Mantua, the Monre- feltro at Urbino, the Malatesta at Rimini, the Este at Ferrara 178 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and Modena, the llentivoglio at Hologna, and the Medici at Florence. The same furtherance of the arts was shown by the popes of Rome, especially by Sixtns IV. and Julius II. A similar transformation took place in the status of the artist. The committee in charge of the construction of the Duomoof Florence yielded to an individual architect Brunel- leschi. Similarly, the habit of consigning the construction of baptistery and sacristy doors, high altars and pulpits, to two or more sculptors passed away, and greater recognition was given to the result of a single mind. In fact, the history of all the arts at this period becomes less and less a history of schools, and is more and more concerned with the works of individual artists. If individualism be an important feature of Renais- sance civilization, a no less striking characteristic is its natural- ism. The growth of physical and historical science, the culti- vation of classical literature, the increase of comfort and pleasure in all forms of social life, are witnesses to a new spirit. This is seen in sculpture in the increase of contemporary sub- jects as well as in the change from a conventional to a more naturalistic treatment of proportions, anatomical structure, drapery, and perspective. A third characteristic, implied in the name Renaissance, was a revival of classical subjects, methods, and forms. Through- out the Middle Ages, Italy never wholly lost the remembrance of Greek and Roman art, but its power was seriously checked by German and Lombard and Frankish influences. The return to classical forms in sculpture maybe said to have begun at the time of Niccola Pisano, and, though checked in the fourteenth century, it continued in the fifteenth century. Through a greater part of the fifteenth century Gothic traditions survived in many directions, but usually assumed something of a classic garb. The classic spirit did not have an all-controlling influ- ence until the early sixteenth century. SUBJECTS. The demand for sculpture in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries remained rhielly er< lesiastiral. The exte- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 179 riors of churches were decorated with sculptures, not only around and over the portals, but sometimes the entire fa<;ade was covered with statues in niches and reliefs of figured or decorative design. In the interiors were sculptured altar- pieces, pulpits, choirs, galleries, fonts, ciboria, tabernacles, candlesticks, single statues of saints and angels, crucifixes, Madonnas, and sometimes large groups of statues. Cathedral, baptistery, and sacristy doors were frequently cast in bronze and adorned with reliefs; while the choir stalls were orna- mented with figured carvings and inlaid pictures of variegated woods. On the interior walls of Renaissance churches were large architectural tombs, commemorating not merely ecclesi- astical rulers, but also generals, statesmen, poets, and mere private individuals. The sepulchral slab on the church floor was not infrequently carved in relief, with the figure projecting sometimes above the floor or set upon a raised base. Palaces and private houses were provided with sculptural ornament about their portals, with friezes and chimney pieces, carved or moulded ceilings, decorative furniture, portrait statues and busts, statuettes, and a host of useful objects which were carved or beaten or moulded into beautiful forms. Open squares and private gardens were adorned with statues and fountains and vases, executed by the most distinguished sculp- tors. Even the country highways had their shrines, with cruci- fixes or reliefs of Madonnas or saints, frequently a reproduction in terracotta or stucco of the work of a master. The subjects of ecclesiastical sculpture were naturally selected from the Old and New Testament and from the lives of the saints. The Madonna with the Child is the most universal and characteristic subject during the Early Renaissance. I^ater she appears frequently accompanied by saints. legends from the life of Christ, of the Madonna, of St. Francis or of special patron saints, were common in sculpture as in painting. Deco- rative motives of classic origin were freely introduced into ecclesiastical sculpture, but mythological subjects more rarely. i8o HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Amorini, or Cupids, were, however, used so frequently as to render the putfo, or child, a characteristic figure in Early Renaissance sculpture. By the middle of the fifteenth century such subjects as Leda and the Swan and Jupiter and Ganymede were introduced upon the very portals of St. Peter's in Rome. In sculpture of a civic or a domestic character, classic themes were frequently em- ployed. Ancient myths were retrans- lated into sculp- ture ; ancient gems and coins and medals and statues, which were now being collected by wealthy patrons of art, and sometimes by artists them- selves, became an important source of inspiration both for subjects and for forms. MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUE. T h e precious metals, gold and silver, played a less im- portant role than in the Gothic period. The goldsmith's atelier continued for a time to be the art school from which issued architects, sculp- tors, and painters. But his influence was gradually restricted to work in the precious metals, and the arts became more independent of each other. Bronze now assumed a more im- portant role, being used for reliefs first, then for statues, busts, KIG. 68. HEAD OK THE ST. GEORGE (liY UONATELLO). OR SAN M1CHELB, FLORENCE. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. l8l candelabra, and minor objects. It was a favorite material with Renaissance artists, not only on account of its durability and ductility, but also because of its brilliant effect when gilded. Considerable difficulty was experienced at first in bronze-casting. The form was crude, and the chisel had to be used freely in finishing. The early bronzes were not highly polished. In time these difficulties vanished, and a high degree of technical perfection was reached in the sixteenth century. In stone sculpture the growing demand for delicate and refined form, notably in decorative detail, led to an extensive use of marble and the finer calcareous stones, such as the pietra d' htria, and the finer sandstones, such as the pietra serena. The white Carrara marble was extensively used for monumental sculpture, but was softened in color by the use of wax. Details such as the hair, angels' wings, ornaments of robes, and architectural mouldings were usually gilded. The background, when not sculptured, was commonly colored a grayish blue. Highly polychromatic marble sculpture was rare. The sphere of sculpture was considerably enlarged by the use of terracotta. This afforded a cheap substitute for mar- ble, and when glazed was equally durable. Coloring beneath the glaze received also a permanent polychromatic character. Altar-pieces, pulpits, fonts, tabernacles, and coats of arms, in this material, became widely scattered, reaching the remotest country towns. A still cheaper material was found in a fine stucco, composed of marble dust and sand. Reproductions of the works of master sculptors were thus placed in the hands of the common people. Sculpture in wood was confined chiefly to thickly wooded districts. In technical execution the methods of classic sculptors were largely employed. Similar implements were used and many of the same conventions followed. But the spirit of the Renaissance was more pictorial. Designs upon paper were 182 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. regarded by many as fundamental ; perspective, the multipli- cation of the planes, the use of all gradations of relief, wen- common. Preliminary studies, and models in clay, wax, or wood, were sometimes carried far enough by the artist to per- mit of the execution of the work in bronze or marble by an artisan. CHAPTER XIX. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. CONTINUED. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books before mentioned and General Bibliography. THE FLORENTINE SCHOOL. The impulse given to Flor- entine sculpture by Andrea Pisano, Giotto, and Orcagna was strongly felt in the early portion of the fifteenth century. The goldsmiths, from whose ateliers issued the most distinguished sculptors, also exerted a determining influence, as may be seen by comparing such works as the silver altar-front in the cathe- dral at Pistoja or the silver dossal from the Baptistery of Florence with the Early Renaissance reliefs. The marble sculptors employed upon the Cathedral of Florence at the end of the fourteenth century, especially Piero di Giovanni Tedesco, were already producing naturalistic sculptures and mingling classic with Christian themes. Though probably of German origin, Piero's work was thoroughly Italian, we may even say Venetian, in treatment. The leading Florentine sculptors of the first half of the fifteenth century were Ghiberti, Donatello, and Luca del la Robbia. LORENZO DI CIONE GHIBERTI (1378-1455) received his techni- cal education from his stepfather Bartolo, a noted goldsmith. He began his career as a painter, but his instincts were essen- tially those of the sculptor of small objects. In his De Orificcria Benvenuto Cellini says of him: " Ix>renzo Ghiberti was truly a goldsmith, not only in his graceful manner of pro- 1 84 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. ducing objects of beauty, but in the extreme diligence and polish which he gave to his work. He put his whole soul into the casting of miniature works, and though he sometimes applied himself to sculpture upon a larger scale, still we can see that he was much more at home in making smaller objects." Ghiberti's chief works as a goldsmith were a golden mitre and pluvial button for Pope Martin V. (1419) and a golden mitre for Pope Eugenius IV. (1439). These magnificent mitres, enriched with miniature reliefs and figures and adorned with precious stones, seem to have been melted down in 1527 to provide funds for the impoverished Pope Clement VII. More fortunate were his works in bronze. As far as is known, these all survive. Ghiberti applied himself to bronze with the spirit of the goldsmith. Having in an open competition proved himself superior to his Sienese, Aretine, and Florentine com- petitors, he secured the contract for a pair of bronze doors for the baptistery at Florence (14031424). These followed the scheme of the doors made for the same baptistery by Andrea Pisano, and represented in twenty-eight panels the life of Christ, the four Evangelists, and the four Fathers of the Church. As compared with Andrea's doors, those of Ghiberti were richer in composition, higher in relief, and more naturalistic in treatment. A fine sense of line is seen in the graceful, flowing draperies which adorn Ghiberti's figures. The three statues of John the Baptist (1414), St. Matthew (1420), and St. Stephen (1422), which stand in niches on the exterior of Or San Michele, show his rapid progress in monumental sculpture. The St. Stephen alone frees him from the charge of being a mere sculptor of miniatures. The transition from his first to his second manner may be studied in the reliefs he made for the font in the baptistery at Siena (1417-1427). The fulness of Ghiberti's style was reached in his second pair of doors for the baptistery at Florence. His aim, no longer that of a Gothic sculptor, may be best stated in his own words: " I tried as far as possible to imitate nature with all RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. I8 5 her varied qualities and to enrich my compositions with many figures. In some of the reliefs I have put as many as a hun- dred figures, in some more, in others less. I executed the work with diligence and enthusiasm. In the ten subjects treated, I have represented the buildings in such proportions as they appear to the eye, and in such a manner that from a distance they seem to be detached from the background. They 69. EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF G/ have little relief and, as in nature, the nearer figures are larger and the remoter smaller. With similar sense of proportion have I carried out the entire work." The most impressive quality of these baptistery doors is the masterly treatment of sculptural perspective. Ghiberti had advanced to the use of successive planes of graded relief, even to the substitution of curved for flat planes. In this direction 1 86 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. he surpassed all of his contemporaries. As compositions, the separate panels merit careful study, so harmoniously did he combine various incidents, and arrange his figures so as to make a single incident most significant. It was no empty praise when Michelangelo declared these doors to be worthy of standing as the gates to Paradise. Contemporary with Ghiberti may be mentioned Filippo Brunelleschi (1379-1446), one of the competitors for the first baptistery doors, and a helpful friend to Donatello; Nanni di Banco (d. 1420), whose statues of St. Eligius at Or San Michele, of St. Luke in the cathedral, and the Assumption of the Madonna over the north portal are works of merit ; Niccolo d' Arezzo (b. about 1370), who was associated with Piero di Giovanni on the north portal of the cathedral. Lorenzo Ghi- berti's son, Vittorio Ghiberti (b. 1417), author of the decorative frieze around Andrea Pisano's doors, and his grandson, Buon- accorso, both goldsmiths and bronze-casters, represent the decadence of Ghiberti 's influence. DONATELLO (1386-1466) was the most representative sculp- tor of the Early Renaissance. His works, arranged in a chrono- logical series, reflect the changing spirit of the times. Up to the year 1425 his works were thoroughly Gothic in treatment. His statues for the Cathedral, for the Campanile, and for Or San Michele are in general awkward in pose, heavy with dra- pery, and lacking in gracefulness. Evangelists and prophets are little more than portrait statues of his own contemporaries. Even the Christ is but a peasant. In this series the St. George is a marked exception, an outburst of creative force and energy. From the year 1425 to his visit to Padua in 1444, Donatello produced his best works. This may be considered his classic period. His reputation now extended beyond Florence, and we find him executing orders for 1'rato, Siena, Montepulciano, Orvieto, Koine, and Naples. He associated with him Miche- 1 o//o Micheloz/i, an accompli shed architect and bronze-caster. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IX ITALY. 187 Michelozzo appears to have executed for him the greater part of three important tombs; that of Pope John XXIII. in the Baptistery of Florence, the Brancacci tomb in Naples, and the Aragazzi tomb at Montepulciano. In his relief work of this period Donatello exhibited perspective effects by the use of retreating flat planes, notably on the font in the baptistery of Siena. Even in the use of somewhat higher relief, as in the pulpit at Prato, and the organ gallery for the Florence Cathe- dral, he followed the same method. The fertility of his fancy is chiefly exhibited in his decorative compositions. What could be more charming or, at the same time, more representa- tive of the spirit of the times than his Bacchanalian Dance of Young Angels for the organ gallery, or the Cupid and Psyche composition on the base of the Judith and Holophernes group in the Loggia dei Lanzi ! The realism of his earliest period seems to have been replaced by a refined classicism in his bronze David in the Muzeo Xazionale and in the beautiful tabernacle containing Yerrocchio's group of the Doubting Thomas at Or San Michele. There was another side to Donatello's nature, a desire to produce a dramatic effect. 'This we already perceive in the Assumption relief of the Brancacci monument and in the Bewailing of the Dead Christ in the sacristy of St. Peter's. A third period of Donatello's career began with his visit to Padua in 1444, and extended until his death in 1466. The dramatic talent to which he had given but little expression in earlier days, now reached its fullest development. His first work for Padua, the equestrian statue of Gattamelata, exhibited a considerable degree of classic restraint, but the history of his work in relief, from the S. Antonio altar-reliefs in Padua to the bronze pulpits of S. Ix>renzo in Florence, is the story of decline. Exaggerated emotion, confused composition, and a lax handling of form and drapery characterize these later re- liefs. They are prototypes of the Rococo spirit into which Italian sculpture was destined to fall. 1 88 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Two sculptors may be associated with Donatello's early manner : Nanni di Bartolo, called II Rosso, who made several statues of prophets for Giotto's Campanile, and Bernardo Cmffagni (1385-1456), author of the seated St. Matthew in the Florence Cathedral. Agostino di Duccio (1418-1481) drew considerable inspiration from Donatello's best work, though his treatment of drapery may be described as an exaggeration of the manner of Ghiberti. Witness his interesting, but man- Mti. 70. LUNETTE (iJY LUCA DELLA KOHHIA). VIA UKI.L' AGNOLO, FLORENCE. nered, sculptures upon the facade of S. Bernardino at Perugia and the reliefs in S. Francesco at Rimini. Michelozzo Michelozzi (1391-1473) was closely associated with Donatello during his best period, and executed some of his designs; but Michelozzo's own work in sculpture was com- monplace. More distinguished sculptors, Desiderio, the Rossellini, and Mino da Fiesole, owed much to Donatello; and that master's later manner was followed and exaggerated by Bertoldo di Giovanni (d. 1491), who completed the pulpits at S. Ixircnzo. It found followers also in the Paduan school of sculpture. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 189 IT7CA BELLA ROBBIA (1399-1482) was the equal of his great contemporaries in the production of beautiful forms. I^ss venturesome with new methods than Ghiberti, less dramatic in spirit than Donatello, his Madonnas and Saints made him the typical re ligious^ sculptor of his day. His early training is said to have been under the goldsmith Leonardo di Ser Gio- vanni. He is known to have executed a few works in bronze, notably the dignified portals of the sacristy of the Cathedral of Florence. As a marble sculptor, his choir-gallery reliefs (1431-1440) show him to be a master of composition and possessed of pure religious sentiment. His marble tomb of Bishop Benozzo Federighi, now in the church of S. Francesco di Paola, is full of quiet grandeur and is enshrined in a frame of exquisitely beautiful design. As the founder of a school of glazed-terracotta sculpture, Luca's influence was far-reaching. His own works were made chiefly for Florence and its immediate neighborhood, while those of his successors were widely scattered. His style exhib- ited a continuous development without marked changes. In his early works, such as the Resurrection (1443) and the Ascen- sion (1446), lunettes in the cathedral, and the lunette from S. Pierino, we may detect the influence of his goldsmith master and of Ghiberti. More freedom and independence are exhibited in his lunette of the Madonna and Child between two Angels over a doorway in the Via dell' Agnolo, in the Apostle medallions in the Pazzi Chapel, and in the beautiful group of the Visitation at S. Giovanni Fuorcivitas, Pistoja. It was in 1463 that he made the remarkable medallion for the General Council of Merchants, and probably about the same time the fine medallion for the Guild of Stone Masons and Wood Carvers, both of which adorn the exterior of Or San Michele. Among his later works may be placed the very beautiful Tabernacle of the Holy Cross at Impruneta and a charming Adoration in the possession of M. Foulc, Paris. In some cases Luca made use of colored glazes, but more fre- HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (jurntly we find him following the habit of the marble sculp- tors, merely coloring the details, such as the eyes and eyebrows, or painting superficial ornament in gold. A considerable impulse to the production of beautiful works in glazed terracotta was given by Luca to his nephew, Andrea della Robbia (1437-1528). Andrea made a wider use of terra- cotta, and carried it into the smaller towns. In his earliest works at I .a. Verna and Arezzo, he exhibited much of the dignity which characterized the style of his uncle. Then followed a period of graceful works, best illustrated by the altar in the Osservanza near Siena and in the lunette over the entrance of the cathedral at Prato. In the lunette of the cathedral at 1'istoja and in those over the doors of S. Maria della Quercia at Viterbo his style lost something of its former refined senti- ment and bordered upon sentimentality. In the following century Andrea's sons contributed only to the decline of art. Giovanni, the eldest (1469-1529), in his early years produced the font for the sacristy (1497) of S. Maria Novella, much in the spirit of his father. His more independent works, such as the Nativity (1521) in the Museo Nazionale, the Tabernacolo della Fontacine (1522) in the Via Nazionale, and the medallions at the Ceppo Hospital at Pis- toja, exhibit ignorance of composition and bad taste in color. Fra Mattia in his high altar at Montecassiano (1527) showed himself a better artist, but Fra Ambrogio in his crude, real- istic Nativity (1504) at Siena was a mere artisan; and Luca di Andrea, who executed from Raphael's designs the pave- ments of the Vatican, was also incapable of producing artistic work by himself. Girolamo, the youngest (1488-1566), carried the traditions of the school to France. His decorative terra- cotta work for the Chateau de Madrid, though much admired, had little influence upon French art. LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY FLORENTINE SCULPTURE. Dur- ing the second half of the fifteenth century the demand for monumental works in sculpture, both in marble and bronze, RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 191 was much increased. The churches were supplied with altar- pieces, pulpits, tabernacles, and tombs, sculptured in the new style, and the palaces were provided not only with new sculptured doorways, friezes, and chimney pieces, but were FIG. 71. BUST OK BISHOP LEONARDO SALUTATJ (bV MINO DA KIRSOI.E). KIESOLE CATHEDRAL. stocked with portrait busts. The most distinguished of the Florentine marble sculptors of this half of the century were Desiderio, the Rossellini, Benedetto da Majano, and Mino da Fiesole. The best of the bronze-workers of the same 192 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. period were Verrocchio and Pollajuolo. Desiderio da Setti- gnano (1428-1464) caught the spirit of Donatello's best work, and added to it a sense of harmony and a refined elegance which were distinctly his own. His wall tomb for the Chan- cellor Carlo Marsuppini (d. 1455) in S. Croce stands at the head of this class of monuments. So also is his marble tab- ernacle in S. Lorenzo one of the finest of its kind. His busts of Marietta Strozzi and of a Princess of Urbino are models of dignity and refinement. His busts of children have been frequently attributed to Donatello. Though short- lived, his influence was lasting. Bernardo Rossellino (1409- 1464) was a refined technician, but as an artist lacked origi- nality. In architecture he was almost a slavish follower of Alberti, and in sculpture borrowed much from his predecessors and contemporaries, as witness his celebrated tomb of Leo- nardo Bruni (d. 1444). Antonio Rossellino (1427-1478), a younger brother of Bernardo, suqiassed him in the charm and delicacy of his work. His St. Sebastian in the Collegiate Church at Empoli ranks as one of the most graceful statues of the Early Renaissance. His tomb of Cardinal Portogallo (d. 1459) at San Miniato, though lacking in architectural sig- nificance, is full of beauty. His low-reliefs of the Madonna and Child, his busts and his heads of children are in quality hardly inferior to the works of Desiderio. Miiio da Fiesole (1431-1484), according to Vasari the pupil of Desiderio, produced an immense number of altars, taber- nacles, tombs, reliefs, and busts. He was a skilful workman, used no models, and brought his work to a high degree of finish. His style exhibited much of Desiderio's refinement, without its elevation; it had the charm of distinction, coupled with a peculiar mannerism. In spite of successive visits and a long residence in Rome, he received no new impulse from classic antiquity. His Roman productions exhibit more elaborate compositions, but are inferior to his best Florentine work. His masterpieces are in the cathedral at Fiesole the tomb of RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 193 Bishop Leonardo Salutati, and an altar-piece representing the Madonna with the Infant Christ and the little St. John, together with S. Ixjrenzo and St. Remigius. Benedetto da Majano (1442-1497) reflected well the general spirit of his age, without marked individuality. His altar of St. Savinus at Faenza (1470) showed strongly the influence of Antonio Rossellino; his St. Sebastian in the Misericordia at Florence was almost a copy of Rossellino's St. Sebastian at Empoli. Rossellino's influence is also seen in Benedetto's works at S. Gimignano. More important is his celebrated pulpit at S. Croce in Florence, harmonious in its proportions and adorned with picturesque reliefs from the life of St. Francis. The problems of perspective, which were exercising the attention of the painters, were here prominently illustrated in sculpture. Benedetto's Madonnas, whether in relief or in the round, lack the refinement and distinction of those by the earlier masters. They are well-fed, luxurious women of the middle class. Matteo Civitali (1435-1501), though born at Lucca, is prop- erly a representative of Florentine sculpture. We see in his works the influence of Desiderio, of Antonio Rossellino, and even of Benedetto da Majano. Nevertheless, there underlies this an emotional element which is not so obvious in Floren- tine work. His Christ is a man of sorrows; his angels are adoring, worshipful angels; his Madonnas are tender-hearted mothers. Lucca and its vicinity, and Genoa, contain charming examples of his work. THE BRONZE-WORKERS. While the marble sculptors of Florence contributed largely to the spread of grace and beauty, the bronze-workers were no less active in bringing their art to a higher stage of technical perfection. Antonio Pollajuolo (1429-1498), a pupil of Ghiberti's stepfather Bartolo, attained great skill as a goldsmith and caster of metals. His monu- ment of Pope Sixtus IV., finished in 1493, was a develop- ment of the slab tomb. The Pope reclines upon a highly 13 194 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. ornauu-nted couch, on the top of which are reliefs of the seven Virtues, and on the sides the ten Liberal Arts. In this tomb Pollajuolo depended for effectiveness upon rich detail rather KIG. 72. I'ULFIT (BV HKNKUKTTO IJA MAJANo). S. CKui I, HnUKNCB. than simple mass. Somewhat incongnious was his tomb for Innocent VIII., which, like the preceding, is in St. Peter's, Rome. Here the Pope was represented as living and blessing, enthroned above the sarcophagus on which reclines the Pope RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 195 dead. In his little bronzes, in the National Museum, Florence, of Marsyas and of Hercules and Cacus, we see the same striving M(; 73 ._ B AKTOLOMMEO COI.LEONI (BY VERROCCHIO). VENICK. for effect the foreshadow of a declining style. If the base of a silver cross, highly ornamented with stntiiettes, in the Cathe- 196 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. dral Museum of Florence, be rightly attributed to Pollajuolo, we must grant that he possessed an architectural sense of no mean order. He was also the founder of the so-called gold- smith school of painting. Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-1488) represented the best achievement in the metal work of his day. His master in the goldsmith art was Giuliano Verrocchio, but he acquired style from Donatello and Desiderio, and finally developed an inde- pendent manner of his own. In his monument to Giovanni and Piero di Cosimo de' Medici (1472), in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, he adopted from Desiderio the motive for the sar- cophagus, in which, however, he exhibited a preference for straight rather than curved lines. His bronze David (1476), in the National Museum, breathes the spirit of Donatello, but is somewhat more angular. More independent and original is his Christ and the Doubting Thomas (1483) in a niche on the exterior of Or San Michele, though here the drapery is some- what heavy and angular, as it is also in the marble monument to Cardinal Forteguerra in the cathedral at Pistoja. His supreme achievement was the statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni in Venice. Of this monument Dr. Bode well says: "The Colleoni stands to-day for the most magnificent equestrian statue of all times ; it fully deserves this reputation, since in no other monument are both horse and rider conceived and composed with such unity." Florence was the centre and inspiration of Renaissance sculpture during the fifteenth century, and her power was felt all over Italy. Nevertheless, there were other centres, such as Siena, Milan, and Pavia, Modena, Venice, Padua, and Palermo, from which issued sculptors of independence and influence. CHAPTER XX. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE. Continued. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. See the list of books at the begin- ning of Chapter XVIII. THE SIENESE SCHOOL. Siena remained longer than Florence under the influence of Gothic art. Her most distinguished sculptor, Jacopo della ftuercia (1371-1438), developed along the same path as Donatello. His earliest works, as illustrated by the Fonte Gaja (1409-1419) in Siena, were thoroughly Gothic in character. Then followed a period when graceful motives of classic origin controlled his style. To this time belongs the beautiful tomb of Ilaria del Caretto (1413) in the cathedral at Lucca. Later, a dramatic quality appeared in his work. This character is exhibited by the reliefs about the central portal of S. Petronio, Bologna (1425-1438). Though somewhat heavy, their dramatic force had a perceptible influ- ence upon the work of Michelangelo. Quercia's influence was not marked in Siena. Something of his Gothic manner was perpetuated in the hard, dry, but tech- nically excellent work of Lorenzo Vecchietta (1412-1480), and something of his classic manner may be seen in the harmoni- ous work of Antonio Federighi (circa 1420-1490). The reliefs and statuettes of Torino di Sano and Giovanni di Torino for Quercia's celebrated font in the baptistery are lacking in style, and Francesco di Giorgio's bronze angels (1439-1502) in the cathedral are exceedingly mannered. Giacomo Cozzarelli 198 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. (1453-1515) was an excel lent workman in bronze, and produced some interesting busts in terracotta. In Lorenzo di Mariano (d. 1534) we recognize a typical Sienese artist of higher quality. His high altar in the church of Fontegiusta exhib- ited, in its sculptured Pi eta, Sienese tenderness of sentiment, and its elaborate architectural decoration was in the line of development of Sienese ornament. Quercia's remarkable work at Bologna did not secure for him FIG. 74. ILAKIA DEI. CAKKI'IO (KV JACOI'O UELLA QL'EKCIAj. Ll'CCA CATHEDRAL. a school of followers there. Niccolo da Bari, called Niccolo dell' Area (1414-1494), reflected something of his influence in a terracotta Madonna outside of the Palazzo Pubblico, but the work which gave Niccolb his title to fame, the completion of the Area di S. Domenico, was a thoroughly independent work. The varied character of Niccolo's style may be still further illustrated by a group of the Lamentation over the body of Christ, in the little church of S. Maria dulla Vita, Uologna. This realistic, emotional group seems to have given RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 199 an impulse to Guido Mazzoni (1450-1518), of Modena, whose works of a similar character in his native town, in Ferrara, and in Naples formed a distinct class of monuments, foreign to the refined spirit of the Florentines, but popular with the phil- istines in the provinces. Mazzoni made the Italian peasant participate as principal actor in representations of sacred story. His work may be regarded as one phase of Lombard naturalism. Elsewhere in Lombardy, and in parts of Germany, similar groups were popular. THE MILANESE SCHOOL. In Ixwnbardy, at Bergamo, Parma, Cremona, and especially at Milan and Pavia, we find a school of sculptors who left their mark over a large portion of Italy, especially in the north. Gothic traditions, more firmly estab- lished than in Florence, checked but did not overcome the advance of the Renaissance. When Michelozzo came from Florence to Milan he bent his style to suit Milanese taste. Here there was a demand for luxuriant decoration, which was easily embodied in terracotta. In this decoration we find a multiplication of details rather than a massive treatment, a subordination of the larger arts, architecture and sculpture, to the minor arts of the joiner and the miniature painter. But if we view Ix>mbard sculpture apart from its surroundings, it has a sharp, crisp, vigorous character which commands our attention and not infrequently our admiration. Especially noteworthy are the sculptures of the cathedral at Milan, of the Certosa at Pavia, and of the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo. The Man- tegazza brothers, Cristoforo (d. 1482) and Antonio (d. 1495), chief sculptors at the Certosa, were among the first to represent drapery in what has been termed the cartaceous manner, from its resemblance to wet paper. This manner was hard, academic, conventional. Their successor Giovanni Antonio Omodeo (1447-1522), in his decorative sculptures for the Colleoni Chapel, and in the tombs of Medea and Bartolommeo Colleoni at Bergamo, in his work for the exterior and interior of the Certosa at Pavia, and in the Borroaimeo monuments at Isola 200 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Bella in the T^ago Maggiore, exhibited a marked advance in the direction of naturalism and classic beauty. Other Milanese sculptors, who lived on into the sixteenth century, were : Cristoforo Solari, whose Beatrice and Ludo- vico il Moro at the Certosa were conceived in the spirit of the Early Renaissance, but whose works produced subsequent to his visit to Rome showed the influence of Michelangelo ; FIG. 75. SCULPTURES FROM THE CERTOSA AT PAVIA. Caradosso (1445 ?