UC-NRLF 
 
 SM E72 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
GLIMPSES 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
BERLIN W. 
 
FRONTISPIECE. 
 

 
 GHMPSES 
 
 NAT iTf 
 
 ^ 
 
 What prodigies can Power Divine perform, 
 More grand than it produces year by year, 
 And all in sight of inattentive man ! COWPER 
 
 LONDON : 
 HARVEY AND DARTON, GRACECHURCH-STREET. 
 
LO.VDON 
 
 JOSEPH RJCKERBY, PRINTER, 
 SHBRBOURN-LANK. 
 
Hfc 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE intention of this simple little Work is so obvious, 
 that it perhaps scarcely requires a preface. Written to 
 direct the attention of one much-loved child to the 
 goodness and power of God, as displayed in all his 
 tvorks, it is now offered to many, in the hope that from 
 these " Glimpses of Natural History" they may be led 
 to more extended views of so boundless a subject. 
 
 LONDON, 1843. 
 
 M348387 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 The Walrus and Fly ...... 1 
 
 Galls ....... 9 
 
 Snails . . . . . . . .16 
 
 The Camel ....... 26 
 
 The Sunflower . . . . . .35 
 
 Charcoal ....... 40 
 
 Sponge . . . . . . .46 
 
 Rust Indian-rubber Lead Pencils, &c. ... 58 
 
 Colours ...... 67 
 
 A Traveller ...... 73 
 
 Rain .... . ... 80 
 
 Fall of the Leaf ...... 87 
 
 On Rooks, &c. ...... 96 
 
 Insect Changes ...... 104 
 
 Variety in Nature . . . . . . .115 
 
 Water-Pimpernel . . . . . .125 
 
v i CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Evergreens 
 
 1 K/\ 
 
 Leaf-insects 
 
 . 158 
 Mosses 
 
 Horsetail . 
 Heaths, &c, . 
 Mother-of-l>earl 
 
THE WALRUS. 
 
 Page 1. 
 
GLIMPSES OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 THE WALRUS AND FLY. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Do you recollect the description I read to you the 
 other morning of that icy region, Spitzbergen, and of 
 the animals which inhabit it ? 
 
 MARY. 
 Oh, yes, perfectly. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Then you will, perhaps, be able to answer the ques- 
 tion I am going to ask you. What resemblance is 
 there between a walrus and a fly ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Really, my dear aunt, you are proposing an enigma 
 
 B 
 
2 THE WALRUS AND FLY. 
 
 to me. How can I discover any likeness between that 
 large, inactive, disgusting creature, and the little alert 
 insect I often watch with so much pleasure ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I do not refer to their appearance, for in that there 
 is, indeed, no similarity. But consider what I told 
 you of the habits of the walrus ; of its manner of moving, 
 for example. Are you not now struck with any point 
 of resemblance ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I remember you told me the walrus can climb per- 
 pendicular masses of ice, and I see flies ascending our 
 glass windows, and I should think their surface some- 
 thing like that of the smooth, polished ice, so perhaps I 
 have found out your enigma. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You have. I did not, however, propose it merely to try 
 your ingenuity, but in order that I may give you an 
 explanation of the means by which both these creatures 
 are able to surmount the law by which the motions of 
 
THE WALRUS AND FLY. 3 
 
 all others (with very few exceptions) are guided, and 
 thus to sustain their bodies against gravity. Before 
 attempting this I must recal to your mind a subject I 
 alluded to in our reading yesterday, and which I pro- 
 mised to recur to : the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh ! I have been wishing for some explanation of 
 that term, for I cannot understand how it can be applied 
 to a fluid, as you have told me the air is so thin and 
 transparent, that though we are surrounded by it we can 
 neither feel nor see it. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Our being surrounded by it is the very reason why 
 we do not feel it. Our bodies are so equally supported 
 by it on all sides, that we do not perceive any partial 
 pressure ; but if I could remove the portion of air from 
 one side of my body, the weight and consequent pres- 
 sure would be so great that I should no longer be able 
 to bear it. And this is proved by a machine called an 
 air-pump, by which a vessel may be deprived of the air 
 it contains, and a vacuum formed. A familiar instance 
 
 B -2 
 
4 THE WALRUS AND FLY. 
 
 will serve to show how, by this means, we discover the 
 pressure of air. If you were to put any body, your 
 hand, for instance, over a jar with an opening at both 
 ends on an air-pump, as the pump was worked you 
 would find a gradually increasing weight on your hand, 
 and at length, when the operation was completed, and 
 the air in the jar quite exhausted, you would find it 
 impossible, by any exertion of force, to lift your hand 
 
 from the jar. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then, I suppose, the air above the hand presses it 
 down, and it cannot be raised because there is no air 
 below to offer resistance. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Exactly so ; for when air is pumped in again the 
 hand is raised with the greatest ease. But now for the 
 application of what I have said to our present subject, 
 which, I fear, this long digression will almost have made 
 
 you forget. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 No, indeed ; you said that a fly and a walrus have 
 both the power of walking against gravity. 
 
THE WALRUS AND FLY. 5 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Very well : now, the reason of their possessing this 
 power is, that they are furnished with an apparatus by 
 which they can form a vacuum, and adhere to the verti- 
 cal glass or ice by atmospheric pressure. The air is 
 expelled from the space below their feet, and the weight 
 of the air above their feet causes them to adhere ; but, at 
 the same time, they are wisely provided with muscular 
 force sufficient to raise their feet with the greatest ease, 
 so that their movements are not impeded. If you 
 remark the flies which congregate in our houses in the 
 autumn, you will see that they are at first very lively 
 and active, but that as they grow torpid they move with 
 difficulty, as if fastened to the window. When they are 
 well and active they easily overcome the atmospheric 
 pressure, but as the weather becomes colder, it makes 
 them sickly and weak, and then this resistance is too 
 great an effort for their declining strength, and you may 
 see them toiling along, as if their feet were too heavy for 
 them, nay, sometimes even sticking to the glass till they 
 
 die. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Who first discovered that flies had this singular power ? 
 
6 THE WALRUS AND FLY. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is to Sir Everard Home that we are indebted for 
 ascertaining the fact. It had been suspected by former 
 naturalists, but he proved it by examination. For some 
 time he was in doubt about two points with which the 
 foot of the fly is provided, not being able to understand 
 for what purpose they were there. It had been imagined 
 that they were inserted in the cavities of the surface 
 over which the insect was walking, and thus retained it 
 in opposition to gravity ; in this opinion, however, Sir 
 Everard Home did not agree. On examining the foot 
 of the walrus he discovered their use : there it was 
 evident that two toes (which answer to the points in the 
 fly's foot) are used for the purpose of bringing the web 
 closely down upon the surface traversed, so as to enable 
 the animal to form a more complete vacuum, and that 
 the ah* is readmitted on their being lifted up. 
 
 MARY. 
 What a difference there must be in size between the 
 
 two feet ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, that of the fly requires magnifying one hundred 
 
THE WALRUS 'AND FLY. 7 
 
 times to make the apparatus i have described visible, 
 while that of the walrus must be diminished four times 
 to bring it within the compass of a quarto plate. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Thank you, my dear aunt, for your, explanation : I 
 shall now never see flies on our windows without recol- 
 lecting it, and I shall observe them more closely. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 There are other familiar instances in which you may 
 remark this power of the atmosphere. You remember 
 the difficulty we found the other morning in detaching 
 the limpets you wished from the rock to which they 
 were so firmly fixed ; if you examine them you will find 
 that they have no apparent means adequate to resist the 
 force you applied to them. The edge of the shell is 
 not furnished with any mechanism by which to hold the 
 substance on which it is placed ; this is, indeed, so hard 
 and smooth, that it would be difficult to conceive any 
 that would answer the purpose. It is retained in its 
 situation by the formation of a vacuum below the shell, 
 and the consequent pressure of the air on its outer sur- 
 
8 THE WALRUS AND FLY. 
 
 face. Sea-anemonies, again, are attached by the same 
 means : they are such soft, gelatinous bodies, that it 
 seems as if one had only to put one's hand to the rock 
 to gain possession of them ; but we find a strong resist- 
 ance. You must have remarked that when you touch 
 an anemone it immediately shrinks ; by this movement 
 it is, no doubt, putting itself on the defensive, and 
 expelling the air from between it and the rock. Snails, 
 periwinkles, &c. &c. adhere by the same means. In 
 the same situations as limpets and periwinkles you will 
 find, very frequently, clusters of muscles, which are also 
 attached to the rocks, but here observe a difference in 
 the manner : the form of the muscle does not admit of 
 its forming a vacuum, but it has a beautiful provision of 
 its own ; it has the power of throwing out a cluster of 
 silky filaments, which fix themselves to the rock, and 
 by which it hangs securely. 
 
GALLS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 HERE is one of those curious mossy tufts on this rose* 
 branch which I have often thought of asking you about. 
 They are very pretty, but yet one only sees them occa- 
 sionally, therefore, I suppose, they are not a usual pro- 
 duction of the rose-tree. Perhaps you can tell me 
 something of them. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I am not surprised at your feeling curious respecting 
 these singular excrescences, and you will be astonished, 
 I think, when I tell you what purpose they serve. They 
 are the habitations of insects. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 The habitations of insects ! you really do surprise me. 
 But how can that be, for I can see no opening ; not one 
 
10 GALLS. 
 
 sufficient even for a very tiny insect to have entered by, 
 and I should imagine, from the size of the tuft, that its 
 occupant is not so diminutive, unless its house be very 
 much too large for it. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Your wonder is very natural, for it has perplexed many 
 wiser persons to account for the bodies called galls, and 
 which originate from the same cause as the moss-like 
 appearance we are speaking of. The ancient philoso- 
 phers, finding on opening these substances that they 
 contained grubs, conceived justly that these proceeded 
 from eggs, but they were embarrassed by the same cir- 
 cumstance that perplexes you. They were at a loss to 
 account for the conveyance of these eggs into the 
 middle of a substance in which they could find no 
 external orifice. They imagined that they were the 
 eggs of insects deposited in the earth which had been 
 drawn up by the roots of trees along with the sap, and 
 after passing through different vessels had stopped, some 
 in the leaves, others in the branches, and had there 
 hatched and produced the excrescences. Modern phi- 
 losophers, more close and accurate observers of nature, 
 
GALLS. 1 1 
 
 have accounted for their formation in a more rational 
 way. They find that they are the habitations of the 
 grubs of the genus cynips, (Gall-fly.) I cannot better 
 describe to you the mode of their formation than by 
 using the words of an elegant writer and distinguished 
 naturalist, who observes, " They cannot with propriety 
 be said to be constructed by the mother-insect ; but she 
 is provided with an instrument as potent as an enchanter's 
 wand, which has but to pierce the site of the foundation, 
 and commodious apartments, as if by magic, spring up 
 and surround the eggs of her future descendants." 
 Have you not frequently observed the red, spongy- 
 looking substances on the leaves of the oak ? 
 
 MARY. 
 You mean oak-apples. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 So they are commonly called, but more properly 
 galls. There is a great variety of galls on different 
 plants. All owe their origin to the deposition of an egg 
 in the substance out of which they grow. The parent 
 insect is furnished with a curious sting, with which she 
 
12 GALLS. 
 
 makes a puncture, and then introduces her egg, and in 
 a few hours it becomes surrounded by the fleshy cover- 
 ing we see. All these bodies are generally more acid 
 than the rest of the plant that bears them, and they are 
 also greatly inclined to turn red. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Pray, are they of any use to the young insect r I 
 suppose, of course, they must be. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The careful mother has provided not only for the 
 shelter and defence of her offspring, but also for its 
 nourishment, the little enclosed creature feeding upon 
 the interior, and there undergoing its changes to the fly 
 
 state. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But still it seems to me very extraordinary that the 
 mere piercing of a leaf by the sting of an insect should 
 produce galls. 
 
 AUNT. 
 How these protuberances are produced we do not 
 
GALLS. 13 
 
 comprehend, and it seems very wonderful even if, as is 
 supposed, the egg is accompanied by a peculiar fluid, 
 that it should cause their growth around it. It is ascer- 
 tained that the gall, which, however large, attains 
 its full size in a day or two, is caused by the egg 
 or some accompanying fluid, not by the grub, which 
 does not appear until the gall is fully formed. Now 
 that I have made you acquainted, as far as I can, with 
 the mode of production of these singular vegetable ex- 
 crescences, I must not drop the subject till I have spoken 
 of the important use to which those formed by one species 
 of cynips (called by some authors the scriptorum) are 
 applied. We are indebted to this little insect for that 
 useful agent, ink, which is made from the galls it pro- 
 duces. These galls are found on a species of oak 
 (quercus infectorid) very common in Asia Minor. They 
 are collected and exported from Smyrna, Aleppo, and 
 other ports in the Levant. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How extraordinary are both their formation and the 
 use to which they are applied ! We owe a great deal to 
 the insects that produce them, and whenever I find 
 
14 GALLS. 
 
 any gaDs on oak-leaves I shall open them, that I 
 may make acquaintance with the useful little creatures. 
 I should like to be so fortunate as to meet with one 
 when it had changed to its perfect state, and was about 
 to leave its house. But is ink composed entirely of a 
 liquid from these substances ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Not entirely, though in a great measure. It is an 
 infusion of galls, copperas, and gum-arabic, I believe ; 
 but unless the quantity of the extract from the galls 
 greatly preponderates, the ink is not of a good colour, 
 nor, I think I have heard, is it durable. Galls have yet 
 another important application, though not one which 
 contributes to our pleasure so much as ink : they are 
 one of OUT dying materials most in use, being con- 
 stantly employed in dying black. There is another 
 excrescence of this nature, also, much esteemed in the 
 Levant. This is formed on some species of salvia, 
 (sage.) In consequence of the attacks of a cynips the 
 young shoots swell into large, juicy balls, very like 
 apples, and even crowned with imperfectly formed 
 leaves, resembling the calyx of that fruit. They are 
 
GALLS. 15 
 
 eaten prepared with sugar, and have an aromatic, acid 
 flavour, which is very refreshing and agreeable. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But you have not told me whether the tufts on rose- 
 trees are also of use. Are they caused by a similar 
 insect ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes : it takes its specific name from resorting to 
 the rose for depositing eggs cynips rosa. Its mossy 
 balls used to be considered to possess medicinal pro- 
 perties, and were sold under the name of bedeguar, but 
 modern practitioners attribute no efficacy to them. 
 
16 
 
 SNAILS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How many snails there are crawling about this morning. 
 I suppose the rain of the night set them in motion, for 
 I have always remarked one sees a much greater number 
 after wet. Can you tell me what becomes of them 
 during winter ? I have often wished to know. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They hibernate. 
 
Page 16. 
 
SNAILS. 17 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Pray what does that mean ? I do not think I remem- 
 ber to have heard the term before. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I am glad I used it, then, for understanding a new 
 word is an addition to one's stock of knowledge, and I am 
 always happy to be the means of increasing your infor- 
 mation on any subject. The verb to hibernate is 
 derived from hybernacula, (winter- quarters,) and so 
 applied to those animals which remain in a state of 
 torpidity during the cold season. The manner in which 
 snails defend themselves from cold is very curious. A 
 number associate together, (generally about the begin- 
 ning of October, or as soon as it becomes chilly,) in the 
 banks of ditches, or in thickets or hedges. They cease 
 to eat, and conceal themselves under fallen leaves or 
 moss. Each then forms for itself a hole large enough 
 to contain its shell, expands the collar of the mantle over 
 the edge of the shell, and then inspires a quantity of air. 
 The mantle soon secretes a large portion of very white 
 fluid over its whole surface, which sets like plaster-of- 
 Paris, thus forming a solid covering. When this lid is 
 
18 SNAILS. 
 
 hardened, the animal retires, expels a portion of air from 
 its lungs, and forms another partition of the same fluid ; 
 and continuing this operation several times, it sometimes 
 forms rive or six divisions, with the intermediate spaces 
 or cells filled with air. About three days suffice for the 
 protection of each individual. I knew that they hid 
 themselves during the winter, but I was not myself 
 aware of the curious circumstances connected with their 
 concealment, till I met with an account of them in a 
 work on natural history a short time ago. It is highly 
 interesting to consider what a beautiful economy of its 
 own every creature has. How many curious operations 
 are continually going on around us, without our being 
 aware of them till they are pointed out by closer and 
 better informed observers of nature than ourselves. Then, 
 indeed, they cannot fail to fill us with delight and admi- 
 ration, and incite us to more diligent pursuit in a study 
 which offers so much that is new and engaging. 
 
 MARY. 
 And pray how long do snails continue torpid ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 They generally remain enclosed for six months in 
 
SNAILS. 19 
 
 their self-formed prisons, and do not reappear till the 
 spring. It appears, from the chemical analyses to which 
 the lids (or opercula, as they are called) have been sub- 
 mitted, that they consist wholly of a substance called 
 carbonate of lime. The animal obtains this calcareous 
 fluid, not merely from its ordinary vegetable food, but 
 from the earth, which it eats in great abundance. This 
 circumstance accounts for some species thriving better 
 in chalky districts. These animals eat nothing during 
 the period of hibernation, and experiments have proved 
 that they exist without motion, nutrition, or respiration ; 
 in short, that they are deprived of all their usual func- 
 tions. In our climate, it is generally about the begin- 
 ning of April that they leave their torpid state. The 
 mode in which they make their way from their prison is 
 not only curious, but beautiful. The air which had been 
 expired, is again inspired, and each division forced away 
 by the pressure of the enclosed animal, till it reaches the 
 lid, which being harder, requires a greater effort to 
 burst through. Having effected this, the animal comes 
 forth, and immediately begins feeding with appetite. 
 Experiments show, that the return of warmth is not 
 alone sufficient to restore their animation; moisture is 
 
 c 2 
 
20 SNAILS. 
 
 also requisite. They feel, very sensibly, either extremes 
 of heat or cold, for they frequently retire within their 
 shells during the height of summer, where they remain 
 a day and night, till a shower brings them out again. 
 The effect of temperature on this class of animals has 
 been tried, by shutting up a few snails in a perforated 
 box, and some others in a bottle, tightly corked, so as to 
 exclude all communication with the air : in neither situ- 
 ation were they supplied with either food or water. 
 Those deprived of air did not live long, but those hi 
 the perforated box retired into their shells, (closing them 
 as I have described,) and remained to all appearance 
 dead. This death, however, was only apparent, for by 
 being dropped into a glass containing water of the tem- 
 perature of 70 or 72, they may be reanimated in about 
 four or fire hours. A large garden-snail will sometimes 
 support this severe confinement for several years, appa- 
 rently dead all the time, but it will revive upon being 
 put into milk-warm water, quite uninjured. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I have one more question to ask you. Are the dark 
 points at the ends of snails' horns their eyes ? 
 
SNAILS. 21 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 That is a subject which has given rise to much dis- 
 cussion among naturalists, and which seems still unde- 
 termined ; but I believe the opinion of those who have 
 devoted most attention to it is, that these organs are 
 not organs of sight, but of feeling, answering a similar 
 purpose to the antenna of insects. These creatures, 
 which rank so low in the scale of organized beings, give 
 rise to much consideration. Their manner of moving is 
 a matter of doubt, too. They are perfectly smooth, and 
 there are no appendages to do the office of feet. It is, 
 therefore, imagined, that they are propelled forward by 
 a discharge of slime, which is emitted from every part of 
 the under surface. Dry air is observed to deprive them 
 of the power of motion, which seems to give probability 
 to this conjecture. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 They certainly seem never to move without a discharge 
 of slime, for one may always trace the way they have 
 taken by the shining path they have left behind. I saw 
 a particularly large snail-shell in your cabinet the other 
 morning, about which I have always forgotten to ask you. 
 
22 
 
 SNAILS. 
 
 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is the helix pomatia, (edible snail,) said to be bene- 
 ficial in consumptive 
 cases. The specimen 
 you remarked among 
 my shells I prize, not 
 for its beauty, but 
 because I found it in 
 Normandy , in the fosse 
 of the Chateau d'Ar- 
 ques, and it serves as a 
 
 memento of a pleasant day passed among the remains 
 
 of that ancient pile. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 The Chateau d'Arques ! I did not know you had 
 ever visited it. Will you tell me something of it ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is a fine specimen of a Norman fortress, erected, as 
 is generally the case, on a lofty mound of earth, sur- 
 rounded by a deep ditch, or moat. In this instance, the 
 mound being raised on a considerable eminence, ren- 
 
CHATEAU D'ARQUES. 
 