-i527), who was considered by Benvenuto Cellini the most skilful goldsmith he ever met, and whose terracotta reliefs in the sacristy of S. Satiro were almost equal to the works of Donatello ; and Agostino Busti, called Bambaja (1480-1548), whose unfinished monument to Gaston de Foix, though somewhat mannered in style, carried to its utmost limit the application of the miniature stylo to monumental RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2OI sculpture. When we add to these the names of Andrea Bregno (1411-1506), of Andrea Fusina (fl. 1495), of Ambrogino da Milano (fl. 1475), a ^ f whom produced works of admirable quality, we find a strong and powerful school of sculptors, not the product of Florentine influence, but of local development. Milanese sculptors largely supplied the demand for sculp- ture in Genoa, Bergamo, Brescia, and other North Italian towns. As we turn toward the east, the influence of Venice is more apparent. Verona maintained her Gothic traditions strongly enough to subject a Florentine sculptor, Giovanni di Bartolo, to her methods. Her style was half-Lombard, half- Venetian, as may be seen in the terracotta decoration by the unknown " Master of the Pellegrini Chapel " in the church of S. Anastasia. THE VENETIAN SCHOOL. Venice produced an independent school of sculptors, whose influence radiated to Istria and Dalniatia on the one hand, and to Verona and Brescia on the othe, * This school represented a taste for rich decorative works, less prosaic than the productions of the Milanese, and of a tenderer sentiment than those of the Florentines. Both Milan and Florence appealed to the intellect, Venice to the pleasurable emotions excited by graceful, luxuriant forms. The Gothic style had assumed in Venice a too attractive char- acter to be easily cast aside. Accordingly, the transitional period, in which Gothic motives lived on by the side of those of the Renaissance, was a long one in Venice. Outsiders like Piero di Niccolo of Florence and Giovanni di Martino of Fiesole, as may be seen in their tomb for the Doge Tommaso Mocenigo (d. 1423), produced works in accord with Venetian traditions. Neither Donatello and his followers at Padua nor Antonio Rizo of Verona had any marked influence in changing the trend of Venetian sculpture. The continuity of its development is exhibited in the transitional work of Bar- tolommeo Buon in the decoration of the Porta della Carta of the Doge's palace, and reached the naturalistic, classic, and 2O2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. humanistic stage in the work of Pietro Lombardo (d. 1515). Ix>mbard modes of composition are evident in his tombs for the Doges Niccolb Marcello (d. 1474) and Pietro Mocenigo (d. 1476), but a thoroughly Venetian charm and exquisite FIG. 76. SCULPTURED BASE AT S. MARIA DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. fancy pervade his decorative sculptures at S. Maria dei Mira- coli. His son, Tullio Lombardo, who may have assisted him at S. Maria dei Miracoli, exhibited an artificial grace in his more independent work for the Chapel of S. Antonio at Padua, RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2O3 Tullio's younger brother, Antonio Lombardo, lacked even artificial gracefulness in his work. Alessandro Leopard! (d. 1522), however, showed himself a worthy successor of Pietro, in his charming base for the Colleoni statue, in his sculptured work for the tomb of the Doge A. Vendramin, and in the bronze flagstaff's in the Piazza S. Marco. The influence of the Venetian school of sculpture extended southward to Ravenna, Cesena, Faenza, and Ancona. THE PADUAN SCHOOL. Padua during the fifteenth century possessed a productive and influential, if not very distin- guished, school of sculptors. She had forced Donatello to change his style so as to accord with her inferior canons of taste. His pupils became most popular sculptors. One of the most skilful was Giovanni da Pisa, author of the terra- cotta figures in the chapel to the right of the high altar in the church of the Eremitani. More productive and more widely known was Bartolommeo Bellano (1430-1498), whose lifeless copies in Padua of the work of Donatello and Desiderio showed his lack of originality, while the reliefs which he exe- cuted for the pulpits in S. Ix>renzo, in Florence, were full of mannerism and a straining for dramatic effect. His manner became somewhat softened after his residence in Venice, where, about 1460, he executed a relief for the fapade of S. Zaccaria. His successor Andrea Briosco, called Riccio (1470- 1532), inherited something of his manner, but moderated by a wider acquaintance with classic art. In the minor arts the fancy of Riccio found constant stimulus. In the production of small bronze reliefs for the decoration of many household objects, in his candlesticks and jewel chests and figurines he showed himself a master, and stimulated a school of follow- ers known by such pseudonyms as Antico, Moderno, Ulocrino, etc. When he attempted monumental works, he showed him- self still the miniature artist. The influence of the Paduan school, though widely extended, was chiefly felt in Mantua and Ferrara. 204 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. SCHOOLS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY. Umbria, the Marches, and the Abruzzi were poor in native sculptors. Through many towns in the neighborhood of Arcevia, Fra Mattia della Robbia exerted a strong influence with terracotta sculpture, and at Aquila interesting monuments were executed by the pupils of Donatello, Andrea and Silvestro da Aquila; but these works were essentially Florentine. Rome seemed to lose her independence in sculpture with the expiration of the Cosmati school. Her best monuments of the fifteenth century were by sculptors of other schools, Donatello and Antonio Pollajuolo, Mino da Fiesole and Giovanni of Dalmatia, Isaia of Pisa, Andrea Bregno, and Luigi Capponi of Milan. Eclecticism prevailed to such an extent that sculptors representing different styles each impressed his own methods upon the same monument. Native sculptors were few. One of these, Paolo Taccone, called Romano, exhibited a Roman preference for figures in the round, but his general style was dependent on that of Isaia of Pisa. Still less can Gian-Cristoforo Romano, the son of Isaia of Pisa, be reckoned as representing the Roman school. He drifted to Lombardy, and there worked in the Milanese style. Naples exhibited the same lack of independence. Tuscan and I-ombard sculptors produced the finest sculptural monu- ments of which Naples could boast during this century. The only native artists of fame were Andrea Ciccione and Antonio di Domenico da Bamboccio (1351-1422). Their work, faulty in design and extravagant in color, was far behind that of the northern sculptors. In Southern Italy, Renaissance sculpture was conditioned by preexisting Byzantine influence, and thus approximated the Venetian type. In Sicily an influence of similar character was represented in the work of Francesco da Laurana, a Dal- matian, while the types and methods of Domenico Gagini and his son, Antonio Gagini (1478-1536), were predominantly Ix)inbard. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 205 EXTANT MONUMENTS. F.arly Renaissance sculpture in Italy may be best studied in the churches and public buildings, especially in Florence, Milan, Venice, Padua, Rome. The most important museums for this purpose are the Museo Nazionale, Florence ; the Royal Museum, Berlin ; the Louvre, Paris ; and the South Kensington, London. A representa- tive collection of Renaissance casts is to be found in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. CHAPTER XXL RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. THE DEVELOPED RENAISSANCE (1500-1600) AND THE DECADENCE (1600-1800). BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books on Renaissance sculpture before mentioned; also: Cellini, Autobiography. Desjardins, La Vie et I'CEuvre de Jean Bologne. Grimm, Life of Michel- angelo. Guizzardi e Tomba, Le Opere di Guido Mazzoni e di Antonio Begarelli. Plon, Benvenuto Cellini, sa Vie et son CEuvre. Schonfeld, Sansovino und seine Schule. Springer, " Raffael und Michelangelo," in Dohme's Ku nst und Kit nstler Italiens. Symonds, Life of Michelangelo. CHANGE IN STYLE AND MOTIVE. The sixteenth century in Italy witnessed the emancipation of sculpture from both architecture and painting. Architecture now became more sculpturesque. Columns were substituted for pilasters ; cor- nices and mouldings received greater projection, allowing a new play of light and shade. Painting also became more plastic, modelling and perspective replacing in a measure the interest in outline and composition. Sometimes sculpture went beyond her sphere and reduced her sister arts to subjec- tion. In the great wall tombs, sculptured figures became over- prominent, the architectural construction being treated as a mere accessory. Even buildings were sometimes mere back- grounds for sculptured figures. This plastic advance was accompanied by many changes. The beautiful decorative low- relief of the Early Renaissance disappeared, high-relief and sculpture in the round taking its place. Dignity of concep- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2O/ tion and design received less attention than modulations of modelling, posing of arms and legs, movement in drapery, the carving of colossal statues, and the determined effort to produce an effect. The influence of classic sculpture was sus- tained and in some directions increased, but only occasionally did it lead to the imitation and reproduction of ancient forms. THE FLORENTINE SCULPTORS. Foremost among the Floren- tine sculptors of this period was Andrea (Contucci da Monte) Sansavino (1460-1529). His early terracotta altar-pieces in S. Chiara at Monte Sansavino followed in the line of Ver- rocchio and Antonio Rossellino, and exhibited a studied grace- fulness. His subsequent residence in Portugal added little to his power as a sculptor, if we may judge him by the life- less font at Volterra. His group representing the Baptism of Christ, over the door of the baptistery at Florence, was on a level with the work of Lorenzo di Credi in painting, and marked a similar decline from the more spirited concep- tions of Verrocchio. In Rome his tombs of the Cardinals Ascanio Sforza and Girolamo Basso della Rovere, though charming in decorative detail, illustrated a stage in which sculptural and architectural motives were in conflict, neither contributing to the effectiveness of the other. In his heads and draperies there is a recognition of Roman classic art, but the proportions of his figures were somewhat heftvy. His later work at Loreto was restless and mannered, aiming at effect by artificial means. His pupil Francesco di San Gallo (1493-1570) exhibited something of his master's manner and added to it an exaggerated realism. His sculptural slab of Bishop Leonardo Bonafede, at the Certosa near Florence, was developed from the low-relief, figured slabs of the late Gothic and Early Renaissance periods. Benedetto da Rovezzano (1476-1556) resembled Andrea Sansavino in technical quality, but surpassed him in origi- nality. His fancy flowed easily in delicate floral design, and revelled in weird combinations of skulls and cross-bones. 208 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. His tombs of Piero Soderini in the Carmine and of Oddo Altoviti in SS. Apostoli in Florence interest, if they do not charm us. His relief in the Museo Nazionale illustrating the Life of S. Giovanni Gualberto exhibited the independence of his fancy. His tomb for Louis XII., King of France, and the tomb which he began for Cardinal Wolsey in England were influential means of communicating to Northern Europe the traditions of the Italian Renaissance. Piero Torrigiano (1472-1522), an irascible man but a clever sculptor, also went to England, and there made the tomb of Henry VII. and Queen Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey, probably also the tomb of the Countess of Richmond in the adjoining chapel. Later he went to Spain, where he sculptured several monuments. THE NORTH ITALIAN SCULPTORS. In Milan and Pavia the line of distinguished sculptors appears to have ceased with Agostino Busti. His successors were inferior artists. Leo- nardo da Vinci (1452-1519) did little for the art of sculpture, and established no school in that art as he did in painting. The influence of Michelangelo and other extraneous influences prevailed. In Modena, however, a forward step was taken by Antonio Begarelli (1479-1565). He worked in terracotta, making not only groups for niched recesses, but also altar-pieces and statues. * His earlier works, as, for example, the Bewailing of Christ in S. Maria Pomposa, strongly betrayed the influence of Mazzoni. But Begarelli, with less depth of sentiment, had more varied means of expression and exhibited more movement in his compositions and figures. His later work, as in the altar-piece at S. Pietro representing Four Saints with the Madonna surrounded by Angels in the Clouds, was imbued with the manner and spirit of Correggio. In fact, Bega- relli's sculpture became thoroughly picturesque in treatment. In Bologna a similar course of development may be seen in the work of Alfonso Lombard!, of Lucca (1497-1537). His early sculptures at Ferrara and in the crypt of S. Pietro, RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IX ITALY. 209 Bologna, bore a close relationship to the works of Mazzoni. Later the influence of the school of Andrea Sansavino made itself felt, and his work for the left portal of S. Petronio assumed a more classic style. A Bolognese sculptress, Properzia de' Rossi (1490-1530), under the ^influence of Alfonso Lombardi and of Tribolo, produced at S. Petronio and elsewhere a number of works of merit. Niccolo Pericoli, known as II Tribolo (1485-1550), was a sculptor of high order, as shown by the thoroughly plastic and beautiful prophets, sibyls, angels, and other reliefs about the doorways of S. Petronio. His subse- quent work was of a temporary, decorative character, and a series of misfortunes prevented him reaching the position to which his genius entitled him. In Venice the most distinguished sculptor was the Florentine Jacopo Tatti, better know from his master as Jacopo Sansavino (1487-1570). In 1510 he followed Andrea Sansavino to Rome, and there through copying and repairing ancient statues became infused with the classic spirit. His Bacchus holding above his head a Bowl of Wine, in the Museo Nazionale, Florence, is a fine example of his work at this period. After 1527 he went to Venice, and there undertook important works both in architecture and sculpture. He tried to secure the rich deco- rative effects demanded by the Venetians. In his treatment of ornamental detail, and in the statues of Apollo, Mercury, Minerva, and Peace for the Loggietta near the Campanile of S. Marco, he showed himself a worthy successor of Pietro Lombardo and Leopardi. These works were like an echo of Praxiteles. Very different, however, were his reliefs. His celebrated bronze door in the choir of S. Marco and his marble relief for the Chapel of S. Antonio at Padua were forerunners of the period of the decline. Sansavino's pupils were many. Tommaso Lombardo, Girolamo Lombardo, Danese Cattaneo, and Alessandro Vittoria (1525-1608) assisted him in the plastic decorations of the Biblioteca. Girolamo Campagna, n pupil of Cattaneo, continued to work in good taste; but 210 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Alessandro Vittoria represented the exaggerated style of the coming Rococo period. THE ROMAN SCULPTORS. In the Early Renaissance, Florence supplied Rome with artists, and there was no distinctive Roman school. In the Developed Renaissance, Rome, chiefly through Michelangelo, influenced the development of sculpture throughout all Italy. Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), equally famous as architect, sculptor, and painter, was essen- tially a sculptor in all his work. Though a Tuscan by birth, and in his early work not uninfluenced by Donatello and Jacopo della Quercia, his spirit gave to sculpture a more inde- pendent position than it had enjoyed since the days of the Greeks and Romans. From Ghirlandaio, in whose studio he is said to have worked, he received no deep educational impress. From the very start, architectural and landscape.- backgrounds, perspective effects and elaborated compositions, did not enter into his conceptions. His interest centred in the human form. His first manner (1488-1496) may be compared to that of Donatello, but it was larger, freer, and more classic. He characterized to perfection the face of a Faun, and portrayed the Madonna and Child, with little boys at the head of some steps, with all the dignity and humanity that are found in Greek reliefs. He revelled in the study of the nude human form in his relief known as the Battle of the Centaurs. His admiration of Donatello may be seen in the S. Giovannino of the Berlin Museum, with its slender form, large hands, and expressive head. Even in these early works he appeared as a master rather than a pupil. As he himself remarked, he imbibed the use of the chisel with his mother's milk. His second manner (1496-1500) exhibited still further independence and study of the human form. In spite of the heavy treatment of the drapery, how pathetic and full of significance is the Madonna and how wonderful the modelling of the Christ in the Pieta at St. Peter's ! His Madonna and RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2IT Child in the church of Notre Dame at Bruges and his Medal- lions in the Museo Nazionale, Florence, and the Royal Acad- llc,. 77. HEAD OK STATUE OK DAVID (BV MICIIEI.AMiEl.o ). Ml SEO NAZIONALE, FLORENCE. emy, London, showed a majestic treatment of a universal subject. His delight in arriving at new poses, as in his paint- ings in the Sistine Chapel, was exhibited in sculpture in the 212 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Cupid, now at the South Kensington Museum. His attention was not always occupied with the body only ; the impression produced by his David comes chiefly from the powerful head, which seems to say to us that intellect is superior to the force of giants. His final manner (1500-1564), as illustrated by the Moses and by the figures upon the Medici tombs, revealed greater harmony of treatment. Modelling, pose, drapery, expressiveness, are more equally balanced, and contribute to the effectiveness of the whole. The Moses is the chief surviving member of a magnificent tomb which was to have been placed in St. Peter's in honor of Pope Julius II. The original design was a free- standing structure embracing as many as forty statues. Below were to be figures of Victories and Slaves ; above them, four seated statues, one of which was to have been the Moses ; in the centre was the sarcophagus of the Pope, represented as kneeling between angels; above all, a figure of the Madonna. Through forty years (1505-1545) this tomb occupied Michel- angelo's thoughts, but circumstances prevented its completion. The monument as it stands in S. Pietro in Vincoli is a mere fragment of the original design, only the Moses being attrib- utable to his hand. Two fine figures of Slaves in the Ixiuvre were probably executed for the Julius monument ; possibly, also, a Victory in the Museum at Florence. The tombs for the Medici family in S. Lorenzo in Florence (1524-1534) are also only a partial realization of the original design. Those of Cosimo and Lorenzo il Magnifico were never executed ; even those of Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, were not entirely finished. The Ixjrenzo, known as " II Penseroso," from his pensive attitude, is a majestic, superb figure, and the Giuliano hardly less expressive. Day and Night, Twilight and Dawn, reclining on the curved tops of the sarcophagi, magnificent figures, might appear out of place, were it not that they form a portion of the composition with the statues seated above. The walls RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2I 3 were provided with niches, as a framework for the statues. Among the latest works of Michelangelo were his Madonna and Child in this chapel, the unfinished Deposition in the 78. TOMB OK I.ORENZO DE* ME kPEL, S. LORENZO, FLORENCE. Cathedral of Florence, and the bust of Brutus in the Museo Nazionale. Baccio Bandinelli (1487-1559) aimed to be more Michelan- gelesque than Michelangelo himself. His first statue, a St. 214 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Jerome, is said to have been commended by Leonardo da Vinci, and his second, a Mercury, sold to Francis I. How inferior he was to the great master may be seen by his Hercu- les and Cacus in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, statues much ridiculed by his contemporaries. Bartolommeo Ammanati (1511-1592) studied under Bandinelli and worked under Jacopo Sansavino. He was engaged upon im})ortant works at Urbino, Padua, Rome, and Florence. His best work, the Neptune of the fountain in the Piazza della Signoria, is a life- less production. Benvenuto Cellini called it " an example of the. fate which attends him who, trying to escape from one evil, falls into another ten times worse, since in trying to escape from Bandinelli it fell into the hands of Ammanati." Raffaello da Montelupo (1505-1566) learned the art of sculp- ture in his father's studio, assisted Andrea Sansavino at Loreto, and Michelangelo in the Medici Chapel. His work is said to have disappointed Michelangelo ; but two altar-pieces at Orvieto designed by II Moscha and executed by Raffaello and II Moschino bear witness to his skill in handling the chisel. Fra Giovan' Angelo Montorsoli (1507-1563) was more thor- oughly a follower of Michelangelo, and carried his style to Genoa, Bologna, and to Sicily. Other sculptors of the same school, who by exaggerating the manner of Michelangelo contributed to the downfall of sculpture, were Guglielmo and Giacomo della Porta (d. 1577) and Prospero dementi (d. 1584)- THE SCULPTORS IN BRONZE. As Michelangelo developed freedom and modelling in marble, a similar advance was made in bronze and the art of the goldsmith by Benvenuto Cellini and Giovanni da Bologna. Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1572) infused into his sculpture something of his own emotional, irascible temper. In his minor works, such as cope buttons and bells and candelabra, pitchers and salvers, he pushed the decorative work of the goldsmith and miniature sculptor to its furthest limits. He was an important medium of transfer- RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 215 the influence of Italian sculpture to France, being one of the founders of the school at Fontainebleau, where he contin- ued the production of smaller objects, his chef-d'oeuvre being a salt-cellar, now in Vienna, made for Fran?ois I. The only large work made by him in France, a re- clining nymph, placed over the principal door of the palace of Fon- tainebleau, had a marked influence upon the style of French sculptors, especially upon Jean Goujon. On his return to Florence in 1545 he made the Perseus for the Loggia dei Lanzi. Though a marvel of technical ex- cellence, it was con- ceived too much in the spirit of the miniatu- rist to be above criti- cism as monumental sculpture. In the bronze bust of Bindo r-- - FIG. 79. BASK OF STATUE OF PERSEUS (BY BEN- VENUTO CELLINI). LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLOR- Altoviti he was more successful , though even here he shows as much of the virtuoso as of the true artistic spirit. Cellini left valu- able records of his time in his treatise on the goldsmith art 2l6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and in his autobiography. Bronze -workers and medallists of inferior quality now appeared in every quarter of Italy, of whom the most noteworthy were the Paduans Leone Leoni (1509-1590) and his son Pompeo Leoni (d. 1610). Giovanni da Bologna (1524-1608), born at Douai in Flanders, studied in Rome, and became a sculptor of considerable influence. His works had usually a predominantly decorative aim, beini; designed for open piazzas, gardens, and palaces. Classic sub- jects, such as Neptune, The Flying Mercury, The Rape of the Sabines, Hercules and Nessus, were his themes. These he treated with considerable freedom and grace, and without exaggeration. His reliefs were inferior to his works in the round. The influence he exerted retarded the decline of sculpture in Italy. THE DECADENCE. After Michelangelo, sculpture as an art reigned supreme in Italy. Throughout the seventeenth and greater part of the eighteenth centuries architecture followed plastic rather than structural ideals. Spiral columns, broken cornices, curved walls, were some of the evidences that architecture gave of its submission. Painting also ceased to occupy its former position. Wall-painting was relegated to the decoration of apses and domes, and frequently furnished backgrounds for sculptured groups. Sculpture ran riot, exult- ing in its technical accomplishment and pushing plastic modes of representation to the furthest possible extreme. The churches were filled with restless baldachinos, violent altar- pieces, and emotional wall tombs. The open piazzas in the cities were provided with effective fountains, porticoes were lined with statues, even the rocks of the gardens were cut into living forms. The keynote of the sculpture of this period was its emotional, almost hysterical character. Naturalness and beauty were not its ideals. Movement, activity, and dramatic energy were emphasized at all hazards. This characterized the detail well as the general spirit. Drapery was no longer a help to RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. form; it was a field for the sculptor's display of skill in dis- tinguishing stuffs or in increasing dramatic effect. In the selection of materials, richly colored marbles were employed in preference to white marble or bronze, and different materials were often combined in the same work. The dramatic period of sculpture is always posterior to the classic. It is not necessarily unplastic, or antagonistic to the principles of monu- mental art. There are subjects in which passionate action is called for, and ma- terials and technical methods which can be appropriately utilized for such purposes. It was the radical application of the dramatic spirit to all themes and in all materials which brought this period of sculpture into contempt. Seldom has a sculp- tor enjoyed a more complete sway over his contemporaries than did Bernini in the seventeenth century. Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), the son of a Tuscan sculptor, was born in Na- ples, but tame when a child to Rome. In his early works, the Apollo and Daphne, the David, and the Rape of Pros- FIG. 80. THE PROPHET DANIEL (BY BEKNINl). S. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME. 2l8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. erpine, he showed the influence of late Roman sculpture. Even in his S. Bibiana the classic spirit was still evident. " But," he remarked, as he looked back upon it in his old age, " had I always worked in this style, I should have been a beggar." By ministering to the depraved taste of his time, he received large sums of money for less worthy works. His baldachino with spiral columns in St. Peter's was the model for similar structures all over Europe. His sculptured angels upon marble clouds over the cathedral throne were repeated for more than a century, and his dramatic tombs of Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. set the fashion for many a monument of similar style and inferior quality. Bernini had many followers : in Naples, Sammartino, Cor- radini, and Queirolo; in Rome, Alessandro Algardi and Stefano Maderna; in Florence, Giovanni Battista Foggini; and in Venice, Pietro Baratta. These men were extremely skilful technicians; but they were inferior artists, since they had lost the capacity for great ideas and failed to recognize the natural limitations of their art. It is not strange that a classical reaction followed this period of mad extravagance. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Italian monuments of the Developed Renais- sance are to be sought for chiefly in the churches and museums of Italy. Not a few are in Spain, and some have found their way to the museums of Northern Europe. There is hardly a church in Italy that does not con- tain some monument of the Decadence. CHAPTER XXII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOM M KX i >F n. Baudot, La Sculpture Francaise an Mo\en-age et a la Renaissance. Brownell, French Art. Clare- tie, Peintres et Scitlpteurs Contemporains. Dierks, Houdon's Leben und Werke. Eineric-David, Histoire de la Sculpture Francaise. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. Gonse, La Sculpture Francaise depuis le XIV Siecle. Jouin, Antoine Coysevox. I,e Monnier, L'Art Francais ait Temps de Richelieu. Mon- taiglon, La Famillc Jes Juste en France ; " Jean Goujon," in Gaz. d. Beaux-Arts, 1884-1885. Montaiglon et Duplessis, " Houdon," in Rev. Univ. des Arts, Vols. I.-II. Palustre, La Renaissance en France. Pattison, The Renaissance of Art in France. Thirion, Clodion. THE FIFTEENTH CENTUEY. Outside of Italy the Renais- sance has an external and a rather superficial significance. In no northern country was it so much a rebirth of the national spirit as a union of the Italian with the national style. The magnificent development of Romanesque and Gothic archi- tecture, the glory of medizeval France, was attended by a sculptural development of hardly inferior quality. By the fifteenth century, however, the Gothic impulse had expended itself in over-elaboration, and a fallow period ensued, which could be quickened only by a return to simplicity or by the introduction of a new style. The latter was almost a neces- sary consequence of the growth of French power over Italy. The French feudal castle became now transformed into the chateau de plaisir, and Italian ideals in sculpture replaced the Gothic. This was accomplished by the actual importation of sculptors, chiefly from the north of Italy, who settled at 220 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Tours, at Paris, and at Fontainebleau. It is hardly necessary to note the presence in France of Guido Mazzoni, Girolamo da Fiesole, the Juste family, Girolamo della Robbia, Bene- detto da Rovezzano, and of Benvenuto Cellini so many were the Italian artists settled in France and so thoroughly did the French cultivate Italian methods. THE SCHOOL OF TOURS. Though Italian monuments were made for France early in the fifteenth century, the first school of sculpture to exhibit the new influence strongly was that of KIG. 8l. ST. I.KOKliK AND THE DKAdON (l!Y MICHEL COLOMBE). LOUVRE, PARIS. Tours. The chief representative of this school, Michel Co- lombe (1432-1515?), maybe compared with the best Italian sculptors of the Early Renaissance. His relief of St. George and the Dragon, made in 1508 for the high altar of the Chateau rraine special mention may be made of Ligier Richier (1500-1567), whose Holy Sepulchres at Hattonchatel and at Saint-Mihiel form an inter- esting parallel to the works of Mazzoni and Begarelli. As a sculptor of sorrow an.l of death, he represented the expiring spirit of the Middle Ages. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 225 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. This was for France a century of self-assertion and of superficial grandeur. It was epito- mized in the character of Louis XIV. In architecture the " ordre colossal " was introduced ; in painting, huge bombastic canvases, and in sculpture, pompous monuments were popular. The leading French sculptors were Girardon, Coysevox, and Puget. Their works showed an increasing tendency toward the display of emotion at the expense of classic form and repose. Francois Girardon (1628-1715) of the three was the most restful. His relief of the Nymphs at the ISath. at Versailles, exhibited an interest- ing combination of classic a n d French grace, but his Rape of Proserpine already followed in the line of Bernini, and his tomb of Cardinal Richelieu at the Sor- bonne inaugurated the series of pompous tombs of the age of lrrain, the pupil of Ciirardon. His principal works were destroyed during the Revolution, but his style may be measured by a number of 228 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. excellent busts which still survive. He counted among his pupils Pigalle, Caffieri, Pajou, Falconet, and others of less renown. Michel Slodtz (1705-1764), the author of the S. Bruno at St. Peter's, R o ni e . is linked with the preceding c e n t u r j through his father, Sebastian Slodtz, who was a pupil of Girar- don. Michel Slodtz was one of the masters of Houdon. Edme Eouchardon ( 1698 - 1762) was called by Voltaire the French Pheidias ; but his graceful Cupid bend- ing the Bow, in the Louvre, and t h e charming reliefs of the fountain in the Rue de G rene 1 1 e- Saint-Germain show a spirit more closely re- lated to that of Prax- iteles. Jean Baptis f e Pigalle (1714-1785), a more brilliant sculp- tor, infused a living quality into graceful forms. His Mercury attaching wings to his feet is full of life as well as beauty. His monumental tombs were finer in detail than in general composition. Ga- briel Christophe Allegrain (1710-1795) was much admired by Diderot for his classic form, as was also Maurice Etienne Fa) l.ol'VKK, FARIS. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. conei (1716-1781), who manifested a philosophic fondness for abstract subjects, such as Melancholy, Friendship, Music. Jean Jacques Caffieri, the best of a family of artists, whose ancestors came from Italy, was noted for his refined and graceful busts, seven of which are in the Museum of the Corned ie Francaise. Augustin Pajou (1730-1809) was a sculptor of exquisite grace and delicate sentiment. His aristocratic bust of Madame Du Barry and his statue of Psyche remind one of his contemporary, the painter Boucher. Louis Michel Claude (1738-1814), called " Clodion," spread the taste for the lighter phases of sculpture by an extensive production, chiefly in terracotta, of minor works of household art. The sum of all that is best in French sculpture of the eighteenth century is to be found in the work of Houdon. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the pupil of I>emoyne, Michel Slodtz, and Pigalle, applied his energy in the direction of naturalism. " It should be our aim," he declared, " to pre- serve and render imperishable the true form and image of the men who have brought honor and glory to their country." He urged his pupils: " Copiez, copiez ton/ours, et surtout copiez juste." He was not lacking on the ideal side, as his light- stepping Diana of the Louvre testifies, but his strength as a sculptor lay in portraiture. His seated statues of Voltaire and of Rousseau, and his busts, such as those of Moliere and Diderot and Buffon, of Franklin and Washington, are the works by which his genius i.s to be measured. In these also he showed himself not only thoroughly French, but essentially modern. EXTANT MONUMENTS. Outside of the museums of the Louvre, Troca- cKr<>, Ciuny, Ecole des Beaux Arts, and the private collections of Paris, French Renaissance sculpture may be best studied in Tours, Rouen, Caen, Dijon, Toulouse, and in the more important of the French chateaux. CHAPTER XXIII. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS. SPAIN, AND ENGLAND. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Amil, Espatia Artistica y Monu- mental. Becker, Lcbcn nnd \\~erke des Bildhaiier T. Riemcn- schneider. Bergau, Dcr Bildschnitzcr I'eit Stoss nnd seine Werkc. Bode, Geschichte der dentschen Plastik. Carclerera y Solano, Iconografia Espanola. Forster, Geschichte der deutscher Kunst ; Die deutschc Kinist in Wort and Bild ; Dcnkmdler deutseher Kunst in Bauknnst, Bildnerei nnd Malerei. Liibke, Geschichte der deutschen Kunst; Peter Vischer 1 s U'erke. Mid- dleton, article "Sculpture," in the Encyclopedia Britannica. Scott, British School of Sculpture. Waagen, Knnshi.mt>eek Notre Dame. In freedom of composition and naturalism this altar-piece is not behind the contemporary works of Flemish painting. In the sixteenth century the style of the Renaissance was introduced. Much that was peculiarly Flemish still remained, but, at the same time, Italian influences were strongly felt. The stalls of the church at Dordrecht, by Jan Terwen (1538- 1542), might almost be taken as the prototype for Lescot and Goujon's juM at St. Germain 1'Auxerrois. More thoroughly under the influence of the developed Renaissance of Italy was the marble altar made by Jacques Dubroeucq in 1549 for a chapel in the cathedral at Mons. In the seventeenth century the school of Antwerp came to the front, and the Rubens of Flemish sculpture, Francois Duquesnoy (1594-1644), exerted a wide influence. In spite of the Italian character of his style, Duquesnoy preserved a dig- nity and distinction of manner which remind us of the great sculptors of France. He is best known by the monuments he left in Italy, but a fine example of his work may be seen in the carved panels and choir stalls of the church of Notre Dame at Denclermonde. His pupil, Artus Quellinus (1609-1668), was a highly gifted sculptor, whose influence extended from Am- sterdam into the north of Germany. The eighteenth century witnessed a decline in the sculptural art of the Netherlands, although now and then excellent wood- carving continued to be done, as in the vigorous statues over the stalls of the church at Wouw. SPAIN. In Spain, upon the basis laid in the Gothic period by architects and sculptors from France, there arose in the fifteenth century a transitional style, stimulated by Flemish influence, which was in turn succeeded in the sixteenth cen- tury by a more monumental sculpture under the guidance of Italian artists. Immense tombs by Florentine, and especially by Ix>mbard 238 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. artists, were erected in many important churches, Italian artists took up their residence in Spain, and Italian methods of decoration were generally substituted for the Gothic. The tomb of Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada is a fine example of Italian work in Spain. In the seventeenth century, Mon- FIG. go. CARVED-WOOD Al.TAR-l'lECE AT l.OMHKKK NOTRE OA.MK. tanes (d. 1614) and Alonso Cano (1600-1667) represented the later phases of the Spanish Renaissance. ENGLAND. In England there were few native sculptors during the Renaissance period. The engraved sculptural slabs in bronze of the fifteenth century, and many decorative sculp- tures, were executed or inspired by sculptors from the Nether- lands. In the sixteenth century more monumental works, and Italian methods, were introduced by Pietro Torrigiano RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 239 (1472-1522) and by Benedetto da Rovezzano. The former designed the first tomb of Henry VII., also the bron/e effigy of Margaret of Richmond in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey; the latter designed a tomb for Cardinal \\olsey, the sarcophagus of which now holds the body of Admiral Nelson in St. Paul's Cathedral. In the seventeenth century the leading native sculptor was Nicholas Stone (1586-1647), to whom the De Vere and Villiers monuments at Westminster are commonly attributed. He was associated in many works with the architect Inigo Jones. Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), an extraordinarily skilful sculp- tor, who worked also for Sir Christopher Wren, seems to have been a native of Holland. During the eighteenth century, Flemish and French sculptors received all commissions of importance. Toward the end of the century the classical revival began in England under the inspiration of John Flax- man (1755-1826). His masterly outline illustrations of the poems of Homer, Hesiod, yEschylus, and Dante, and his classic designs and exquisitely delicate reliefs for Wedgwood pottery, did more than his attempts at monumental sculpture to start a new current in English sculpture. EXTANT MONUMENTS. ( lerman Renaissance sculpture may be studied in the museums of Herlin (Royal), Munich (Germanisches), Nuremberg (National), ami in the churches and public squares of Nuremberg, Bam- berg, WUrzburg, Rothenburg, Creglingen. Ulm, Blaubeuren, Augsburg, Annaberg, Freiberg, Fulda, Mainz, Calcar, Xanten, Schleswig, and Berlin. In the Netherlands, besides the museums of Brussels (Musee d'Art Monu- mental) and Amsterdam (Ryks Museum), of special interest are the churches at Bruges, Gheel, Mons, Ypres, Bois-le-Duc, and Breda ; in Spain, the Escorial, and the cathedrals and churches of Burgos, Toledo, Seville, Valencia, Barcelona, and Madrid ; in England. \\Vstminster Abbey, Windsor Castle. Chatsworth and Warwick Castles. CHAPTER XXIV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ITALY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, GERMANY, AND RUSSIA. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the General Bibliography, consult : Cook, " Russian Bronzes " {Harper's Magazine, Jan., 1889). Description dcs (Enrres de ThorwaUsenau Musc'e Thor- ivaldscn. \ )ohme, Knnst unit Kiinstler tics XIX Jahrhnnderts. Eggers, Christian Daniel Ranch. Gruneisen u. Wagner, Danneeker's ll'erke. Liibke, Geschichte tier dentschen Knnst. Moses, The Works of Antonio Catntra. Plon, T/ion^a/dst-n's Life and Works. Quatremere de Quincy, Canova ct ses Ou- vrages. Reber, Geschichte der neneren dcntschcn Knnst. Scha- dow, Kunstiverke und Kunstansichten. Schultz, Umrisse ron Werken Canovas. Thiele, Thorwaldseri 1 s Leben. INTRODUCTION. The emotional phase of Renaissance sculp- ture having expended itself in extravagant productions, it was natural that the nineteenth century should begin by a return to classic simplicity and severity. This movement was felt throughout Europe. Sculptors from all nations emigrated to Rome. Antique subjects now prevailed, and were exe- cuted in a more thoroughly classical spirit than during the period of the Renaissance. Religious themes were compara- tively neglected. Sculpture was devoted mainly to secular purposes, for the private enjoyment of wealthy patrons. But as the democratic character of modern institutions increased, a reaction against aristocratic and classic sculpture became prevalent. A desire was felt for subjects more national in character, and especially for the representation of men dis- tinguished in literature, science, art, and history. In this MODERN SCULPTURE. 2 4 l stage sculpture assumed a post-classical, Christian, or roman- tic character. Much of the spirit of classicism was retained, though its form and substance had changed. FIG. 91. CVB Finally, during the latter half of this century, the objective spirit so manifest in science and literature had also per- 16 242 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. meated plastir art. Mythological and romantic subjects largely gave way to the myriad actualities of modern life. The centre of inspiration for sculptors was shifted from Rome to Paris. On the technical side, the old implements used in carving and modelling have remained the same as in earlier days, but mechanical devices have multiplied, by means of which the sculptor's model may be reproduced in any material and on any scale. Hence the modern sculptor is usually content with fashioning his images in clay, leaving much of the exe- cution of his work to mechanical reproduction by his work- men. He need not be a carver ; he is often only a modeller. These mechanical methods have, on the one hand, brought the products of sculpture to the homes of the poor, but, on the other hand, they have frequently reacted disadvantageous^ upon the work of the artist himself. ITALY : CLASSIC SCHOOL. The modern revival of classical sculpture in Italy began with Antonio Canova (1757-1822). He received his first stimulus in sculpture from the patronage of Senator Giovanni Falieri in Venice. The success which followed his Orpheus and Eurydice, his /Esculapius, and his Daedalus and Icarus, secured for him a pension which enabled him, in 1779, to go to Rome. Here the influence of Raphael Mengs and of Winckelmann had already set the current in favor of classic simplicity and repose. His friendship for the English painter Gavin Hamilton and the French critic and art histo- rian Quatremere de Quincy were of value in securing him rec- ognition. His first important work in Rome, Theseus and the Minotaur, was hailed as the revival of the classic style. This brought him many commissions in Rome, among which were the tombs for the Popes Clement XIII. and XIV. In these monuments, and in his Amor embracing Psyche, now in the Louvre, he was open to the charge of being a softened Ber- nini. To refute this charge, he aimed at stronger and more masculine effects in his Hercules and I-ichas, and in the stat- MODERN SCULPTURE. 243 ues of the boxers Kreugas and Pamoxenes. But these works only showed that the criticism was well founded. His best vein lay in the direction of grace and beauty rather than of strength. The Perseus which he made to replace the Apollo of the Belvidere, and the Venus made to replace the Venus de' Medici, which had been removed to Paris, are masterpieces of graceful beauty. We find something lack- ing in his busts and in the colossal statue of Napoleon, but are charmed by the statue of Napoleon's sister Pauline Bo rghese. In relief sculpture he was less successful. Following closely in his wake, although later a pupil of Thorwaldsen's, was Pietro Tenerani (1798-1869). He was a prolific workman, highly honored and prized alike for his classical and Chris- tian sculptures. Of KIG g2 . - ,. BK SKI;S (BY CANOVA). VATICAN, ROME. the former class his Psyche with Pandora's box, in the Palazzo Lenzoni, in Florence, has been much admired j of the latter, the most important are his large relief of the Deposition in the Capella Torlonia of the Lateran and the tomb of Duchess I .ante in S. Maria sopra Minerva. ROMANTIC SCHOOL. The influence of Canova even in Italy was met by the counter-influences of the romantic and natu- 244 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. ralistic school. Among the romanticists, \vho aimed at infus- ing the classic style with naturalism, may be counted Stefano Ricci, Bartolini, Pampaloni, and Pio Fedi. Stefano Ricci, praised by Canova, was the author of many monuments, espe- cially in Arezzo, and in S. Maria Novella and S. Croce in Florence. Somewhat further removed from Canova was Lorenzo Bartolini (1777-1850). His early studies in Paris gave him a bias toward naturalism. His principles were the imitation of nature and a return to simplicity; but he could not free himself altogether from the classic style, as we may see from his group representing Charity, in the Pitti, or from his Pyrrhus throwing Astyanax from the Walls of Troy. Luigi Fampaloni (1791-1847), best known from his statues of chil- dren, produced also many larger works, among which may be mentioned the tomb of Lazzaro Papi in S. Frediano at Lucca and the colossal statue of Pietro Leopoldo in the Pia/,/.a di S. Caterina at Pisa. Pio Fedi, born in 1815, more characteris- tically Italian in his work, is known by his graceful but emo- tional group of the Rape of Polyxena in the Loggia, dei I^anzi . REALISTIC SCHOOL. The naturalistic tendency, weaker in Italy than in the north of Europe, has been exemplified in the works of Dupre, Vela, and Monteverde. Giovanni Dupr6 (1817-1882), a follower of Bartolini, emphasized the leaning toward naturalism found in the work of his master. He attracted attention first by his statues of Cain and Abel in the Pitti and later by a Michelangelesque Pieta at Siena. In his Beatrice Portinari, in the statue of Giotto at the Uffizi, and in the Cavour monument at Turin his realism is still more em- phatic. Vincenzo Vela (1822-1891), even more modern in sentiment and of great technical ability, shows himself to have been a dramatic sculptor in such works as his Spartacus and his Dying Napoleon, but he was equally successful in ideal works, as, for example, his Primavera. A rising sculptor of considerable ability anil dramatic power at the present time MODERN SCULPTURE. 245 is Ettore Ximenes, from whom we may expect works of monumental importance. But the average Italian sculpture of to-day is devoted to domestic subjects of trivial though grace- ful character. It evinces the spirit of a Canova no longer occupied with gods and heroes, but roam- ing about in search of grace and charm in modern life. DENMABK AND SWEDEN. Among the earliest of the nations of Northern Europe to participate in the modern classic revival were Denmark and Sweden. Danish sculp- ture received an im- pulse in this direction from a Frenchman, T. F. J. Saly, who be- came director of the Academy at C o p e n - hagen. His succes- sors, Johannes Wiede- welt and Weidenhaupt, drew their inspiration from Paris and from Rome ; but a stronger representation of the classic spint was found in Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844)- He was a moi thorough classicist than Canova, for in Canova there still sur- MOTTO iBr FIG. 93.-G10TTO (BY UUPRE). PORTICO OF THE UFFIZI, FLORENCE. 246 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. vived something of the spirit of Bernini, whereas Thorwaldsen was not embarrassed by such traditions. His arrival in Rome was to him the opening of a new life. "I was born on the 8th of March, 1797," he used to say; "before then I did not exist." In Rome he copied ancient statues and absorbed the spirit of classic sculpture. His first statue of importance, the Jason, received ready recognition from the neo-classicists. Canova said of it: " This work of the Danish youth exhibits a new and grand style." An English banker, Sir Thomas Hope, ordered it executed in marble. German artists, like Carstens, and scholars, like Zoega, were helpful friends; and pupils from all nations flocked to his studio. In the work of these early years he treated by preference graceful Praxitelean subjects, such as Adonis, Psyche, Venus, Hebe. In 1812 Napoleon was expected in Rome, and Thorwaldsen was employed to make the frieze for one of the most spacious halls of the Quirinal Palace. Taking the work of Pheidias ;i> his model, he produced a magnificent frieze representing the entrance of Alexander into Babylon. His eminent success in this made him known among the Romans as the " patriarca del basso-rilievo." During the decade which followed, Thorwald- sen was at the height of his powers. To this period belong his Achilles and Priam, Night and Morning (1815), The Shepherd Boy (1817), and the Mercury (1818). He now restored for Prince Louis of Bavaria the archaic sculptures from yEgina, and occasionally, as in his statue of Hope, adopted the conventions of archaic sculpture. His success in Rome led the King of Denmark to urge his return to Copenhagen. Here he went several times, and here he died in 1844. The demand made upon him in Copenhagen was chiefly for religious sculptures. In the Frue Kirche is his Christ and the Twelve Apostles, the Angel of Baptism, and several reliefs, while in the pediment over the entrance is his terracotta group of the Preaching of John the Baptist. MODERN SCULPTURE. 247 The influence of Thorwalrlsen was perpetuated in his own country by H. W. Bissen (1798-1868), who early manifested the romantic tendency for subjects from Norse instead of (ireek mythology. In his later years he caught the naturalistic spirit of modern days, and was strong in portraiture. Of the living sculptors of Norway, J. A. Jerichau is a close follower of Thorwaldsen. SWEDEN. In Sweden, also, classic influences were introduced FIG. 94. MONUMENT TO FROF. VACCA BERLINGHIERI (BY THORWALDSEN). CAMPOSANTO, I'ISA. by French sculptors. Here the younger Bouchardon (d. 1762) and Larcheveque (d. 1778) gave the direction to Swedish sculp- ture in the last century. The most distinguished Swedish classicist was J. T. Sergell (1736-1813). He spent twelve years in Rome, and then returned to Stockholm. The German sculptor Schadow says of him : " He is less widely known than Thorwaldsen, but stands equally high in the estimation of con- 248 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. noisseurs." His successor Fogelberg was a romanticist, and made famous statues of Odin, Thor, and Balder. GERMANY. In Germany the Rococo style had become so thoroughly established that pictorial methods prevailed over the sculptural, and the eighteenth century left German sculp- ture at a low ebb. In the revival of the early nineteenth cen- tury, Germany looked to Italy for instruction, and her most distinguished sculptors went to Rome. But the Protestant German nature was too independent to submit to Catholic Italy. As the centre of power shifted to Berlin, the patriotic soon replaced the classic style. At the end of the last century a school of sculptors at Stuttgart, headed by Dannecker and Scheffauer, manifested a strong classic spirit. Johann Hein- rich Dannecker (1758-1841) studied first in Paris under Pajou, then went to Rome, and came under the influence of Canova. His works are characterized by grace and a certain measure of refinement. He is best known by his Ariadne and the Panther, at Frankfort. As a sculptor of Christian subjects he was less successful. His associate P. J. Scheffauer (1756-1808) helped him to establish the classic style in Stuttgart. Stronger and more representative were the schools at Berlin under the leadership of Schadow and Ranch, at Dresden under Hahnel and Schilling, and at Munich under Schwanthaler. The school of Berlin has been chiefly historical and realistic in tendency, while Munich has stood for romanticism. BEELIN SCHOOL. Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850) received his first artistic impulses from Tassaert, a Flemish sculptor established in Berlin. In 1785 he went to Rome, where he was especially attracted by ancient historical sculp- ture. On the death of Frederick the Great he proposed making of him an equestrian statue in Roman costume, having in mind doubtless the figure of Marcus Aurelius of the Capitol ; but when he made the statue later, for Stettin, it was in the costume of the period. His statue of Leopold of Dessau marks the transition from the classic to the patriotic MODERN SCULPTURE. 249 style. The figure of Leopold is clad in the regimentals of the period, but the reliefs on the pedestal are costumed in classic style. When asked by Queen Ixmise why he had done this, he replied: "The poets and artists would all make an outcry against the Prussian costume." But she voiced a deeper Ger- KIG. 95. ARIADNE (BY DANNECKER). FRANKFORT. man feeling when she answered : " I do not understand why any- one should object. If my husband wanted Greek and Roman generals, well and good ; but he wants Prussians. How, then, are they to be distinguished ? " Although the sculptor of many portraits, Schadow was at his best when an ideal element was 250 HISTORY OK SCULPTURE. involved, as in his Quadriga of Victory over the Brandenburger Thor at Berlin, and in his Nymph awaking out of Sleep. Of the pupils of Schadow, Christian Friedrich Tieck (1776-1851) spent fourteen years in Rome, and on his return adorned the Royal Theatre of Berlin with dramatic sculptures of mytho- logical character. Rudolph Schadow (1786-1822), the eldest son of Johann Gottfried Schadow, turned his attention to the ideal genre and produced works of lyric character. The realistic tendency which seemed forced in the works of Schadow became strong and natural in the works of Christian Daniel Ranch (1777-1857). He holds the highest rank among the historical sculptors of Germany. The inspiration he received from the ancient sculptures of Rome corrected and improved his sense of form, without subjecting his spirit. Even German romanticism did not divert him from strictly his- torical treatment. His monumental works were thoroughly national, but conceived with an attentive regard for plastic- beauty. His monument of Queen Louise at the Mausoleum at Charlottenburg is a living portrait, and at the same time an ideal of womanhood. Rauch's ideals of manhood were expressed in his statues of Generals Scharnhorst and Billow near the guard-house in Berlin, and in the heroic Albrecht Diirer at Nuremberg. His monumental works were restful and dignified, with the exception of the Blilcher monument at Breslau, which was made after a design by Schadow. His seated statue of Maximilian I. at Munich is a fine example of his power. More important still is the statue of Frederick the Great at Berlin, which occupied his attention during the- years from 1839 to 1851. In dignity, harmony, and beauty of composition this monument marks the highest point reached by German sculpture. Of his pupils and followers in Berlin may be mentioned Drake, Blaser, Srhievelbein, and Kiss. Friedrich Drake (1). 1805) has been a close follower of the spirit of Ranch, as, for example, in his c-cjiu-strian statue of Kaiser Wilhelm I. MODERN SCULPTURE. 251 at Cologne, and in his statues of Ranch and Schinkel at Berlin. Gustav Blaser (1813-1874) of Cologne represented the same tendency. His Francke monument at Magdeburg is to be classed with the best of modern Ger- man portrait statues. Friedrich Hermann Schievelbein (1817- 1867) sculptured the group on the palace bridge at Berlin rep- resenting Pallas in- structing a youth in the use of the spear. His frieze of the De- struction of Pompeii in the Greek court of the New Museum is dramatic in character and seems to have been inspired by the frieze of the Apollo Temple at Phigaleia. August Kiss (1804- 1865), especially cel- ebrated for his ani- mals in bronze, rep- resented the active and emotional side of the school. His best work is the Mounted Amazon fighting a Tiger, on the steps of the Old Must-inn at Berlin. DRESDEN SCHOOL. The I )resden school, intermediate between that of Berlin and of Munich, represents a tendency partially historic and partially romantic. Ernst Friedrich August KIG. 96. THE TWO PRINCESSES (liY SCHADOW). CASTLE, BERLIN. 252 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Rietschel (1804-1861) was a pupil of Rauch, then a student at Rome. His monument of King Friedrich August in the Z winger . in.. <>7- MoNCMK.Vr OK KKKIiKKICK TIIK C.KKM (lIV KAUCH). BERLIN. at Dresden is based upon Ranch's statue of Maximilian I. ; and his statue of Jessing at Brunswick is an excellent example MODERN SCULPTURE. 