 Page 22. 
 
SNAILS. 23 
 
 ders the situation of this venerable ruin extremely im- 
 posing. It is in the centre of a lovely valley, through 
 which winds a little stream that looks like a silver thread 
 when its course is viewed from the heights. It is a de- 
 lightful scene, one on which I dwell with peculiar plea- 
 sure, perhaps, because I beheld it the first day I spent 
 in France. To me, the gay costume of the female pea- 
 sants, engaged in the labours of the harvest, added a 
 great charm, by marking the landscape as foreign. I 
 might have fancied myself still in the country I had so 
 lately left ; but the Canchoises, with their high white 
 caps and showy Rouen handkerchiefs, as they continu- 
 ally passed before my eye in all the activity of their 
 busy occupation, did not for a moment allow me to for- 
 get that I was not standing on English ground. Much 
 was I amused by the expressions of a ragged little boy, 
 who acted as our cicerone, and exclaimed, with all the 
 animation of his country, "Mais Monsieur, Madame 
 voyez la campagne, qu'elle est superbe ! " 
 
 Among the historical recollections which the castle 
 suggests, perhaps the most interesting is its gallant de- 
 fence in 1589, by that hero of French story, Henry IV., 
 against the army of the League, commanded by the Due 
 
24 SNAILS. 
 
 de Mayenne. The result of this battle may be consi- 
 dered as having been highly conducive to Henry's 
 future success, for he had been reduced to such extre- 
 mity before the walls of the adjacent town of Dieppe, 
 that he had been on the point of relinquishing his enter- 
 prise, and retiring into England, but was advised by 
 Biron to make good his post at Arques. The issue 
 proved the wisdom of the Marechal's counsel. So des- 
 perate was Henry's condition before the engagement, 
 that he said of himself, he was " a king without a king- 
 dom, a husband without a wife, and a warrior without 
 money." The inequality of numbers was fearful ; the Duke 
 de Mayenne had an army of 31,000 men, while that of 
 Henry only amounted to 3,000, part of which consisted 
 of German and Swiss auxiliaries. But Henry's was one 
 of those master spirits, which elastic ally rise from the 
 pressure of adversity. Far from being dismayed by un- 
 favourable appearances, he immediately applied himself 
 to making the most of his resources, by posting his little 
 band to the best advantage, and exerting all his energies ; 
 he allowed himself no rest either by day or night. 
 Sully describes him, at the moment of the enemy's ap- 
 proach, as acting and speaking with the greatest com- 
 
SNAILS. 25 
 
 posure, and not betraying, either by his countenance or 
 manner, the slightest perturbation ; and he mentions a 
 noble reply he made at this juncture to a person of 
 rank, who expressed surprise to see his scanty number 
 of followers. " You see not all," said Henry, " for you 
 reckon not God and my just cause, which assist me." 
 For some time the League seemed to prevail. Though 
 each station was long valorously defended by the 
 devoted adherents of the king, their ruin appeared in- 
 evitable, from the superiority of numbers on the other 
 side, when the clearing off of a thick fog enabled the 
 cannon to act, and by the volley discharged from the 
 castle, the fortune of the day was decided in Henry's 
 favour. Sixtus V. predicted Henry's success from his 
 great activity, for he said, " He was not longer in bed, 
 than the Due de Mayenne was at table." 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Thus a poor sluggish snail has led us into the tumult 
 of the battle of Arques ! I thank you very much for the 
 account of it ! 
 
THE CAMEL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 HAVE been thinking a 
 great deal of the account 
 of the camel we met with 
 in the travels we are read- 
 ing. How admirably 
 their soft feet, and their 
 power of abstaining from 
 water, adapt them to the 
 scorched and sandy de- 
 serts through which they 
 travel with their Arab 
 masters ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I am glad, my dear, that this subject has engaged 
 your attention, and that you have reflected so much 
 
THE GIRAFFE. 
 
 Page 27. 
 
THE CAMEL. 27 
 
 upon it. This useful creature is, indeed, a striking in- 
 stance of the goodness and wisdom of God, who has 
 prepared all created beings for the circumstances under 
 which they are to be placed. And you will be convinced 
 of this pervading principle, the more minutely you exa- 
 mine His beautiful works. There is another animal, an 
 inhabitant of the same region as the camel ; but as its 
 habits differ, so do its provisions. I mean the giraffe, 
 or camel-leopard. It is not furnished with the recep- 
 tacle for water, because it feeds on succulent plants, and 
 therefore this would be unnecessary; nor has it the 
 padded hoof of the camel, because it does not confine 
 itself to sand, but delights in rocky heights. To enable 
 it to climb these without stumbling, it is provided with two 
 toes, defended with a horny covering, and as its tongue 
 is very much exposed to the sun while collecting food, 
 this organ is protected by a coating, which prevents its 
 being blistered by the heat. Though it will be digress- 
 ing, I cannot help mentioning a singular fact with respect 
 to the Arabian camel, (that with one hump,) lest I 
 should forget to call your attention to it at some future 
 time. It is, that this camel is never found wild ; the 
 whole race is in a state of subjection to man. 
 
28 THE CAMEL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 That is, indeed, very extraordinary ! How can it be 
 accounted for ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 In order to discover the most probable reason, we 
 must go back as far as the history of the deluge. We 
 know that all the animals of the antediluvian earth 
 perished, except the two of each species, which were 
 kept alive to continue their kind. Now, it is supposed, 
 that when Noah and his family quitted the ark, they 
 carefully preserved these useful animals and their pro- 
 geny, on account of the great services they derived from 
 them, while they allowed the descendants of the other 
 animals to roam abroad, and return to a state of nature. 
 We may easily believe that the same consideration in 
 succeeding generations of men has produced the same 
 result, and that thus the Arabian camel has never reco- 
 vered its liberty. But to return to our immediate sub- 
 ject. We need not go to another quarter of the globe 
 for examples of this wise adaptation, we are surrounded 
 by them, and to the observer of nature they are obvious, 
 not only in animal, but in vegetable life. We find plants 
 
THE CAMEL. 29 
 
 which require little moisture, placed in dry situations ; 
 and again, those to whose sustenance moisture is requi- 
 site, we find growing in damp watery places. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Yes, you know how much trouble I took with some 
 plants I found in the bog, but I never could get any 
 taken from it to live in the garden, till, as you advised, I 
 brought away a quantity of the earth in which they were 
 growing. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The soil of the garden was not suited to them, and 
 besides, there is a chemical difference between earths, 
 which causes plants to flourish better in those in which 
 they are placed than in those to which we remove them, 
 evidently proving that they are put in the soil best 
 adapted to their peculiar habits. Again, remark the pro- 
 vision made for climbing-plants. Their stems are too 
 weak to sustain the weight of their leaves and flowers, 
 but they do not sink under a load so disproportioned to 
 their slender structure. They are furnished with deli- 
 cate threads, or fibres, called tendrils, which spring 
 
30 THE CAMEL. 
 
 from their stem and branches, and twine themselves 
 round the neighbouring plants of firmer growth. By 
 this means this elegant tribe of plants gain support from 
 their stronger neighbours. We do not see tendrils pro- 
 ceeding from the branches of trees or shrubs which can 
 stand erect without depending on others, which proves 
 that there is design in their appearing in those plants to 
 which they are so useful and essential. Rising a degree 
 higher in the scale of creation, let us consider the insect 
 world, the adaption of their powers and organs to the 
 situations in which they are placed, and the functions 
 they have to perform. Do not the wings of our gay 
 summer visitors, moths and butterflies, so broad and 
 large in comparison to their small bodies, show for what 
 element they are intended ? How admirably are they 
 suited for bearing them along in their rapid flight, and 
 how much more easily does their being able to fly 
 enable them to collect their food, which is honey, ob- 
 tained from the nectaries of flowers. In the caterpillar 
 state they feed on the leaves of plants ; when arrived at 
 the last stage of their existence, the little nourishment 
 they require is taken from the blossoms, and as these 
 are generally on the summits of plants, the winged 
 
THE CAMEL. 31 
 
 insect's mode of travelling gives it great command over 
 them ; could it only crawl, it would be long in reaching 
 the object of its pursuit. Some insects are provided 
 with a covering, or case, for their wings, as the beetle 
 tribe. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I suppose, because their wings are so much more 
 delicate and thin in texture than those of moths and 
 butterflies. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 That, probably, may be one reason, but there are, 
 also, others. They undergo the last change under 
 ground, (in some instances at a considerable depth 
 below the surface,) and, therefore, elytra, or wing-cases, 
 are extremely serviceable in protecting their fragile in- 
 closures during the progress of the insect to its new 
 element. And you must have observed that beetles are 
 not, like our sportive butterflies, always on the wing ; 
 their time of flight does not begin till the evening, and 
 their strong, hard coverings prevent their being injured 
 as they crawl on the ground, for if you inadvertently 
 
32 THE CAMEL. 
 
 tread on a beetle, you may see it as you pass on running 
 briskly away, unhurt by a pressure which would have 
 destroyed so small a creature had it not been provided 
 with so good a defence. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Before we go in will you tell me the peculiarity in 
 that chrysalis which you had not time to explain when 
 you showed it me the other day. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I am glad you have recollected it, for its peculiarity 
 is a remarkable instance of what I have been endea- 
 vouring to impress on your mind to-day. It was the 
 chrysalis of the great goat-moth, (bombyx cossus.) The 
 caterpillar, when about to change, bores into living 
 trees, and penetrates so far into the willow, (the tree it 
 usually selects,) that if there were not some provision 
 for its making its way out it would be a complete 
 prisoner. But this difficulty is guarded against, and if 
 you will run and fetch the pupa I will show you how. 
 Observe that the head is armed with points; these 
 enable it to pierce its cocoon. Observe further, that 
 
THE CAMEL. 
 
 33 
 
 each joint or division of the 
 pupa is beset with sharp, 
 strong teeth, all turning one 
 way, towards the head. 
 These teeth are employed 
 to lay hold of the wood, and 
 when thus fastened it pushes 
 itself a little further, till at last, by repeated efforts, 
 it arrives at the hole in the tree which it had made 
 when a caterpillar, through which it emerges, and 
 becomes an inhabitant of the air. It is not usual 
 for pupae to be toothed in this manner; we do not 
 find it the case with those which attach themselves ; 
 but if you were to see a willow sawn across, and to find 
 a chrysalis in the middle of the wood, you would con- 
 sider how it would be possible for the insect to liberate 
 itself. The intention of the teeth as an assistance in 
 this process is evident. I hope I have made you under- 
 stand the manner in which they are used. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Yes, I think I do perfectly. I fancy the chrysalis 
 employing its teeth as that boy who is climbing up the 
 
34 THE CAMEL. 
 
 tree before us does his hand holding by a projection 
 till he draws his feet a little nearer the point, and then 
 again extending his hand to seek for another place to 
 hold by. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Well, I think your illustration shows that you have a 
 correct notion of the chrysalis's movements in its dark 
 abode. 
 
35 
 
 THE SUNFLOWER. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You have lately made me acquainted in our walks with 
 a great many useful plants, and I cannot help thinking 
 what a pity it is that large, handsome sunflower cannot 
 be applied to some purpose. It certainly makes a great 
 display in a garden, but it grows to such a size that it 
 seems as if it ought to have some use beyond this. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 And so it has. You know I have often told you, and 
 I again repeat, that we should not conclude that any- 
 thing is useless till we have made ourselves acquainted 
 with its properties ; we shall then find that most of the 
 productions of nature, beyond the gratification they 
 afford us by their beautiful forms and tints, may be em- 
 ployed by the farmer, the manufacturer, or the chemist. 
 
 Recollect that brilliant flower we examined the other 
 
 D 2 
 
36 THE SUNFLOWER. 
 
 day, the saintfoin, did you not know that the fields we 
 see sown of it were intended for the food of cattle, you 
 would, perhaps, have imagined that it was designed only 
 to delight the eye. Nor would you have supposed that 
 pretty little plant, with its delicately pencilled petals, 
 the flax, could be manufactured into such a texture as 
 linen, nor that the mignionette, when prepared by the 
 chemist, would prove so serviceable from the dye it 
 yields. And how many of our gay flowers possess 
 medicinal virtues, as the handsome fox-glove, the mea- 
 dow-saffron, and many others which I will not now stop 
 to enumerate.. Now the sunflower does not possess 
 such striking and important properties as the plants I 
 have named, yet it has uses which are not generally 
 known, though it is so frequently cultivated as an orna- 
 ment to the garden. The seed forms an excellent and 
 convenient food for poultry, and it is only necessary to 
 cut off the thickly studded receptacles and tie them up 
 in a dry situation. These seeds are said not only to 
 fatten poultry, but greatly to increase the number of 
 eggs they lay. When cultivated to a considerable ex- 
 tent, they are, also, good food for sheep, pigs, and phea- 
 sants. The leaves, too, when dried, have their peculiar 
 
THE SUNFLOWER. 37 
 
 use ; they make a good powder for cattle. The dry stalks 
 burn well, and yield an abundance of alkali, and you 
 have yourself remarked how busy our little friends the 
 bees are, loading themselves from its blossoms, which 
 are particularly attractive to them, and must supply a 
 great deal of matter for the composition of their winter 
 
 stores. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Well, I have, indeed, done the sunflower injustice, for 
 instead of being of no value, it seems to have a great 
 many uses, but one of them I do not understand. You 
 said the stalks produced alkali : pray what is alkali ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 To answer your inquiry I must enter into a little che- 
 mical explanation, which I did not recollect the sun- 
 flower would lead me into. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh ! 1 am very glad of that, if you will not be tired of 
 explaining, for I have always found our conversations 
 so amusing when you have referred to chemistry in 
 them. 
 
38 THE SUNFLOWER. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I am happy you have, for it is a subject on which, at 
 a future time, I shall wish you to have much fuller 
 knowledge than the slight allusions to it which I have 
 occasionally made can give you. Alkalies are bodies 
 which have an acrid, burning taste, a pungent smell, 
 and a caustic effect on the skin and flesh ; another of 
 their general properties is, that they turn blue vegetable 
 infusions green. There are three, but having given you 
 this general idea of their nature, I will now only speak 
 of potash, the one which is left after the burning of the 
 leaves and stalks of the sunflower. It forms a part in 
 the composition of many vegetables, but some contain 
 it in greater quantities than others. As the ashes of a 
 burnt vegetable contain other substances besides pot- 
 ash, it is not easy to obtain the potash from them in a 
 pure state. Indeed, it is only by a process much more 
 complicated than combustion that it can be obtained 
 pure. But still the ashes are valuable for the alkali 
 they contain, and are used for some purposes without 
 fm-ther preparation. A little purified, they make what 
 is called pearlash, which, mixed with oil or fat, makes a 
 well-known and generally useful compound soap. A 
 
THE SUNFLOWER. 39 
 
 very remarkable property of potash is the formation of 
 glass by its fusion with silicious earth, the substance of 
 which sand and flint are chiefly composed. This, 
 though infusible alone, when mixed with potash melts 
 by the heat of a furnace, and runs into glass. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then when I look at the window, I perhaps see what 
 has formed part of a sunflower. This is, indeed, sin- 
 gular. Well, the sunflower has been of use to me, for 
 it has taught me what alkalies are, and of what soap and 
 glass are composed, neither of which I knew before. 
 
40 
 
 CHARCOAL. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 GOOD morning, my dear. You need not have prepared 
 for walking, for it has just begun to rain, therefore we 
 must remain within. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh, but I hope, though we cannot go out, you will not 
 return, because if you have nothing particular to do you 
 will perhaps fulfil the promise you made me last week : 
 you said you would tell me how charcoal was pre- 
 pared. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Very true, and we cannot have a better opportunity 
 than the present. In the first place, then, I suppose 
 you know the substance from which it is obtained. 
 
CHARCOAL. 41 
 
 MARY. 
 
 No, indeed I do not ; but what I have seen looked 
 almost like logs of wood. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is commonly said that charcoal is made from wood, 
 but this is not a correct way of speaking. In order fully 
 to make you understand the nature of charcoal, I must 
 dip a little into chemistry, 
 
 MARY. 
 
 What connexion can charcoal and chemistry have ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Carbon is a very important chemical agent, and this 
 is nothing more than charcoal in its pure state, that is, 
 unmixed with other ingredients ; it forms a great part of 
 all organized bodies, and is particularly abundant in 
 vegetables. When the oil and water (the other compo- 
 nent parts of vegetable matter) are evaporated, a black, 
 brittle substance remains this is carbon, or charcoal. 
 To obtain it in the purest state in which it has yet been 
 possible, the vegetable matter is subjected to a more 
 
42 CHARCOAL. 
 
 delicate operation than I am going to describe to you, 
 as I shall confine myself to the common charcoal as it 
 is prepared for culinary and other ordinary purposes. 
 Logs of wood are closely piled, and covered with clay, 
 in which holes are left to admit air, and a fire is lighted 
 under it. The holes in the clay are stopped up as soon 
 as the wood has caught fire, that it may not be com- 
 pletely burnt. Though the fire is extinguished, suffi- 
 cient heat remains to deprive the wood of its oily and 
 watery particles, without reducing it to ashes. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I have heard it is very unwholesome to be in a room 
 with burning charcoal. Why is it so ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The act of burning converts it into a gas, or vapour, 
 which uniting with one of the principles of our atmo- 
 sphere, (the oxygen,) forms a compound called carbonic 
 acid gas, and this is irrespirable, and, therefore, the 
 lungs do not obtain a supply of air, and you are aware 
 that any cause which deprives us of air must produce 
 death by suffocation. 
 
CHARCOAL. 43 
 
 MARY. 
 Then the fames of charcoal are this gas. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes : and though so highly prejudicial in a room, or 
 any other close place into which there is no admission 
 of atmospheric air, yet, taken into the stomach, it is not 
 only harmless but beneficial. It is an ingredient in 
 many of the medicinal waters, in soda-water, for in- 
 stance ; the effervescence of which is caused by the 
 carbonic acid, which, being lighter than the water in 
 which it is condensed, flies off immediately the pressure 
 of the cork is removed. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 1 have seen beer and some wines effervesce as much 
 as soda-water, do they also contain carbonic acid ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, its escape causes the brisk, sparkling effect in 
 all these liquors. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 It certainly does appear to me very extraordinary that 
 
44 CHARCOAL. 
 
 what is so injurious to inhale should be wholesome to 
 drink, and that the fumes of a charcoal fire and the fixed 
 air from soda-water are of the same nature. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 But there is another form under which carbon appears 
 in its solid state, which will, I suspect, surprise you more 
 than what I have already told you. That most brilliant 
 of all gems, the diamond, is nothing more than carbon 
 in a crystallized state. 
 
 MARY. 
 That does seem incredible ! How is it proved ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 By analysis ; a process which discovers to us the 
 component parts of bodies by their decomposition. 
 Thus, if we decompose a piece of carbon by combus- 
 tion, we find, as I have told you, that carbonic acid is 
 the product, and if a diamond be submitted to the same 
 trial the result is the same, which proves that their na- 
 ture is similar. 
 
CHARCOAL. 45 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Surprising ! that anything so black, heavy, and dull- 
 looking should be composed of the same material as the 
 most brilliant of all substances. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I could detain you much longer on the subject of 
 carbon, for it enters into the composition of animals, 
 vegetables, and minerals ; it is one of the components 
 of all oils. But I must now take my leave. 
 
46 
 
 SPONGE. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 As I was preparing to come out this morning, I was 
 considering what sponge is, and wondered it had never 
 occurred to me to ask you. I fancied it more like a 
 fungus than anything else I know : is it one ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 No ; but I am not surprised at your imagining that it 
 is, for it certainly has very much the appearance of 
 some kinds of fungus, and is attached to rocks in the 
 same manner that the fungus tribe are to wells, trees, 
 &c. But what will you say when I tell you the various 
 species of sponge are either animals, or the habitations 
 of marine creatures. There have been various opinions 
 with regard to these curious productions. They were 
 formerly supposed to be vegetables, but their being ob- 
 served to shrink when touched, soon led to an idea that 
 
SPONGES. 
 
 Page 46. 
 
SPONGE. 47 
 
 they possessed animal life. Then it was conjectured 
 that each cell, or hole, contained a small worm ; but later 
 observers not having (after the most accurate attention 
 and examination) ever been able to discover any worm 
 in the cells, or to detect any coming out, have decided 
 that the sponge is itself an animal, " whose mouths are 
 so many holes, or ends of branched tubes opening on 
 its surface, and that by these it receives its nourish- 
 ment." 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You speak of various species of sponge. I was not 
 aware that there was more than the one kind which is so 
 commonly used. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 That is, indeed, the most usual ; but 1 can show you 
 engravings of several others of totally different form and 
 appearance ; and in some cabinets of natural history 
 there are a very great variety preserved. England alone, 
 I think, affords ten sorts. 
 
 MARY. 
 Does England supply all we see used ? 
 
48 
 
 SPONGE. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 On the contrary, I rather believe you will find that that 
 species (spongia 
 officinalis) is not 
 to be met with 
 on the English 
 coast. At any rate, 
 great quantities 
 are imported. It 
 abounds on the 
 coast of Asia 
 Minor, and the 
 islands of the Ar- 
 chipelago. The inhabitants of many of these islands 
 gain a subsistence by diving for it to the low rocks in 
 the vicinity of their coasts. The water is extremely 
 clear, and the experienced divers are able to distinguish 
 from the surface the points to which the animal is at- 
 tached below, when an unpractised eye could scarcely 
 discern the bottom. The divers go out in boats ; each 
 boat is furnished with a large stone fastened to a rope, 
 which the diver seizes in his hand on plunging head 
 foremost from the stern, in order to increase the velocity 
 
SPONGE. 49 
 
 of his descent through the water. By this means he 
 saves unnecessary expenditure of breath, and facilitates 
 his ascent, being pulled up by his companions when he 
 can no longer remain under water. They can rarely 
 bear being below more than two minutes, and the pro- 
 cess of detaching the sponge is, of course, very tedious ; 
 three or four divers frequently descend in succession 
 to secure a particularly fine specimen. 
 
 In some of the islands there is a regulation, that no 
 young man shall claim his bride till he can descend with 
 facility to the depth of twenty fathoms ; and in a little 
 island named Himia, a girl is not permitted by her rela- 
 tions to marry before she has brought up a certain 
 quantity of sponges, and can give proof of her agility, 
 by taking them from a certain depth, 
 
 MARY. 
 
 It must be very difficult, and require practice ! I 
 should not like to be put to such a trial. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It would certainly be a severe one to a person un- 
 practised in the art of diving. But I cannot dismiss this 
 
 E 
 
50 SPONGE. 
 
 subject without reverting to the important office per- 
 formed by some tribes of marine insects or worms the 
 formation of islands. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 The formation of islands ! You cannot be in earnest, 
 my dear aunt. 
 
 AUNT. 
 I assure you, my dear niece, I never was more so. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then, pray explain to me how this can be accom- 
 plished, for I can scarcely believe it possible. They must 
 be enormous insects. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 No, they are not ; but by the extent of their works 
 we see what may be effected through the agency of very 
 small creatures, when labouring diligently and in concert ; 
 and from them you may learn a useful lesson, never to 
 relax in industry, but to remember that continued appli- 
 cation and perseverance will conquer difficulties, which 
 
MADREPORE. 
 
 Page 51. 
 
SPONGE. 
 
 51 
 
 at first appear insurmountable. The active little ani- 
 mals to which I allude are the worms that form the 
 various species of coral. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I saw some coral in Mr. B.'s cabinet the other day. 
 Is the coral of which these islands are formed similar to 
 that? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, and you recollect you particularly admired a 
 
 large white speci- 
 men resembling a 
 cauliflower, which I 
 told you was called 
 a madrepore, and 
 was the work of one 
 of the species of 
 coral worms. Now 
 it is principally of 
 this that the islands 
 I am about to de- 
 scribe are composed. It is most common in the tropical 
 
 E 2 
 
52 SPONGE. 
 
 seas, and a mass of it (frequently so large as to endanger 
 the safety of vessels) is called a reef. As it is requisite for 
 the worms to be covered with water while they work, 
 these reefs are rendered more dangerous by not appear- 
 ing above the surface. It was formerly imagined that 
 they raised these immense structures from the bottom of 
 the sea, but now the general opinion is, that submarine 
 hills and mountains are the foundations on which they 
 raise them. The tiny architects work till they reach the 
 level of the highest tide, beyond this point they cannot 
 advance: those which began their operations lower, 
 continue them till they reach the same height, and as 
 they work very rapidly, you may imagine what an exten- 
 sive surface is thus produced. The navigation of the 
 Pacific Ocean requires the greatest caution, on account 
 of the number of reefs that now exist, and the new ones 
 that are constantly in progress. By day there is little 
 danger, because when these vast edifices are not suffi- 
 ciently lofty to be seen above water, there is a rippling 
 over them, which marks the spot. I can scarcely ima- 
 gine any object more splendidly beautiful than one of 
 these reefs : the description navigators give of them is 
 so enchanting, that one is quite inspired with a desire to 
 
SPONGE* 
 
 53 
 
 witness the scene they depict. Over many of them the 
 water is so clear that their whole structure, and everything 
 on them, is disclosed to view, the treasures of the mighty 
 deep are discovered. Mixed with the beautiful coral itself 
 are sea-weeds and sponges of all forms and colours, and 
 
 shells equally varied ; fishes of all sizes and tints, and 
 enormous sea-snakes, increasing the splendour of their 
 lustrous skins by their undulating motions. In short, it 
 is a new world of beauty rendered dazzlingly brilliant 
 by the sparkling medium through which it is viewed. 
 
54 
 
 SPONGE. 
 
 But I must not allow the beauty of the reefs to draw me 
 from the mode of their conversion into islands. Each 
 successive colony of worms dies when their work is 
 completed, and they are no longer washed by the water, 
 and the interstices in their protruded abodes are, by 
 
 degrees, filled 
 with sand, shells, 
 and other sub- 
 stances, each tide 
 adding some con- 
 tribution, till at 
 length an island 
 is formed. The 
 sea conveys the 
 seeds of marine 
 plants, and those of the trees of adjacent lands. The 
 birds, too, which are its first visitors, bring seeds, and 
 by other means prepare it for the occupation of 
 man. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then, I suppose, the birds are like the worms, very 
 numerous. 
 
SPONGE. 55 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 So much so, that if we had not the testimony of eye- 
 witnesses, whose veracity is to be depended upon, the 
 accounts of their numbers would scarcely seem credible. 
 Captain Flinders, a bold navigator of the Australian 
 seas, (and who, by the bye, suffered shipwreck on a 
 coral reef,) mentions a flight of petrels, which took an 
 hour and a half in their passage over his vessel. He 
 describes them as forming a solid, compact mass, which 
 he calculated at fifty yards deep, and three hundred 
 broad, and computing the space that each bird would 
 occupy in flying, he considered the whole number to 
 amount to 151,500,000, and the quantity of ground they 
 would require to burrow in, to eighteen and a half square 
 miles. This will give you some idea of the importance 
 of the winged preparers of the coral islands. 
 
 MARY. 
 What kind of birds are petrels ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 They are a tribe which frequent the sea-coast, and 
 
56 SPONGE* 
 
 there form burrows for themselves, or, as in some in- 
 stances on our shores, take possession of those of rabbits. 
 During the day they are generally on the wing, seeking 
 for food ; this consists of the fat of whales or fish. But 
 the most distinguishing characteristic of the genus is, 
 that all the species have the power of spouting oil from 
 their bills to a considerable distance. This is a means 
 of defence ; they spirt it in the faces of those who at- 
 tempt to take them. From the nature of their food, 
 they abound so much in oil, that they actually, in some 
 countries, have wicks passed through them, and are 
 used for candles. 
 
 Does it not forcibly impress us with the wonderful 
 power of the Creator, when we consider the feeble in- 
 struments he employs for such great and curious works ? 
 We see visible traces of his mighty hand on every region 
 of his dominions ; the same beautiful adaptation to cir- 
 cumstances, the same wisdom is evident, whether we 
 contemplate the starry firmament, the air, the earth, or 
 the ocean, all teem with His works, all declare His 
 glory. We exclaim with the Psalmist, " O Lord ! how 
 manifold are thy works ; in wisdom hast thou made 
 them all : the earth is full of thy riches. So is the great 
 
SPONGE. 
 
 57 
 
 and wide sea also ; wherein are things, creeping things 
 innumerable, both small and great beasts." 
 
58 
 
 RUST INDIAN-RUBBER LEAD PENCILS, &c. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You have so frequently told me that I ought not to let 
 common objects pass without learning all I can about 
 them, that I have kept a list of some I wish to ask you 
 about, and perhaps you will be so good as to give me 
 some information respecting two or three of them to- 
 day, 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I shall be very happy to do so. Let me hear what 
 questions you have to propose. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 In the first place I want to know what causes steel to 
 rust in a damp place ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 The decomposition of water. 
 
RUST ON STEEL. 59 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I really do not understand your answer, for how can 
 that be the reason of this rust on my penknife, which 
 has not been near water? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 But it has been in a damp room, and damp is water 
 in a state of vapour. I did not expect you to under- 
 stand my answer without further explanation, which 1 
 was going to give you. The components of water are 
 two gases, oxygen and hydrogen; and the oxygen 
 having a greater affinity for steel than for hydrogen, the 
 former obtains it from the latter, and the brown coating 
 is formed, which is commonly called rust, but more 
 properly an oxyd, from oxydation, a term used to ex- 
 press the union of bodies with oxygen. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Is not oxygen the gas you told me we inhale from 
 the atmosphere when we breathe ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 Yes, and I also told you that it is absolutely requisite 
 
60 RUST ON STEEL, 
 
 in combustion. This operation cannot go on without a 
 supply of oxygen, and in fact oxydation is a slight com- 
 bustion, for there is disengagement of light and heat, 
 (the accompaniments of combustion,) though it is not 
 sufficient to be perceptible when metals oxydate at the 
 common temperature of the atmosphere. The attraction 
 of metals for oxygen varies considerably ; some require 
 to be heated to combine with it. The precious metals, 
 gold, silver, and platina, preserve their lustre so well, 
 because they will not oxydate without being exposed to 
 the greatest heat the chemist can produce. There is 
 one, manganese, which has so strong an affinity for 
 oxygen, that it becomes an oxyd immediately on its ex- 
 posure to the air, and is seldom found in its pure 
 state. The oxyds of metals may be restored to 
 their pure metallic state by a process which is called 
 reviving. For this purpose they are placed in con- 
 tact with charcoal heated red hot, because it has a 
 greater attraction for oxygen than metals. The oxygen 
 quits the metal, and combines with the charcoal. 
 Thus the oxyd is decomposed, or unburnt, and the metal 
 restored. 
 
INDIAN-RUBBER. 61 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then rust is an oxyd, formed by the union of a 
 metal with oxygen. Now you will, perhaps, think my 
 next question a very ignorant one, but I do not recollect 
 ever having heard what Indian-rubber is ; or, if I have, I 
 
 have forgotten. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You probably never have. Of what nature should you 
 imagine it to be ? 
 
 MARY. 
 It seems like a gum. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You are right, it is something of that nature, but par- 
 takes more of the properties of a resin, and its proper 
 name is caoutchouc. It is procured from two or three 
 species of trees in the East Indies and South America, 
 from which it flows as a white milky fluid. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But we generally see it in the shape of bottles ; I 
 suppose it is made to assume that form by art. 
 
DO 
 
 J^ori 
 
 6*2 INDIAN-RUBBER. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes ; incisions are made in the trees, and the juice 
 collected, into which little moulds of clay are dipped, 
 and when dry, dipped in again; and this is conti- 
 nued till the coating has acquired sufficient consistency ; 
 the enclosed clay is then broken, aud shaken out. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 That accounts for the brown earthy appearance one 
 always sees on cutting a bottle of Indian-rubber. But 
 you said the juice was white ; is it then coloured, 
 because we always have it black. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 In a liquid state it is white, but it blackens in drying. 
 You frequently see lines and figures on it; these are 
 traced on the last coating before it is quite dry. It is 
 obtained chiefly during rain, being observed to ooze 
 more freely at that time. It is insoluble in water, of 
 which property the Indians avail themselves by making 
 boats of it, which are not penetrable by water. It may 
 used as flambeaux, and is said to give a beautifully 
 rilliant light, and not to emit any unpleasant odour. 
 
OF LEAD IN PENCILS. 63 
 
 It is very difficult of solution, for it resists the power of 
 all common solvents, and can only, I believe, be per- 
 fectly dissolved in ether. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 The subject of Indian-rubber reminds me of another 
 question I have often thought of asking you. How is the 
 lead in pencils made so much more shining and bril- 
 liant than lead generally is ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You are not aware that you are speaking of two dif- 
 ferent things ; of a mineral, not a metal. There is not 
 any lead in the composition of your pencils, though from 
 custom they are called black-lead pencils. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then, pray, dear aunt, do tell me of what they are 
 composed. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Of carbon, (a substance you are already somewh 
 acquainted with,) united with a small portion of iron ; 
 
64 OF LEAD IN PENCILS. 
 
 these together form a compound, called in the language 
 of chemistry, carburet of iron. There is only one mine 
 of it in England. 
 
 MARY. 
 And where is that ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 In Cumberland. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 From what you say, I suppose there is much more 
 carbon than iron in this compound. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, the carbon greatly predominates ; indeed, it is 
 considered to approach as nearly as possible to the best 
 prepared charcoal, for there are only five parts of iron, 
 and no other ingredient. 
 
 MARY. 
 From what kind of tree is gum arable obtained ? 
 
GUMS AND RESINS. 65 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is of the same genus as that beautiful shrub with 
 its tufts of brilliant yellow flowers we were admiring the 
 other day, and which you had been accustomed to call 
 a mimosa, till I told you it was now classed as an acacia. 
 The species in question grows in great abundance in 
 Africa generally, but the gum is chiefly obtained from 
 those trees situated in the equatorial regions. Arabia, 
 Barbary, and Egypt supply us with the greatest quan- 
 tity. It exudes in the same manner as that from our 
 cherry and plum-trees. Now remark the distinction 
 between a gum and a resin. Indian-rubber (which I 
 have just told you is of the latter nature) is insoluble in 
 water, and this is the general characteristic of resins, 
 though they yield more easily to spirituous solvents 
 than caoutchouc. Gums, on the contrary, are soluble 
 in water. By recollecting this fact you will be possessed 
 of a test by which you can yourself discover to which of 
 these classes any particular body belongs. In appear- 
 ance, there is a great resemblance between gums and 
 resins, and therefore they may be easily mistaken till 
 submitted to the proof of solubility in water. In Arabia 
 gum-arabic is applied to a purpose we are not accus- 
 
 F 
 
()6 GUM-ARABIC. 
 
 tomed to see it used for in England, for sealing letters, 
 and little vases filled with it, in a liquid state, are hung 
 outside the houses. Even such trifling differences of 
 custom in foreign countries strike us as singular and 
 curious, and arrest our attention. Travellers in the 
 East remark, that the style of folding, directing, and 
 sealing letters immediately indicates, to a person ac- 
 quainted with the customs of Arabia, Syria, and Turkey, 
 whence they come, for each country has its distinct 
 mode. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 So that if I ever should receive a letter sealed with 
 gum, I shall suspect it has travelled to me from Arabia, 
 though I do not think it likely I shall ever have my 
 discernment exercised on this point. 
 
COLOURS. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 As I saw you drawing yesterday, it occurred to me that 
 you had very probably never considered whence your 
 colours were obtained. Am I right ? Have you ever 
 inquired from what substances they were extracted ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Your conjecture is indeed correct, for this is a sub- 
 ject that I have never thought on, and I am quite glad 
 that you have directed my attention to it. Let me see 
 I should imagine the colours were all made from vege- 
 tables. Is this the case ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Far from it. Some are obtained from vegetables, 
 some from animals, but the greater number from 
 minerals. 
 
 F -2 
 
68 COLOURS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 So instead of the artist being indebted to one only of 
 the kingdoms of nature, as I ignorantly supposed, he is 
 supplied from the three. Will you tell me the colours 
 that belong to each ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I will enumerate a few of each class; but I shall 
 merely speak of the nature and origin of the colours, 
 without attempting to explain how they are rendered fit 
 for the painter's use ; a process which, in some instances, 
 is very complicated. You may take it as a general rule 
 with respect to water-colours, that those prepared from 
 metals are always opaque, and those from animals and 
 vegetables transparent. Prussian-blue, which is a 
 metallic colour, is an exception, being always transpa- 
 rent. 
 
 Now I will comply with your request, and tell you 
 that carmine and lake are obtained from the cochineal 
 insect, seppia from a species of cuttle-fish. Ivory-black 
 is the soot (or fixed product of combustion) of ivory or 
 bones burnt in a close vessel. 
 
COLOURS. 69 
 
 MARY. 
 Then these may be called animal colours. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Certainly. The mineral and metallic colours are 
 very numerous ; indeed, nearly all the metallic oxyds are 
 used as paints. Ultra-marine is an oxyd of lapis lazuli, 
 and has this great advantage, that it never fades, even 
 when mixed with other substances ; it is therefore to be 
 regretted that its high price prevents its being more 
 used. Smalt is, in fact, a glass formed of an oxyd of 
 cobalt and potash. Vermilion results from a union of 
 sulphur and quicksilver. The ochres are earths, and 
 owe their different shades to the degrees of oxydation 
 in which the iron is with which they are impregnated. 
 Umber, again, is an earth of an ochreous nature, called 
 from Ombria, the ancient name of the duchy of Spoleto, 
 where it was first found. The basis of Prussian-blue is 
 iron, which, mixed with a certain portion of alkali, and 
 exposed to the action of heat, produces this useful 
 colour. It takes its name from having been accident- 
 ally discovered by a chemist of Berlin. 
 
 Indigo is extracted from the leaves of a plant, the 
 
70 COLOURS. 
 
 Indigofera tinctoria. Gamboge is a vegetable exuda- 
 tion, partaking of the properties both of a gum and a 
 resin. The madders are obtained from the root of the 
 madder, (rubia tine tor urn,) and so strong is the colour- 
 ing matter of this plant, that the bones of animals which 
 feed on it are tinged of a deep red. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You have not mentioned either lamp-black or Indian- 
 ink. What are they composed of? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The best lamp-black is, I believe, prepared from the 
 soot of burnt pine-wood; but I have known persons who 
 have made a very good black of this kind from the soot 
 collected from an oil-lamp, merely adding a little gum- 
 arabic to give it consistency. Indian-ink is a mixture 
 of lamp-black and glue. 
 
 MARY. 
 I do not recollect that you spoke of any green. 
 
PLANT-INDIGO. 
 
 Page 70. 
 

COLOURS. 71 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Green is generally a compound colour. I believe the 
 only simple green that is at all vivid is that procured from 
 vcrdigrease. The one you most commonly use, Prus- 
 sian-green, consists of Prussian-blue and yellow-ochre. 
 Purples and lilacs, too, are usually compound colours. 
 
 I am aware that, in the few colours I have named, I 
 perhaps have not noticed half what you will find in your 
 own box ; but I did not promise to go through the 
 whole, and shall leave you to discover y our self whether 
 those I have omitted are to be referred to an animal, 
 vegetable, or mineral origin. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Thank you, my dear aunt, for having given me as 
 much information as you have on this subject. I shall 
 not rest now till I have found out what each little occu- 
 pant of my box is composed of, for I am surprised that 
 I could open it, day after day, without feeling such a 
 curiosity. I am determined I will no longer remain in 
 
 ignorance. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is very useful to know whence each colour is de- 
 
72 COLOURS. 
 
 rived, that you may understand how to mix it properly 
 with another. Care must be taken not to mix the 
 mineral and vegetable colours, for they destroy each 
 other, and, in a short time, the effect of a drawing in 
 which such an error has been committed is completely 
 altered. 
 
THE COTTON-TREE. 
 
 Page 73. 
 