253 of the refined portraiture of the same school. The spirit of romanticism appears in his Luther monument at Worms. He excelled in works where religious feeling was involved, as in the Pi eta in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam. Ernst Hahnel (b. 1811) studied in Italy, then at Munich. His works represent the transition from the classical to the romantic style. To the former class belongs his Bacchus frieze on the upper portion of the Dresden Theatre ; to the latter his monument to Beethoven at Bonn, with its reliefs in the style of Cornelius and Overbeck. Johannes Schilling (b. 1828) followed in the line of Hahnel. His group of the Night, on the Briihl Terrace at Dresden, shows the influence of his Roman training, but his colossal figure of Germania at Niedenvald is a thoroughly national, " pracht- volles " monument, not altogether free from the Rococo spirit of the earlier Dresden school. THE MUNICH SCHOOL of the early nineteenth century repre- sented romanticism tempered by the classic style. 'Konrad Eberhard (1768-1859) studied in Rome, and on his return gave up the production of Muses, Fauns, and Dianas for the decoration of portals and making of statues in the mediaeval style. He became a religious fanatic. Ludwig Schwanthaler (1802-1848), in spite of repeated visits to Rome and the responses he frequently made to the demand for classic themes, was at his best in the treatment of national subjects, such as the twelve gilded bronze figures of Bavarian kings for the throne-room of the Konigsbau, the colossal figure of Bavaria in front of the Ruhmeshalle, and the Hermann Battle in one of the pediments of the Walhalla near Regensburg. In this last half of the nineteenth century German sculpture has vibrated between the romantic and the naturalistic schools. Adolph Hildebrand, of Jena, in his Shepherd Boy aimed at more naturalistic effect than did Thorwaldsen in his Shepherd and the Dog. Naturalism is flourishing in the Berlin school, and is best exemplified in the works of Reinhold Begas, whose genre studies are full of life and whose portraits are 254 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. excellent. In Munich, Caspar Zumbusch (1>. (830), the sculp- tor of the Maximilian II. monument and the statue of Count KIG. l}8. KI'SSI \s si \M)AKI)-11E,\KKK ( HV I AMKKK). Rumford, represents the realistic tendency, while Conrad Knoll, Anton Hess, and others continue to work in the romantic field. RUSSIA. In Russia the absence of marble, the severity of MODKRN 255 the climate, the interdict of the church against sculpture in the round, and of the state against the use of bronze except for images of the sovereign and high officials, retarded the progress of sculpture. Russian sculpture is, therefore, of very recent growth, and almost exclusively confined to small bronzes. These, however, furnish characteristic and interest- ing pictures of contemporary life. The best known sculptors of Russia are Lancere and Lie- berich, though excellent work has been done by Samonoff, Fosene, Naps, Gratchoff, Kamensky, and Genzburg. Lancere's bronzes are full of spirited action and modelled with extreme attention to details. His subjects, whether for- eign studies, such as An Arab Fantasia, An Arab with the Lion's Cub, A Donkey Driver, An Arab Horseman, or more thoroughly Russian, as Cossack Soldiers watering their Horses, The Standard Bearer, and The Opritchnike (Freebooter), are sympathetic pictures of modern Oriental and Russian life with which the horse is almost invariably associated. Lieberich (b. 1828) is a skilful and varied sculptor of ani- mals. His Wolf Chase, Hare Hunt, Falconer, Fight with a Bear, Samoyed and Reindeer Team, are full of action and life, and evince minute study of details. Samonoff, Posene, and Naps have devoted themselves to genre views of peasant life, such as a Cossack lighting his Pipe, Immigrants to the Amoor, etc. Gratchoff is extremely clever in portraying types of Russian character; Feodor Kamensky has introduced into his works a touch of Italian grace ; and Genzburg, in his original and expressive Boy Bathing, has proved himself a sculptor of considerable merit. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The products of modern sculpture are dis- tributed in the churches, cemeteries, public squares and parks, civic build- ings, museums, libraries, historical societies and private collections. Oc- casionally specific collections are made, as in the Thonvaldsen Museum at Copenhagen; the Rauch Museum, Berlin; the Rietschel and the Schil- ling Museums, Diesdi-n; and the Sdiwanthaler Museum, Munich. CHAPTER XXV. MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Alexandra. A. L. Barye. Benedite, Lf Mus/e du Luxembourg. Bertrand, Fmnfois Rude. Brown- ell, French Art. Chesneau, Le Statuaire Carpeaux. Claret ic, /'fin tres etSculpteurs Con tempo rains. Dohme. Kunst und Kiinst- ler ties XIX Jak rhu nderts. Fourcaud, Francois Rude. Gonse. La Sculpture Fran c 6me (1872) and Alexandre Dumas (1875), are full of life. His relationship to Rude is more evident in the stirring relief of the Dance, in the facade of the New Opera House. Somewhat in the spirit of Clodion, but more sensu- ous and Rubens-like, is his Triumph of Flora ; and full of MODERN SCULPTURE TN FRANCE. 265 abandon, his Four Quarters of the Earth supporting the World in the Luxembourg Gardens. Emmanuel Fr6miet (b. 1824), like his uncle, Rude, in his- toiical bent, and like Barye in his devotion to animals, excels in monumental works such as Louis d'Orleans and Jeanne d'Arc, and also in such genre subjects as a Wounded Dog, and a Gorilla carrying off a Woman. Auguste Cain, more exclusively a fol- lower of Barye, has de- voted himself to animal sculpture. His Rhi- noceros attacked by Lions and Tigers is in the Garden of the Tui- leries, and his Tigress with her Cubs, in the Central Park, X ew York. Jules Da'^r. (b. 1838), in his reliefs of Silenus and the Nymphs, in the South Kensington Museum, and in his Sevres Vase, in the Luxembourg, shows himself a more refined Carpeaux. His masterpiece is in the Chamber of Depu- ties, and represents the Etats Generauxof 1789, with Mirabeau delivering his famous address before the Marquis de Dreux Brze. It is a dramatic composition full of historic realism. FIG. 104. JOHN THE BAPTIST (BY RODIN). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS. 266 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Auguste Rodin (b. 1840) is still further removed from the academic school. He draws his inspiration from nature, aim- ing at true expression without regard to elegance of form. His John the Baptist, in the Luxembourg a replica of the head is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York is a natu- ralistic presentation of an ill-fed prophet. But Rodin's nat- uralism does not yet observe historic conditions. His John the Baptist is a Frenchman. This limitation of range makes his Bourgeois de Calais, and his busts of Victor Hugo and of Dalou, more satisfactory works of art. In his modelling, Rodin continues the broad style of Barye. Of the younger sculptors, great talent has been shown by Bartholom6, especially in funerary sculpture. His project for the entrance of a tomb, exhibited in 1892, and again in greater completeness in 1895, is remarkable not only for its original- ity, but also for its significance and naturalistic character. The democratic spirit of modern times has so widened the area of sculpture that much that is frivolous and insignificant and meretricious is produced in the name of art; but signifi- cant, beautiful, and truthful expression is to-day in France carried further than in the sculpture of any country of the world. In fact, the sculpture of France surpasses both her architecture and her painting. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The museums of the Luxembourg and of the Louvre, in Paris, contain collections of modern French sculpture. A special collection for David d'Angers is in the museum at Angers, and of Barye bronzes in the Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington. The most important sculptures are usually first exhibited in model, or finished, at the annual Salons, at special exhibitions, or at World's Fairs. CHAPTER XXVI. MODERN SCULPTURE IX ENGLAND. Rr.roM. \nxnF.i). Dafforne, Gallery of Modern Sculp- ture. Holland, Memorials of Sir Francis Chantrey. Kidy Eastlake, Life of John Gihson. Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists of the English School. Stephen, Dictionary of National Biog- raph\. The Art Journal. The Magazine of Art. THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. In England the churches, public squares, and private houses have continued a demand for monumental and portrait sculpture. The classic revival has made itself felt in English sculpture as well as in literature; and to offset this, the scientific reaction has produced a strong school of naturalistic sculptors. The classical movement of the nineteenth century was almost the beginning of sculpture in England. Never before had she produced a succession of able sculptors like Westmacott and Chantrey, Bailey and Gib- son, and the minor lights who surrounded them. Sir Richard Westmacott (1775-1856) showed himself the artistic successor of Flaxman in a relief entitled the Blue Bell, and in his statues of Psyche, Cupid, and Euphrosyne. He is to be remembered, too, for the pedi mental sculptures of the British Museum and the monuments of Pitt and Fox in West- minster Abbey. He also represented the Duke of Wellington as Achilles. Sir Francis Legatt Chantrey (1781-1842), although the friend of Canova, and influenced by Thorwaldsen, rarely attempted ideal themes. His works have the charm of tender sentiment, as in the Sleeping Children, at Lichfield Cathe- 268 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. dral, or the Resignation, at Worcester Cathedral. His busts and statues were simple, refined, and technically excellent. Of his monumental works may be mentioned the statue of Canning in Liverpool, the equestrian George TV. in Trafalgar M'. 105. PAULINE BONAPARTE (|)V THOMAS CAMPBELL). CHATSWOKTH, ENGLAND. Square, and the Duke of Wellington in front of the Royal Exchange, Ix>ndon. Edward Hodges Bailey (1788-1867), a pupil of Flaxman, combined religious with classic sentiment in his statues of F.\e .it the Fountain, and Eve listening to the Voice. He designed the statue of Nelson for the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square. MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 269 John Gibson (1790-1866) was the most thorough classicist of the English school. He worked under Canova and Thor- waldsen, and resided for a long time in Rome. His first original work, The Sleeping Shepherd, was followed by Mars and Cupid, Psyche borne by Zephyrs, Meeting of Hero and Leander, Hylas surprised by Nymphs, Cupid tormenting the Soul, and Narcissus. His Queen Victoria was robed in classic drapery. During the forties he startled the English public with his Tinted Venus, and justified the coloring of his statue by the remark that " what the Greeks did was right." He gave many years to the perfection of this statue, and said of it : " This is the most carefully executed work I ever executed, for I wrought the forms up to the highest elevation of char- acter, which results from purity and sweetness combined with an air of unaffected dignity and grace. I took the liberty to decorate it in a fashion unprecedented in modern times. I tinted the flesh warm ivory, scarcely red, the eyes blue, the hair blond, and the net which contains the hair, golden." Other classicists worthy of mention were William Theed (1764-1817), William Pitts (1790-1840), Thomas Campbell (1790-1858), Richard John Wyatt (1795-1858), Patrick McDowell (1799-1870), and Joseph Durham (1814-1877). More strictly portrait sculptors were their contemporaries, William Behnes (1790-1864), Thomas Kirk (1784-1845), and John E. Jones (1806-1862). THE KEACTION AGAINST THE CLASSIC STYLE. The reaction against the classic style had attained considerable strength by the middle of this century. Sculptors like Stevens, Foley, Boehm, \Voolner, and Armstead looked to the past for inspira- tion, but to the Italian Renaissance rather than to Greece and Rome. Alfred George Stevens (1817-1875) was a pupil of Thor- waldsen, but received a greater bias from the works of Michel- angelo than from his master. The freedom and breadth of his decorative work exerted a considerable influence upon 2 70 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Knglish industrial art, and his Duke of Wellington monument in St. Paul's Cathedral, though still unfinished, brought new life into Knglish sculpture. England may well point with pride to the powerful groups of Valor triumphing over Cow- ardice and of Truth pulling out the Tongue of Falsehood which decorate the canopy under which re- poses the effigy of the Duke. John Henry Foley ( 1818-1874 ) in his earlier works, such as Juno and the Infant Bacchus, and Venus re- ceiving JE n e a s from Diomedes, showed his indebtedness to the older school of sculptors, but his busts and portrait statues of Goldsmith, Burke, Selden, Hamp- den, and others brought out more strongly his naturalistic bent. He was the author of the group of Asia, and of the Prince Consort, on the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, London, but his ckff-tf aatvrf was the vigorous equestrian statue of General Sir James Outram, in Calcutta. One of his latest works was the statue of General 'Stonewall" Jackson, in Richmond, Va. Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm (1834-1891), though born in Vienna and trained in Paris, became a representative Knglish sculptor, especially in FIG. 106. LORD BEACONSFIELD. WESTMINSTER ABBEY, LONDON. MODERN SCULPTURE IX ENGLAND. 2/1 portrait statues. Among the best of these are his Thomas Carlyle, at Chelsea, his John Bunyan, at Medford, his busts of lord Wolseley and Herbert Spencer, and the tomb statues of Dean Stanley and the Earl of Shafteslmry in Westminster. Thomas Woolner (1825-1893) exhibited the spirit of romanticism in his early works, such as Eleanora sucking Poison from the Wound of Prince Edward, the Death of Boa- dicea, and Puck. After the foundation of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848, of which he was an original member, he exhibited in some of his works, as in the Achilles shouting from the Trenches, the early Italian Renaissance tendency of that school. A refined sentiment characterized his busts, por- trait statues, and medallions, such as those of Tennyson, Car- lyle, Wordsworth, Macaulay, Dickens, and Darwin. His last important work, The Housemaid, was a romantic treatment of a theme more likely to have been chosen by a more natural- istic sculptor. Other sculptors representing tendencies similar to Wool- ner's were James F. Redfern (1838-1876), whose work was in demand for Gothic churches and for the restoration of ancient Gothic sculptures ; Lord Ronald Gower, who was influ- enced by French sculpture of the thirteenth century; and Henry Hugh Armstead (b. 1828), who exhibits a wide range of subjects, styles, and methods. Matthew Noble (1818-1876) and Charles B. Birch were inclined to romantic methods even in portraiture, and George Tinworth in his terracotta reliefs strove to be naturalistic in following the style of Giotto. Thomas Brock (b. 1847), the pupil of Foley, in all his early works followed in the line of his master. T. Nelson Maclean, notwithstanding his training in Paris, and George A. Lawson may be classed with this transitional school. LATEST PHASE OF ENGLISH SCULPTURE. The latest school of English sculpture exhibits greater originality and technical ability than were attained by its predecessors. This school is poetic in temperament, but selects frequently naturalistic 2/2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and democratic themes. Its technical ideal is no longer the beauty of linear form, but of expressive modelling. Its teacher is neither Rome nor Florence, but Paris. The sculptural proto- types of this school are the Clytie produced in 1868 by George Fred- erick Watts (b. 1818), and the Athlete stran- gling a Python exhibited in 1877 by Sir Frederick Leighton (1830-1896). It is noteworthy that these works came from the hands of painters, and were characterized not merely by novelty of conception but by the expressive manner in which the surfaces were modelled. Sir Fred- erick's subsequent statue of the Sluggard, and his statuette entitled Need- less Alarms, won for him a relatively more ad- vanced position than that which he enjoyed as a painter. Three sculptors stand at the head of their pro- fession in England at the present day : Thornycroft, Onslow Ford, and Gilbert. Hamo Thornycroft (1850-) in his earliest work, the Warrior carrying a Wounded Youth from Battle, re- PIG. 107. DANCING (BY ONSLOW FORD). MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 273 minds us somewiuu of David d' Angers and of Rude. His skill in surface-modelling was shown in his Artemis and in his remark- able statue called Putting the Stone. His Teucer, admirable for the same quality, has a style about it which makes us think of Paul Dubois, while his subsequent statues of the Mower and the Sower are suggestive of the peasant painters of the Barbizon school. But the spirit which animates these works is not French, but English. E. Onslow Ford (1852-), though trained as a painter at Antwerp and Munich, has worked as a sculptor since the exhi- bition in 1883 of his statue of Henry Irving as Hamlet. This was followed by poetical productions such as Linos, Folly, Peace, the Singer, Music, and Dancing. These statues, as well as his most important production, the Shelley Memo- rial at Oxford, are characterized by beauty of form and senti- ment even more strongly than by their expressive modelling. Alfred Gilbert (1854-) in his Kiss of Victory, exhibited in 1882, seems to have been inspired by the Gloria Victis of Mercie". The influence of Mercie is perceptible also in his Perseus applying his Winglets. His Icarus, made in 1884, is said to have been the first bronze of importance cast by the cire perdue process in England. His most elaborate work is the memorial to Henry Fawcett in Westminster Abbey, in which a frieze of variously colored bronze figures flanks the bust of the statesman. Refined in its details, but not altogether successful in its general mass, is the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Piccadilly Circus. Outside of this distinguished trio may be mentioned Harry Bates, who has produced several excellent reliefs; Roscoe Mullins, who is perhaps too much inclined to story-telling in statuary ; George J. Frampton, a versatile and especially clever sculptor in the use of delicate relief; Henry A. Pegram, who has applied a pictorial method to high-reliefs ; W. Goscombe John and T. Stirling Lee, realistic representatives of the new school ; Robert Stark and John M. Swan, sculptors of animals ; IS 274 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. and Frederick Pomeroy, an excellent sculptor of statuettes. Some talent is also shown in the works of Alfred Drury, F. E. E. Schenck, Adrien Jones, Allen Hutchinson, A. Toft, and H. C. Fehr. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The exhibitions of the Royal Academy, and of the Grosvenor and'the New Gallery, afford annually an opportunity of studying the most recent productions before they are scattered in the churches, civic buildings, public squares, and private collections. CHAPTER XXVII. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Benjamin, Contemporary Art in America. Century J/tfi^s///!''. Clark, Great American Sculp- tors. Clement and Hutton, Artists of the Nineteenth Century. Dunlap, The Arts of Design in the United States. Lee, Familiar Sketclies of Sculpture and Sculptors. Tuckerman, Book of the Artists. EARLY ATTEMPTS. Sculpture in America, if we except the works of native Indians and of the Aztecs, Mayas and Incas, as not properly within the scope of this volume, is the pro- duct of the present century. During the eighteenth century we know only of a Mrs. Patience Wright (1725-1785), of Borden- town, N. J., who was skilful enough in the execution of wax figures to have her wax statue of Lord Chatham admitted to Westminster Abbey, and John Dixey, an Irishman who came to America from Italy in 1789, and made the figures of Justice for the City Hall, New York, and the State House, Albany. An ardent Italian Republican, Giuseppe Cerrachi, came to this country in 1791 with the design for an elaborate monument to Liberty. It is thus described : " The Goddess of Liberty is represented descending in a car drawn by four horses, darting through a volume of clouds which conceals the summit of a rainbow. Her form is at once expressive of dignity and peace. In her right hand she brandishes a flaming dart, which, by dis- pelling the mists of error, illuminates the universe; her left is extended in the attitude of calling upon the people of America to listen to her voice." Although Washington headed the 2/6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. subscription for the monument, the money was not raised, and thus we escaped a Berninesque foundation in the history of American sculpture. Cerrachi left behind him excellent busts of Washington, Hamilton, Clinton, Paul Jones, and John Jay. The distinguished French sculptor, Houdon, visited the United States in 1785, but remained too short a time to leave a perma- nent impress. William Rush (1757-1833), of Philadelphia, carved in wood and modelled in clay, self-taught. His bust of Washington is in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and his wooden Water Nymph, now transferred to bronze, decorates Fairmount Park i n Philadelphia. Another pioneer, John Frazee ( 1 790-1 85 2 ) , of Rahway, N. J., who had never seen a marble statue until 1820, made a bust KIG. 108. WASHINGTON AS OI.YMI'IAN ZEUS (BY J GREENOUGH). WASHINGTON. Church, New York. This is recorded by Dun- lap as the first marble portrait made by a native American sculptor. He also made busts of Daniel Webster, John Jay, Judge Prescott, Hon. John Ixjwell, Chief Justice Marshall, and others. THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. The foundations of American sculp- ture are to be found in the classical school of Canova and MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 277 Thorwaldsen. This was the school that shaped the energies of (ireenough, Powers, Crawford, Browne, Story, Ball, Ran- dolph Rogers, Rinehart, and Harriet Hosmer. Horatio Greenough (1805-1852), an accomplished and scholarly Bostonian, led American sculptors to Rome. In the spirit of Thorwaldsen he remarked : " I began to study art in Rome ; until then I had rather amused myself with clay and marble." His Chanting Cherubs, the first marble group by an American sculptor, was also a challenge to the American pre- judice against the nude, and paved the way for his statues of Venus Victrix and of Abel. His dignified statue of Washing- ton, conceived as an Olympian Zeus, was greeted with some intolerance by his countrymen. More thoroughly national in spirit was his group The Rescue, representing a settler rescu- ing a woman and child from a savage Indian. Refined and excellent were his busts of Washington, Lafayette, John Quincy Adams, and Fenimore Cooper. Hiram Powers (1805-1873), of Vermont, after having made realistic wax figures in Cincin- nati, took up his residence in Italy. He was ingenious and independent rather than original, and won recognition by faithful, honest work. There was a touch of tender melan- choly in his Eve Disconsolate, the Last of the Tribe, and in his Greek Slave. When the last-named statue was first exhibited in Cincinnati, a delegation of clergymen was sent to judge whether it were fit to be seen by Christian people. Its purity of sentiment and harmonious form established its right to exist, and he made six replicas of it. His bust of Edward Everett, at Chatsworth, was admirable. Hardly inferior to this were his busts and statues of Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, Van Buren, Webster, and Calhoun. Thomas Crawford (1813-1857), more gifted and original than Powers, studied in Italy under Thorwaldsen. His earliest work, the Orpheus in Search of Eurydice, seems to have been inspired by his study of the Xiobe group in Florence ; and his latest, the bronze door of the Capitol at Washington, by Ghi- 2 7 8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. berti's haptistciy gates. His colossal Liberty for, the dome oi the Capitol^ was conceived in the classical spirit, but the romanticism peculiar to America shows itself in the pedi- mental group at Washington of the Indian mourning over the Decay of his Race, and in the Indian Chief, in the New York Historical Society Collection. His Beethoven in the Music Hall, Boston, and his equestrian statue of Washington, at Richmond, both in bronze, were cast in Munich. Ball Hughes is credited with having made the first statue cast in bronze in this country. This is the monument of Dr. Bowditch, in Mount Auburn Cemetery. His marble statue of Alex- ander Hamilton, destroyed by tire in 1835, is similarly credited as one of the first marble statues carved by an American sculptor. Henry Kirke Brown (1814-1886), though he went early to Italy, was not a classicist in spirit. He felt strongly that American art should treat of American subjects. His best energies were devoted to the equestrian statue of Washington, in Union Square, New York, which was cast at Chicopee, Massachusetts, and set up in 1856. Even more FIG. 109. THE GREEK SLAVE (BY I'OWKNS). OWNED BV DUKE OF CLEVELAND, ENG- LAND. REPLICA IN BOSTON MUSEUM. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 279 successful is his equestrian statue of General Scott, in Wash- ington. Erastus Dow Palmer (1817-) evinced the spirit of lyric poetry in his idealistic sculpture. He treated such subjects as the Infant Ceres, the Sleeping Peri, the Spirit's Flight, Resignation, Spring, the Angel of the Sepulchre. His Indian (iirl, representative of the dawn of civilization, and his White Captive, suggestive of the dangers encountered by pioneer life, were universally popular. William Wetmore Story (1819- 1896), an accomplished writer as well as sculptor, has produced a series of cold, correct, pedantic statues, such as the Cleo- patra, Semiramis, Medea, and Polyxena of the Metropolitan Museum, New York. In these works the classical spirit is already waning, and the American not at all apparent. Thomas Ball (b. 1819), less accomplished than Story, has long lived in Florence, without losing his Americanism. He pro- duced a few ideal works, such as a statue of Pandora and a bust of Truth, but was more successful in historic and portrait sculpture, as in his faithful equestrian statue of Washington, in the Boston Public Garden, and in his Daniel \Vebster, in Cen- tral Park, New York. Randolph Rogers (1825-1892), of Vir- ginia, learned his art in Rome. His Nydia, the Blind Girl of Pompeii, a figure of somewhat labored gracefulness, enjoyed a wide popularity. His bronze doors for the Capitol at Wash- ington illustrated the Life of Columbus. He made a colossal America for Providence, R. I., and a figure representing the State of Michigan for Detroit. Two of the most thorough classicists among American sculp- tors have been Rinehart and Harriet Hosmer. William Henry Rinehart (1825-1874) may be best studied in the Rinehart Museum of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, though the Metro- politan Museum, New York, and the Corcoran Gallery, Wash- ington, contain a number of his works. His Clytie, in Balti- more, may well be classed with Power's Greek Slave, and his seated statue of Chief Justice Taney, at Annai>olis (and its 280 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. replica in Mount Vernon Square, Baltimore), is one of the most successful public monuments in the country. He left a fund which has recently become available and is to be devoted to the education of sculptors in Rome. Miss Harriet Hosmer (b. 1831) became the favorite pupil of the English sculptor Gib- son in Rome. With masculine vigor, she produced a series of statues such as Hesper, CE n o n e , Puck, the Sleeping Faun, Ze- nobia, and Beatrice Cenci, and busts of Daphne and Medusa. She was the last repre- sentative of the classic school. Other American sculptors, who flour- ished before the Cen- tennial Exhibition in 1876, were Henry Dexter (b. 1806), Joel T. Hart (1810-1877), Shobal Vail Clevinger FIG. no. HKON/K KK1.IKK ol I'KKSIKKM McCOSII (l8l2~l843), (BY AUGUSTUS ST. GAUDKNS). PRINCETON IN I- Mo71Pr ( T T > VERSITY CHAPEL. fflozier ( i s 1 2- Edward Sheffield Bar- tholomew (1822 1858), Benjamin Paul Akers (1825-1861), J. A. Jackson (1825-1879), Thomas R. Gould (1825-1881), John Rogers, C. B. Ives, Henry J. Haseltine, Edward Augustus Brackett, Launt Thompson, Mrs. Dubois, Margaret Foley, MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 28 1 Emma Stebbins, Edmonia Lewis, Vinnie Reams, and Blanche Nevin. These sculptors by no means confined themselves to classical themes. Biblical subjects frequently occupied their attention, and also contemporary portraiture. John Rogers devoted himself to genre subjects, and produced an immense number of statuettes, many of which, inspired by the late Civil War, enjoyed a wide but short-lived popularity. CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN SCULPTORS. During the last quarter of a century the influence of Italy has been sHght ."' upon American sculpture, and the classic tradition of Rome has been declining. Preston and Longworth Powers, sons of Hiram Powers, and Waldo Story, son of W. W. Story, carry on the conceptions of their fathers. William Couper, of Florence, has done some charming work, especially in relief, but has not yet attained the position of his father-in-law, Thomas Ball. Louis T. Rebisso (1837-), of Genoa, though a professor of sculpture for more than thirty years, has not been influential in directing American art. Nor has Germany, in spite of the number of her colonists in this country and the fame of her schools of art, made any lasting impress upon American sculpture. Moses Jacob Ezekiel (1844-), of Richmond, Va., received his early training in Berlin, and his marble group of Religious Liberty, in Fair- mount Park, Philadelphia, is thoroughly German in character. But since 1874 he has resided in Rome, and his Eve, Pan and Amor, Mercury, and other statues are more Italian than either American or German. Ephraim Keyser (1850-), of Baltimore, was educated in Munich and Berlin. His statu- ette, the Toying Page, shows his German training, as does also his statue of Psyche. But full of character and refinement are his portrait busts made since his return to America. An American of the sturdy type, little moved by foreign influence, is the President of the National Sculpture Society, John ftuincy Adams Ward (1830-). Trained by H. K. Brown, Ward treated with success such subjects as the Indian 282 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. Hunter, The Freedman, The Pilgrim, The Private of the Seventh Regiment. His masterpiece is the noble statue of Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn. It is to Paris that the younger contemporary sculptors have looked for technical training and for inspiration. Paris has vitalized and transformed American sculpture as thoroughly as did Italy in the first half of the century. Like a fresh breeze FIG. III. DEATH AND THE SCULPTOR (BY D. C. FRENCH). FROM A CAST IN CHIC'Al.O ART INSTITUTE. upon calm waters was the statue called La Premiere Pose, exhibited by Howard Roberts (1845-), in the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. Sentiment and expressive modelling here- replaced the beauty of mere external form. But, unfortunately, the sentiment of Roberts was not strong enough to carry him beyond the romantic stage in which he produced statues and statuettes of Lucille, Hypatia, Hester Prynne, and Lot's Wife. MODERN SCULPTURE IX AMERICA. 283 Olin Levi Warner (1844-1896), an American refined by Pari- sian training, has shown himself capable of producing strong, characteristic busts, as those, for example, of Daniel Cottier and of J. Alden Weir, and significant portrait statues, such as those of Governor Buckingham of Connecticut, and of William Lloyd Garrison, in Commonwealth Avenue, Boston. He has also made charming female heads, like that of Miss Maud Morgan, and graceful figures, such as his statue of Twilight. His fountain at Portland, Oregon, should be reckoned as a classic production of modern American sculpture. Excellent, also, is his work in high-relief, such as the head of Arnold Guyot in the chapel of Princeton University, and the medal- lions of Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, and Rem- brandt on the entablature of the Columbian Museum, Chicago. Augustus St. Gaudens (1848-), of New York, trained like Warner in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, has been a powerful factor in bringing American sculpture to its present state of excellence. In both of these sculptors there is something of the Greek, as distinguished from the Graeco- Roman spirit, Warner possessing the more Doric and St. Gaudens the more Ionic temperament. The low-reliefs of the sons of Prescott Hall Butler, by St. Gaudens, are especially charming. The caryatids for the mantelpiece in the house of Cornelius Van- derbilt in New York, and the angels for the tomb of Governor K. I). Morgan, the models of which were unfortunately de- stroyed by fire, partake also of Ionic grace. The same charm penetrates the wall-relief of Dr. Bellows in All Souls' Church, New York, and the more vigorous relief of President McCosh in the Princeton University Chapel. But the power of St. Gaudens is not the capacity of throwing an external charm about his productions, he is strong also in the expression of indi- vidual character, as we may see in his excellent statue of Admiral Farragut in Madison Square, New York; in the Lin- coln statue in Lincoln Park, Chicago ; in the statue of Deacon Chapin, called the Puritan, in Springfield, Mass. ; and in the 284 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. high-relief of Colonel Shaw which has just been completed for Boston. Daniel Chester French (1850-), of New Hampshire, early attracted attention by his bronze statue of The Minute Man at Concord, Mass., unveiled in 1875. After having passed through a period of bread-winning pro- duction, French has risen to a high rank among American sculptors in his colossal statue of The Republic for the Columbian Ex- hibition, in his re- markable relief of Death and the Sculptor, and his group of (iallaudet teaching a Deaf Mute. His statue of General Cass, his reliefs of angels for the Clark Memorial, and his John Boyle O'Reilley Memorial group are works of decided merit. More thoroughly Parisian in sentiment is Frederick W. MacMonnies. Although the pupil of St. liaudens, his manner is nervous and at times strained, as, for example, in his statu- riG. 112. NATHAN HALE CBY MACMONNIES). MALI. I'AKK, NEW Vl'KK. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 28 5 ette of Diana. His statuettes of the Hoy and Heron, Pan of Rohaillon, and the Hacchante and Child are fascinating exam- ples of expressive, living sculpture. His statue of Nathan Hale, in the City Hall Park, New York, is one of the best of our civic statues ; and his great fountain in the Court of Honor at the Chicago Exhibition, though somewhat lack- ing in simplicity, was nevertheless a splendid product of the Franco- American imagination. Herbert Adams, of Hrooklyn, shows his in- debtedness to St. (iau- dens in his bronze Angel for Emanuel Haptist Church, Brooklyn, and in his marble bas-relief for the Judson Memorial Church, New York. But almost alone among our sculptors, Adams has turned to Florence of the fifteenth century for his inspiration. His deli- cately colored female busts, and his relief en- titled An Orchid, have an exquisitely refined Florentine charm. The list of promising sculptors in America is by no means exhausted with the names we have mentioned. There are Ed- win F. Elwell, whose Dickens and Little Nell and whose statue FIG. 113. IDEAL HEAL) ( BY HKKHKKT ADAMS). POSSESSION OK THE ARTIST. 