73 
 
 A TRAVELLER. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Now, my dear, I shall try if I can puzzle you this morn- 
 ing, though I do not expect to succeed, for I dare say 
 you will soon discover the adventurers I am going to 
 introduce to you. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You rather alarm me ; for if you are about to speak of 
 any distinguished persons whose history I ought to 
 recollect, and I should have forgotten it, you will think 
 me very forgetful and ignorant 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 We shall see how your memory serves. Listen to my 
 tale. 
 
74 A TRAVELLER. 
 
 " In India, my native clime, I commenced my career 
 as the protector of a tender infant, and may truly say I 
 never left the object of my care till I found myself torn 
 from it by a power which I was unable to resist, and we 
 parted never to meet again. Nothing could be more 
 violent and painful than the mode of our separation. 
 However wrong it may be, it is generally remarked that 
 there is a feeling almost amounting to satisfaction when 
 we find we are not greater sufferers than our neighbours ; 
 a consolation which I certainly enjoyed, for numbers of 
 mine were obliged to submit to the same discipline as 
 myself, and to part from those with whom they had been, 
 from their springing into life, most nearly connected. I 
 soon found that we were to be entirely at the disposal of 
 our captors, and that it was their intention shortly to 
 transport us to a foreign country. For this purpose a 
 receptacle was prepared for us, into which we were all 
 unceremoniously hurried ; and though we seemed at first 
 to be quite as close together as was at all agreeable, it 
 was considered by those under whose direction we 
 were that we puffed ourselves out, and occupied too 
 much space. We were soon obliged to contract our- 
 
A TRAVELLER. 75 
 
 selves ; nay, they did not even scruple to have recourse 
 to main force to make us lie nearer together, which it 
 may be easily imagined was far from comfortable. 
 After we had remained in this miserable state for some 
 time, we were removed from the position we had hith- 
 erto occupied, and placed on board a large vessel, 
 where we did not meet with more consideration than in 
 our former situation : and there was this further disad- 
 vantage, that we were kept longer in durance, for we 
 were nearly six months on our voyage, uncertain of our 
 destination, and of what was to be our fate on reaching 
 it. But, dull and uncomfortable as our life was during 
 this half-year's imprisonment, it was delightful compared 
 with what we had to undergo afterwards. On the ship's 
 arrival in port all was bustle and confusion ; but from 
 one language prevailing, which we had often heard 
 spoken in our own dear India, we felt convinced we 
 must be in England, that happy land of liberty, and we 
 were certain that here, at any rate, we should meet with 
 more humanity, and be released from bondage. We 
 were indeed let out of our confinement, but only to be 
 treated still more cruelly. The passengers all landed, 
 
76 A TRAVELLER. 
 
 and we anxiously expected to follow ; but our turn did 
 not come ; we seemed to be forgotten. At last, how- 
 ever, the anticipated moment arrived, and we found 
 ourselves on English ground. I cannot enter into a 
 detail of all our sufferings. One of the operations to 
 which we were obliged to submit I can only compare to 
 being on the rack, which will give some idea of the 
 rigorous treatment we experienced. After suffering the 
 inflictions of those into whose hands we had fallen, we 
 were completely altered, our very nature seemed changed, 
 and we discovered that we were thus disguised in order 
 to serve the ends of our tormentors. We travelled to 
 various parts of the country, and in several of the pro- 
 vincial towns we were introduced into immense build- 
 ings, in which were rooms of enormous length, where a 
 great number of persons were assembled, whose whole 
 attention, strange to say, seemed devoted to us. Here 
 many of us were united together. Each of us had hith- 
 erto led much the same kind of life, but now OUT desti- 
 nies were exceedingly different. Some of my compa- 
 nions, leaving the great houses I have spoken of, were 
 allowed to revisit their native country, not to take up 
 
A TRAVELLER. 77 
 
 their abode there, but to improve their appearance, (a 
 long way to go for such a purpose,) and after having 
 undergone what was deemed requisite to produce this 
 result, they were again embarked for England, where 
 they became great favourites, and were eagerly sought 
 for by the female part of the community. The period I 
 am referring to is some few years ago, when such travel- 
 lers were more esteemed than they are now. We stay- 
 at-homes have since risen in reputation, and gained the 
 place in society they formerly monopolized. Numbers 
 of us are now journeying on the continent of Europe, 
 others in America; in short, the English name has, 
 through our means, been carried to all the quarters of 
 the globe. We are universally valued for our useful 
 properties. Proteus like, we assume various forms, and 
 may be seen of every hue. The offices we fill are 
 equally various. We are found about the persons of 
 the monarch and the peasant of the fine lady and her 
 meanest attendant. We assist in the diffusion of light, 
 and are not less frequently employed in its exclusion. 
 But it would be vain to attempt an enumeration of all 
 
78 A TRAVELLER. 
 
 our offices, and I have already told sufficient of the his- 
 tory of myself and friends." 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I have listened very attentively, dear aunt, but I must 
 confess myself so stupid as not to know of whom you 
 have been speaking. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 My riddle (or whatever you like to call it) was sug- 
 gested by a conversation we had a very short time ago, 
 and therefore I fancied you would not be long in making 
 it out. Do not you remember how much interested you 
 were by hearing of the number of hands through which 
 cotton passes in its progress from the raw to the manu- 
 factured state ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Ah ! now I understand ! The protectors of the tender 
 infants are the soft envelopes of the seeds of the cotton- 
 plant, that is, the cotton in its natural state ; and the 
 imaginary sufferings you have described are the opera- 
 
A TRAVELLER. 79 
 
 tions to which it is submitted in its preparation for 
 articles of clothing, and the other uses to which it is 
 applied. 
 
 COTTON-PLANT. 
 
80 
 
 RAIN. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How much I regret this wet morning ; it will prevent 
 our taking our walk : and it is so particularly unfortunate, 
 
 because you promised to take me to Wood, to seek 
 
 for insects, and I have prepared my net and boxes 
 for catching and bringing them home. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is true, my dear, your expected pleasure is deferred 
 by this rain ; but we must not, on such occasions, think 
 only of ourselves and our own gratifications, but reflect 
 on the general benefit that is received from the alterna- 
 tion of rain and sunshine. Recollect how parched the 
 ground looked yesterday ; you know in some places we 
 remarked that it had actually cracked from excessive 
 dryness. This seasonable supply of moisture will revive 
 
RAIN. 
 
 81 
 
 the whole face of nature, by affording nourishment to 
 vegetation. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 And all the poor plants that looked so drooping will 
 hold up their heads again. Pray, aunt, what is the 
 cause of rain ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You know I told you the other day that there is 
 always a certain portion of moisture in the air. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I recollect you did, and you said, also, that it con- 
 tained most when it appeared the driest. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The reason of which, though it appears paradoxical 
 without explanation, is, that when the air is the warmest 
 it can dissolve the greatest quantity of water. Now for 
 the cause of rain. When a portion of this warm air, 
 charged with moisture, meets a current of colder air, it- 
 is deprived of some of its heat, and with its heat its 
 
 G 
 
82 RAIN. 
 
 power of retaining water in a state of solution is dimin- 
 ished, and the particles (of water) approach each other, 
 and fall in the form of rain. The refreshment and 
 abundance produced by rain is one of the blessings for 
 which, from their frequency and common occurrence, 
 we are not sufficiently grateful. In our temperate cli- 
 mate we seldom suffer from the want of it, and the 
 verdure of our fields and trees is the consequence. This 
 grateful freshness is so familiar to our eye that we 
 almost cease to observe it, but it is remarkably striking 
 to those who come from, what we are apt to consider, more 
 favoured climes. An inhabitant of France or Italy, or 
 of the "further East," is immediately struck by the 
 greenness of our country, and filled with admiration of 
 so great a beauty. This is a subject I like to dwell 
 upon, for I think the advantage of having been placed 
 in so temperate and healthful a climate as ours, is one of 
 those every-day comforts of which we are too apt to be 
 unmindful. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I deserve to be censured for complaining as I did 
 just now ; it was, indeed, very selfish. 
 
RAIN. b3 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 We are all too prone to do so, and lament the vari- 
 ableness of our climate, without considering it is to that 
 cause we owe its healthfulness. Placed between the 
 extremes of heat and cold, we avoid the inconveniences 
 consequent on both. The seasons are, indeed, more 
 regular and less changeable in other latitudes, but 
 comfort is far from being the result of this regularity. 
 Towards the poles the year is divided between a long, 
 dreary winter, and a very short summer. Between the 
 tropics, the wet and dry seasons are more accurately 
 divided than ours ; but you would not, I imagine, con- 
 sider this an advantage, for during the dry season the 
 air is so heated as to become scorching and insupport- 
 able ; and when the wet season sets in, it is with such 
 violence as to be often appalling, and hurricanes spread 
 devastation, uprooting the largest trees, and sweeping 
 away the abodes of man in their course. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 We are indeed happy to be exempt from such ravages. 
 You say all the various changes of weather are bene- 
 
84 RAIX. 
 
 ficial, and we certainly see and know that rain is so, but 
 of what use is wind ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You must yourself have remarked how, after a heavy 
 fall of rain, the ground is dried by this useful agent, to 
 which you do not seem able to assign an office ; if it 
 were not for its influence, after a wet season, the water 
 would remain so long on the ground as to become un- 
 wholesome. Another important service is the purifica- 
 tion of the atmosphere ; unwholesome exhalations are 
 dispelled by it, and rendered harmless by the rushing in 
 of a current of pure air. A remarkable instance of the 
 instrumentality of the agitation of the atmosphere in 
 dispelling noxious vapours, is mentioned by travellers as 
 occurring in the neighbourhood of Vera Cruz, where 
 great mortality is annually caused by a malignant fever, 
 called the vomito, but this ceases as soon as the norte y 
 a violent north wind, sets in. This wind is dreadfully 
 tempestuous, but notwithstanding the great injuries done 
 by the fury with which it blows, the inhabitants of Vera 
 Cruz hail it with delight, from its being, though a rude, 
 a certain remedy for the greater evil the malady which 
 
FISHING-BOATS IN A GALE. 
 
 Page 85. 
 
RAIN. 85 
 
 rages dining the portion of the year that the norte does 
 not blow. Then, when enumerating the services of 
 wind we must not fail to mention the facilitation of 
 intercourse between distant countries, by impelling 
 vessels from one shore to others so many hundred miles 
 apart. There are particular winds which prevail at cer- 
 tain seasons of the year between the tropics, a know- 
 ledge of which greatly assists the mariner in his course 
 through the seas over which they blow. These are 
 called trade-winds, &c., &c., and at some future time I 
 will tell you more of them. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But though wind is so essential for the progress of 
 vessels, how much it must make the poor sailors suffer 
 when it is very high. I always pity the fishermen, par- 
 ticularly when I see them pushing off their boats on a 
 windy night. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They are, indeed, very much to be commiserated 
 during severe gales ; but they rather rejoice in a degree 
 of wind which you would, I dare say, consider it very 
 
86 RAIN. 
 
 sad that they should be exposed to, because there are 
 some kinds of fish the captures of which are so much 
 more abundant during a gale. I was, last year, on the 
 Norfolk coast, where are our principal stations for her- 
 ring-fishing, and I felt as you do while I used to watch 
 the industrious, persevering fishermen preparing for 
 then* nightly task, when the wind raised the waves so 
 high that their boats could scarcely make way against 
 them ; but to any remark on the boisterous blowing of 
 the wind, they always replied : " It is good for fishing ; 
 if we have no wind we catch no herrings." So wise are 
 the appointments of Providence, that to every station 
 and occupation he has allotted compensating advan- 
 tages : the fisherman's lot appears to us a hard one, but 
 his employment is peculiarly healthy, and he is rendered, 
 by exposure to weather, so hardy that what we should 
 consider great inconveniences and difficulties, he thinks 
 nothing of, and what we should deem one of the greatest 
 evils he has to contend with, he regards with compla- 
 cency and satisfaction, because it is the means of sup- 
 plying him with abundance of that on which he depends 
 for the support of his family. 
 
87 
 
 FALL OF THE LEAF. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I AM sorry to see the leaves falling ; our morning walks 
 will soon be over, and the country looks so dismal when 
 the trees are bare. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The naked branches certainly form a sad contrast to 
 the gay verdure with which they are clothed in spring 
 and summer ; and we always look with sorrow on the 
 withering leaves, because they remind us that those 
 charming seasons are passed, and the less agreeable 
 divisions of the year are approaching. How great a 
 blessing is this gradual change ! In our temperate 
 climate we do not pass from intense heat to sudden 
 cold, but are prepared for the frost and snow of winter 
 by the chilly air of its precursor, autumn. And these 
 
88 FALL OF THE 'LEAF. 
 
 falling leaves, of which you complain, how useful they 
 are ! When decomposed by moisture they make an 
 excellent manure, and contribute to the nourishment of 
 the trees from which they drop. The economy of nature 
 is a beautiful consideration. The care of God for all 
 his creatures is evinced by the provision that he has 
 made for every individual ; the most insignificant plant, 
 the most minute insect, is not overlooked, but finds 
 itself placed in a situation where it meets with suste- 
 nance suited for it. Nothing is lost, nothing useless. 
 To how marly purposes are trees when felled applied, 
 which, while living and covered with leaves, were so orna- 
 mental, and afforded so grateful a shade ! The stately 
 oak, which in its progress to maturity has been the 
 admiration of generations, converted into a vessel, now 
 bears the defenders of the land on which it grew ; or, 
 guided by more peaceful hands, transports the discoverer 
 to the dreary regions of eternal ice, or the merchant to 
 more genial climes, in search of the various productions 
 they yield. How grateful is the shade of this lime-walk, 
 and how sweet the scent shed around when the trees 
 are in blossom ! But the use of the lime does not end 
 here. Its wood is hard and tough, which properties 
 
FALL OF THE LEAF. 89 
 
 adapt it for making axle-trees, mill-wheels, &c. The 
 bark, dried and ground to powder, and mixed with 
 meal, makes bread, and is thus used in Norway in times 
 of scarcity. The flowers are gathered by the Swiss as a 
 substitute for tea, and considered by them much more 
 wholesome than that from the Chinese herb. How 
 various are the benefits we derive from the inferior ani- 
 mal creation ! When an ox or a sheep is slain for our 
 food, those parts which are not suited for this purpose 
 are not cast away as unavailable, but are convertible 
 into articles for the service of man. By immersion in 
 water, spermaceti may be obtained from the bones of 
 horses ; the horns of deer yield the essence which gives 
 the agreeable pungency to hartshorn. But I cannot 
 select any animal that will more fully illustrate this sub- 
 ject and prove the correctness of what I have said than 
 that timid creature, the sheep. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Is it so particularly useful ? I know how much it is 
 used for food, but I was not aware that it was service- 
 able in many other wavs. 
 
90 FALL OF THE LEAF. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 A little reflection will bring to your recollection one 
 great benefit we derive from it, almost as great as the 
 nutritious and wholesome food it supplies us with. Of 
 what are our warm winter garments composed ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh ! very true. I remember of wool. I was cer- 
 tainly extremely stupid and ungrateful to the poor sheep, 
 to forget that it is to them we owe so much comfort. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 And let us stop a moment to consider how many are 
 the benefits derived from this single product, which at 
 first might only appear as refuse. Sheep are sheared 
 every year, and each shearing gives employment to 
 numbers of persons. It is requisite for the wool to pass 
 through various processes before it is fit to be made 
 into clothing ; and it goes through more hands than I 
 can enumerate before it is ready for the wearer, supply- 
 ing a livelihood to the various artisans who are engaged 
 in its preparation. When killed, we gain possession of 
 the skin as well as the wool. This is made into parch- 
 
FALL OF THE LEAF. 91 
 
 ment, and what is not fit for this purpose is used for 
 making glue. 
 
 MARY. 
 What a valuable creature ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 But I hare not done yet : candles are made of its fat, 
 which is also one of the ingredients in that useful article, 
 soap. A healing oil is extracted from the feet, and 
 even their horns have their appropriation, being made 
 into buttons and similar articles. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Sheep were always favourites of mine, but now I shall 
 regard them with still greater interest. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Every part of the animal has its peculiar useful pro- 
 perties ; and so it is throughout creation, though our 
 ignorance prevents the purpose to which all that we 
 behold may be applied. The most disgusting objects 
 to our senses, as decaying bodies, &c., are an acceptable 
 
92 FALL OF THE LEAF. 
 
 banquet to numbers of living creatures. Then we are 
 apt to speak of certain things as consumed, and attach 
 to the idea of any body that is decomposed either by 
 combustion or by putrefaction, a complete disappear- 
 ance of the body, or a change to nothing; but this 
 notion is false. I cannot too strongly impress upon 
 your mind, that in the wisely ordered economy of nature 
 there is nothing lost. When matter is decomposed it is 
 resolved into its elements, and these disengaged ele- 
 ments unite with other bodies and form new compounds. 
 Thus, in combustion, when you look at a fire of coals, 
 it appears as if the coals were destroyed by burning, 
 but this is not the case ; no particle of matter in nature 
 is destroyed. The coals are only decomposed by the 
 action of heat. 
 
 MARY. 
 Into what are they changed ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Partly into substances which are visible, as soot and 
 ashes, (called the fixed products of combustion,) and 
 partly into an imperceptible gas, called the volatile pro- 
 
FALL OF THE LEAF. 93 
 
 duct. With the latter you are already in some degree 
 acquainted, for it is no other than carbonic acid gas. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But how is that ? you told me it was produced by 
 burning charcoal. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Carbon is the principal ingredient in the composition 
 of coals, and, therefore, they likewise produce carbonic 
 acid, and it likewise results from the breathing of ani- 
 mals, and the decomposition of vegetables during putre- 
 faction, and from these sources enters into the composi- 
 tion of the atmosphere, whence it is imbibed by the 
 leaves of plants. Here, again, is a beautiful arrange- 
 ment. This gas, as you know, is highly prejudicial 
 when inhaled into the human lungs, and were it allowed 
 to accumulate would render the air totally unfit for res- 
 piration; but the prejudicial principle, the carbon, is 
 seized upon by vegetables for nourishment, and the 
 oxygen, (which you will remember is the other compo- 
 nent,) the gas which we inhale, is returned to supply and 
 purify the air. It is from there being no trees to absorb 
 
94 FALL OF THE LEAF. 
 
 this noxious gas that many districts are rendered so 
 unhealthy and pestilential ; it is considered that if the 
 Pontine Marshes were planted, the malaria, which proves 
 so fatal in its effects, would no longer prevail. But I 
 cannot dismiss this gas without observing that it affords 
 a remarkable instance of the same agent possessing a 
 productive and destructive principle. Not only does it 
 destroy animal life, but it decomposes many of the 
 
 hardest rocks. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 What ! as it floats in the air ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, by merely coming in contact with rocks of a cer- 
 tain class it causes them to moulder. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How extraordinary that so hard and apparently im- 
 penetrable a substance as rock should be thus acted 
 upon ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 This gas abounds in hot springs, and is freely disen- 
 
FALL OF THE LEAF. 95 
 
 gaged from them. Travellers tell us that it escapes so 
 rapidly and abundantly from the Lake of Solfaterra that 
 some parts of its surface appear as if boiling. In vol- 
 canic districts it rises from the soil, and its effect in 
 increasing the luxuriance of vegetation is very percep- 
 tible ; for many trees, which would not otherwise thrive 
 in the same soil and climate, by the abundance of grate- 
 ful nourishment it imparts, attain to uncommon size and 
 vigour. 
 
96 
 
 ON ROOKS, &c. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I ALWAYS observe a number of rooks on a newly 
 ploughed field, and they seem to follow and hover about 
 the plough as the ground is turning up. There must 
 be something that attracts them. 
 
 AUNT. 
 They are seeking for the grubs of cockchafers. 
 
 MARY. 
 Do they look for them as food ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes ; and the farmer derives great benefit from their 
 freeing his fields from these insects, which are extremely 
 destructive, and so numerous that if they were not thus 
 kept in check their ravages would be fearful. 
 
Page 96. 
 
ROOKS. 97 
 
 MARY. 
 What injury do they do ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They destroy the crops by eating the roots of corn 
 and grass, and as they remain four years in the grub 
 state, you may imagine how much food would be required 
 for the succeeding generation of each year. Nor do 
 they, like some Insects, cease to take the same quantity 
 of nourishment when they have undergone their last 
 change. The appetite of the cockchafer is undiminished 
 when it becomes a beetle, and it satisfies it by eating 
 largely of the leaves of trees. It has sometimes been 
 thought that it would be advisable to exterminate all 
 the rooks in a neighbourhood, in order to prevent their 
 taking a portion of the ripe grain, but those who have 
 tried this experiment have invariably found that they 
 were pursuing a wrong plan. Their fields lost their 
 verdure, and the springing blade, withered and dry, 
 gave the appearance of an arid plain to their green corn- 
 lands, and they were glad to re-establish colonies of 
 their friends the rooks, in order to stop the devastations 
 of the destructive insects. 
 
 H 
 
98 ROOKS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I am pleased to find that these birds are so useful, 
 for I like to watch them building their nests, and to 
 listen to their cawing ; but I was like the farmers who 
 destroyed them, I always fancied they did harm. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The keeping in check of one class of creatures by 
 others which prey upon them is part of the wise scheme 
 of Providence. By this means no order of created 
 beings occupy too large a space on the earth, or is 
 allowed to go beyond the bounds prescribed to it. In 
 wild and uninhabited countries we find carnivorous 
 beasts, which prey upon the gentler animals. When 
 man takes up his abode in these regions he is allowed 
 to exterminate the beasts of prey, because they are no 
 longer wanted, man himself feeding on the creatures 
 which they were before commissioned to remove. In a 
 work I was reading a short time ago, I met with a remark- 
 able instance of this restrictive power, not exercised by 
 one order of animals on a different one, but by indivi- 
 duals of the same species on each other. The plains of 
 South America abound in wild horses, which are usually 
 
ROOKS. 99 
 
 particularly mild and gentle in their nature, but when 
 their supply of water becomes scanty, they are seized 
 with a kind of madness. They rush into the ponds, 
 trampling upon each other ; and the carcases of thou- 
 sands have been found round a pool, destroyed in this 
 manner. Were it not for the mortality caused by this 
 civil war, the plains would not supply food for these 
 horses, so rapid is their increase. What variety do we 
 see in the means employed by Providence to accom- 
 plish the same ends ! The feathered tribes, too, have 
 their devourers; and they, again, feed on insects; so that 
 throughout nature we observe this law in force. Indeed, 
 were it not for this wise ordination, the earth would be 
 overrun with the immense numbers of creatures pro- 
 duced on it, and would no longer be a fit abode for man. 
 Even the increase of insects would be intolerable. 
 Though these, from their rank among created things, 
 and their diminutive size, may appear contemptible, 
 their multiplication is in many, indeed, in most in- 
 stances, so prodigious, that were they not kept within 
 due limits, our trees and fields would be bare of leaves 
 and grass, and the earth would become loathsome from 
 the presence of such multitudes of winged and creeping 
 
 H 2 
 
100 ROOKS. 
 
 things the air would be filled with them the ground 
 covered. But you know to how many casualties these 
 small creatures are exposed. Birds are constantly 
 seeking for them as food to convey to their young 
 broods; and they have many enemies among them- 
 selves, cannibal insects as they may be called. Of 
 this class are the different varieties of ichneumon- flies, 
 which attack their prey in the caterpillar, chrysalis, and 
 perfect states. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 And did you not once tell me that the pretty little 
 lady -birds eat other insects ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I did. Their office is to keep in check the plant- 
 lice, ( aphides J and they are 
 particularly useful in hop- 
 grounds, which are much in- 
 fested by aphides. It is 
 always remarked that when 
 the lady -birds appear in the 
 enormous quantities they sometimes do, they are more 
 
ROOKS. 101 
 
 than usually required among the hops ; with the evil, 
 the remedy is sent forth. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I suppose a greater number of insects are destroyed 
 by the effects of cold than by any other cause, and 
 therefore that this may be considered one of the great 
 preventives of their too great increase. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is generally believed that severe cold is a certain 
 destroyer of insects ; but this opinion is more general 
 than just, for it is found, by experiments, that these little 
 creatures (though apparently so fragile and delicate that 
 one would imagine a sudden frost would sweep away 
 the whole race) are yet able to bear a very intense 
 degree of cold. Some of our common caterpillars are 
 often so completely frozen as to be converted into 
 brittle pieces of ice, that break on being dropped on a 
 hard substance, and yet in this benumbed state, when 
 the principle of life seems extinct, they feel the influence 
 of a milder temperature, revive with the return of spring, 
 and resume their ordinary functions. The fact of their 
 
102 HOOKS. 
 
 reanimation has been proved by the application of arti- 
 ficial heat. You know I have told you that the gene- 
 rality of insects pass the winter in the chrysalis state. 
 Many of these, which could not sustain so great a 
 degree of cold as those I have been speaking of, pene- 
 trate deep into the earth, beyond the reach of frost ; and 
 others are taught to protect themselves from cold by the 
 warm clothing in which they envelope their little bodies. 
 So that you see the influence of cold upon them is not so 
 great as popular belief would lead one to conclude. The 
 wonderful preservation of these small creatures, and the 
 various means of defence with which they are furnished 
 are most remarkable. Thus, though no order of crea- 
 tion is permitted to exceed the bounds prescribed to it, 
 so is no one allowed to become totally extinct. In both 
 instances the wisdom of the Almighty, and his care for 
 everything that he has made, shine forth most conspicu- 
 ously ; indeed, this is equally the case whichever way 
 we direct our contemplations, if they are occupied with 
 his works. In mere beauty of form and texture how far 
 do they surpass the productions of man; and these 
 qualities are the more striking the more minutely we are 
 able to examine them. The microscope shows us the 
 
ROOKS. 103 
 
 wide difference that exists between the works of nature 
 and art. In the one it discovers new perfections, in the 
 other it renders defects visible. If you were to see the 
 skeleton of a leaf and a piece of muslin of the most 
 delicate fabric that the loom can produce exposed to 
 the influence of a powerful magnifier at the same time, 
 you would be surprised to find how coarse and uneven 
 its threads would appear when compared with the deli- 
 cate and beautifully finished fibres of the leaf. I only 
 give you this as one instance among thousands, for 
 nothing that comes from the hand of man can stand 
 such a test. 
 
104 
 
 INSECT CHANGES. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I WAS attracted yesterday, in the garden, by some little 
 caterpillars, which seemed as if they were hanging from 
 the trees, and when I put out my hand to touch them, 
 they quickly returned to the branches. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They were no doubt some of the leaf-rollers, a tribe 
 which abounds in every wood and garden, and as the 
 season is approaching when they will form their leafy 
 tents, in order to retire into them to undergo their trans- 
 formations, I advise you to watch their operations. 
 Though the leaf-rollers of the oak, the lilac, and rose 
 agree in enveloping their tiny bodies in a vegetable 
 garb, yet they all differ in their mode of preparing it. 
 I refer you to the volume of the Library of Entertaining 
 
INSECT CHANGES. 105 
 
 Knowledge on Insect Architecture, where you will find 
 some nice figures descriptive of their work. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 It must be almost as curious to watch their proceed- 
 ings as those of the leaf-cutter bees. Indeed, I think 
 insects must be most interesting little creatures, and I 
 shall hope to be able to observe the habits of many 
 during the summer. In the meantime, dear aunt, you 
 
106 INSECT CHANGES. 
 
 will, perhaps, kindly give me some information about 
 any that you have remarked. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I will mention a few curious circumstances that have 
 come within my own observation. I was once looking 
 at a caterpillar, when, to my astonishment, I beheld it 
 draw off its skin completely ; but after a few minutes' 
 repose I was still more astonished to see it swallow the 
 abstracted covering ! this to me seemed a most extra- 
 ordinary proceeding, and I fancied it a whim of the 
 individual, but on referring to a work on entomology I 
 found it was customary in certain genera. You remem- 
 ber, I dare say, my pointing out to you the privet 
 sphinx-moth at the Museum the other day. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh, yes, perfectly. It had a thick body and long 
 wings. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Well, this moth exhibits a most singular appearance 
 when it first emerges from the chrysalis. Its wings do 
 
INSECT CHANGES. 107 
 
 not much exceed those of a bee in size, which makes it 
 look quite like a deformity. In the space of a quarter 
 of an hour, however, the wings gain their fall dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 MARY. 
 I suppose, then, they are folded up. 
 
108 INSECT CHANGES. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You might very naturally fancy so, but this is not the 
 case ; the expansion is caused by the impulsion of air 
 and fluid into the vessels ; by this beautiful provision a 
 much smaller case is required for the creature during its 
 imprisonment in the pupa. I will show you a drawing 
 of a caterpillar, which afforded me much amusement by 
 the art it displayed, in preparing its place of conceal- 
 ment so as to secure itself from the attacks of birds, and 
 other enemies, during its period of torpidity. In a piece 
 of dry wood it hollowed a space sufficient to admit its 
 body ; it then began to spin a thin veil over the open- 
 ing, which it continued till there was. only room for it to 
 pass its head through ; it then stretched from its little 
 hermitage, took up some of the particles of the wood, 
 and glued them on the web, interspersed with some hair 
 picked from its own body : the labour now concluded, 
 the ingenious worker drew in its head, closed the aper- 
 ture, and retired to await its change. So completely 
 had it accomplished its object, that though I had been 
 observing it so closely, I could scarcely distinguish the 
 nicely covered cell from the solid wood. 
 
INSECT CHANGES. 109 
 
 MARY. 
 How curious you must have been to see the butterfly 
 
 issue forth ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Indeed I was, but my expectations were disappointed, 
 for the poor little creature became the prey of one of 
 those destroyers of the hopes of entomologists, an ich- 
 neumon-fly, and never appeared ; but I have since seen 
 the perfect insect in a collection. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I do not remember ever to have heard of the kind of 
 fly you allude to. How did it prevent the appear- 
 ance of the butterfly ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 There are various species of these flies, which may be 
 regarded as insect cannibals. They lay their eggs in 
 the bodies of other insects, and when these eggs are 
 hatched, the young brood of grubs feed on the devoted 
 creature ; thus, when one has been anxiously expecting 
 from the long-kept chrysalis a beautiful moth or butter- 
 fly, an insignificant fly is the only object one beholds. 
 
110 INSECT CHANGES. 
 
 The first time such a circumstance happened to me 1 
 imagined the intruder had found its way through some 
 aperture in the gauze which covered the glass contain- 
 ing my chrysalis, but experience soon taught me the 
 truth. 
 
 MARY. 
 Oh, how mortifying it must have been ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Time will only allow me to relate the deeds of one 
 more caterpillar this morning. To attain the same 
 object, security, it proceeded in a different manner. 
 After hollowing out some wood, as the other had done, 
 it formed a kind of mortar from some earth which I had 
 put in its glass, kneading it, if I may so express myself, 
 till sufficiently tenacious to cement the minute strips of 
 wood it had sawn out, and these strips it laid across as 
 rafters for its more solid tenement. In this instance 
 no ichneumon interfered with me ; the winged insect 
 broke through its wall, and left its abode free for my 
 examination. I found the earth was moulded with the 
 greatest nicety, instinct having taught the inexperienced 
 
INSECT CHANGES. Ill 
 
 worker to execute its first attempt with the dexterity 
 and precision which is only the consequence of practice, 
 in the constructors of our habitations. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I should think the eggs of insects must be often 
 destroyed from their small size. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 No doubt this is often the case, but the care which 
 the parent takes in selecting a fit place for depositing 
 them, is as remarkable as that with which it has pre- 
 pared for its own change. In the instance of the ich- 
 neumon, you observe, the safety of the eggs was pro- 
 vided for, and a supply of nourishment furnished for the 
 newly-hatched grubs ; and let me call your attention to 
 the fact, that the caterpillar is always pierced deep 
 enough to allow of its casting its coat without endanger- 
 ing the deposited eggs. One kind of moth glues its 
 eggs very securely round the twigs of trees. The first 
 time I noticed one of these little bracelet-like deposi- 
 tories I cut off the branch, and took it in to examine, 
 not at all suspecting what it really was. I laid it in a 
 
112 INSECT CHANGES. 
 
 book-case to keep till I should meet with some one of 
 whom I could inquire. To my surprise, on going for a 
 book a few mornings after, I saw a multitude of minute 
 caterpillars protruding themselves. The temperature of 
 the drawing-room had had the effect of a premature 
 spring, and drawn them forth ; but as no such impulse 
 had been received out of doors, there were no leaves to 
 give the untimely brood, and they consequently 
 perished. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then the heat proved as inimical to your observations 
 as the ichneumon on a former occasion. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It did, indeed, and I advise you to profit from my ex- 
 perience, and if you meet with any doubtful subjects, 
 avoid putting them in too warm a place. The eggs of 
 the pretty lace-winged fly (which we have so often ad- 
 mired) are curiously placed to preserve them from the 
 grubs of other insects at the point of thin threads, 
 which are attached to the twigs or leaves of trees. 
 
INSECT CHANGES. 113 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Thank you, my dear aunt, I have been much inte- 
 rested. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I am very 7 glad you have, and that you feel a desire 
 to know something of this beautiful portion of creation, 
 for it eminently displays the power of the almighty 
 Creator ; and the changes which insects are appointed to 
 pass through are so strikingly emblematical of man's 
 abode on earth, his descent to the grave, and the ascent 
 of his purified spirit to the mansions of bliss, that I 
 should really think no one whose mind has been pro- 
 perly directed, could be an attentive observer of these 
 wonderful phenomena, without reflecting seriously on 
 this obvious analogy, and deriving profit from the les- 
 sons it may teach us, if studied aright. When we are 
 watching the metamorphoses of an insect, and see it 
 exactly fulfilling all the purposes for which its ephemeral 
 existence was granted, often overcoming great difficul- 
 ties to accomplish it, should we not ask ourselves how 
 we have performed the part assigned us whether we 
 have kept in mind the great end of our merciful Creator 
 
 i 
 
114 INSECT CHANGES. 
 
 in placing us here. As certainly as the crawling cater- 
 pillar becomes a different creature, endued with new 
 powers and propensities, so certainly will our souls leave 
 this tenement of clay, and appear in another state of 
 existence. Let it be our earnest aim to prepare them 
 for one of purity and glory ! 
 
115 
 
 VARIETY IN NATURE. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I HAVE been employing myself this fine morning in 
 gathering some seeds, which I think are ripe unusually 
 early this season, and as I went from plant to plant I 
 was much struck by the great variety observable in their 
 seeds. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Variety seems, indeed, to be one of the agents em- 
 ployed by the great Creator for the gratification of his 
 creatures. It was beautifully remarked by a heathen 
 author, that "this world is a most holy temple, and 
 highly worthy of God. Into this," says he, " man enters 
 at his birth, not to gaze at motionless statues, or things 
 made with hands, but to contemplate those objects 
 which the Divine mind itself has made sensible to our 
 
 I 2 
 
116 VARIETY IN NATURE. 
 
 understanding." The heart of every Christian must 
 respond to such sentiments, and, as he is allowed a 
 nearer approach to the almighty Former of all these 
 wonders than was granted to the heathen, so his delight 
 will be proportionally increased on sun eying the endless 
 beauties that surround him, because he can exclaim, with 
 our own sweet poet " My Father made them all ! " As 
 the same purposes might, no doubt, have been answered 
 without the rich variety with which all created things 
 abound, the consideration of the relief that this diversity 
 affords us ought to excite feelings of thankfulness as 
 well as admiration. I often think that we are not suffi- 
 ciently alive to this. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I am sure I never am, except, perhaps, in spring, 
 when, after the sombre tint of winter, the change that 
 each day exhibits produces a constantly renewing de- 
 light ; but, by the middle of summer, I am become so 
 accustomed to the gay beauty of the fields and garden, 
 that the vivid and thankful emotions which burst forth 
 at the sight of the first snowdrop and crocus seem to be 
 forgotten. But I hope the remarks you have just made, 
 
VARIETY IN NATURE. 117 
 
 as well as many others I have heard from you, my dear 
 aunt, will render me in future more observant and more 
 consistently grateful. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It should be our aim to establish such a frame of 
 mind. But to return to the little basket of seeds, which 
 led us to these reflections. Here you have seeds con- 
 tained in pods, others, as in this strawberry-bearing 
 spinach, embedded in a soft, pulpy substance, some 
 retained in the dried calyx, others closely set on the 
 receptacle in short, each tribe has its distinct mode of 
 arrangement, so that in this respect there is infinite 
 diversity. Then look, after considering their cases, at 
 the individual seeds from each. How different they are. 
 The sweet-pea and lupin, the sunflower and hawk weed, 
 each is immediately distinguishable. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How beautifully marked and polished some seeds are ! 
 The generality, I think, are smooth. 
 
118 VARIETY IN NATURE. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Perhaps so, for their smoothness causes them to slip 
 easily into the earth. But there are many exceptions 
 to this. Those of the umbelliferous tribe, for instance, 
 are usually ribbed, or beset with minute spines. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I admire the seeds of the compound flowers more 
 than any. The down that carries them is so delicate 
 
 and light. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Now you introduce a new instance of variety: the 
 mode of distributing seeds with a view to the dissemi- 
 nation of vegetable life. The feathery appendages you 
 admire transport some through the air; others, when 
 fully ripe, are scattered to a distance by a sudden jerk 
 of the vessel that contains them. To attempt enumera- 
 tion, however, would be endless. Remark all this beau- 
 tiful mechanism yourself, and then, next spring, as you 
 are distributing the seeds you have collected, you will 
 be able to tell me by what means, if self-sown, they 
 would have been spread to a distance from the parent 
 plant. 
 
VARIETY IN NATURE. 119 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I have often taken up seeds after having sown them a 
 short time, and have observed the parts of the seed 
 split asunder, and the little root and stem making their 
 way between them. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, their germination has then commenced. In 
 order to promote this there are three essentials requisite 
 moisture, air, and a certain degree of heat. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Is air requisite ? Why, I fancied it was necessary to 
 exclude it, and therefore always carefully cover any 
 seeds I sow with earth. In future I may save myself 
 the trouble, and merely scatter them on the ground in- 
 stead of covering them. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You would not find that plan succeed, and had there- 
 fore better follow your former method. While you 
 were affording a larger supply you would at the same 
 time cause exposure to light, which is inimical to germi- 
 
120 VARIETY IN NATURE. 
 
 nation, and its absence is as essential as the presence 
 of air. A sufficient portion of the latter penetrates 
 through the small quantity of earth you place over 
 seeds. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How great a change must take place in the nature of 
 the plant when it has escaped from the earth, for you 
 have often told me that the flowers and fruit could not 
 be brought to perfection in darkness. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The genial influence of light is absolutely requisite 
 for their developement ; so essential is it, that a German 
 botanist remarked, after along removal of light, a shaking 
 of the plant, as if it had been agitated by the shivering 
 of a fever ; and I think if you recal what I told you was. 
 the effect of light on these organs, you will the better 
 understand why it would be injurious to seeds, when 
 germinating, I mean, for when ripening it is highly ser- 
 viceable. 
 
VARIETY IN NATURE. 121 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I remember you said that light made the leaves part 
 with oxygen. Is that the effect you allude to ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes. Now let us apply your answer to the point. 
 Seeds are overcharged with carbon, (for the purpose of 
 preserving them,) and therefore it is proper to exclude 
 light, which would supply them with it, and to give 
 them air and moisture, which enable them to part with 
 a portion of what they have. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I recollect you told me it was the deposition of car- 
 bon that caused the hardness of wood. I suppose the 
 quantity seeds contain accounts for their being so hard. 
 Those of many of our most slender annuals are exces- 
 sively so. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 There is such a collecting of carbon during the 
 ripening of seeds, that the ground becomes quite ex- 
 hausted by it, Carbon gives solidity to the vegetable 
 
122 VARIETY IN NATURE. 
 
 creation, lime to the animal : recollect this distinction ; 
 and let me here mention a remarkable fact, that the 
 quantity of lime contained in plants which grow in pure 
 sand, or amidst granite, is not less than the quantity 
 contained in those which grow in a calcareous soil. It 
 is even found in those that have been reared in porce- 
 lain vases, and nourished only by carbonic acid water. 
 This proves that the ingredients of organized bodies are 
 formed by themselves from the elementary materials 
 that surround them. Lime is supposed to be a com- 
 pound of azote and carbon. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Another question, dear aunt. I saw the gardener try 
 some seeds the other day by throwing them into water ; 
 those that sank he kept for sowing, those that swam he 
 rejected. Why was this ? \Vhy did he not put all into 
 the ground ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Because he knew by experience the lighter would not 
 germinate. 
 