286 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. of General Hancock for ( lettysburg, entitle him to be remem- bered ; William Ordway Partridge, author of the fine bronze statue of Hamilton, in Brooklyn, and of the Shakespeare in Lincoln Park, Chicago ; Charles H. Niehaus, designer of the Hahnemann Memorial for Washington, D. C. ; Thomas Shields Clarke, whose Cider Press at the Columbian Exhibition was an original and meritorious production; Paul Bartlett, author of the Bohemian in the Metropolitan Museum; F. Wellington Ruckstuhl, who in such works as Mercury teasing the Eagle of Jupiter mingles the facility of a Frenchman with the fidelity of a German ; J. Massey Rhind, who in his competitive figure for the American Surety Company's Building, New York, and in his Learning enthroned amid the Arts and Sciences of the fa?ade of Alexander Hall at Princeton, N. J., has exhibited great skill in figured architectural decoration ; Karl Bitter and Philip Martiny, who modelled the decorative figures for the Administration and Agricultural Buildings at the Chicago Exposition ; John J. Boyle and Lorado Taft, who decorated the Transportation and Horticultural Buildings; Edward Kemys and A. P. Proctor, our most sympathetic interpreters of Indian and animal life; and George Gray Barnard, whose first works attracted much attention in Paris in 1894. Our contemporary sculptors have received from foreign countries inspiration and instruction rather than dominating influence. Their spirit is thoroughly American honest, healthy, cosmopolitan, progres- sive, and refined. EXTANT MONUMENTS. The sculptural monuments of America adorn our parks, public squares, churches, civic buildings, private collections, cemeteries, and battlefields. Some are found also in the Museum of Kine Arts and the Athenamm, Boston ; the Metropolitan Museum, Lenox Library, and Historical Society, New York ; the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia; the Peabody Museum, Haltimore ; the Na- tional Capitol and the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington ; and the Art Museums of Chicago, Cincinnati, Detroit, and St. Louis. VU' INDEX. ADAMS, Herbert, 285. Ageladas, 92. Agesandros, in. Agnolo di Ventura, 149. Agorakritos, 102. Agostino di Duccio, 188. Agostino Busti, 200. Agostino di Giovanni, 149. Akers, Benjamin 1'aul, 280. Algardi, Alessandro, 218. Alkamenes, 102. Alessandro l.eopardi, 203. Alessandro Vittoria, 209. Allegrain, Gabriel Christophe, 228. Alonzo Cano, 238. Ambrogio della Robbia, Fra, 190. Ambrogino da Milano, 201. Ammanati, Bartolommeo, 214. Andrea Bregno, 201. Andrea Briosco, 203. Andrea Ciccione, 204. Andrea da Aquila, 204. Andrea del Verrocchio, 196. Andrea della Robbia, 190. Andrea Fusina, 201. Andrea Orcagna, 149. Andrea (Contucci da Monte) Sansa- vino, 207. Andrea Pisano, 148, 151. Angers, David d', 259. Anguier, 224. Antelami, 145. Antenor, 92. Antico, 203. Antiochos, in. Antonio Begarelli, 208. Antonio di cio, 204. Antonio Gagini, 204. Antonio Omodeo, 199. Antonio Pollajuolo, 193. Antonio Rossellino, 192. Apollonios, 112. Aquila, Silvestro da, 204. Area, Niccolo dell', 198. Archermos, 90. Arezzo, Niccolo d', 186. Aristokles, 93. Arkesilaos, 127. Armstead, Henry Hugh, 271. Athenaios, in. Athenis, 90. Athenodoros, in. BACHELIF.R, Nicholas, 224. Bailey, Edward Hodges, 268. Balduccio, Giovanni di, 149. Ball, Thomas, 279. Bamboccio, Antonio di Domenicc da, 204. Banco, Nanni di, 186. Bandinelli, Baccio, 213. Baratta, Pietro, 218. Bari, Niccol6 da, 198. Barisanus, 145. Barnard, George Gray, 286. 288 INDEX. Karri. is, Louis Ernest, 2^4. Bartholome, 266. Bartholomew, Edward Sheffield, 280. Bartlett, Paul, 286. Kartolini, Lorenzo, 244. Bartolo, Nanni di, 188. Bartolommeo Ammanati, 214. Barye, Antoine Louis, 260. Bates, Harry, 273. Beauvais, Vincent de, 161. Begarelli, Antonio, 208. Begas, Reinhold, 253. Behnes, William, 269. Bellano, Bartolommeo, 203. Benedetto Antelami, 145. Benedetto da Mujano, 193. Benedetto da Rovezzano, 207. Benvenuto Cellini, 214. Bernardo CuifTagni, 188. Bernardo Rossellino, 192. Bernini, Lorenzo, 217. Bernward, Bishop, 167. Berthelot, 224. Bertoldo di Giovanni, 188. Biciuinus, 145. Birch, Charles B., 271. Bissen, II. W., 247. Bitter, Karl, 286. l!l:i>iT, ( Hlstav. 251. Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar, 270. Bologna, Giovanni da, 216. Bonannus, 145, 151. Bontemps, Pierre, 222. Bonusamicus, 145. Bosio, Fran9ois Joseph, 256. Bouchardon, Edme, 228. Boupalos, 90. Boyle, John J., 286. Brackett, Edward Augustus, 280. Bregno, Andrea, 201. Briosco, Andrea, 203. Brock, Thomas. 271. Brown. Ilt-iiry Kirke, 278. Briiggeman, 234. Brunelleschi, Eilippo, 186. Bryaxis, 106. Buon, Bartolommeo, 201. Buonaccorso, 186. Buonarroti, Michelangelo, 2IQ Busti, Agostino, 200. CAFFIERI, Jean Jacques, 229. Cain, Auguste, 265. Camaino, Tino di, 149. Campagna, Girolamo, 209. Campbell, Thomas, 269. Campioni, 150. Cano, Alonso, 238. Canova, Antonio, 242. Caradosso, 200. Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, 204. Cartellier, 258. Cattaneo, Danese, 209. Cellini, Benvenuto, 214. Cerracchi, Giuseppe, 275. Chalouette, 259. Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 256. Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 267. Chapu, Henri, 261. Chaplain, 264. Ciccione, Andrea, 204. Civitali, Matteo, 193. Clarke, Thomas Shields, 286. Claude, Louis Michel, 229. Clementi, Prospero, 214. Clevinger, Shobal Vail, 280. Colombe, Michel, 220. Como, Guido da, 147. Coustou, Nicholas, 226. Coustou, Guillaume, 226. Contucci da Monte Sansavino, An- drea, 207. INDEX. 289 Corradini, 218. Cosmati, Giovanni, 150. Couper, William, 281. Coysevox, Antoine, 225. Cozzarelli, Giacomo, 197. Crawford, Thomas, 277. Cristoforo Solari, 200. Cuiffagni, Bernardo, 188. DALOU, Jules, 265. Danese, Cattaneo, 209. Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 248. Danton, 259. Desbueufs, 259. Desiderio da Settignano, 192. Dexter, Henry, 280. Dixey, John, 275. Donatello, 186. Donner, Georg Raphael, 235. Dontas, 92. Drake, Friedrich, 250. Drury, Alfred, 274. Dubois, Mrs., 280. Dubois, Paul, 262. Dubroeucq, Jacques, 237. Duccio, Agostino di, 188. Dumont, Augustin Alexandre, 261. Dupre, Giovanni, 244. Duquesnoy, Fran9ois, 237. Duret, Frai^ois Joseph, 258. Durham, Joseph, 269. Du Seigneur, 258. EBKRHARD, Konrad, 253. Elwell, Edwin F., 285. Enrichus, 145. Epigonos, in. Etex, Antoine, 258. Euphranor, 108. Ezekiel, Moses Jacob, 281. FALCONET, Maurice Etienne, 228. 19 Falguiere, Jean Alexandre, 262. Fauveau, Felicie de, 258. Federighi, Antonio, 197. Fedi, Pio, 244. Fehr, H. C., 274. Fiesole, Minoda, 192. Filippo Brunelleschi, iS6. Flaxman, John, 239. Fogelberg, 248. Foggini, Giovanni Battista, 218. Foley, John Henry, 270. Foley, Margaret, 280. Ford, E. Onslow, 273. Fouchere, 259. Fra Giovan' Angelo Montorsoli. 214. Fra Mattia della Robbia, 190, 204 Francesco da Laurana, 204. Francesco di Giorgio, 197. Francesco di San Gallo, 207. Fran9ois, Bastien, 222. Frampton, George J., 273. Frazee, John, 276. Fremiet, Emmanuel, 265. French, Daniel Chester, 284. Fusina, Andrea, 201. GAGINI, Antonio, 204. Gagini, Domenico, 204. Gaudens, Augustus St., 283. Gentil, Fra^ois, 224. Genzburg, 255. Ghiberti, Lorenzo di Cione, 183. Ghiberti, Vittorio, 186. Giacomo Cozzarelli, 197. Giacomo della Porta, 214. Gibbons, Grinling, 239. Gibson, John, 269. Gilbert, Alfred, 273. Giorgio, Francesco di, 197. Giovanni, Agostino di, 149. INDEX. (iiiiv.-uini Antonio Otnodeo, H)<). ( ;invanni, BertoMo di, 188. Giovanni da Bologna, 2l6. Giovanni da I'isa, 203. Giovanni della Robbia, 190. Giovanni di Balduccio, 149. Giovanni di Martino, 201. Giovanni di Turino, 197. Giovanni Pisano, 148. Girardon, Fran9ois, 225. Giraud, Franfois Gregoire, 258. Girolamo Campagna, 209. Girolamo della Robbia, 190. Glaukias, 92. Goujon, Jean, 222. Gould, Thomas R., 280. Goxver, Lord Ronald, 2*71. Gratchoff, 255. Greenough, Horatio, 277. Gruamons, 145. Guglielmo della Porta, 214. Guido da Como, 147. Guido Mazzoni, 199. Guillain, 224. Guillaume, Jean Baptiste Eugene, 258. HAnNEL, Ernst, 253. Hart, Joel T., 280. Haseltine, Henry K., 280. Herlin, Friedrich, 233. 1 1< -,s, Anton, 254. Illicit-brand, Adolph, 253. Hosmer, Miss Harriet, 280. Houdon, Jean Antoine, 229. Hughes, Ball. 278. Hutchinson, Allen, 274. It TRIBOLO, 209. Isigonos, in. Ives, C. B., 280. I \rxso\, I. A., 280. Jaropo della Oni-rda, 10.7. J.u opo Sansavino, 209. Jerichau, J. A., 247. John, W. Goscombe, 273. Jones, Adrien, 274. Jones, John E., 269. Jouffroy, Fran9ois, 261. Juste, Antoine, 221. Juste, Jean, 221. KALAMIS, 94. Kamensky, 255. Kanachos, 92. Kemys, Edward, 286. Kephisodotos, 107. Keyser, Ephraim, 281. Kirk, Thomas, 269. Kiss, August, 251. Klearchos, 92. Knoll, Conrad, 254. Kolotes, 102. Kraft, Adam, 231. Kresilas, 95. LANCERE, 255. Laurana, Francesco da, 204. Lawson, George A., 271. Lee, T. Stirling, 273. Leighton, Sir Frederick. 272. Lemot, 258. Lemoyne, Jean Baptiste, 227. Leochares, 106. Leonardo da Vinci, 208. Leoni, Leone, 216. Leoni, Pompeo, 216. Leopardi, Alessandro, 203. Lewis, Edmonia, 281. Lieberich, 255. Lombard!, Alfonso, 208. Lombard!*. Antonio, 203. INDEX. 291 Lombardo, Girolamo, 209. Lombardo, I Metro, 202. Lombardo, Tommaso, 209. Lombardo, Tullio, 202. Lorenzo di Cione Ghiberti, 183. Lorenzo di Mariano, 198. Lorrain, Robert le, 225. Luca della Robbia, 189. Luca di Andrea della Robbia, 190. Luigi Pampaloni, 244. Lysippos, 107. MACLEAN, T. Nelson, 271. MacMonnies, Frederick W., 284. Maderna, Stefano, 218. Majano, Benedetto da, 193. Mantegazza, Antonio, 199. Mantegazza, Cristoforo, 199. Mariano, Lorenzo di, 198. Martino, Giovanni di, 201. Martiny, Philip, 286. Massegne, Jacobello, 150. Massegne, Pietro Polo, 150. Matteo Civitali, 193. Mattia, Fra, della Robbia, 190. Mazzoni, Guido, 199. McDowell, Patrick, 269. Mellan, 224. Mercie, Antonin, 262. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 210. Michelozzi, Michelozzo, 188. Milano, Ambrogino da, 201. Mino da Fiesole, 192. Moderno, 203. Moine, Antonin, 259. Montaiies, 238. Montelupo, Raffaello da, 214. Montorsoli, Fra Giovan' Angelo, 214. Mozier, Joseph, 280. Mullins, Roscoe, 273. Myron, 98. NANM DI BANCO, 186. Nanni di Bartolo, 188 Naps, 255. Nevin, Blanche, 281. Niccola Pisano, 146 Niccolo da Ban, 198. Niccolo d' Arezzo, 186. Niccolo dell' Area, 198. Niccolo Pericoli. 209. Niccolo, Piero di, 201. Niehaus, Charles H., 286. Noble, Matthew, 271. OMODEO, Giovanni Antonio, 199 Onatas, 92. Orcagna, Andrea, 149. Orleans, Marie d', 258. PACKER, Michael, 233. Paionios, 102. Pajou, Augustin, 229. Palmer, Erastus Dow, 279. Pampaloni, Luigi, 244. Partridge, William Ordway, 286 Pasiteles, 127. Patras, Lambert, 170. Pegram, Henry A., 273. Pericoli, Niccolo, 209. Perraud, 262. Perreal, 221. Pheidias, 99. Piero di Giovanni Tedesco, 183. Piero di Niccol6, 201. Pietro Baratta, 218. Pietro Polo Massegne, 150. Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 228. Pilon. Germain, 224. Pio Fedi, 244. 292 INDEX. Pisa, Giovanni da, 203. Pisano, Andrea, 148, 151. Pisano, Giovanni, 148. Pisano, Niccola, 146. Pitts, William, 269. Pollajuolo, Antonio, 193. Polydoros, m. Polykleitos, 95. Pomeroy, Frederick, 274. Pompeo Leoni, 216. Porta, Giacomo della, 214. Porta, Guglielmo della, 214. Pot, Jean le, 222. Powers, Hiram, 277. Powers, Longworth, 281. Powers, Preston, 281. Pradier, James, 258. Praxiteles, 106, in. Preault, 258. Prieur, Barthelemy, 224. Proctor, A. P., 286. Properzia de' Rossi, 209. Prospero Clementi, 214. Puech, 262. Puget, Pierre, 226. Pyromachos, in. Pythagoras, 95. <,M I.I I.INTS, Artus, 237. Queirolo, 218. Quercia, Jacopo della, 197. RAFFAEI.I.O DA M<>M n.t i-o, 214. Kauch, Christian Daniel, 250. Reams, Vinnie, 281. Rebisso, Louis, 281. Redfern, James K., 271. Rhind, J. Massey, 286. Rhoikos, 90. Rirri, Stefano, 244. Rirrio 203. Ridiier, Ligier, 224. Ridolphinus, 145. Riemenschneider, Tilman, 233. Rietschel, Ernst Friedrich August, 251. Rinehart, William Henry, 279. Robbia, Fra Ambrogio della, H)i. Robbia, Andrea della, 190. Robbia, Fra Mattia della, 190, 204. Robbia, Giovanni della, 190. Robbia, Girolamo della, 190. Robbia, I.uca della, 189. Robbia, Luca di Andrea della, 190. Robertus, 145. Rodin, Auguste, 266. Rogers, John, 280. Rogers, Randolph, 279. Romano, 204. Romano, Gian Cristoforo, 204. Roscoe Mullins, 273. Rossellino, Antonio, 192. Rossellino, Bernardo, 192. Rossi, Properzia de', 209. Roty, 264. Rovezzano, Benedetto da, 207. Ruckstuhl, F. Wellington, 286. Rude, Fran5ois, 259. Rush, William, 276. SAINT MARCF.AUX, Rein'- dr. _<,, Sammartino, 218. Samonoff, 255. San Gallo, Francesco di, 207. Sano, Turino di, i<)7. Sansavino, Andrea (t'ontiuvi da Monte), 207. Sansavino, Jacopo, 209. Sarrazin, 224. Schadow, Johann Gottfried, 248. Schadow, Rudolph, 250. SchefTauer, P. J., 248. INDEX. 293 Schenck, F. E. E., 274. Schievelbein, Friedrich Hermann, 251- Schilling, Johannes, 253. Schliiter, Andreas, 235. Sclnvanthaler, Ludwig, 253. Scrgell. J. T., 247. Settignano, Desiderio da, 192. Silanion, 107. Silvestro da Aquila, 204. Skopas, 104. Slodtx, Michel, 228. Solari, Cristoforo, 200. Stark, Robert, 273. Stebbins, Emma, 281. Stevens, Alfred George, 269. Stone, Nicholas, 239. Story, Waldo, 281. Story, William \Yetmore, 279. Stoss, Veit, 231. Stratonikos, in. Swan, John M., 273. Syrlin, Jorg, 233. J M ( (INK, Paolo, 204. Taft, Lorado, 286. Tatti, Jacopo, 209. Tauriskos, 112. Tedesco, I'iero di < iiovanni, i - -,. Tenerani, Pietro, 243. Terwen, Jan, 237. Texier, Jean, 222. Theed, William, 269. Theodoros, 90. Thompson, Launt, 280. Thornycroft, Hamo. 272. Thonvaklsen, Rertel, 245. Tieck, Christian Friedrich, 250. Timotheos, 106. Tino di ("amaino, 149. Tinworth, George, 271. Toft, A., 274. Torrigiano, Piero, 208. Tribolo, II, 209. Triqueti, 258. Turino di Sano, 197. Turino, Giovanni di, 197. Tutilo, 164. ULOCRINO, 203. VASSAI.I.ETTO I., 150. Vassal let to II., 150. Vauthier, Moreau, 264. Vecchietta, Lorenzo, 197. Vela, \"incenzo, 244. \ cntura, Agnolo di, 149. Verrocchio, Andrea del, 196. Vincent de Beauvais, 161. Vinci, Leonardo da, 208. Vise her, Peter, 231. Vittoria, Alessandro, 209. Vittorio Ghiberti, 186. Vouet, 224. WAKD, John Ouincy Adams, 28 Warner, Olin Levi, 283. Watts, George Frederick, 272. Weidenhaupt, 245. Westmacott, Sir Richard, 267. Wiedewelt, Johannes. 245. Wohlgemuth, Michael, 231. \Voolner, Thomas, 271. Wright, Mrs. Patience, 275. Wyatt, Richard John, 269. Xl NOKRATES, III. Ximenes, Ettore, 245. ZrMius( ii, Caspar, 254. 9 Cl 7 College Histories of Art. A HISTORY OF PAINTING. BY JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College, and Author of " Principles of Art," " Art for Art's Sake," etc. With Frontispiece and 1 10 Illustrations in the text, repro- duced in half-tone from the most celebrated paintings. Crown 8vo, 307 pages, $1.50. "... The initial volume of a promising series . . . seems a model of pith, lucidity, and practical convenience ; and that it is sound and accurate the author's name is a sufficient guarantee. Essential historical and biographical facts, together with brief critical estimates and character- izations of leading schools and painters, are given in a few well-chosen words ; and for students who wish to pursue the subject in detail, a list of selected authorities at the head of each chapter points the way. Service- able lists are also provided of principal extant works, together with the places where they are to be found. The text is liberally sprinkled with illustrations in half-tone.'' DIAL, CHICAGO. " Prof. Van Dyke has performed his task with great thoroughness and good success. . . He seems to us singularly happy in his char- acterization of various artists, and amazingly just in proportion. We have hardly found an instance in which the relative importance accorded a given artist seemed to us manifestly wrong, and hardly one 'in which the special characteristics of a style were not adequately presented " NATION, N. Y . "... Gives a good general view of the subject, avoiding as a rule all elaborate theories and disputed points, and aiming to distinguish the various historical schools from one another by their differences of subject and technique . . . we do not know of anybody who has, on the whole, accomplished the task with as much success as has Mr. Van Dyke. The book is modern in spirit and thoroughly up-to-date in point of information." ART AMATEUR. " Professor Van Dyke has made a radical departure in one respect, in purposely omitting the biographical details with which text-bo*, ks on art are usually encumbered, and substituting short critical estimates of artists and of their rank among the painters of their time. This feature of the work is highly to be commended, as it affords means for comparative study that cannot fail to be beneficial. . . . Altogether Professor Van Dyke's text-book is worthy of general adoption, and as a volume of ready reference for the family library it will have a distinct usefulness. It is compact, comprehensive, and admirably arranged." BEACON, BOSTON. LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., 91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. A History of Architecture. BY A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M. Adjunct Professor of Architecture in the School of Mines, Columbia College. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, pp. xx-453, $2.00. " The text of this book is very valuable because of the singularly intelligent view taken of each separate epoch. . . . The book is extremely well fur- nished with bibliographies, lists of monuments [which] are excellent. . . . If any reasonable part of the contents of this book can be got into the heads of those who study it. they will have excellent ideas about architecture and the beginnings of a sound knowledge of it." THE NATION, NEW YORK. " A manual that will be invaluable to the student, while it will give to the general reader a sufficiently full outline for his purposes of the development of the various schools of architecture. What makes it of special value is the large number of ground plans of typical buildings and the sketches of bits of detail of columns, arches, windows and doorways. Each chapter is prefaced by a list of books recommended, and each ends with a list of monuments. The illustrations are numerous and well executed." SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE. " Probably presents more comprehensively and at the same time concisely, the various periods and styles of architecture, with a characterization of the must important works of each period and style, than any other published work. . . . The volume fills a gap in architectural literature which has long existed." ADVERTISER, BOSTON. " A neatly published work, adapted to the use either of student or general reader. As a text-book it is a concise and orderly setting forth of the main principles of architecture followed by the different schools. The life history of each period is brief yet thorough. . . . The treatment is broad and not over-critical. The chief facts are so grouped that the student can easily grasp them. The plan-drawings are clear-cut and serve their purpose admirably. The half-tone illustrations are modern in selection and treatment. The style is clear, easy and pleasing. The entire production shows a studious and orderly mind. A new and pleasing characteristic is the absence of all discussion on disputed points. In its unity, clearness and simplicity lie its charm and interest." NOTRE DAME SCHOIASTIC, NOTRE DAME, IND. "This is a very thorough and compendious history of the art of archi- tecture from the earliest times down to the present. . . . The work is elaborately illustrated with a great host of examples, pictures, diagrams, etc. 1 1 i- intended to be used as a school text-book, and is very conveniently arranged for this purpose, with suitable headings in bold-faced type, and a copious index. Teachers and students will find it a capital thing for the purpose."- I'M AYUNE, NEW ORLEANS. LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers, 91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOt THE UNIVERSITY LIBRAF 1ARY UNJVERSITY of CALIFORNIA LOS ;s LIBRA A 000 453 776 7