VARIETY IN NATURE. 123 
 
 MARY. 
 Is the reason why they would not, known ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Deficiency of carbon prevents them. The seeds 
 which have (from some accidental circumstance) been 
 impeded in the collection of this supporting principle 
 of vegetable life are dead, and incapable of producing 
 plants. This imperfection is in most cases amply com- 
 pensated by the abundant provision of seeds yielded. 
 Grew, speaking of the immense quantity produced, 
 gives a calculation of the number contained in the cap- 
 sules of a single white poppy. He says : u The white 
 poppy commonly bears four mature heads, in each of 
 which there are at least ten partitions, on the sides 
 whereof the seeds grow, and upon the fourth part of one 
 side there are about one hundred seeds, that is, eight 
 hundred on one partition, which being multiplied by 
 ten, (the number of partitions,) makes eight thousand, 
 and eight thousand again by four, (the number of heads,) 
 makes thirty-two thousand seeds the yearly product of 
 the plant. 
 
124 VARIETY IN NATURE. 
 
 MARY. 
 That is immense, indeed ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Before we go to the breakfast-room I will read you a 
 passage from a favourite little work of mine, (Botanical 
 Theology,) apposite to the subject which has engaged 
 us this morning. " But nothing," says the amiable 
 author, " can more clearly, simply, and obviously dis- 
 play the unlimited extent of that mysteriously operating 
 Power or Spirit which has pervaded and modified, and 
 still pervades and sustains every part of creation, from 
 the bright centre of celestial systems, from the ellipses 
 of the planets and the comets to the nervous ganglion 
 of a worm, or the calyptra of a moss, than the infinite 
 diversity of forms and modifications of the most familiar 
 object. It seems as if an angel's voice were heard from 
 every leaf, exclaiming, ( Look at the leaves of a hundred 
 thousand species ! In every species they are different ; 
 among myriads of myriads of leaves no two exactly 
 resemble each other.'" 
 
125 
 
 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I SEE a little plant with a white flower, that I do not 
 know, but I am almost afraid it is beyond my reach. 
 
 AUNT. 
 Point it out to me, and I will try to assist you. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 It is on the other side of the brook, a very few steps 
 further on. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 1 see perfectly where you mean, and with my parasol 
 I can easily get it for you : there, seize your prize, lest 
 it should fall into the water. It is the water-pimpernel, 
 (samolus mlerandi.) 
 
1 26 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I am very much obliged to you for aiding me to 
 obtain it. It is quite new to me. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Had you been a more experienced botanist you would 
 have met with this little plant before, which, though so 
 insignificant in appearance, and though not distin- 
 guished for any remarkable virtue or property, is, never- 
 theless, one of the most widely distributed. Linnaeus 
 remarked that it was to be met with in almost every 
 part of the globe, and the observations of succeeding 
 botanists confirm this singular fact. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 It looks a very delicate plant, but it must, no doubt, 
 have a very strong constitution if it can live and flourish 
 in such various climates. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is very unusual to find the same plants under 
 widely differing latitudes, but it is more frequently the 
 case with aquatics than any others. The geography of 
 plants is an exceedingly interesting branch of botany, 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 127 
 
 leading one to remark how wisely the vegetable produc- 
 tions of each country are suited to the climates in which 
 they grow, and to the requirements of the animals which 
 inhabit them. Every climate has its appropriate vege- 
 tation, even the inhospitable polar regions, where one 
 might imagine that the intense cold would extinguish 
 the vital principle, even these remote climes have their 
 flora, consisting of stunted species of poppy, saxifrage, 
 and a few other hardy plants, mosses and lichens, which, 
 though I mention them last, are the most abundant, and, 
 indeed, lichens are to be met with where none of the 
 other plants I have named will grow, that is, in a higher 
 
 latitude. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Lichens again ! they seem, indeed, to require but a 
 small portion of warmth and nourishment. When you 
 last spoke of them you told me of their flourishing on 
 the most barren rocks, and now I hear of their being 
 able to support the most intense cold. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Even the surface of perpetual snow bears a minute 
 plant of this nature. 
 
128 WATER PIMPERNEL. 
 
 MARY. 
 That is, indeed:, extraordinary ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 Yon have, I dare say, heard of red snow. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh, yes, I remember hearing- that Captain Parry saw 
 a good deal. What gives it this colour ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 This was for some time a matter of doubt. Those 
 who first observed it were unable to account for so new 
 and remarkable an appearance, but attentive investiga- 
 tion has since discovered this red substance to be a 
 lichen, to which the name of protococcushsis been given, 
 from its bearing a resemblance to the insects of the 
 genus coccus. Advancing from the poles towards the 
 equator, vegetation becomes gradually more prolific, 
 plants increase in number of species and in luxuriance 
 of growth, and, in the equatorial regions, attain to the 
 greatest magnificence of size, and the most exquisite 
 vividness of colour. The variety of natural beauty in 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 1 29 
 
 these sunny climes must be most enchanting, the plants, 
 the insects, the birds, all are brilliant and gay ; even 
 the products of the ocean are more beautiful in colour 
 and form, for it is from the tropical seas that the con- 
 chologist obtains the choicest ornaments of his cabinet. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I should have imagined that the great heat of the 
 torrid zone would have prevented the growth of plants 
 as much as the cold of the polar regions. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 But you find this is not the case, and that, on the 
 contrary, it contributes to the development of the great- 
 est variety and grandeur of size and colour. A due 
 portion of humidity seems the great essential for the 
 promotion of vegetation, and without this it cannot be 
 supported. 
 
 A Danish botanist has published a very curious set 
 of charts, in which he shows the general distribution of 
 plants. He calls it a Planteographish Atlas, and on 
 each map the various tribes of plants each region 
 affords are indicated by certain colours. 
 
 K 
 
1 30 WATER- PIMPERNEL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then by knowing what the colours stand for, a glance 
 at the map will tell what plants the country produces. 
 What plants are the most numerous ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Those of the compound order are found to be most 
 widely spread over the globe, the siliquous next. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Which I consider of all the orders (at least such as I 
 know) the least pleasing. Most of the English plants 
 belonging to it are so disagreeable in scent, and so ugly 
 in growth. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yet they have properties more valuable than sweet- 
 ness, or perfume, or beauty of appearance : they are a 
 very useful tribe. Remember how many of our vege- 
 tables in daily use rank under this order. Our turnips, 
 cabbages, radishes, &c. Many of the plants of this 
 order are very pungent, and particularly serviceable as 
 antiscorbutics. To this medicinal virtue of a family 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 131 
 
 you seem to regard with so much dislike, I would parti- 
 cularly direct your attention, because it leads us to re- 
 mark a striking instance of the merciful care of God for 
 all his creatures, not only " providing food convenient 
 for them," but causing that food to be found where it 
 may be most convenient and acceptable. If I tell you 
 that sailors, after long voyages, are very apt to suffer 
 from the complaints for which siliquous plants are bene- 
 ficial, you will perhaps be able to form an idea of the 
 situations in which they are usually met with. Where 
 should you say they would grow most advantageously ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Why, as when people are ill they are glad to have 
 relief as speedily as possible, I should say the best 
 situations would be those near the sea, that sailors could 
 soon reach after landing. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Certainly, on the coasts ; and thus travellers have re- 
 marked that these plants are disposed. A view of the 
 maps I mentioned will show a line along the shore, 
 marking the station of these useful plants. As soon as 
 
 K 2 
 
132 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 a ship's crew put their feet on land, they may generally 
 find, within their reach, the very thing of which they 
 stand most in need, after having been fed (perhaps for 
 many months) on salt provisions. It is a medicine 
 ready prepared, needing not the assistance of art. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Do all the plants ranking under the same natural 
 order invariably possess similar properties ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Far from it. A remarkable instance to the contrary 
 occurs to me at this moment. The fig, the bread-fruit, 
 the mulberry, the cow-tree, are all classed under the 
 natural order Artocarpece. You are sufficiently ac- 
 quainted with the four former, to know that their pro- 
 duce varies greatly, and that they are widely separated 
 in property from the poisonous upas, to which such 
 deleterious effects are attributed by those who hare 
 given us accounts of it. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You give me credit, my dear aunt, for more know- 
 
Page 133. 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 133 
 
 ledge than I possess. Of the difference between the 
 fig and the mulberry I can judge, from having eaten of 
 the fruit of both, and the bread-fruit I seem to know 
 almost as well, from having read and heard so much of 
 it; but the cow-tree I cannot compare or contrast with 
 either, for I do not remember ever to have heard it 
 mentioned before. What an extraordinary name. Of 
 what country is it a native ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Of South America, and it derives this name, which so 
 much amuses you, from producing milk. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Milk from a tree ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Many plants form secretions of a milky nature, (in- 
 deed, this is the case both with the fig and the mulberry,) 
 but the milk which flows from the tree of which we are 
 now speaking, really resembles that of the animal from 
 which we are supplied. It is a great blessing to the 
 districts in which it grows, for it thrives in barren, rocky 
 situations, not suited for pasturage, and therefore the 
 
1 34 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 inhabitants are happy to resort to this vegetable 
 reservoir, which they generally do about sun-rise, when 
 the largest quantity may be procured. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How singular it is, that a tree producing so great a 
 quantity of liquid should be met with in so warm a 
 country, and in such barren places ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is in the warmest climates that the most juicy 
 fruits are produced, the refreshing orange, lemon, 
 shaddock, &c. ; and the same bountiful Providence has 
 placed the cow-tree just in the situation where its cool- 
 ing and wholesome liquor is most grateful. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I think I remember hearing that plants with thick, 
 succulent leaves can bear a great deal of heat, and also 
 that they do not require much moisture. 
 
 AUNT. 
 You are quite right; they are generally found in- 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 1 35 
 
 habiting sunny rocks, or sandy deserts, for which they 
 are fitted by being endued with the power of imbibing 
 moisture with the greatest readiness, and retaining it 
 when imbibed, for they perspire very sparingly. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then they keep a store of nourishment within them- 
 selves. Your speaking of the vegetable productions of 
 the Polar regions reminded me of some specimens I 
 saw some time ago from Melville Island, and which I re- 
 marked were almost all very downy. Why are they 
 thus provided ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 For the same reason, I should imagine, as we envelope 
 ourselves in a flannel dressing gown, or a cloth pelisse, 
 on a cold frosty day. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 To keep out cold ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 Or rather to keep in warmth. The materials of our 
 
1 36 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 winter clothing are what are called bad conductors of 
 heat, that is, they do not readily part with heat, and 
 consequently prevent its escape from the bodies they 
 envelope. The down of plants is of a cottony nature. I 
 believe I told you, when speaking of carbon, that cotton 
 is chiefly composed of it, and carbon is a bad conduc- 
 tor. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 And therefore the warmth of these little plants is 
 kept in by their cottony covering. May I detain you 
 a few minutes longer, my dear aunt ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Certainly ; if you have any remark to make, I shall 
 be happy to listen to you. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I do not remember ever to have heard of the genus 
 of insects from which you said the little fungus that is 
 found in snow takes its name. 
 
 AUNT. 
 Though not known to you by the name I used, you 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 137 
 
 are yet familiar with many species of this genus, some of 
 which are noxious, others exceedingly useful to us. 
 In speaking of the former class, I should, perhaps, 
 rather have said, that you are more familiar with their 
 ravages than with the insects themselves, for very pro- 
 bably you may never have observed them in their per- 
 fect state ; but you have only to examine the apple- 
 trees in the garden, and you will soon make acquaintance 
 with them. You have, no doubt, remarked little white 
 tufts on the branches and stems of these trees. 
 
 MARY. 
 Which look, and feel like cotton ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 The same. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh, yes, I have indeed! I remember particularly 
 last year the trees were so covered with them, that the 
 gardener was obliged to wash the branches with a poi- 
 sonous mixture, in order to clear the bark. 
 
1 38 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Then you know this species of coccus in its first state, 
 for this cotton is the envelope of its eggs. Vines are 
 frequently attacked in the same manner. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I have often seen the vines in the grapery with their 
 branches quite cottony, but I do not remember that I 
 ever remarked those in the open air with this appear- 
 ance. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The reason of which is, that this species (coccus 
 mils) finds our climate too cold, and therefore confines 
 itself to the vines in houses. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But it seems very extraordinary, that merely forming 
 a little cotton on a plant should be so hurtful to it. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 This is not all, though. The little creature is not 
 satisfied with merely taking up its abode on the vine, it 
 
WATER-PIMPERNEL. 139 
 
 pierces the bark, and extracts sap, and then it is that 
 the plant is injured. Now you discover that you know 
 something of the injurious cocci ; consider whether you 
 have not some knowledge of the useful kinds also. 
 
 MARY. 
 I am not aware that I have. 
 
 AUNT. 
 Do you know what yields the dye called scarlet ? 
 
 MARY. 
 Cochineal, I believe. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Cochineal is the name it commonly bears, but it is in 
 fact a species of the genus we are speaking of, and its cor- 
 rect name is coccus cacti. This insect is found abundantly 
 in Mexico, upon a kind of Indian fig. The collection 
 of it gives employment to vast numbers of persons, (for 
 the operation is tedious,) and it forms a considerable 
 article of trade. Coccus illicis yields a deep, or crim- 
 son dye, and the substance called lac (of which sealing- 
 
140 
 
 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
 wax is made,) is the produce of another species of 
 coccus. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 These are indeed very serviceable ; they more than 
 compensate for the mischievous properties of some of 
 the family. 
 
 WATER-PIMPERNEL. 
 
141 
 
 EVERGREENS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I USED to imagine that evergreens never changed their 
 leaves, but I have observed the last two or three springs, 
 that some of the leaves do become brown, and fall off. 
 How many years do they retain the same foliage ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is like that of other shrubs and trees, renewed 
 every year. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But yet we never see a laurel or a holly deprived of 
 its leaves. 
 
 AUNT. 
 No, there would be a contradiction in terms ; for 
 
142 EVERGREENS. 
 
 were they ever seen in that state, they would cease to 
 be evergreens. All the leaves are cast, but the young 
 ones sprout before the old ones fall, and hence the 
 plant never loses its verdure. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 As I have watched the leaves dropping from the trees 
 in autumn, I have often wished to know the reason why 
 they fall. Can you tell it me ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 Because they no longer receive nourishment. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But how is it that they do not, because I remember 
 your telling me, that the sap was conveyed generally 
 throughout the plant, and that it was prepared in the 
 leaves for nourishing the other parts. It seems strange, 
 therefore, that these useful organs, which are the pre- 
 parers of food, should themselves perish from want. 
 
 AUNT. 
 A little reflection will lessen your surprise. Do you 
 
EVERGREENS. 143 
 
 remember at what season I told you the flow of sap 
 was most abundant ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I think you said it ascended most copiously in the 
 spring, and that the supply decreased towards the 
 autumn. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 That is the very point I wished you to come to. At 
 this season (the autumn) the vessels of the leaf-stalk 
 become stopped up by hard particles, and no sap pass- 
 ing to moisten them, the leaves dry up, and fall off. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 One more question connected with the fall of the leaf 
 occurs to me. What is the cause of the various hues 
 observable in leaves in autumn ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Numerous experiments have been made to elucidate 
 this subject, the result of which seems to be, that as the 
 weather becomes chilly, leaves continue to absorb 
 
144 EVERGREENS. 
 
 oxygen during the day, but lose the power of expiring 
 it during the night. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Ah, I think I see how it is ! You told me, I remem- 
 ber, that oxygen was the acidifying principle, and we 
 know acids change colour : this must be the influence 
 going on in the leaf. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, the preponderance of oxygen destroys the green 
 colour, produces the infinite variety we so much admire 
 in autumnal leaves, and causes so complete a change, 
 that the whole face of nature assumes a new garb, and 
 which, though differing so widely from its spring attire, 
 is not less beautiful. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 The change is indeed extraordinary ! What a con- 
 trast there is between a wood in spring and in autumn ! 
 in the former, one colour pervades the whole ; in the 
 latter, there is every variety of hue, from sober brown to 
 briEiant red. Yet even in spring, though green is the 
 
EVERGREENS. 145 
 
 universal colour, it is of different shades. How do you 
 account for the avoidance of sameness ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You recollect I have told you that carbon is a prin- 
 cipal ingredient in the composition of vegetables. It is 
 of a dark blue colour, and the outer covering of plants 
 (a thin transparent membrane) is of a yellowish white ; 
 the mixture of these two colours produces green. You 
 can easily understand that the shade of green inclines 
 more to yellow or blue, according to that which prepon- 
 derates. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 And may not this account for the tender tint of leaves 
 when they first burst from the bud ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Undoubtedly. They are then of a much lighter 
 green than later in the year, and the reason is, that they 
 contain less carbon. As they advance in age, the quan- 
 tity becomes greater, and they lose their youthful 
 beauty. 
 
146 EVERGREENS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Has oxygen anything to do with the colour of the 
 blossoms of plants ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is the opinion of some naturalists that the tran- 
 sition from the green of the leaves to the varied tints of 
 the corolla, is caused by a change in the degree of 
 oxydation. The green- colouring matter, as it passes 
 into the corolla, frees itself from superfluous hydrogen 
 and azote, and thus becomes more oxydised. The light 
 of the sun has a powerful effect on this process. Thus 
 we see that tropical flowers display great splendour of 
 colour. It has also been remarked, that some of the 
 plants of the polar regions have very warm tints. Can 
 you account for this ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You have proposed a difficult question. What simi- 
 larity of circumstances can possibly exist between such 
 different latitudes ? Between the tropics the sun darts 
 his rays vertically, exciting vegetation by profuse light 
 and heat ; but near the poles he withdraws his cheering 
 
EVERGREENS. 147 
 
 influence for weeks : to be sure, this may be compen- 
 sated by his remaining above the horizon for an equal 
 
 length of time. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 When he shines so long without setting, he must, no 
 doubt, exert a very powerful influence, and, that he 
 does so, is proved by the summer crop in these regions 
 ripening with great rapidity. That delightful property 
 of flowers, scent, is to be accounted for on the same 
 principle as their other fascinating attribute, colour 
 the disengagement of hydrogen, with which portions of 
 the peculiar juices of plants are drawn out, and thus the 
 various perfiimes are diffused. Chemists find that 
 hydrogen abounds in all odorous matters, and experi- 
 ments have proved the inflammability of the atmo- 
 sphere of certain plants, caused, no doubt, by the ex- 
 halation of this gas. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Why is rain-water more desirable for plants than that 
 
 yielded by springs ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Because it contains more carbonic acid, which I have 
 
 L 2 
 
148 EVERGREENS. 
 
 told you is eagerly sought by vegetables, and may, in- 
 deed, be considered their proper nourishment. Vol- 
 canic districts give out a large quantity of carbonic 
 acid, hence their extreme fertility, hence also the advan- 
 tage of strewing the earth with calcareous matter, (chalk, 
 lime, &c.,) because the attraction of these substances for 
 carbonic acid is very powerful. This also accounts for 
 the luxuriant vegetation formed on the coral reefs of the 
 South Sea. Reverting to the change in foliage in 
 autumn, I will give you the description of a traveller in 
 America, Mr. Mac Gregor : " In Europe, in Asia, in 
 Africa, and even in South America, the primeval trees, 
 how much soever their magnitude may arrest admira- 
 tion, do not grow in the promiscuous style that prevails 
 in the great general character of the North American 
 woods. Many varieties of the pine, intermingled with 
 birch, maple, beech, oak, and numerous other tribes, 
 branch luxuriantly over the banks of lakes and rivers, 
 extend in stately grandeur along the plains, and stretch 
 proudly up to the very summits of the mountains. It 
 is impossible to exaggerate the autumnal beauty of 
 these forests : nothing can be compared to its effulgent 
 grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of 
 
EVERGREENS. 149 
 
 autumn, transform the boundless verdure of a whole 
 empire into every possible tint of brilliant scarlet, rich 
 violet, every shade of blue and brown, vivid crimson, 
 and glittering yellow. The stern, inexorable fir tribes 
 alone maintain their eternal sombre green. All others, 
 in mountains or in valleys, burst into the most glorious 
 vegetable beauty, and exhibit the most splendid and 
 most enchanting panorama on earth." 
 
150 
 
 LEAF-INSECTS. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I WAS amusing myself yesterday by reading the travels 
 in South America you were so kind as to lend me, and 
 was much interested by the description of natural pro- 
 ductions they give. Trees, birds, insects, all seem to 
 be on a grand scale ! How much I should like to visit 
 a region of such variety and beauty ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 As I do not think there is any probability of your ex- 
 tending your travels so far, you must content yourself 
 with the information collected by others. There is now 
 so pervading a taste for travelling among our country- 
 men, so many of whom have given their observations on 
 what they have learnt and seen, that we may form a 
 pretty fair idea of countries the most remote ; and much 
 
LEAF-INSECTS. 151 
 
 are we indebted to the industry and perseverance of 
 travellers, who enable us to do so, without removing 
 from our own fire-sides. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I was much struck by the account of an insect, which, 
 though not so brilliant as many others found in the 
 Brazils, must, I think, be one of the most curious. I 
 mean the mantis, which is spoken of as so much resem- 
 bling a dry leaf, that it is scarcely possible to distin- 
 guish it from one. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 There are a great many insects that bear the appear- 
 ance of leaves. In this we see a remarkable proof of 
 the watchful care of God for every creature he has 
 formed. We are told "that the very hairs of our head 
 are all numbered;" and we find that such minute crea- 
 tures as the insect world presents are also numbered 
 and cared for. This similitude to vegetables is a very 
 effectual means of preservation, for, as they resemble 
 the plant on which they feed, they are so completely 
 identified with it, as to deceive the eye of the passing 
 
T52 LEAF-INSECTS. 
 
 bird. There is a very singular circumstance attending 
 
 these leaf-insects 
 as they are called. 
 Not only do the 
 perfect insects re- 
 semble vegetable 
 productions, but the 
 analogy likewise 
 runs through each 
 state ; the eggs and 
 . pupae appearing like 
 the seeds and pods 
 of plants. This kind 
 of insect abounds 
 very much in Ceylon. Mrs. Heber, speaking of the 
 great variety of winged creatures found in that island, 
 says, " The most curious of these are the leaf-insects, 
 which assume the shape, size, and general appearance 
 of the leaf on which they feed so exactly, that it is only 
 on minute examination one becomes aware of their real 
 character. I saw several, but the most extraordinary 
 was one which lived on a thorny plant, the body of 
 which resembled a stick, and was covered with thorns 
 
LEAF-INSECTS. 153 
 
 like the shrub." Many of these fantastic creatures are 
 mentioned by Kirby and Spence, in their delightful 
 work on entomology, as affording instances of the 
 various modes of defence which have been bestowed on 
 the insect world. Another of these is being of the same 
 colour as the plant frequented. This you may observe 
 exemplified in the caterpillar of the privet-sphinx moth. 
 The upper part of the body is striped, and would be 
 more easily distinguished than the lower, which is of a 
 tender green : the creature therefore invariably feeds on 
 the under-side of the branch, so that its back is con- 
 cealed. I have remarked when I have kept this cater- 
 pillar, that it never commences feeding till it has placed 
 itself in this position. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I owe you many thanks, dear aunt, for the informa- 
 tion you have given me on natural history ; it has re- 
 doubled the pleasure of every walk, by leading me to 
 remark the objects that surround me. To-day I was 
 quite struck by the appearance of the rose-trees, and am 
 quite at a loss to imagine what has happened to them. 
 Most of the leaves have little pieces hollowed out all 
 
154 
 
 LEAF-INSECTS. 
 
 round their edges, as I should have concluded by in- 
 sects, did they not appear too regular. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You are quite correct in your conjecture. I observed, 
 the last time I was in the garden, that the leaf-cutter 
 bees had visited the rose-leaves. 
 
 MARY. 
 But how is it possible that bees can cut them so evenly ? 
 
LEAF-INSECTS. 155 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 God has bestowed on these little artificers implements 
 with which they work as exactly as we should with com- 
 pass and scissors, and much more expeditiously. It is 
 highly interesting and curious to watch them. They 
 fly to a leaf, survey it to ascertain whether it be fit for 
 their purpose, then cut a section so quickly, that it is 
 scarcely possible to follow them with the eye. They 
 poise themselves in the air while severing the last fibre, 
 and then they roll up their little treasure, and fly away. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 For what purpose do they take all this trouble ? 
 What do they do with the stolen bits of leaf? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They form elegant nests with them, which you may 
 see figured in many works on entomology. I have 
 never been so fortunate as to find one of these ingenious 
 constructions. I have always remarked that the bees 
 fly to a distance after having secured their prize, pro- 
 bably to conceal their nests. In the garden where I 
 first saw these busy creatures, I observed that they in- 
 
156 LEAF-INSECTS. 
 
 variably rested on a wall as if fatigued with their burden. 
 I at first fancied that they deposited it in some part of 
 the wall ; but on further examination, I found this was 
 not the case, and that they carried it out of sight. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I shall like much to see them at work, but yet I shall 
 not be satisfied till I discover their hiding-place. As 
 you have not succeeded in doing so, I must not ask for 
 directions. I wish it were possible to mark an indivi- 
 dual bee, and then I might, perhaps, trace it to its 
 nest. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You have proposed a plan which, strange, as it may 
 seem, is in fact adopted by the Australasians for finding 
 the sweet treasure of their wild bees. In Sir J. 
 Mitchell's amusing work on Australia, he says, "We 
 are in a ' land flowing with honey,' for the natives with 
 their new tomahawks extracted it in abundance from 
 the hollow branches of the trees ; and it seemed that, in 
 the season, they could find it almost anywhere. To 
 such inexpert clowns as they probably thought us, the 
 honey and the bees were inaccessible, and, indeed, in- 
 
LEAF-INSECTS. 157 
 
 visible, save only when the natives cut it out, and 
 brought it to us in little sheets of bark, thus displaying 
 a degree of ingenuity and skill in supplying our wants, 
 which we, with all our science, could not hope to attain. 
 They would catch one of the bees, and attach to it with 
 some resin or gum, the light down of the swan or owl ; 
 thus laden, the bee would make for the branch of some 
 lofty tree, and so betray its home of sweets to its keen- 
 eyed pursuers, whose fee-chase presented, indeed, a 
 
 laughable scene." 
 
 MARY. 
 
 That is ingenious, indeed ! But you do not mean to 
 recommend this method to me. I should neither have 
 expertness, nor courage to try it. Pray, do the leaf- 
 cutter bees make any honey ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes ; each cell has its provision, which is said to be 
 of a lovely rose colour, contents worthy of their elegant 
 receptacle : the whole must be so pretty, that I wish 
 you success in your researches, and hope we may have 
 the gratification of admiring together the leafy tents 
 of these skilful architects. 
 
158 
 
 MOSSES. 
 
 u cannot think, my 
 Mear aunt, how much 
 I feel obliged to you 
 
 for the pleasure you have added to my 
 walks by teaching me not to pass anything 
 ^without notice. I was so delighted yester- 
 1 day by observing the various kinds of moss 
 on the heath ! How numerous and beauti- 
 , tiful they are ! I can scarcely believe it 
 possible that I should so frequently have 
 trod the same ground without paying more 
 attention to its elegant covering. 
 
MOSSES. 159 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You must, indeed, have been wanting in observation 
 if you never remarked before that there were mosses in 
 your neighbourhood ! 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Oh ! I do not mean to say that. I must, indeed, 
 have walked with my eyes shut, had I not, on the con- 
 trary, been aware that they abounded, but I passed them 
 without distinction. I saw there was moss on the 
 ground, but I fancied it all of the same sort. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 But you have now discovered there is some little dif- 
 ference. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Indeed I have, and I am astonished and vexed at my 
 former stupidity. I have gathered a piece of each 
 kind, and shall be very much obliged to you if you can 
 tell me something of them. I should like extremely 
 to be able to examine them, as you have kindly taught 
 
160 MOSSES. 
 
 me to do other plants ; but I think you say they belong 
 
 to the class cryptogamia, and therefore, I fear, I shall 
 find them too difficult. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Never be discouraged in the acquisition of informa- 
 tion, or in any other laudable pursuit, by apprehension 
 of the obstacles that may occur in your progress. It 
 
MOSSES. 161 
 
 has been well said, "that difficulties, like nettles, if 
 seized by a firm and courageous hand, lose their power 
 of annoying." Always bear this in mind. 
 
 With respect to the examination of mosses, I believe 
 you must wait till you have become more versed in the 
 other classes ; but as then* season of perfection com- 
 mences when that of our gayer tribes has passed away, 
 and when the employment these give you will have 
 ceased for the present year, you might find it a good 
 preparation for understanding these curious plants, were 
 you to collect and dry specimens of all you meet with. 
 Thus by taking notice of what seem to you the cha- 
 racteristics of each, you would become in some measure 
 acquainted with their singular structure, and prepared 
 to study them at some future time. You will find that 
 I have provided you with an interesting object for your 
 winter walks, and one which will, I imagine, give you 
 much more occupation than you expect. While seek- 
 ing for mosses, you must also look for lichens; they 
 belong to the same class, come to maturity at the same 
 season, and are to be met with in the same situations. 
 These will often excite your astonishment by the pecu- 
 liarity of their appearance, and still more by their great 
 numbers. M 
 
162 
 
 MOSSES, 
 
 MAKY. 
 
 If they are so numerous, I really shall be surprised, 
 for I only know two or three which you have pointed 
 out to me. But do you mean that I shall be able to 
 find many within our usual walks ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Even within such confined limits I can answer for 
 your making many discoveries, and this you will readily 
 believe, when I tell you that you can scarcely pass a 
 tree that will not afford you a variety ; nay, scarcely a 
 
Page 163. 
 
MOSSES. 163 
 
 stick or a stone that will not yield some productions of 
 this nature. They attach themselves to all decaying 
 substances ; dead wood, &c. &c. Every fence or wall is 
 tesselated, as it were, with their various shades of grey. 
 
 yellow, green, and brown. To the unobservant, or un- 
 informed, vegetation seems to stop completely with the 
 fall of the year, but it then begins to be in full activity 
 in these all-pervading tribes, the mosses and lichens. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I remember, last autumn, you told me some marks on 
 a rose-leaf were lichens, an appearance which, till 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 MOSSES. 
 
 then, I had always fancied to be caused by small in- 
 sects. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The leaf of almost every tree has its peculiar lichen. 
 This redundancy of vegetation is exceedingly striking 
 to a reflective mind ; it is so wonderful thus to find life 
 upon life ! 
 
 If you are desirous, you may make acquaintance with 
 many of these leaf-lichens in the autumn. They are to 
 me a particularly interesting division of the tribe. There 
 
 is one so com- 
 mon, that I am 
 sure you will re- 
 collect it directly 
 I mention it. It 
 is on the leaves 
 of the sycamore 
 and maple, to 
 which it gives 
 the appearance 
 of having been 
 singed or burnt. 
 
MOSSES. 165 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You mean those large dark brown blotches, surrounded 
 with an edge of lighter brown ; these I have frequently 
 remarked. It seems so strange to me, that what I have 
 always ignorantly regarded as merely a defect in the 
 leaf, should, in fact, be another species of vegetation 
 growing in it. Pray, can these new acquaintances of 
 mine be sufficiently distinguished to admit of their 
 being arranged as the plants of the other classes are ; 
 shall I find that each has its appropriate name assigned 
 it? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They are divided, like other plants, into genera and 
 species ; the lichen of the sycamore-leaf, of which we 
 have been speaking, is of the genus Xyloma, and takes 
 its specific distinction (acerinum) from the tree it loves. 
 Another species of xyloma, (salicinum,) similar in ap- 
 pearance to the acerinum, but not nearly so common, 
 stains the upper side of the leaves of Salix caprea with 
 its dark marks. Another, more common, is found in 
 autumn, on the leaves of Populus nigra. 
 
166 MOSSES. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I remember, in the spring, being very much puzzled 
 by a dotted appearance on some dead umbelliferous 
 plants. The spots were black, and had so pretty an 
 effect on the straw-coloured glossy stems, that I used 
 often to pull up the plants that I might examine them 
 nearer, and discover, if I could, how they came to be 
 thus marked ; but I could never satisfy myself on the 
 subject, and remained quite at a loss to imagine by 
 what they were caused. I remarked them so early in 
 the year, that I thought no crawling or winged creature 
 could be abroad ; and yet I fancied they must proceed 
 from the punctures of insects, (as you remember you 
 told me galls do,) but now I feel quite sure they must be 
 something of the kind you have been describing. How 
 much I wish I had a branch to show you ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I understand perfectly to what you allude. Several 
 minute lichens attach themselves to decaying umbelli- 
 ferae, and other herbaceous plants. Sphceria doliolum, 
 and Heterosph&ria Patella, are two that occur to me at 
 the moment, as agreeing with your description; the 
 
MOSSES. 167 
 
 former may be seen as early as January ; its spots are 
 of a darker hue, and nearer together than those of the 
 
 latter. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then I think I may conclude it was the one I used to 
 admire so much, for the spots certainly were very close 
 together, and it was very early in the spring, that it first 
 attracted my attention. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The only way to determine this point will be, to keep 
 the next specimen you find. Do not pass over the 
 common nettle when you are seeking for cryptogamic 
 specimens ; it will afford several varieties, one of which, 
 though very common, always pleases me by its delicacy 
 and elegance Fmarium tremelloides. It appears in 
 the form of small orange-coloured dots. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Are these dots on the leaves ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 No, on the stems. 
 
168 MOSSES. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How pleasant it is to hear, that the plants which, in 
 their vigour, afforded us pleasure by their examination, 
 in decay, supply us with a new source of interest. You 
 said that the leaf of almost every tree has its peculiar 
 lichen. Does the same kind of leaf ever produce more 
 than one species? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Oh, yes, very frequently. You will think I am in- 
 troducing you to an inexhaustible family, when I tell 
 you that the leaves of the same plant often bear several 
 members of it. For instance, if you examine the under 
 side of the leaves of your little favourite, the wood 
 anemone, (Anemone nemerosa) in the spring, you will 
 find many marked like ferns, some with green, others 
 with brown spots. Now these may be met with in the 
 same wood, and at the same season of the year, and yet 
 they belong to different genera. At the first glance, the 
 latter are often supposed to be the former in a more ad- 
 vanced state, but a closer investigation shows that there 
 is a difference in the form of the spots, and also that those 
 of a green colour are punctured in the centre, which is 
 
MOSSES. 169 
 
 not the case with the brown. The leaves of the sloe 
 (Primus spinosa) bear several, so do many species 
 of willows and poplars. Some of these parasites are 
 invariably found on the upper surface of the leaf to 
 which they adhere, and others are as constant to the 
 under side. Thus while Xyloma acerinum fixes itself 
 to the upper side of the sycamore-leaf, Erineum aceri- 
 num chooses the lower side. I will not multiply ex- 
 amples, because, till you know more of the tribe, a mere 
 repetition of names will only be tedious ; but we must 
 not dismiss mosses and lichens without adverting to an 
 important office they perform, covering the most barren 
 spots with verdure, and causing trees to rear their heads, 
 where none ever stood before. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I do not understand how such a change can be 
 wrought by means apparently so inadequate to the end. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You look astonished, as if you expected I were going 
 to tell you of a desert suddenly transformed ; but there 
 are many concurring causes for the changes I am about 
 
170 MOSSES. 
 
 to relate, and a considerable time is requisite for its 
 completion. 
 
 When the decomposition of rocks commences, the 
 minute seeds of lichens lodge, and germinate among the 
 finely-divided particles ; by the decay of this humble 
 race, sufficient support is afforded for mosses and other 
 plants, whose roots do not penetrate far below the sur- 
 face ; these continue to vegetate, and die till an earth is 
 formed capable of nourishing plants of larger size, and 
 ultimately a sufficient depth of soil is produced to 
 sustain trees ; and not only those of inferior growth, but 
 the stately lords of the forest ! The great work of de- 
 struction and reproduction which is constantly going 
 on, is to me a wonderful contemplation, and a striking 
 proof of the all-pervading care and mighty power of the 
 great Creator, who sustains this earth with the same 
 wisdom with which he formed it, keeping all things 
 within due bounds and limits. Do we see a destructive 
 agent employed, we are sure to discover some counter- 
 balancing reproductive power at work. We often find 
 the same agent endued with different powers, according 
 to circumstances. Thus water when we watch a moun- 
 tain torrent rushing impetuously towards the sea, dis- 
 
MOSSES. 171 
 
 placing everything that opposes its course, we think 
 only of the devastation it has occasioned in the district 
 through which we have observed its passage, without 
 recollecting that if we had followed it to its destination, 
 we should perhaps find the materials it has collected 
 deposited at its mouth, and there forming an extension 
 of land. Several coasts have gained considerably by 
 the additions conveyed to them by the transporting 
 power of water. 
 
172 
 
 HORSETAIL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 WHAT is the name of that straggling, odd-looking plant, 
 of which there is such a quantity on the other side of 
 the ditch. How wildly and rankly it grows ! I have 
 heard it called horsetail, but I suppose that cannot be 
 its right and proper name. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Though it may sound ridiculous to you, it is the one 
 by which this plant is commonly known. It belongs to 
 a genus, remarkable both for singularity of appearance, 
 and peculiarity of properties. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 And the name of this genus ? 
 
PLANT ROUGH HORSE TAIL. 
 
 Page 172. 
 
HORSETAIL. 173 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Is Equisetum ; and you will, I am sure, be surprised 
 when I tell you the purpose to which one species may 
 be applied. The rough horsetail, or Equisetum hyemale, 
 operates as a powerful file, and is found exceedingly 
 useful in manufactures. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 A file ! that is extraordinary ! and I can scarcely 
 imagine in what manufacture such a one can be ser- 
 viceable : but I suppose the substances to which it is 
 applied are of a very delicate nature. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 On the contrary, they are a kind on which it is very 
 difficult to make impression. What think you of brass 
 not being able to resist the action of this plant ? 
 
 MARY. 
 
 That it seems almost incredible. Pray where is this 
 vegetable operation to be met with ? It is a foreign 
 species of equisetum, I suppose. 
 
174 HOESETAIL. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 No, it grows in England (though not very abundantly, 
 being rather local,) and I believe is found principally in 
 Norfolk and Suffolk. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 And will you, if you can, account for the strength 
 and power this plant possesses ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 They result from its containing a large portion of 
 flint, a substance which, I dare say, you would never 
 have expected to have found in any vegetable produc- 
 tion, yet it enters into the composition of many. 
 
 MARY. 
 But how does it get there ? 
 
 AUNT* 
 
 Perhaps this may require a little explanation. I have 
 already told you^ that the general nourishing fluid of 
 all vegetables is called sap. From this various secre- 
 tions are formed, which give the distinguishing scents, 
 
HORSETAIL. 175 
 
 tastes, and properties of plants ; and pure flint is the 
 remarkable secretion of the one of which we have been 
 speaking, and it contains it in so large a proportion, that 
 after chemists have removed the vegetable matter, the 
 form of the plant has been retained by the remaining 
 flint. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 What a wonderful change a fluid like sap must un- 
 dergo to be converted into a material so hard and solid 
 as flint ! I suppose it is deposited by the sap as it 
 ascends. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 No ; the rising sap is always first propelled to the 
 leaves in the state in which it is drawn from the earth 
 by roots. In the leaves it is elaborated, or prepared by 
 the action of the air and light, and returned thence to 
 afford nourishment to the various parts of the plant, to 
 swell the bud, to feed the flower and fruit. 
 
 MARY. 
 Then how is it if the sap be thus returned from the 
 
176 * HORSETAIL. 
 
 leaves in a state of preparation, that the taste and smell 
 of the leaves, and other parts of the same plant, often 
 differs so much. Agreeable and wholesome as the fruit 
 of the peach is, you told me the other day that the leaves 
 are of a poisonous nature, and, I am sure, they are very 
 bitter and unpleasant in taste; yet it seems the sap is 
 the same both in the leaves and fruit. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Originally it is so, but becomes very different from 
 the subsequent alteration it has undergone in the 
 fruit. In some plants it would appear that the sap re- 
 quires little change after its passage from the leaves, 
 the same flavour and scent pervading every part, as in 
 the common garden nasturtium and syringa. But in 
 many there is a remarkable dissimilarity, occasioned, as 
 I have told you, by the sap being differently modified 
 in each organ. The bitter deleterious secretion abounds 
 not only in the leaves and bark of the peach-tree, but 
 even in the flower, the origin of its delicious fruit. 
 
 MARY. 
 It is very wonderful that such different properties 
 
HORSETAIL. 177 
 
 should approach so near, and yet be kept so completely 
 distinct. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I met with some remarks in a work I was reading 
 yesterday, which are so apposite to our present subject, 
 that I will repeat them to you. " What a natural kind 
 of prodigy is it," says the author, "that chilling and 
 burning vegetables should arise out of the same spot, 
 that the fever and frenzy should start up from the same 
 bed, where the palsy and the lethargy lie dormant in 
 their seeds ! Is it not exceeding strange that healthful 
 and poisonous juices should rise up in their proper 
 plants out of the common glebe, and thrive within an 
 inch of each other? What wondrous and inimitable 
 skill must be attributed to the Supreme Power, that First 
 Cause, who can so .infinitely diversify the effects where 
 the servile second cause is so unifonn !" 
 
 Here surprise is expressed at noxious and wholesome 
 plants growing even in near neighbourhood ; but our 
 wonder and admiration are indeed greatly heightened, 
 when we find principles so opposite conspicuously de- 
 veloped in the same plant. 
 
 N, 
 
178 HORSETAIL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 How very useful the leaves of trees are, for you have 
 before told me how beneficially they act on the atmo- 
 sphere, by absorbing carbonic, and emitting oxygen gas; 
 and now I find they are the medium through which all 
 the nourishment of plants is conveyed. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Before so much progress had been made in phy- 
 siological botany, it was imagined that leaves were 
 merely a clothing to plants, and the important functions 
 which advancement in this science have discovered, were 
 quite overlooked. It is now known that they are the 
 lungs of the plant, the laboratory for the preparation of 
 its food, and the medium by which it imbibes moisture, 
 or rids itself of that which is superfluous, and would 
 therefore prove injurious. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then it is through the leaves that the insensible per- 
 spiration of plants (which I heard spoken of the other 
 day, and thought so extraordinary) takes place. 
 
HORSETAIL. 179 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Extraordinaiy as it might appear to you, it has been 
 proved by experiments, that this evaporation certainly 
 takes place, and in some instances to a considerable 
 degree. It becomes sensible in the gramineous family, 
 and in some others, and may be seen in the form of a 
 drop of water at the point of the leaves; but the observer 
 must be an early riser ; he must be up, even before the sun ; 
 for as soon as its rays are felt, these minute drops disap- 
 pear they are dissipated in vapour. In some plants the 
 evaporation is much more abundant than in others, and 
 in all, it depends very much on the state of the atmo- 
 sphere. When the air is most dry, of course it is in a 
 state to receive most moisture, and consequently the 
 evaporation increases on a warm dry day. It is to pre- 
 vent the air depriving our plants of moisture, that we 
 take a tin case with us to preserve our specimens on 
 botanizing expeditions. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Yet I remember your once telling me, when I had 
 almost killed a plant by carrying it in my hand exposed 
 to the sun, that if I then put it into my case it would be 
 refreshed. N 2 
 
180 HORSETAIL. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Very true ; but you have forgotten that I desired you 
 to moisten your case previously. Now, a moment's 
 reflection will show that the principle is the same in 
 both instances. It was by giving out moisture that 
 your specimen had become exhausted, and by imbibing 
 it, that it revived. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 You said that some plants perspire more copiously 
 than others. Which are they ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 I should say that aquatic plants part with their 
 moisture more abundantly and rapidly than any others ; 
 for the leaves become shrivelled and dry almost as soon 
 as gathered. You remember the other day, when we 
 were going in quest of the pretty water milfoil, (Myri- 
 ophyllum spicatum) I advised you to take a book out 
 with you, to lay it down immediately, aware that its 
 delicate feathery leaves would wither before you could 
 get it home. These ^plants (aquatics) imbibe water by 
 
HORSETAIL. 
 
 181 
 
 the under side of their leaves, and give it out by the 
 upper. 
 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I have often remarked a great deal of water standing 
 in ruts under trees when the rest of the road has been 
 quite dry. Is this in consequence of the perspiration 
 of the leaves ? 
 
182 HORSETAIL. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It may, in some measure, be attributed to this cause, 
 but principally to the power of condensation which 
 some trees possess. They deprive the dew which rests 
 on them of the portion of caloric (heat) which main- 
 tains it in the form of vapour, and it is ttyen condensed 
 into water, and what is not absorbed by the leaves, runs 
 off, and waters the earth. Sir J. Herschel mentions a 
 striking illustration of this, which he observed during 
 his residence at the Cape. The south-east winds pre- 
 valent there bring up the vapours of the sea, which 
 frequently remain in low clouds, without producing 
 rain. But Sir J. found, that, as he walked under 
 some tall fir-trees in the neighbourhood, while these 
 clouds were overhead, he was exposed to a heavy 
 shower, which ceased on emerging from their shade. 
 On inquiring into the cause of this, he found that the 
 vapour was condensed on the tops of the trees, and 
 consequently surprised the unwary traveller by a natural 
 shower-bath. 
 
 MARY. 
 Oh! I have often, after a hazy morning, seen the 
 
HORSETAIL. 183 
 
 moisture dropping like a shower of rain from the 
 trees. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Trees, by this means, contribute much to the increase 
 of ponds and streams ; and it has been remarked, in 
 some parts of America, where, to make room for the 
 habitations and cultivation of man, forests have been 
 cut down, that bodies of water in their neighbourhood 
 are much diminished, and in some instances almost 
 dried up. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 One question I meant to ask you about the equi- 
 setum, which I had almost forgotten. Are any of the 
 species ever eaten by animals ? I should imagine not. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 You are mistaken. Though one would naturally fancy 
 it unpalatable from its harshness, and injurious from 
 its flinty nature, to horses it is both acceptable and 
 beneficial. 
 
184 
 
 HEATHS, &c, 
 
 MARY. 
 
 WILL you tell me the botanical name of 
 this new heath which has just come into 
 flower in the green-house ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is not, as you suppose, a heath, but 
 the " Epacris grandiftora" 
 
 MARY. 
 
 It certainly bears a very strong resem- 
 blance to many of the foreign heaths I 
 have seen. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 That I admit ; but, if you examine its 
 parts, you will find they do not agree 
 
HEATHS. 185 
 
 with those of the genus Erica, (heath,) which has eight 
 stamens, while the epacris has only five. I think you 
 were not present the other evening when I was reading 
 a good deal about heaths, and the remarks on their 
 total absence in America. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Do you mean then that America does not produce any 
 heaths ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Not a single species has hitherto been discovered 
 there. Africa is the region where the genus displays its 
 greatest beauty and variety. It abounds especially at 
 the Cape, whence the elegant ornaments of our conserva- 
 tories are procured. To the Cape also we owe that 
 lovely Protean tribe, the geraniums ; for, though there 
 are European species of both these genera, they cannot 
 vie with their African congeners. The geographical 
 distribution of plants is a very interesting subject. 
 Some tribes are found taking a wide range, others con- 
 fined within comparatively narrow limits. When we 
 cast our eyes over the globe, and observe how each por- 
 
186 HEATHS. 
 
 tion of it is gifted, we are at once struck with admiration 
 and gratitude. Let us, for instance, direct our attention 
 to the vegetable productions of each, and amid the magni- 
 ficence of colour and form that such a view presents, let 
 us confine ourselves to the consideration of one useful 
 class, provided for the support of man, and we shall per- 
 ceive, in the manner in which this is accomplished, a unity 
 of design, through a diversity of means, which causes us 
 gratefully to acknowledge the wisdom and goodness of 
 God. It seems requisite that a certain proportion of 
 human food should be of an insipid, farinaceous nature. 
 In Europe, this is supplied by the various kinds of 
 cerealia, (or grasses bearing seeds convertible into 
 food.) In the south of Europe two plants begin to 
 appear, which in Asia and America take the place of 
 our corn, rice and maize. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I well remember how much was said of the usefulness 
 of maize in Ward's Travels in Mexico. He gives an 
 anecdote of a general, who, deserted by his followers, 
 and pursued by a body of a thousand men, was forced 
 to seek concealment in the woods, where one faithful 
 
THE RICE-PLANT. 
 
 Page 186. 
 
DATK-PALM. 
 
 Page 187 
 
HEATHS. 187 
 
 adherent devised an expedient for intimating that he 
 had not been false. He hung a tortilla (a peculiar 
 kind of cake made from maize) on a tree ; this at- 
 tracted the attention of his beloved commander, and 
 informed him that his necessities dining his concealment 
 should be provided for. I could not forbear relating 
 this incident, which the mention of maize brought to 
 my recollection ; but pray, my dear aunt, continue, and 
 let me hear what provision is made for Africa. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 There we have the date-palm, whose fruit forms a 
 principal [article of food. It is so prolific, that twelve 
 thousand flowers have been counted in one sheath. It 
 is said, that a skilful housewife will provide her husband 
 with a dinner of dates for a month, dressed in a differ- 
 ent manner every day. Though so abundant to the 
 south of the Mediterranean, (in Africa and Arabia,) 
 this fruit doth not ripen north of that sea. In addition 
 to these plants, there are numerous others which yield 
 similar food, as our useful potatoe, the arrow-root, and 
 yam of the West, and the sago-palm of the East India 
 Islands ; the banana, or bread-fruit, and many more. 
 
188 HEATHS. 
 
 There is a provident supply afforded of necessary nou- 
 rishment in almost all countries; while for luxuries, 
 many are dependent on other, and distant regions. 
 The extended commerce of England has given such 
 opportunities of importing foreign productions, that 
 each year makes additions to our flower and fruit-gar- 
 dens. Amid the rich profusion which is now within the 
 reach of the peasant, we can scarcely persuade our- 
 selves that a land abounding with the choicest gifts 
 of Flora and Pomona, can claim nothing better than 
 blackberries, sloes, and crabs as native fruits. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 I always fancied that cherries were indigenous in 
 England. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Their being so common and abundant might very 
 naturally lead you to suppose so ; but they are not even 
 a European production, tracing their origin to more 
 sunny climes, though they now flourish so well in our 
 far western isle. The cherry-tree was brought into 
 Italy from Pontus, by the Roman general Lucullus, 
 
HEATHS. 189 
 
 after the war with Mithridates ; and Pliny says, it passed 
 into Britain twenty-six years after : I leave you to affix 
 the date. "Thus," as it is remarked in an amusing 
 work, " a victory obtained by a Roman consul over a 
 king of Pontus, with which it would seem that Britain 
 could not have the remotest interest, was the real occa- 
 sion of our countrymen possessing cherry-orchards. 
 Yet to our shame must it be told, that these cherries 
 from the king of Pontus' city of Cerasuntis are not the 
 chenies we are now eating ; for the whole race of 
 cherry-trees was lost in the Saxon period, and was only 
 restored by the gardener of Henry VIII., who brought 
 them from Flanders, and planted orchards in the 
 neighbourhood of Sittingbourne." I will now turn 
 to a pacific mode of interchange. A delightful author 
 thus beautifully expresses himself, on considering the 
 facilities of intercourse which man has been able to 
 create by hydrostatic knowledge, which has taught him 
 to cut canals. " If the Red Sea and Mediterranean 
 were joined, as has been proposed, the operation would, 
 in effect, bring India nearer to Europe, and would more 
 and more strengthen the bonds of mutual amity and 
 brotherhood among the nations of the earth. Then, in- 
 
190 HEATHS. 
 
 deed, might it be said with truth, that the world is a 
 vast garden, given to man for his abode, of which each 
 spot has its peculiar sweets and treasures ; but, because 
 the cultivation of each may exchange a share of his 
 produce for shares in return, the same general result 
 follows as if every field or farm contained within itself 
 the climates, and soils, and capabilities of the whole." 
 While I have the book in my hand, I will read you ano- 
 ther passage, which may tend to render us more thank- 
 ful for one of those blessings which we are too apt to 
 overlook, because so constantly enjoyed. Those who 
 have had all the luxuries of the East at command tell 
 us, they would willingly have exchanged all for a glass 
 of cold water. " Kings," says Dr. Arnott, " have received 
 almost divine honours for constructing aqueducts to 
 lead the pure streams from the mountains into the 
 peopled towns. In the present day, it is he who has 
 travelled on the sandy plains of Asia or Africa, where a 
 well is more prized than mines of gold; or who has 
 spent months on ship-board, where the fresh water is 
 often doled out with more caution than the most pre- 
 cious product of the still ; or who, in reading history, has 
 vividly sympathised with the victims of siege, or ship- 
 
HEATHS. 191 
 
 wreck, spreading out their garments to catch the rain 
 from heaven, and then, with mad eagerness, sucking the 
 delicious moisture, it is he who can appreciate fully 
 the blessing of that abundant supply, which most of us 
 now so thoughtlessly enjoy. The author will long re- 
 member the intense momentary regret with which, on 
 once approaching a beautiful land, after months spent 
 at sea, he saw a stream of fresh water gliding over 
 a rock into the salt waves, it appeared to him as 
 if a most precious essence, by some accident, were 
 pouring out to waste." When speaking of the intro- 
 duction of plants into various countries, I was going to 
 tell you a fiction regarding the apple, which I can do 
 still, if you would like another turn round the garden. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Indeed I should ! I so much enjoy our morning 
 conversations, that I am always glad to have them 
 lengthened, though I am sometimes fearful of express- 
 ing such a wish, lest you should be tired. 
 
 AUNT. 
 I thank you for your consideration; it always affords 
 
192 HEATHS. 
 
 me pleasure to find you sacrifice self- gratification, from 
 regard to the feelings or convenience of others. This 
 morning I am quite equal to walking and talking, and 
 will therefore proceed, premising that my story refers 
 to the first appearance of the apple-tree in Normandy. 
 " It is said that Thetis, jealous of Venus having earned 
 off the prize of beauty, determined to avenge herself. 
 Venus descended one day on the coast of Normandy, to 
 search for pearls wherewith to decorate herself, and, 
 while thus engaged, laid her apple on a rock. A triton 
 stole it, and conveyed it to Thetis, who immediately 
 scattered its seeds in the neighbouring country, to per- 
 petuate the remembrance of her vengeance and her 
 triumph." The more credible account of the intro- 
 duction of the apple into this province is, that it was 
 brought from Spain, and its being still called biscait in 
 some parts of the province, seems to corroborate this. 
 Tradition says, that the Normans were deprived of the 
 vine, which they formerly possessed, and condemned to 
 drink cider, as a punishment for the ravages which they 
 were in the habit of committing on the rest of France ! 
 During warm weather, the traveller is far from looking 
 upon this as a very severe infliction, when he is revived by 
 
HEATHS. 193 
 
 a cool glass of this refreshing beverage. It is a substi- 
 tute for the beer of England, and caraffes of it are 
 always placed on the dinner-table. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Then, I suppose, you travelled among orchards. 
 When you were making the tour in Normandy, of which 
 I have heard you speak, they must have given quite a 
 home air to the landscape. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Yes, we thought Normandy resembled England more 
 than any part of France we visited. The mention of 
 cider recalls a little trait of vanity, which I think will 
 amuse you. A discussion arose in a company where 
 Lemierre was, as to the effect of different beverages on 
 poetical genius. Beer and cider were said to be in- 
 jurious to the intellectual powers. He remarked, 
 " Corneille buvait du cidre, Racine buvait du vin, moi 
 je bois de Feaii, et vous voyez /" 
 
194 
 
 MOTHER-OF-PEARL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 As I was using the pretty work-box you were so good 
 as to give me yesterday, I was ashamed to find I had 
 forgotten of what fish the mother-of-pearl with which it 
 is inlaid is the shell. 
 
 AUNT. 
 Of a species of muscle found in tropical seas. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 One would never have expected to see the shell of a 
 fish applied to such a purpose ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The consideration of the great distance from which 
 many of the commonest articles we use are brought, and 
 
MOTHER-OF-PEARL. 1 95 
 
 the various sources from which they are obtained, is 
 often very curious. On our work-tables are boxes 
 formed from the tooth of a quadruped, others orna- 
 mented with the shell of a fish; one of our working 
 materials is procured from the soft coating of a seed, 
 (spun to a thread of hundreds of yards in length,) ano- 
 ther from the cocoon of an insect, and a third is drawn 
 from the bowels of the earth. And these various pro- 
 ductions are so changed by the art of the manufacturer 
 who adapts them to our use, that an uninformed person 
 would never divine to which of the three kingdoms of 
 nature each in its original state belonged. We may, in 
 the same manner, go through everything with which our 
 houses and our wardrobes are furnished. Who that 
 did not know the fact, would suspect that the most deli- 
 cate porcelain is made of clay, or that the hide of a 
 calf, as we see it before it has been submitted to the 
 operations of the tanner, could be converted into the 
 smooth elegant covering of our books ? We are some- 
 times clothed, at the same moment, in the skins of 
 beasts, the stalks of plants, the down of one bird, the 
 feathers of another: vegetables, minerals, and insects 
 have been employed to colour the various parts of our 
 dress. 
 
1 96 MOTHER-OF-PEARL. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 S'o that, however disguised, we may, by inquiry, trace 
 everything we use or wear to some production of nature. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 Certainly. Man has not the power of creating new 
 substances, he can only (by different operations and 
 combinations) alter the materials with which he is sup- 
 plied, and by ingenuity and industry appropriate them 
 to the artificial wants which a civilized state of society 
 induces. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 But I was going to ask you something more about 
 mother-of-pearl. Why do its beautiful colours seem to 
 change from place to place, without being fixed to a 
 particular spot ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 The various tints you see, do not in fact exist in the 
 mother-of-pearl; they are produced by the irregular 
 surface from which the rays of light are reflected. 
 
MOTHER-OF-PEARL. 1 97 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Do you mean that the surface is naturally irregular, 
 or that it is rendered so by art to produce this effect. 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 It is the natural and peculiar conformation of this 
 curious body, which art cannot change, for it is found 
 that if mother-of-pearl is ground and polished to the 
 utmost, it never loses that waved, wrinkled appearance, 
 which produces the colours. 
 
 There is another remarkable fact connected with it. 
 The same prismatic colours are perceptible in any ob- 
 ject impressed by it. This is a simple experiment, 
 which I can show you, when we go in, by heating some 
 sealing-wax, and imprinting it with a piece of mother- 
 of-pearl. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 That is extraordinary ! How is this communication 
 of colour accounted for ? 
 
 AUNT. 
 It is not colour that is communicated, but form ; for, 
 
1 98 MOTHER-OF-PEARL. 
 
 as I told you before, the colours result from the struc- 
 ture, and our seeing the same in objects stamped with 
 it proves this. The surface from which they are re- 
 turned is similar, though the substance is different. 
 Our discussion on mother-of-pearl must close our morn- 
 ing conversations, for I return home to-morrow ; and as 
 I shall set off early, I shall not have time for a walk 
 before 1 go. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 Are you going to leave us so soon ? How sorry I 
 am ! How much I shall miss our early walks ! 
 
 AUNT. 
 
 But I trust you will not discontinue them, though I 
 shall not be your companion ; and I hope I shall have 
 increased the pleasure and improvement of your future 
 rambles, by my endeavours to direct your attention to 
 the works of God, which are so impressed with the 
 image of their Maker ; and that, as you admire all these 
 beautiful objects, you will consider for what wise and good 
 ends every thing was made, from the largest to the 
 smallest creature. Observe their habits and economy 
 
MOTHER-OF-PEARL. 1 99 
 
 yourself; for this is a study from which (as I have often 
 told you,) much may be learnt, an insect may show 
 you the excellence of a virtue. It always appears to me 
 that even inanimate nature speaks to our hearts. We 
 cannot, on such a lovely morning as this, stray amongst 
 the profusion of beauty which greets us on every bank, 
 without emotions of gratitude towards the All-wise Cre- 
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 fit to make this world a place of trial, has yet bestowed 
 so many sources of enjoyment to solace us during our 
 abode here, and to prepare us for that world which is to 
 succeed it, by raising our minds to the mighty Author of 
 all we so much admire. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 Rickeibf, Printer, Sherboum Lane. 
 
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